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= Evstafi @-@ class battleship =
The Evstafi class were a pair of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I for the Black Sea Fleet . They were slightly enlarged versions of the Russian battleship Potemkin , with increased armour and more guns . Numerous alterations were made as a result of experience in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 5 that seriously delayed the completion of the two ships .
They were the most modern ships in the Black Sea Fleet when World War I began and formed the core of the fleet for the first year of the war , before the newer dreadnoughts entered service . They forced the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben to disengage during the Battle of Cape Sarych shortly after Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in late 1914 . Both ships covered several bombardments of the Bosphorus fortifications in early 1915 , including one where they were attacked by the Goeben , but they managed to drive her off . Later , Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust were relegated to secondary roles after the first dreadnought entered service in late 1915 , and were subsequently put into reserve in 1918 in Sevastopol .
Both ships were captured when the Germans took the city in May 1918 and was turned over to the Allies after the Armistice in November 1918 . Their engines were destroyed in 1919 by the British when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . They were abandoned when the Whites evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and were scrapped in 1922 – 23 .
= = Description = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The two Evstafi @-@ class ships were 379 feet ( 115 @.@ 5 m ) long at the waterline and 385 feet 9 inches ( 117 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 74 feet ( 22 @.@ 6 m ) and a draught of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 855 long tons ( 13 @,@ 061 t ) , only 120 long tons ( 120 t ) more than their designed displacement of 12 @,@ 738 long tons ( 12 @,@ 942 t ) . The Evstafi @-@ class were slightly larger than Potemkin , being 8 feet 3 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) longer , 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) wider , but displaced 45 long tons ( 46 t ) less . The ships had a double bottom from frames 18 to 82 . They were divided into 10 main compartments by transverse watertight bulkheads . They also had a centreline longitudinal bulkhead , presumably separating the engine rooms .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Evstafi class had two three @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines built by ONZiV in Nikolayev that had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 900 kW ) . Twenty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a pressure of 242 psi ( 1 @,@ 669 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) , which drove two screw propellers . On sea trials , the powerplant produced a total over 10 @,@ 800 ihp ( 8 @,@ 100 kW ) and a top speed of 16 @.@ 2 knots ( 30 @.@ 0 km / h ; 18 @.@ 6 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Two steam @-@ powered dynamos were carried with a total output of 300 kW , as well as two auxiliary dynamos rated at 64 kW each .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre Pattern 1895 guns mounted in hydraulically powered twin turrets fore and aft . Each turret had a firing arc of 260 degrees . The guns had a rate of fire of 40 seconds between rounds and 75 rounds per gun were carried . These guns had a maximum elevation of 35 degrees and could depress to -5 degrees . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 598 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) to a range of 22 @,@ 200 yards ( 20 @,@ 300 m ) at maximum elevation .
All four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 50 @-@ calibre Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in the corners of the superstructure in armoured casemates . These guns had a firing arc of 120 degrees and could fire straight ahead or astern . They had a range of elevation from -5 degrees to + 20 degrees . The guns fired a high explosive shell that weighed 264 @.@ 3 pounds ( 119 @.@ 9 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 647 ft / s ( 807 m / s ) . At 19 @.@ 5 degrees elevation it could range out to 15 @,@ 800 yards ( 14 @,@ 400 m ) . 110 rounds were stowed per gun .
The dozen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Pattern 1892 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in the lower casemates . The guns could elevate to a maximum of 20 degrees and depress to -5 degrees . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 27 lb ( 41 @.@ 40 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 yards ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) when fired at maximum elevation . The ships carried 180 rounds per gun .
The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament consisted of fourteen 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ calibre guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 degrees with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between 12 and 15 rounds per minute .
The Evstafi class carried two 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes on the broadside aft . These torpedoes carried a 212 @-@ pound ( 96 kg ) warhead of TNT . It had two speed settings which gave it a maximum range of 3 @,@ 280 yards ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) or 2 @,@ 190 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) at 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) .
= = = Protection = = =
The Evstafi @-@ class ships used Krupp armour . The maximum thickness of the waterline belt was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to 7 – 8 inches ( 178 – 203 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered about 157 feet ( 47 @.@ 9 m ) of the ship 's length . The belt was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , including 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below the waterline . The belt terminated in 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The belt was extended to the bow by armour plates 3 – 4 inches ( 76 – 102 mm ) thick and to the stern by 2 – 3 @-@ inch ( 51 – 76 mm ) armour .
The upper belt was six inches thick and was intended to protect the gap between the waterline belt and the casemate . The casemate protected the six and eight @-@ inch guns and was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick ; 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) bulkheads separated each gun . The sides of the turrets were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and they had a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) roof . Their barbettes were also 10 inches thick , although this was reduced to five inches where they were screened behind other armour . The two conning towers ' sides were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) in thickness with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) roof . The decks ranged from 1 @.@ 37 – 3 inches ( 35 – 76 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction = =
Construction of both ships began well before the formal keel @-@ laying ceremony ; Evstafi on 13 July 1904 and Ioann Zlatoust on 13 July 1903 , although the working drawings and preliminary calculations were not approved until 31 May 1904 , which caused some problems with Ioann Zlatoust . Progress was relatively quick , despite the disruptions caused by the 1905 Revolution , and both ships were launched less than three years after work began . Fitting @-@ out , however , was considerably delayed by a number of changes made as the navy digested the lessons of the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Maximum elevation of the main guns was increased from 15 degree to 35 degrees , the number of torpedo tubes was reduced from five to two , mine stowage was eliminated as were the 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The armour protection of the waterline fore and aft of the main belt was increased to prevent the sort of damage that disabled several ships at the Battle of Tsushima . A second conning tower was added at the rear of the superstructure and its design was altered , probably to eliminate the overhanging top that deflected splinters into the conning tower at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima . The masts and their fighting tops were replaced by light pole masts and light booms replaced the heavy boat cranes to save weight .
= = World War I = =
Evstafi , as the newest ship in the Black Sea Fleet , was the flagship of Vice Admiral Andrei Eberhardt for the first year or so of World War I. Two weeks after the Russian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November 1914 , the Black Sea Fleet set out to bombard Trebizond on 15 November . The force consisted of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Evstafi , Ioann Zlatoust , Pantelimon , Rostislav , Tri Sviatitelia and three cruisers escorted by three destroyers and 11 torpedo boats . They did this successfully on the morning of 17 November and then turned west to hunt for Turkish shipping along the Anatolian coast before setting course for Sevastopol later that afternoon . The following day , while en route , the ships were intercepted by the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych .
Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy and the capital ships initially did not spot each other . The Black Sea Fleet had experimented on concentrating fire from several ships under the control of a " master ship " before the war and Evstafi held her fire until Ioann Zlatoust , the master ship , could see Goeben . When the gunnery commands were finally received they showed a range over 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) in excess of Evstafi 's own estimate of 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) , so Evstafi opened fire using her own data before Goeben turned to unmask its broadside . She scored a hit with her first salvo as a 12 @-@ inch shell partially penetrated the armor casemate protecting one of Goeben 's 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) secondary guns . It detonated some of the ready @-@ use ammunition , starting a fire that burnt out the casemate and killed its crew .
Goeben returned fire shortly afterward and hit Evstafi in the middle funnel ; the shell detonated after it passed through the funnel and destroyed the antennae for the fire @-@ control radio , which meant that Evstafi could not correct Ioann Zlatoust 's inaccurate range data . The other ships either used Ioann Zlatoust 's incorrect data or never saw Goeben and failed to register any hits on the German ship . Goeben hit Evstafi four more times , although one shell failed to detonate , before Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon decided to turn away and break contact after fourteen minutes of combat . Evstafi suffered 34 killed and 24 wounded from those hits , and only fired between 12 and 16 twelve @-@ inch shells , as well as 14 eight @-@ inch and 19 six @-@ inch shells . Ioann Zlatoust fired only six shells from her main armament .
Several armour plates on Evstafi required replacement after the battle and they were taken from the old pre @-@ dreadnought Dvenadsat Apostolov , allowing the repairs to be complete by 29 November . On 9 January 1915 Breslau and the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye encountered the Russian fleet while returning from a bombardment mission in the eastern part of the Black Sea . During a minor engagement Breslau hit Evstafi 's forward turret , temporarily putting it out of action , after which the two cruisers escaped using their superior speed .
= = = Coast bombardment = = =
Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust served as the covering force for several bombardment missions of the Bosphorus between 18 March and 9 May 1915 . While the two earlier bombardments were uneventful , the 9 May bombardment provoked a reaction as Goeben intercepted the Russian battleships after they had been spotted by the Ottoman destroyer Numune @-@ i Hamiyet . Both forces turned on parallel courses and opened fire at the range of 17 @,@ 400 yards ( 15 @,@ 900 m ) , and although neither side scored a hit , Goeben had multiple near @-@ misses on Evstafi . Admiral Eberhardt then ordered his ships to make only 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , while Goeben was making 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . Goeben was unable to cross the T of the Russian ships , despite its superior speed , as they were continually turning . This maneuver bought enough time that Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon were able to rejoin the other two ships before they could start shelling the Ottoman forts . Pantelimon then hit Goeben twice before the German ship broke contact after 22 minutes of firing . With the fleet assembled Admiral Eberhardt attempted to pursue the German battlecruiser , but was unsuccessful .
Both ships were subsequently fitted with anti @-@ aircraft guns on top of each of their turrets during 1915 , and screens were added on top of their funnels to keep out light bombs . Ioann Zlatoust initially received four 75 @-@ millimetre guns , but this was later altered to a pair of 75 mm guns and another pair of 63 @.@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Evstafi first received three 75 mm guns , but these were later replaced by two 63 @.@ 5 mm guns and a pair of 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns . On 1 August 1915 she , and all the other pre @-@ dreadnoughts , were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya had entered service . On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover while Ioann Zlatoust and Pantelimon bombarded Zonguldak and Evstafi shelled the nearby town of Kozlu . Later , both Evstafi @-@ class ships participated in the second bombardment of Varna in May 1916 .
Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust were reduced to reserve in March 1918 in Sevastopol . Immobile , they were captured by the Germans there in May and handed over to the Allies the following December . The British wrecked their engines between 22 – 24 April 1919 when they left the Crimea in order to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . Later , they were captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but were abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . The ships were then scrapped in 1922 – 23 , although they were not stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
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= Hasekura Tsunenaga =
Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga ( or " Philip Francis Faxicura " , baptized as " Francisco Felipe Faxicura " , in Spain ) ( 1571 – 1622 ) ( Japanese : 支倉六右衛門常長 , also spelled Faxecura Rocuyemon in period European sources , reflecting the contemporary pronunciation of Japanese ) was a Roman noble of Japanese imperial descent with ancestral ties to Emperor Kanmu and a Japanese samurai and retainer of Date Masamune , the daimyo of Sendai .
In the years 1613 through 1620 , Hasekura headed a diplomatic mission to the Vatican in Rome , traveling through New Spain ( arriving in Acapulco and departing from Veracruz ) and visiting various ports @-@ of @-@ call in Europe . This historic mission is called the Keichō Embassy ( 慶長使節 ) , and follows the Tenshō embassy ( 天正使節 ) of 1582 . On the return trip , Hasekura and his companions re @-@ traced their route across Mexico in 1619 , sailing from Acapulco for Manila , and then sailing north to Japan in 1620 . He is conventionally considered the first Japanese ambassador in the Americas and in Europe .
Although Hasekura 's embassy was cordially received in Europe , it happened at a time when Japan was moving toward the suppression of Christianity . European monarchs such as the King of Spain thus refused the trade agreements Hasekura had been seeking . Hasekura returned to Japan in 1620 and died of illness a year later , his embassy seemingly ending with few results in an increasingly isolationist Japan .
Japan 's next embassy to Europe would only occur more than 200 years later , following two centuries of isolation , with the " First Japanese Embassy to Europe " in 1862 .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of the early life of Hasekura Tsunenaga . According to " Date Sejin Kafu ( 伊達世臣家譜 ) " , he was of Japanese imperial descent and had ancestral ties with Emperor Kanmu . He was a mid @-@ level noble samurai in the Sendai Domain in northern Japan , who had the opportunity to directly serve the daimyo Date Masamune . He spent his young adulthood at the scenic Kamitate Castle ( 上楯城 ) that was constructed in Hasekura @-@ ward , Kawasaki @-@ city ( ex @-@ Hasekura village ) , Miyagi prefecture by his grand father Tsunemasa ( 常正 ) Hasekura . The place of origin of the family name " Hasekura " is the present Hasekura @-@ ward ( 支倉 ) , Kawasaki @-@ city that had once been Hasekura village ( 支倉村 ) . Hasekura and Date Masamune were of roughly the same age , and it is recorded that several important missions were given to Tsunenaga as his representative .
It is also recorded that Hasekura served as a samurai during the Japanese invasion of Korea under the Taiko Toyotomi Hideyoshi , for six months in 1597 .
In 1612 , Hasekura 's father , Hasekura Tsunenari ( 支倉 常成 ) , was indicted for corruption , and he was put to death in 1613 . His fief was confiscated , and his son should normally have been executed as well . Date , however , gave him the opportunity to redeem his honour by placing him in charge of the Embassy to Europe , and soon gave him back his territories as well .
= = Background : early contacts between Japan and Spain = =
The Spanish started trans @-@ Pacific voyages between New Spain ( Mexico and present U.S. California ) and the Philippines in 1565 . The famous Manila galleons carried silver from Mexican mines westward to the entrepôt of Manila in the Spanish possession of the Philippines . There , the silver was used to purchase spices and trade goods gathered from throughout Asia , including ( until 1638 ) goods from Japan . The return route of the Manila galleons , first charted by the Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta , took the ships northeast into the Kuroshio Current ( also known as the Japan Current ) off the coast of Japan , and then across the Pacific to the west coast of Mexico , landing eventually in Acapulco .
Spanish ships were periodically shipwrecked on the coasts of Japan due to bad weather , initiating contacts with the country . The Spanish wished to expand the Christian faith in Japan . Efforts to expand influence in Japan were met by stiff resistance towards the Jesuits , who had started the evangelizing of the country in 1549 , as well as by the opposition of Portuguese and the Dutch who did not wish to see Spain participate in Japanese trade . However , some Japanese , such as Christopher and Cosmas , are known to have crossed the Pacific onboard Spanish galleons as early as 1587 . It is known that gifts were exchanged between the governor of the Philippines and Toyotomi Hideyoshi , who thanks him in a 1597 letter , writing " The black elephant in particular I found most unusual . "
In 1609 , the Spanish Manila galleon San Francisco encountered bad weather on its way from Manila to Acapulco , and was wrecked on the Japanese coast in Chiba , near Tokyo . The sailors were rescued and welcomed , and the ship 's captain , Rodrigo de Vivero , former interim governor of the Philippines , met with the retired shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu . Rodrigo de Vivero drafted a treaty , signed on 29 November 1609 , whereby the Spaniards could establish a factory in eastern Japan , mining specialists would be imported from New Spain , Spanish ships would be allowed to visit Japan in case of necessity , and a Japanese embassy would be sent to the Spanish court .
= = First Japanese expeditions to the Americas = =
= = = 1610 San Buena Ventura = = =
A Franciscan monk named Luis Sotelo , who was proselytizing in the area of what is now modern Tokyo , convinced Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son Tokugawa Hidetada to send him as a representative to New Spain ( Mexico ) on one of their ships , in order to advance the trade treaty . Rodrigo de Vivero offered to sail on the Japanese ship in order to guarantee the safety of their reception in New Spain , but insisted that another Franciscan , named Alonso Muños , be sent instead as the Shogun 's representative . In 1610 , Rodrigo de Vivero , several Spanish sailors , the Franciscan father and 22 Japanese representatives led by the trader Tanaka Shōsuke sailed to Mexico aboard the San Buena Ventura , a ship built by the English adventurer William Adams for the Shogun . Once in New Spain , Alonso Muños met with the Viceroy Luis de Velasco , who agreed to send an ambassador to Japan in the person of the famous explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno with the added mission of exploring the " Gold and silver islands " ( " Isla de Plata " ) that were thought to be east of the Japanese isles .
Vizcaino arrived in Japan in 1611 and had many meetings with the Shogun and feudal lords . These encounters were tainted by his poor respect for Japanese customs , the mounting resistance of the Japanese towards Catholic proselytism , and the intrigues of the Dutch against Spanish ambitions . Vizcaino finally left to search for the " Silver island " , during which search he encountered bad weather , forcing him to return to Japan with heavy damage .
= = = 1612 San Sebastian = = =
Without waiting for Vizcaino , another ship – built in Izu by the Tokugawa shogunate under the minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen , and named San Sebastian – left for Mexico on 9 September 1612 with Luis Sotelo onboard as well as two representatives of Date Masamune , with the objective of advancing the trade agreement with New Spain . However , the ship foundered a few miles from Uraga , and the expedition had to be abandoned .
= = The 1613 embassy project = =
The Shogun decided to build a new galleon in Japan in order to bring Vizcaino back to New Spain , together with a Japanese embassy accompanied by Luis Sotelo . The galleon , named Date Maru by the Japanese and later San Juan Bautista by the Spanish , took 45 days work in building , with the participation of technical experts from the Bakufu ( the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen , an acquaintance of William Adams with whom he built several ships , dispatched his Chief Carpenter ) , 800 shipwrights , 700 smiths , and 3 @,@ 000 carpenters . The daimyo of Sendai , Date Masamune , was put in charge of the project . He named one of his retainers , Hasekura Tsunenaga ( his fief was rated at around 600 koku ) , to lead the mission :
" The Great Ship left Toshima @-@ Tsukinoura for the Southern Barbarians on 15 September [ Japanese calendar ] , with at its head Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga , and those called Imaizumi Sakan , Matsuki Shusaku , Nishi Kyusuke , Tanaka Taroemon , Naito Hanjuro , Sonohoka Kyuemon , Kuranojo , Tonomo , Kitsunai , Kyuji , as well as several others under Rokuemon , as well as 40 Southern Barbarians , 10 men of Mukai Shogen , and also tradespeople , to a total 180 " ( Records of the Date House , Keichō @-@ Genna 伊達家慶長元和留控 , Gonoi p . 56 ) .
The objective of the Japanese embassy was both to discuss trade agreements with the Spanish crown in Madrid , and to meet with the Pope in Rome . Date Masamune displayed a great will to welcome the Catholic religion in his domain : he invited Luis Sotelo and authorized the propagation of Christianity in 1611 . In his letter to the Pope , brought by Hasekura , he wrote : " I 'll offer my land for a base of your missionary work . Send us as many padres as possible . "
Sotelo , in his own account of the travels , emphasizes the religious dimension of the mission , claiming that the main objective was to spread the Christian faith in northern Japan :
" I was formerly dispatched as ambassador of Idate Masamune , who holds the reins of the kingdom of Oxu [ Japanese : 奥州 ] ( which is in the Eastern part of Japan ) — who , while he has not yet been reborn through baptism , has been catechized , and was desirous that the Christian faith should be preached in his kingdom — together with another noble of his Court , Philippus Franciscus Faxecura Rocuyemon , to the Roman Senate & to the one who at that time was in charge of the Apostolic See , His Holiness Pope Paul V. " ( Luis Sotelo De Ecclesiae Iaponicae Statu Relatio , 1634 ) .
The embassy was probably , at that time , part of a plan to diversify and increase trade with foreign countries , before the participation of Christians in the Osaka rebellion triggered a radical reaction from the Shogunate , with the interdiction of Christianity in the territories it directly controlled , in 1614 .
= = Trans @-@ Pacific voyage = =
Upon completion , the ship left on 28 October 1613 for Acapulco with around 180 people on board , including 10 samurai of the Shogun ( provided by the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen Tadakatsu ) , 12 samurai from Sendai , 120 Japanese merchants , sailors , and servants , and around 40 Spaniards and Portuguese , including Sebastian Vizcaino who , in his own words , only had the quality of a passenger .
= = = New Spain ( Acapulco ) = = =
The ship first reached Cape Mendocino in today 's California , and then continued along the coast to arrive in Acapulco on 25 January 1614 after three months at sea . The Japanese were received with great ceremony , but had to wait in Acapulco until orders were received regarding how to organize the rest of their travels .
Fights erupted between the Japanese and the Spaniards , especially Vizcaino , apparently due to some disputes on the handling of presents from the Japanese ruler . A contemporary journal , written by the historian Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin , a noble Aztec born in Amecameca ( ancient Chalco province ) in 1579 , whose formal name was Domingo Francisco de San Anton Muñon , relates Vizcaino was seriously wounded in the fight :
" Señor Vizcaino is still coming slowly , coming hurt ; the Japanese injured him when they beat and stabbed him in Acapulco , as became known here in Mexico , because of all the things coming along that had been made his responsibility in Japan "
Following these fights , orders were promulgated on 4 and 5 March to bring peace back . The orders explained that :
" The Japanese should not be submitted to attacks in this Land , but they should remit their weapons until their departure , except for Hasekura Tsunenaga and eight of his retinue ... The Japanese will be free to go where they want , and should be treated properly . They should not be abused in words or actions . They will be free to sell their goods . These orders have been promulgated to the Spanish , the Indians , the Mulattos , the Mestizos , and the Blacks , and those who don 't respect them will be punished " .
= = = New Spain ( Mexico ) = = =
The embassy remained two months in Acapulco and entered Mexico City on 24 March , where it was received with great ceremony . The ultimate mission for the embassy was to go on to Europe . The embassy spent some time in Mexico , and then went to Veracruz to board the fleet of Don Antonio Oquendo .
Chimalpahin gives some account of the visit of Hasekura .
" This is the second time that the Japanese have landed one of their ships on the shore at Acapulco . They are transporting here all things of iron , and writing desks , and some cloth that they are to sell here . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
" It became known here in Mexico and was said that the reason their ruler the Emperor of Japan sent this said lordly emissary and ambassador here , is to go in Rome to see the Holy Father Paul V , and to give him their obedience concerning the holy church , so that all the Japanese want to become Christians " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
Hasekura was settled in a house next to the Church of San Francisco , and met with the Viceroy . He explained to him that he was also planning to meet King Philip III to offer him peace and to obtain that the Japanese could come to Mexico for trade . On Wednesday 9 April , 20 Japanese were baptized , and 22 more on 20 April by the archbishop in Mexico , don Juan Pérez de la Serna , at the Church of San Francisco . Altogether 63 of them received confirmation on 25 April . Hasekura waited for his travel to Europe to be baptized there :
" But the lordly emissary , the ambassador , did not want to be baptized here ; it was said that he will be baptized later in Spain " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
= = = = Departure for Europe = = = =
Chimalpahin explains that Hasekura left some of his compatriots behind before leaving for Europe :
" The Ambassador of Japan set out and left for Spain . In going he divided his vassals ; he took a certain number of Japanese , and he left an equal number here as merchants to trade and sell things . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
The fleet left for Europe on the San Jose on 10 June . Hasekura had to leave the largest parts of the Japanese group behind , who were to wait in Acapulco for the return of the embassy .
Some of them , as well as those from the previous travel of Tanaka Shōsuke , returned to Japan the same year , sailing back with the San Juan Bautista :
" Today , Tuesday the 14th of the month of October of the year 1614 , was when some Japanese set out from Mexico here going home to Japan . ; they lived here in Mexico for four years . Some still remained here ; they earn a living trading and selling here the goods they brought with them from Japan . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
= = = Cuba = = =
The embassy stopped and changed ships in Havana in Cuba in July 1614 . The embassy stayed in Havana for six days . A bronze statue was erected on 26 April 2001 at the head of Havana Bay .
= = Mission to Europe = =
= = = Spain = = =
The fleet arrived in Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 5 October 1614 .
" The fleet arrived safely finally , after some dangers and storms , to the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 5 October , where the Duke of Medina Sidonia was advised of the arrival . He sent carriages to honor them and accommodate the Ambassador and his gentlemen " ( Scipione Amati " History of the Kingdom of Voxu " ) .
" The Japanese ambassador Hasekura Rokuemon , sent by Joate Masamune , king of Boju , entered Seville on Wednesday , 23 October 1614 . He was accompanied by 30 Japanese with blades , their captain of the guard , and 12 bowmen and halberdiers with painted lances and blades of ceremony . The captain of the guard was Christian and was called Don Thomas , the son of a Japanese martyr " ( Library Capitular Colombina 84 @-@ 7 @-@ 19 Memorias ... , fol.195 ) .
The Japanese embassy met with King Philip III in Madrid on 30 January 1615 . Hasekura remitted to the King a letter from Date Masamune , as well as offer for a treaty . The King responded that he would do what he could to accommodate these requests .
Hasekura was baptized on 17 February by the king 's personal chaplain , and renamed Felipe Francisco Hasekura . The baptism ceremony was to have been conducted by the Archbishop of Toledo , Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas , though he was too ill to actually carry this out , and the Duke of Lerma – the main administrator of Phillip III 's rule and the de facto ruler of Spain – was designated as Hasekura 's godfather .
The embassy stayed eight months in Spain before leaving the country for Italy .
= = = France = = =
After traveling across Spain , the embassy sailed on the Mediterranean aboard three Spanish frigates towards Italy . Due to bad weather , they had to stay for a few days in the French harbour of Saint @-@ Tropez , where they were received by the local nobility , and made quite a sensation on the populace .
The visit of the Japanese Embassy is recorded in the city 's chronicles as led by " Philip Francis Faxicura , Ambassador to the Pope , from Date Masamunni , King of Woxu in Japan " .
Many picturesque details of their movements were recorded :
" They never touch food with their fingers , but instead use two small sticks that they hold with three fingers . "
" They blow their noses in soft silky papers the size of a hand , which they never use twice , so that they throw them on the ground after usage , and they were delighted to see our people around them precipitate themselves to pick them up . "
" Their swords cut so well that they can cut a soft paper just by putting it on the edge and by blowing on it . "
( " Relations of Mme de St Troppez " , October 1615 , Bibliothèque Inguimbertine , Carpentras ) .
The visit of Hasekura Tsunenaga to Saint @-@ Tropez in 1615 is the first recorded instance of France – Japan relations .
= = = Italy = = =
The Japanese Embassy went on to Italy where they were able to meet with Pope Paul V in Rome in November 1615 , the same year Galileo Galilei was first confronted by the Roman Inquisition regarding his findings against geocentricism . Hasekura remitted to the Pope two gilded letters , one in Japanese and one in Latin , containing a request for a trade treaty between Japan and Mexico and the dispatch of Christian missionaries to Japan . These letters are still visible in the Vatican archives . The Latin letter , probably written by Luis Sotelo for Date Masamune , reads , in part :
Kissing the Holy feet of the Great , Universal , Most Holy Lord of The Entire World , Pope Paul , in profound submission and reverence , I , Idate Masamune , King of Wōshū in the Empire of Japan , suppliantly say :
The Franciscan Padre Luis Sotelo came to our country to spread the faith of God . On that occasion , I learnt about this faith and desired to become a Christian , but I still haven 't accomplished this desire due to some small issues . However , in order to encourage my subjects to become Christians , I wish that you send missionaries of the Franciscan church . I guarantee that you will be able to build a church and that your missionaries will be protected . I also wish that you select and send a bishop as well . Because of that , I have sent one of my samurai , Hasekura Rokuemon , as my representative to accompany Luis Sotelo across the seas to Rome , to give you a stamp of obedience and to kiss your feet . Further , as our country and Nueva España are neighbouring countries , could you intervene so that we can discuss with the King of Spain , for the benefit of dispatching missionaries across the seas . " Translation of the Latin letter of Date Masamune to the Pope .
The Pope agreed to the dispatch of missionaries , but left the decision for trade to the King of Spain .
The Roman Senate also gave to Hasekura the honorary title of Roman Noble and Roman Citizen , in a document he brought back to Japan , and which is preserved today in Sendai .
Sotelo also described the visit to the Pope , book De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ( published posthumously in 1634 ) :
" When we got there by the aid of God in the Year of Our Salvation 1615 , not only were we kindly received by His Holiness the great Pope , with the Holy College of the Cardinals and a gathering of bishops and nobles , and even the joy and general happiness of the Roman People , but we and three others ( whom the Japanese Christians had specially designated to announce their condition with respect to the Christian religion ) were heard , rested , and just as we were hoping , dispatched as quickly as possible . " ( Sotelo , De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ) .
= = = Rumours of political intrigue = = =
Besides the official description of Hasekura 's visit to Rome , some contemporary communications tend to indicate that political matters were also discussed , and that an alliance with Date Masamune was suggested as a way to establish Christian influence in the whole of Japan :
" The Ambassador strongly insisted that the authority and power of his ruler was superior to that of many European countries " ( Anonymous Roman communication , dated 10 October 1615 )
" The Franciscan Spanish fathers are explaining that the King of the Ambassador [ Hasekura Tsunenaga ] will soon become the supreme ruler of his country , and that , not only will they become Christians and follow the will of the church of Rome , but they will also in turn convert the rest of the population . This is why they are requesting the dispatch of a high eclesiastic together with the missionaries . Because of this , many people have been doubting the true purpose of the embassy , and are wondering if they are not looking for some other benefit . " ( Letter of the Venetian ambassador , 7 November 1615 ) .
= = = Second visit to Spain = = =
For the second time in Spain , in April 1616 Hasekura met again with the King , who declined to sign a trade agreement , on the ground that the Japanese Embassy did not appear to be an official embassy from the ruler of Japan Tokugawa Ieyasu , who , on the contrary , had promulgated an edict in January 1614 ordering the expulsion of all missionaries from Japan , and started the persecution of the Christian faith in Japan .
The embassy left Sanlúcar de Barrameda for Mexico in June 1616 after a period of two years spent in Europe , but some of the Japanese remained in Spain in a town near Seville ( Coria del Río ) , where their descendants to this day still use the surname Japón .
= = = Western publications on Hasekura 's embassy = = =
The embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga was the subject of numerous publications throughout Europe . The Italian writer Scipione Amati , who accompanied the embassy in 1615 and 1616 , published in 1615 in Rome a book titled History of the Kingdom of Woxu . This book was also translated into German in 1617 . In 1616 , the French publisher Abraham Savgrain published an account of Hasekura 's visit to Rome : " Récit de l 'entrée solemnelle et remarquable faite à Rome , par Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura " ( " Account of the solemn and remarkable entrance in Rome of Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura " ) .
= = = Return to Mexico = = =
Hasekura stayed for 5 months in Mexico on his way back to Japan . The San Juan Bautista was waiting in Acapulco since 1616 , after a second trip across the Pacific from Japan to Mexico . Captained by Yokozawa Shōgen , she was laden with fine pepper and lacquerware from Kyoto , which were sold on the Mexican market . Following a request by the Spanish king , in order to avoid too much silver leaving to Japan , the Viceroy asked for the proceeds to be spent on Mexican goods , except for an amount of 12 @,@ 000 pesos and 8 @,@ 000 pesos in silver which Hasekura and Yokozawa could bring back with them respectively .
= = = Philippines = = =
In April 1618 , the San Juan Bautista arrived in the Philippines from Mexico , with Hasekura and Luis Sotelo on board . The ship was acquired by the Spanish government there , with the objective of building up defenses against the attacks of the Dutch and the English . In Manila , the archbishop described the deal to the king of Spain in a missive dated 28 July 1619 :
" The Governor was extremely friendly with the Japanese , and provided them with his protection . As they had many expensive things to buy , they decided to lend their ship . The ship was immediately furbished for combat . The Governor eventually bought the ship , because it turned out that it was of excellent and sturdy construction , and available ships were dramatically few . In favour of your Majesty , the price paid was reasonable . " ( Document 243 )
During his stay in the Philippines , Hasekura purchased numerous goods for Date Masamune , and built a ship , as he explained in a letter he wrote to his son . He finally returned to Japan in August 1620 , reaching the harbour of Nagasaki .
= = Return to Japan = =
By the time Hasekura came back , Japan had changed quite drastically : an effort to eradicate Christianity had been under way since 1614 , Tokugawa Ieyasu had died in 1616 and been replaced by his more xenophobic son Tokugawa Hidetada , and Japan was moving towards the " Sakoku " policy of isolation . Because news of these persecutions arrived in Europe during Hasekura 's embassy , European rulers – especially the King of Spain – became very reluctant to respond favorably to Hasekura 's trade and missionary proposals .
Hasekura reported his travels to Date Masamune upon his arrival in Sendai . It is recorded that he remitted a portrait of Pope Paul V , a portrait of himself in prayer ( shown above ) , and a set of Ceylonese and Indonesian daggers acquired in the Philippines , all preserved today in the Sendai City Museum . The " Records of the House of Masamune " describe his report in a rather succinct manner , ending with a rather cryptic expression of surprise bordering on the outrage ( " 奇怪最多シ " ) at Hasekura 's discourse :
" Rokuemon went to the country of the Southern Barbarians , he paid his respects to the king Paolo , he stayed there for several years , and now he sailed back from Luzon . He brought paintings of the king of the Southern Barbarians , and a painting of himself , which he remitted . Many of his descriptions of the Southern Barbarian countries , and the meaning of Rokuemon 's declarations were surprising and extraordinary . "
= = = Interdiction of Christianity in Sendai = = =
The direct effect of Hasekura 's return to Sendai was the interdiction of Christianity in the Sendai fief two days later :
" Two days after the return of Rokuemon to Sendai , a three @-@ point edict against the Christian was promulgated : first , that all Christians were ordered to abandon their faith , in accordance with the rule of the Shogun , and for those who did not , they would be exiled if they were nobles , and killed if they were citizens , peasants or servants . Second , that a reward would be given for the denunciation of hidden Christians . Third that propagators of the Christian faith should leave the Sendai fief , or else , abandon their religion " ( November 1620 letter of father Angelis , Japan @-@ China archives of the Jesuits in Rome , quoted in Gonoi 's " Hasekura Tsunenaga " , p231 )
What Hasekura said or did to bring about such a result is unknown . As later events tend to indicate that he and his descendants remained faithful Christians , Hasekura may have made an enthusiastic – and to a certain extent , disturbing – account of the greatness and might of Western countries and the Christian religion . He may also have encouraged an alliance between the Church and Date Masamune to take over the country ( an idea advertized by the Franciscans while in Rome ) , which , in 1620 Japan , would have been a totally unrealistic proposition . Lastly , hopes of trade with Spain evaporated when Hasekura communicated that the Spanish King would not enter an agreement as long as persecutions were occurring in the rest of the country .
Date Masamune , heretofore very tolerant of Christianity for his desire to destroy Bakufu and He was aiming at governing the whole country , in spite of the Bakufu 's prohibition in the land it directly controlled , thus suddenly chose to distance himself from the Western faith . The first executions of Christians started 40 days later . The anti @-@ Christian measures taken by Date Masumune were however comparatively mild , and Japanese and Western Christians repeatedly claimed that he only took them to appease the Shogun :
" Date Masumune , out of fear of the Shogun , ordered the persecution of Christianity in his territory , and created several martyrs . " ( Letter of 17 prominent Japanese Christians from Sendai , to the Pope , 29 September 1621 ) .
One month after Hasekura 's return , Date Masamune wrote a letter to the Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada , in which he makes a very clear effort to evade responsibility for the embassy , explaining in detail how it was organized with the approval , and even the collaboration , of the Shogun :
" When I sent a ship to the Southern Barbarian countries several years ago , upon the advice of Mukai Shogen , I also dispatched the Southern Barbarian named Sotelo , who had resided for several years in Edo . At that time , your highness also gave messages for the Southern Barbarians , as well as presents , such as folding screens and sets of armour . " ( 18 October 1620 , quoted in Gonoi , p . 234 ) .
Spain was by far the most threatening power for Japan at that time ( with a colony and an army in the nearby Philippines ) . Hasekura 's eyewitness accounts of Spanish power and colonial methods in Nueva España ( Mexico ) may have precipitated the Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada 's decision to sever trade relations with Spain in 1623 , and diplomatic relations in 1624 , although other events such as the smuggling of Spanish priests into Japan and a failed Spanish embassy also contributed to the decision .
= = = Death = = =
What became of Hasekura is unknown and accounts of his last years are numerous . Contemporary Christian commentators could only rely on hearsay , with some rumours stating that he abandoned Christianity , others that he was martyred for his faith , and others that he practiced Christianity in secret . The fate of his descendants and servants , who were later executed for being Christians , would suggest that Hasekura remained strongly Christian himself , and transmitted his faith to the members of his family .
Sotelo , who returned to Japan but was caught and finally burnt at the stake in 1624 , gave before his execution an account of Hasekura returning to Japan as a hero who propagated the Christian faith :
" My other colleague , the ambassador Philippus Faxecura , after he reached his aforementioned king ( Date Masamune ) , was greatly honored by him , and sent to his own estate , to rest after such a long and tiring journey , where he made his wife , children , servants , and many other vassals into Christians , and advised other nobles who were his kith and kin to accept the faith , which they indeed did . While he was engaged in these and other pious works , a full year after his return , having provided much instruction and a great example , with much preparation , he piously passed on , leaving for his children by a special inheritance the propagation of the faith in his estate , and the protection of the religious ( i.e. " members of religious orders " ) in that kingdom . The King and all the nobles were greatly saddened by his passing , but especially the Christians and Religious , who knew very well the virtue and religious zeal of this man . This is what I heard by letters from the very Religious who administered the sacraments to him , and who had been present at his death , as well as from others . " ( Luis Sotelo , De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ) .
Hasekura also did bring back to Japan several Catholic artifacts , but he did not give them to his ruler , and instead kept them in his own estate .
Hasekura Tsunenaga died of illness ( according to Japanese as well as Christian sources ) in 1622 , but the location of his grave is not known for certain . Three graves are claimed as Hasekura 's . The most likely is in the outskirts of Osato town ( 大郷町 ) in Miyagi . Another is visible in the Buddhist temple of Enfukuji ( 円長山円福寺 ) in Miyagi . Another is clearly marked ( along with a memorial to PSotelo ) in the cemetery of in the Kitayama neighborhood at Komyo Temple ( 光明寺 ) .
= = = Execution of his descendants and servants = = =
Hasekura had a son , named Rokuemon Tsuneyori . Two of his son 's servants , Yogoemon ( 与五右衛門 ) and his wife , were convicted of being Christian but refused to recant their faith under torture ( reverse hanging , called " Tsurushi " , 釣殺し ) and as a result died in August 1637 ( as the lives of Christians were spared if they recanted , these executions indicate that they were steadfast and refused to deny their faith ) . In 1637 , Rokuemon Tsuneyori himself also came under suspicion of Christianity after being denounced by someone from Edo , but escaped questioning because he was the master of the Zen temple of Komyoji ( 光明寺 ) . In 1640 , two other servants of Tsuneyori , Tarozaemon ( 太郎左衛門 , 71 ) , who had followed Hasekura to Rome , and his wife ( 59 ) , were convicted of being Christians , and , also refusing to recant their faith under torture , died . Tsuneyori was held responsible this time and decapitated the same day , at the age of 42 , for having failed to denounce Christians under his roof , although it remained unconfirmed whether he was himself Christian or not . Also , two Christian priests , the Dominican Pedro Vazquez and Joan Bautista Paulo , had given his name under torture . Tsuneyori 's younger brother , Tsunemichi , was convicted as a Christian , but managed to flee and disappear . But Tsunenobu ( 常信 ) who is the son of Tsuneyori , who is the grand son of Tsunenaga Hasekura , survived , and then the first to 10th head of Hasekura Family had lived in Osato @-@ city , Miyagi prefecture , furthermore the 11th to the present 13th head of them Tsunetaka Hasekura has lived in Wakabayashi @-@ ward , Sendai @-@ city , Miyagi prefecture . The 13th head actively works in Both Miyagi prefecture and Akita prefecture .
The privileges of the Hasekura family were abolished at this point by the Sendai fief , and their property and belongings seized . It is at this time , in 1640 , that Hasekura 's Christian artifacts were confiscated , and they were kept in custody in Sendai until they were rediscovered at the end of the 19th century .
Altogether , around fifty Christian artifacts were found in Hasekura 's estate in 1640 , such as crosses , rosaries , religious gowns and religious paintings . The artifacts were seized and stored by the Date fief . An inventory was made again in 1840 describing the items as belonging to Hasekura Tsunenaga . Nineteen books were also mentioned in the inventory , but they have been lost since . The artifacts are today preserved in the Sendai City Museum and other museum in Sendai .
= = Re @-@ discovery = =
The very existence of the travels of Hasekura was forgotten in Japan until the reopening of the country after the Sakoku policy of isolation . In 1873 , a Japanese embassy to Europe ( the Iwakura mission ) headed by Iwakura Tomomi heard for the first time of the travels of Hasekura when shown documents during their visit to Venice in Italy .
= = = Hasekura today = = =
Today , there are statues of Hasekura Tsunenaga in the outskirts of Acapulco in Mexico , at the entrance of Havana Bay in Cuba , in Coria del Río in Spain , in the Church of Civitavecchia in Italy , in Tsukinoura , near Ishinomaki and two in Osato town in Miyagi .
Approximately 700 inhabitants of Coria del Río bear the surname Japón ( originally Hasekura de Japón ) , identifying them as descendants of the members of Hasekura Tsunenaga 's delegation .
A theme park describing the embassy and displaying a replica of the San Juan Bautista was established in the harbour of Ishinomaki , from which Hasekura initially departed on his voyage .
Today there stands a statue of Hasekura in a park in Manila , the Philippines .
Shusaku Endo wrote a 1980 novel , titled The Samurai , a fictitious account relating the travels of Hasekura .
The 1991 film Journey of Honor ( aka Kabuto , aka Shogun Mayeda ) starring Sho Kosugi was loosely based on Hasekura 's expedition and recounts the adventures of a samurai journey from Japan to Spain .
A 2005 animation film produced in Spain and titled Gisaku relates the adventures of a young Japanese samurai named Yohei who visited Spain in the 17th century , in a story loosely taking its inspiration from the travels of Hasekura . Yohei survived in hiding to the present day due to magical powers ( " After centuries of lethargy , he awakes in a World he does not know " ) , and accomplishes many adventures in modern Europe as a superhero .
= = Timeline and itinerary = =
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= New Jersey Route 87 =
Route 87 is a state highway located in Atlantic County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 1 @.@ 70 mi ( 2 @.@ 74 km ) , heading north from Atlantic City at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 ( Absecon Boulevard ) to Brigantine , where it terminates at the end of the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge over the Absecon Channel , continuing as County Route 638 ( Brigantine Boulevard ) . In Atlantic City , the route runs through the Marina District , which contains a few casinos , along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard . Here , Route 87 intersects with Route 187 ( Brigantine Boulevard ) and the Atlantic City @-@ Brigantine Connector , the latter providing a limited @-@ access route between Route 87 and the Atlantic City Expressway . Route 87 is the only road to and from Brigantine .
What is now Route 87 was initially proposed as Route S4A in 1927 , a spur from Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Tuckerton , Ocean County , south through Brigantine to Atlantic City . The portion of this route south of Little Beach was to be built by Atlantic County ; however , the state took over plans of building the road in 1938 . Despite this , Route S4A was never completed between Brigantine and Little Beach , and the portion of the road that existed in Ocean County was removed from the state highway system by 1941 . In 1945 , Route S56 , a spur of Route 56 ( now U.S. Route 30 ) , was proposed to run from Atlantic City to Brigantine along Brigantine Boulevard . Route 87 was created on its current alignment in 1953 as an unsigned route , replacing Route S4A and the proposed Route S56 . Previously , Route 87 split into two alignments in Atlantic City along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard ; the Brigantine Boulevard alignment eventually became Route 187 .
= = Route description = =
Route 87 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City , heading to the northeast on Huron Avenue , an undivided road with two northbound lanes and three southbound lanes . Immediately after beginning , it passes under the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector and comes to a ramp that provides access from southbound Route 87 to the southbound connector . From here , the route widens to seven lanes , with two northbound lanes and five southbound lanes . It passes by the Borgata casino , with a ramp from the casino to the northbound direction . The road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes under a ramp from the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector to the Borgata before heading under northbound direction of the connector . Here , a ramp from the connector provides access to Route 87 . A short distance later , the route comes to the northern terminus of Route 187 and turns north to follow Brigantine Boulevard , which is a four @-@ lane divided highway .
The route passes to the west of the Golden Nugget casino and comes to a ramp that provides access from northbound Route 87 to both the Trump Marina and Harrah 's Atlantic City casinos before passing under the northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector again . Immediately after , the route has a ramp from the southbound direction that provides access to the connector and westbound U.S. Route 30 . The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector parallels Route 87 to the east as it turns northeast and comes to a right @-@ in / right @-@ out in the southbound direction that serves both Harrah 's and Borgata . From here , the route passes to the southeast of Harrah 's . The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector merges onto northbound Route 87 before the route comes to a ramp that provides access to the northbound direction of the route from Harrah 's . Past here , the route crosses over the Absecon Channel on the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge and runs along the border of Atlantic City to the northwest and Brigantine to the southeast . After crossing the Absecon Channel , the route arrives on Brigantine Island and passes through wetlands , with U @-@ turn ramps in both directions . A short distance later , Route 87 ends and County Route 638 continues along Brigantine Boulevard through Brigantine .
= = History = =
In 1927 , a spur of Route 4 , Route S4A , was proposed as a route running from Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Tuckerton in Ocean County south to Little Beach . In 1929 , this route was to continue south through Brigantine to Atlantic City , with the portion south of Little Beach to be built by Atlantic County . The state of New Jersey took over the proposed extension of Route S4A from Little Beach to Atlantic City in 1938 . However , the portion of this route between Brigantine and the Atlantic / Ocean County line was never built , and the portion of road that existed in Ocean County was removed from the state highway system by 1941 . In 1945 , another route called Route S56 , a spur of Route 56 ( now U.S. Route 30 ) , was proposed to run north along Brigantine Boulevard ( present @-@ day Route 187 and Route 87 ) from Atlantic City to Brigantine . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 87 was designated as an unsigned route along the former alignment of Route S4A and the proposed Route S56 between U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City and Brigantine . Following the 1953 renumbering , the southern portion of Route 87 in Atlantic City split into two alignments , with one following Huron Avenue and the other following Brigantine Boulevard . Eventually , the alignment of Route 87 along Brigantine Boulevard between U.S. Route 30 and Huron Avenue became Route 187 . In 2001 , the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was completed , linking Route 87 , the casinos in the Marina District , and Brigantine with the Atlantic City Expressway .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Atlantic County .
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= Phan Xích Long =
Phan Xích Long , also known as Hồng Long , born Phan Phát Sanh ( 1893 – 1916 ) , was a 20th @-@ century Vietnamese mystic and geomancer who claimed to be the Emperor of Vietnam . He attempted to exploit religion as a cover for his own political ambitions , having started his own ostensibly religious organisation . Claiming to be a descendant of Emperor Hàm Nghi , Long staged a ceremony to crown himself , before trying to seize power in 1913 by launching an armed uprising against the colonial rule of French Indochina . His supporters launched an attack on Saigon in March 1913 , drinking potions that purportedly made them invisible and planting bombs at several locations . The insurrection against the French colonial administration failed when none of the bombs detonated and the supposedly invisible supporters were apprehended .
The French authorities imprisoned Long and many of his supporters , who openly admitted their aim of overthrowing French authorities at the trial . During the 1916 Cochinchina uprisings against French rule , many of Long 's supporters attempted to break him out of jail . The French easily repelled the attack on the jail , decimating Long 's movement . Following the attempted breakout , Long and his key supporters were put to death . Many of the remnants of his support base went on to join what later became the Cao Đài , a major religious sect in Vietnam .
= = Early career = =
Long was born in 1893 in southern Vietnam as Phan Phát Sanh . His place of birth is disputed ; the historians R. B. Smith and Hue @-@ Tam Ho Tai say that he was from Cholon , the Chinese business district of Saigon , while Oscar Chapuis records Tan An as his place of birth . Sanh 's father was a police officer. and it has been speculated that the family were of Chinese descent . He started as a servant in a French family , before travelling to the That Son ( Seven Mountains ) region in the far south of Vietnam , a region that was known as a hotbed of mysticism . There Long trained in mysticism . As a youth , Sanh travelled from Vietnam to Siam , earning his living as a fortune @-@ teller and geomancer .
In mid @-@ 1911 , Sanh formed a secret society on the unverified pretense that he was a descendant of Hàm Nghi , the boy emperor of the 1880s . Led by Tôn Thất Thuyết and Phan Đình Phùng — two high @-@ ranking mandarins — Hàm Nghi 's Cần Vương movement battled against French colonisation in the decade leading up to 1895 . Their objective was to expel the French authorities and establish Ham Nghi as the emperor of an independent Vietnam . This failed , and the French exiled the boy emperor to Algeria , replacing him with his brother Đồng Khánh . From then on , the French retained the monarchy of the Nguyễn Dynasty , exiling any emperors who rose against colonial rule and replacing them with more cooperative relatives . Sanh also claimed descent from the Lê Dynasty , which ruled Vietnam in the 15th and 16th centuries . He was a strong warrior , further presenting himself as the founder of China 's Ming Dynasty .
At the time of Sanh 's activities in the 1910s , there were two members of the Nguyễn Dynasty who commanded respect among Vietnamese monarchists . The first was the boy emperor Duy Tân , who was himself deported in 1916 after staging an uprising . Duy Tan 's grandfather , Emperor Dục Đức , was the adopted son of the childless Emperor Tự Đức , the last independent emperor of Vietnam . The second figure who was seen by Vietnamese as a possible leader of an independent monarchy was Prince Cường Để . Cường Để was a direct descendant of Emperor Gia Long , who had established the Nguyễn Dynasty and unified Vietnam in its modern state . Cường Để was a prominent anti @-@ colonial activist who lived in exile in Japan .
Sanh 's two main assistants were Nguyen Huu Tri and Nguyen Van Hiep , whom he met at Tân Châu in Châu Đốc Province ( now in An Giang Province ) . The trio agreed to plot an uprising against the French under the cover of a religious sect . The genesis of their cooperation is unclear , but it may have started before mid @-@ 1911 . Tri and Hiep were said to have been in awe when Sanh produced a golden plaque that read " heir to the throne " . The men agreed that the geographical foci of their movement would be in Cholon and Tan An in Vietnam and Kampot in Cambodia . The trio decided to model their actions on an uprising that had occurred in Kampot in 1909 . On that occasion , a group of Cambodians of Chinese descent had marched into the town wearing white robes , claiming to be followers of a Battambang @-@ based Cambodian prince who would overthrow French rule and lead them to independence . After the formation of the sect , Sanh temporarily moved abroad , spending time in Siam and Cambodia . During this time , he learned sorcery and magic , supplementing his mystical training with a military education . He learned pyrotechnics for the purpose of making fireworks and bombs .
= = Coronation = =
Sanh returned to southern Vietnam , and began dressing as a Buddhist monk . He travelled through the six provinces of the Mekong Delta region . His associates Hiep and Tri found an elderly man from Cholon in Saigon , and presented the senior citizen to the populace as a " living Buddha " . After some local elders objected to their activities , they moved to the centre of Cholon . The old man took up residence with Sanh , and peasants and tradespeople soon began flocking to their makeshift temple , located in a house in Cholon 's Thuan Kieu Street . As their temple was located in a prominent commercial area , the group began to collect more funds . The donors made offerings of gold and silver , with some individual donations being worth as much as 1 @,@ 500 piastres . When the " living Buddha " unexpectedly died in February 1912 , he was interred in the family shrine of a notable follower . Sanh 's strategists declared that before the old man had died , he named Sanh as the rightful Emperor of Vietnam . In the meantime , the old man 's remains became the object of veneration , providing further cover for political plotting and fundraising when visitors came to pay their respects . After the completion of the funeral rites , Sanh and his followers staged an impromptu coronation ceremony at Battambang in October 1912 . Sanh took on the name Phan Xích Long and was also known as Hồng Long , both of which mean " red dragon " .
Vast crowds of locals began flocking to pay homage to Long , vowing to contribute labour and finance in an effort to expel the French from Vietnam and install Long as the independent monarch . By this time , Long was claiming to have received a letter from Cuong De , which supposedly confirmed his royal descent . Long 's followers spared no expense in decorating Long with royal accoutrements . They made a medallion inscribed " Phan Xích Long Hòang Đế " ( Emperor Phan Xích Long ) and a royal seal with a dragon 's head with the words " Đại Minh Quốc , Phan Xích Long Hòang Đế , Thiên tử " ( Greater Ming State , Emperor Phan Xích Long , Son of Heaven ) . The words " Đại Minh " were interpreted as either having arbitrarily been copied from local Chinese Vietnamese secret society slogans , or as a strategic ploy to invoke the names of the Ming Dynasty to appeal to the Chinese who had emigrated to Vietnam after the fall of the Ming . Long 's supporters produced a sword with the inscription " Tiên đả hôn quân , hậu đả loạn thần " ( First strike the debauched king , next the traitorous officials ) and a ring inscribed " Dân Công " ( Popular Tribute ) . From then on , Long presented himself as the emperor and signed documents under the royal title .
Long 's strategy of proclaiming himself as a royal descendent or claiming to have supernatural powers in order to rally support for political ends was not new ; it has been repeatedly used throughout Vietnamese history . In 1516 , a man calling himself Trần Cảo rebelled against the Lê Dynasty , claiming to be a descendant of the deposed Trần Dynasty and a reincarnation of Indra . During the 19th century , there was a Buddhist revival and many people masqueraded as monks claiming to have supernatural powers . These false monks were frequently able to start new religious movements and secret societies based on millenarianism . Quickly gathering large numbers of disciples , they staged rebellions against Vietnamese imperial and French colonial armies alike . However , these uprisings were typically incoherent and caused minimal disruption to the ruling authorities . On the other hand , the French were often troubled by resistance movements in southern Vietnam that were led by more conventionally motivated nationalist militants , such as the guerrilla outfits of Trương Định and Nguyễn Trung Trực .
= = Military buildup = =
During the time he spent in Battambang for the coronation , Long organised the construction of a pagoda in the town , and in December , he unsuccessfully applied for a land concession . After the coronation , Long was taken to the That Son region in Châu Đốc , in the far south of the Mekong Delta . There the peasants built a temple for him . They used a small restaurant in a nearby village as a reception centre for the temple , as the temple was increasingly used as a military base , where fighters , weaponry and munitions were being assembled for an uprising . In the village of Tan Thanh , a local leader recruited his peasants for Long 's revolt . The village chieftain predicted that a new Vietnamese monarch would descend from the sky at Cholon in March 1913 , and that only the royalists would survive this miracle .
Such proclamations were repeated across southern Vietnam and in Cambodia , and notices were posted in Saigon , Phnom Penh , the road between the cities , and in many community venues in rural communities . Long 's supporters presented them in the form of a royal edict on wooden blocks , declaring their intention to attack French military installations . They called on the people to rise up and topple French rule and said that supernatural forces would aid the independence fighters , saying that an unnamed monk would arrive from the mountains to lead them . At the time , southern Vietnam was beset by heavy corvée labour demands , especially with large @-@ scale roadworks in progress . This meant that the peasants had less time to tend to their farmland , and revolts and strikes had been common . The simmering discontent is seen as a reason for Long 's ability to gather such levels of support in a short time . Long 's supporters called on merchants to flee and convert their colonial bank notes into solid copper cash . Word of the planned revolt spread quickly , leading to a substantial depreciation in the currency .
Long took the lead in preparing the explosives , telling his followers that his experience as a fortuneteller , mystic and natural healer made him an expert . The bombs were made from cannon shot , carbon , sulphur and saltpeter , which were then wrapped together .
= = Failed uprising = =
On March 22 , the French arrested Long in the coastal town of Phan Thiết , some 160 kilometres to the east of Saigon . His activities and proclamations had attracted the attention of French colonial officials , and just days before , the Resident of Kampot visited the Battambang temple and spotted the collection of white robes , which were similarly styled to the uniforms worn during the 1909 uprising . However , Long 's disciples were unaware that he had been arrested and continued with their plot . After nightfall on March 23 , the bombs were taken into Saigon and placed at strategic points , with proclamation notices being erected in close proximity . None of the bombs successfully detonated . One source says that the bombs failed because the French authorities had defused all of them after uncovering the conspiracy .
On March 28 , the second phase of the operation started when several hundred rebels marched into Saigon dressed all in white , armed with only sticks and spears . Before the march , they had ingested potions that purportedly made them invisible . However , the French military were able to capture more than 80 of the supposedly invisible rebels during demonstrations against French rule . The police raided the homes of several people who were known to be involved with Long 's plot , resulting in more arrests . They captured most of Long 's main supporters , rendering the organisation impotent . However , Tri managed to escape .
= = Trial and imprisonment = =
Those involved were taken before a tribunal in November 1913 , where the leaders freely stated their intentions of overthrowing the French colonial regime . Of the 111 people arrested , the tribunal convicted 104 , of whom 63 received prison sentences . During the trial , some community leaders wrote to the Governor @-@ General of Indochina , blaming French oppression of the populace through corvee labour and the confiscation of land , for the discontent that led to the uprising . The prosecutor also criticised the way in which colonial authorities operated .
Ernest Outrey , the French Governor of Cochinchina , the southern region of Vietnam , was known for his support of colonial enterprise and rigid rule of the colony . He was unmoved by claims that the uprising had been fuelled by a sense of injustice . He said
Individually , the leaders of the movement have no personal motive to invoke in order to justify their xenophobic sentiments . Some of them are men who have remained imbued with the ancient order of things predating French conquest and who have adamantly remained within the tradition and ideas of the past ; others are fanatics , who are persuaded that they are devoted to a noble cause .
The governor went on to excoriate the French press for their criticism of colonial policy , claiming that they boosted the morale of anti @-@ colonial activists . The prosecutor thought that because Long 's movement was affiliated with the Việt Nam Quang Phục Hội ( VNQPH ) , an exiled monarchist organisation led by the leading anti @-@ colonial activist Phan Bội Châu , and Cường Để . The suspicion was based on the fact that the VNQPH had printed their own currency and circulated them into Vietnam at the same time that Long 's monetary policy had led to a depreciation . Cường Để had also secretly re @-@ entered southern Vietnam and had been travelling through the countryside when Long 's uprising was launched in March . The prosecutor claimed that activists from northern and central Vietnam , the main source of the VNQPH 's followers , were behind the plot . The defendants denied this , asserting that most of the participants were " illiterate peasants " , while the VNQPH were dominated by members of the scholar @-@ gentry .
The French intended to deport Long to French Guiana , but the outbreak of World War I in 1914 interrupted their plans . As a result , Long remained in Saigon Central Prison , serving his life sentence with hard labour . The French were unaware that Long was still in contact with his supporters .
= = Attempted jailbreak and execution = =
Over time , resentment against French rule rose again , due to World War I. The colonial authorities had forced each village to send a quota of men to serve on the Western Front . In Vietnam , rumours circulated , claiming that France was close to defeat . Believing that the colonial hold had been weakened by the strain of war in Europe , Vietnamese nationalists were buoyed . In February 1916 , uprisings broke out in southern Vietnam , with rebels demanding the restoration of an independent monarchy . One of their many objectives was to secure Long 's release by breaking down Saigon prison , and this was the most noted incident during the tumult .
Attacks on prisons were not uncommon in French Indochina , as rebels often viewed the prisoners as a source of reinforcements . Georges Coulet , regarded as French Indochina 's leading scholar on anti @-@ French religious movements , said that " The attack on Saigon Central Prison was not simply an attempt to release the pseudo @-@ Emperor , Phan Xich Long , but was intended to deliver all prisoners " .
Before daybreak on February 15 , 1916 , between 100 and 300 Vietnamese wearing white headbands , white trousers and black tops , armed with sticks , farm implements and knives , sailed along the Arroyo Chinoise waterway and disembarked near the centre of Saigon . They had pretended to be working the transport industry , delivering fruit , vegetables and building materials . The plan was that this advance party would give signals to a larger party of rebels , who were waiting on the outskirts of Saigon with the majority of the weapons , to move into the city for the main part of the uprising .
The advance party then attempted to proceed to the Central Prison to forcibly release Long , shouting " Let 's free big Brother [ Long ] " . Long had provided his followers with a detailed strategy from his prison cell , and the attack was led by a Cholon gang leader named Nguyen Van Truoc ( also known as Tu Mat ) with Tri 's assistance . Truoc was the leader of a powerful underworld gang that was linked to the Heaven and Earth Society .
The French had anticipated the trouble , and police , whose presence had been increased along the waterways , arrived quickly , dispersing Long 's followers with ease . Although some of the disciples reached the prison , none managed to breach its defenses . Ten of Long 's men were killed , whereas only one sentry perished . The French arrested 65 rebels on the spot , including Tri . Of these , 38 were sentenced to death . Long was sentenced to death for his participation in the uprising , and he was executed on February 22 , 1916 . The French Governor @-@ General of Indochina wrote to the French Minister of Colonies , describing the incident as " a serious attempt to put in execution a vast plot that has been prepared carefully and for a long time by a secret society which grouped together with professional bandits all the enemies of our domination " . The colonial authorities commissioned the publication of poems , which praised French rule and warned the populace against insurrections .
Similar events occurred across southern Vietnam , and in one case in Bến Tre , another self @-@ proclaimed mystic launched an uprising that was similar to Long 's 1913 effort . In all , riots or uprisings broke out in 13 of the 20 provinces of Cochinchina . The French declared a state of emergency and continued their crackdown against Long 's followers and other rebels , making a further 1 @,@ 660 arrests , which resulted in 261 incarcerations .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The damage inflicted on Long 's organisation led many of his followers to disperse and join a group that has now developed into the Cao Đài politico @-@ religious sect based in Tây Ninh . Nevertheless , Long 's uprising was significant because of its abnormal roots . It was the first uprising led by a self @-@ styled religious leader whose support base came about due to man @-@ made discontent . Prior to Long , peasant uprisings with religious themes had always been preceded by floods , outbreaks of disease , famine , crop failure or other natural phenomena , as sections of the rural populace attributed such disasters to the wrath of the heavens and sought help from leaders who purported to have supernatural powers .
Long 's demise did not end the sequence of self @-@ proclaimed mystics who raised armies and engaged in politics . During the interwar period , a sorcerer named Chem Keo claimed to be Long 's reincarnation . During World War II , Huỳnh Phú Sổ claimed to be a living Buddha and quickly gathered more than a million supporters . He raised a large peasant army and battled both the French and the communist Viet Minh independence movement , before being killed by the latter . In another case in 1939 , a Taoist attempted to demonstrate that he was immune to French bullets . Furthermore , in the years immediately after World War II , the Cao Đài 's numbers swelled to 1 @.@ 5 million .
Phan Xich Long is a quickly developing street at the junction of Districts 1 , Binh Thanh , and Phu Nhuan .
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= Dig Me Out =
Dig Me Out is the third studio album by the American rock band Sleater @-@ Kinney , released on April 8 , 1997 by Kill Rock Stars . The album was produced by John Goodmanson and recorded from December 1996 to January 1997 at John and Stu 's Place in Seattle , Washington . Dig Me Out marked the debut of Janet Weiss , who is the band 's longest serving and current drummer . The music on the record was influenced by traditional rock and roll bands , while the lyrics deal with issues of heartbreak and survival .
Two singles were released in support of the album : " One More Hour " and " Little Babies " . The title track " Dig Me Out " peaked at number six on the KEXP Top 90 @.@ 3 Album Chart in 1997 without being released as a single . The album received substantial acclaim from music critics , who praised the album 's energy and feminist lyrics . Dig Me Out is included on several publications ' best album lists . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked it number 272 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Background and recording = =
Dig Me Out is the follow @-@ up to Sleater @-@ Kinney 's highly acclaimed second album Call the Doctor , released in 1996 by the queercore independent record label Chainsaw Records . Call the Doctor confirmed the band 's reputation as one of the major musical acts from the Pacific Northwest , rebelling against gender roles , consumerism , and indie rock 's male @-@ dominated hierarchy . After the release of Call the Doctor , drummer Janet Weiss of Quasi joined the band . Previously , the band had had a number of temporary drummers , including Misty Farrell , Lora Macfarlane , and Toni Gogin . Weiss would eventually become Sleater @-@ Kinney 's longest serving and current drummer . For its third album , Sleater @-@ Kinney worked again with producer John Goodmanson . The band left Chainsaw Records and decided to release the album through Kill Rock Stars , another independent record label which singer and guitarist Corin Tucker thought had better resources to ensure the band 's distribution . Goodmanson also remarked that Kill Rock Stars afforded the band a generous amount of studio time for an independent label , stating that Call the Doctor only took four days to record while Dig Me Out was recorded over the period of eight days .
Dig Me Out was written in nearly two months and recorded from December 1996 to January 1997 at John and Stu 's Place in Seattle , Washington . During the recording sessions , recording the vocal interplay between Tucker and co @-@ vocalist and guitarist Carrie Brownstein involved some difficulties . However , the producer took care and prevented favoring one voice over the other . As Goodmanson recalls : " We always used different mikes for the lead vocal and for the second vocal , or different kinds of processing to make those things really distinct . To make it so you can hear both things at once " . Goodmanson also noted that the fact that the band features no bass player was an advantage for the album 's production . He explained : " The awesome thing about having no bass player is you can make the guitars sound as big as you want . Usually you have to clear all that room out for the bass , so you can hear the bass line . With no bass there , you can just go for giant guitar sounds that you wouldn 't normally be able to go for " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Dig Me Out was considered rockier than its predecessor . Weiss ' drumming style was influenced by traditional rock and roll bands such as The Rolling Stones , The Beatles , and The Kinks , as well as numerous blues rock musicians such as Lightnin ' Hopkins , Muddy Waters , Billy Boy Arnold , and Bessie Smith , among others . Both Tucker and Brownstein remarked that Weiss became an essential part of the band 's sound . According to Tucker , " Musically , she 's completed our band . She 's become the bottom end and the solidness that we 've really wanted for our songwriting " . In addition to playing drums , Weiss provides hand claps and tambourine in " Turn It On " . Dig Me Out also contains more guitar and vocal interplay by Tucker and Brownstein than Call the Doctor . As Brownstein explains , " If you were to separate our guitar parts I don 't necessarily think they would fully stand on their own . Our songs [ ... ] aren 't really complete until the other person has put their part over it , and their vocals " .
The lyrical themes on Dig Me Out deal with issues of heartbreak and survival . The song " One More Hour " is about the breakup of Tucker and Brownstein 's romantic relationship . Before the release of the album , Spin magazine published a controversial article discussing Tucker and Brownstein 's personal relationship without their permission . Brownstein felt that " it was a complete invasion of privacy . My parents didn 't know Corin and I were going out . They didn 't know I had ever dated a woman before . It was horrible . I was pissed at Spin , really mad . Luckily my parents are great people , but God forbid I would have some family that would disown me over something like that . And I would have totally held Spin responsible for that . " The song features a lot of vocal interplay by Tucker and Brownstein . Chris Nelson of Addicted to Noise noted that " one can almost hear Tucker crying in the studio as she wails , ' I needed it ' , while behind her Brownstein offers her attempts at consolation " . In her 2015 memoir Hunger Makes Me A Modern Girl , Brownstein also states that almost all the songs on Dig Me Out are about either her or Tucker 's future husband , Lance Bangs .
Like its predecessor , Dig Me Out also features songs that show frustration with sexism and gender stereotypes . " Little Babies " is a protest against the traditional maternity role , while the title song " Dig Me Out " exposes a woman in a dominant role . The album 's title was inspired by the fact that the band had to literally dig out the recording studio after a heavy snowstorm that took place in Winter 1996 in Seattle . Musically , the song " Words and Guitar " was said to " [ leap ] and [ skit ] with the just @-@ released repression of early Talking Heads " , while " Dance Song ' 97 " was said to " sport Devo @-@ esque keyboards of a distinctly ' 80s vintage " . Jenn Pelly of Pitchfork Media described " Heart Factory " as a song that " roars over synthetic emotions of the Prozac Nation . "
= = Release = =
Dig Me Out was released on April 8 , 1997 by Kill Rock Stars . The album cover is an homage to The Kinks ' 1965 album The Kink Kontroversy . After the release , the band went on a tour to promote the album ; a performance of " Words and Guitar " at El Rey Theatre , Los Angeles is featured in the documentary film Songs for Cassavetes by Justin Mitchell . As of July 1999 , the album has sold 64 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan . As of February 2015 , Dig Me Out has sold 130 @,@ 000 copies . Two songs from the album , " One More Hour " and " Little Babies " , were released as singles by Matador Records on June 1 , 1998 and September 7 , 1998 respectively . The first single features the song " I Wanna Be Your Joey Ramone " from Call the Doctor as the B @-@ side , while the second single features " I 'm Not Waiting " , also from their previous album . The compact disc version of " One More Hour " includes a third song , " Don 't Think You Wanna " , which was originally released on the band 's debut album Sleater @-@ Kinney . The song " Dig Me Out " peaked at number six on the KEXP Top 90 @.@ 3 Album Chart in 1997 without being released as a single .
= = Critical reception = =
Dig Me Out received substantial acclaim from music critics . Randall Roberts , writing for CMJ New Music Monthly , described the album as a " hum of life wholly transcending gender and genre , filled with the kind of excitement and singular voice that made punk rock glorious in its infancy [ ... ] Dig Me Out is a monster " . Sara Scribner of Los Angeles Times praised Tucker 's emotional vocal delivery , writing that " she 's obsessed with finding honest emotions within the cold machinery of the human heart . " Ann Powers stated similar pros and highlighted Brownstein 's energetic guitar playing , noting that the band " now [ delivers ] the punch their words describe . " She also gave high marks to the album 's feminist lyrics , commenting " If [ Sleater @-@ Kinney ] wanna be our Simone de Beauvoir , Dig Me Out proves they 're up to it . " Similarly , Matt Diehl of Rolling Stone said that " while the Spice Girls prattle on about ' girl power ' , Sleater @-@ Kinney remain the real socket for that energy " .
AllMusic reviewer Jason Ankeny credited the band for expanding their musical boundaries with a more confident and mature sound . Wook Kim of Entertainment Weekly praised Tucker and Brownstein 's " interlocking " vocals and called the record a " fine example of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art punk " . In The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau praised the union and teamwork of the band , stating that " they 're so confident of their ability to please that they just can 't stop . And this confidence is collective : Corin and Carrie chorus @-@ trade like the two @-@ headed girl , dashing and high @-@ stepping around on Janet Weiss 's shoulders . What a ride " . He referred to the album as one of his " favorite albums of the year , easy " . In a retrospective review , Anthony Carew of About.com remarked that Dig Me Out took Sleater @-@ Kinney " from the cult corner of the Pacific Northwest to international acclaim " .
Dig Me Out is frequently included on several publications ' best album lists . The album appeared at number four in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1997 . In 1999 , Dig Me Out was ranked number 21 on Spin 's list of The 90 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s . In 2001 , Spin placed it at number 19 on its list of " 50 Most Essential Punk Records " . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 272 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In 2005 , the album was ranked number 24 in Spin 's " 100 Greatest Albums , 1985 – 2005 " . In 2012 , Spin also ranked it at number 74 on their " 125 Best Albums of the Past 25 Years " , stating that " Dig Me Out captures the noise of a soul @-@ filled body shaking itself awake , and that 's an experience that bridges any gender divide . " In 2008 , the song " Dig Me Out " was ranked number 44 in Rolling Stone 's " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " . In 2011 , the album was placed at number 71 by Slant Magazine on its list of " The 100 Best Albums of the 1990s " . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Sleater @-@ Kinney .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
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= Electra Heart =
Electra Heart is the second studio album by Welsh singer and songwriter Marina Diamandis , professionally known as Marina and the Diamonds . It was released on 27 April 2012 by 679 Artists and Atlantic Records . Diamandis collaborated with producers including Liam Howe , Greg Kurstin , Dr. Luke , Diplo , and StarGate during its recording , and subsequently transitioned from the new wave musical styles seen throughout her debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) . Their efforts resulted in a concept album inspired by electropop music , a distinct departure from her earlier projects ; its lyrical content is united by the topics of love and identity . Diamandis created the title character " Electra Heart " to represent female stereotypes in popular American culture .
Music critics were divided in their opinions of Electra Heart , expressing ambivalence towards Diamandis ' shift in musical style and its overall production . The record debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 copies . In doing so , it became Diamandis ' first chart @-@ topping record there , although it was then distinguished as the lowest @-@ selling number @-@ one record of the 21st century in the country . The album was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for exceeding shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . Electra Heart performed moderately on international record charts , including a peak position at number 31 on the US Billboard 200 , and became Diamandis ' highest @-@ charting project in the United States at the time .
Electra Heart was supported by three singles , all of which were supplemented by music videos . " Primadonna " was released as the lead single from the record on 20 March 2012 , and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . Follow @-@ up singles " Power & Control " and " How to Be a Heartbreaker " were respectively released on 20 July and 7 December , and reached numbers 193 and 88 in the United Kingdom . The record was additionally promoted by Diamandis ' headlining The Lonely Hearts Club Tour , which visited Europe and North America from May 2012 through May 2013 .
= = Background and production = =
After returning from the United States after the launch of her debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) , Diamandis considered creating a character which would become the centerpiece of her follow @-@ up project . She commented that she was inspired by the " Tumblr generation " to photograph herself in several places across the United States , appearing as a different persona in each picture to mimick the anonymity of the " mini @-@ stars of the internet " . The final product became " a cold , ruthless character who wasn 't vulnerable " , which she later named " Electra Heart " and detailed as a tool to represent a combination of elements associated with the American Dream and Greek tragedy , and added that visuals would merge the differing concepts into a cohesive idea .
Diamandis first announced Electra Heart in August 2011 ; it was initially planned to become a three @-@ piece project inspired by American culture in the 1970s , although it eventually evolved into her second studio album . Diamandis originally planned to release the record as a " side project " under an entity separate from Marina and the Diamonds , although her management disapproved . The track " Living Dead " was the first recorded during its production , and approximately 22 songs were recorded for potential inclusion on the album . She later commented that the record was dedicated to " dysfunctional love " , elaborating that " rejection is a universally embarrassing topic and Electra Heart is my response to that . " Diamandis stated that Electra Heart was influenced by Madonna , Marilyn Monroe , and the French queen Marie Antoinette ; she described Madonna as being " fearless " and felt that she showcased a desire to be a successful artist beyond fame and wealth . Diamandis told Glamour that Britney Spears influenced a " double @-@ sided " theme for the record of both " innocence " and " darkness " . She described the final product as being " a bit cringe " and reflective of her personal experiences , although noted that its promotional campaign would be " pink and fluffy " .
= = Composition = =
Heavily inspired by electropop musical styles , Electra Heart has been described as a concept album detailing " female identity " and " a recent breakup " . It represents a musical departure from Diamandis ' debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) , which incorporated a new wave and indie rock @-@ influenced sonority . She later commented that the album was specifically designed as a pop record to allow her to establish a greater prominence in the contemporary music industry . The title character " Electra Heart " portrays four female archetypes in the album : " Teen Idle " , " Primadonna " , " Homewrecker " , and " Su @-@ Barbie @-@ A " . Their presences on each track are not clearly defined , although Diamandis acknowledged that they are more apparent on the visual aspects of the album .
Alexis Petridis from The Guardian compared the lyrical content used throughout the pop punk @-@ inspired opener " Bubblegum Bitch " to " the self @-@ fulfilling I @-@ will @-@ be @-@ huge prophecy " that was developed in The Fame by Lady Gaga . The following track " Primadonna " is a pop number that contains a " surging beat " and an " anti @-@ chorus structure " , which according to James Christopher Monger from AllMusic blends styles reminiscent of Swedish recording artist Lykke Li and the British band Coldplay . " Lies " takes influence from elements of dubstep music . Michael Cragg from BBC Music felt that it allowed Diamandis to " deal directly with her emotions " , and opined that contributions from producer Diplo gave the song " extra gloom wobble sadness " . Cragg classified " Homewrecker " as a " vampy " track which blends verses centred around spoken @-@ word vocals with a " stompy " refrain where Diamandis declares " I broke a million hearts just for fun " , while Christopher Will from the Pennsylvania State University @-@ sponsored Blue Robot recognised elements of house music . Cragg further opined that " Starring Role " was " heart @-@ rending in its simplicity " , and noticed prominent piano and drum instrumentation throughout the recording .
Monger saw the sixth track " The State of Dreaming " as a solemn offering from the record for its intellectual lyrical content , which he described as one of several tracks that " reveal the lonely rebel , defiantly eating lunch alone , secretly wishing for acceptance . " " Power & Control " was detailed as an electropop track by Emily Mackay from The Quietus , while Laura Snapes from Pitchfork Media commented that Diamandis repeatedly delivers the lyrics " I am weak " with an " increasingly ephemeral voice " as it progresses . Snapes also felt that " Living Dead " was a more " vulnerable moment " from Electra Heart , and compared it to the " snappy [ and ] taut " works of English duo Soft Cell . Monger recognised inspiration from American recording artist Lana Del Rey in " Teen Idle " and felt that it represented " the feral blood of an army of disenfranchised high @-@ school loners coming into their own " . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse suggested that " The Valley of the Dolls " drew inspiration from the 1967 film of the same name , and described " Hypocrates " as a " sparkling guitar @-@ pop tune " that takes stylistic influences from 1960s pop music and details the power struggle between romantic partners . Electra Heart closes with its 12th track " Fear and Loathing " , which experiments with electronic music styles ; Petridis made particular note of its minimal production , which according to him , places emphasis on Diamandis ' " coolly enunciated and slightly folky " vocals .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 1 March , Diamandis unveiled the album artwork for the standard version of Electra Heart , which depicts a blonde Diamandis wearing several hair rollers . The singer later revealed that because of the dye , her hair started to fall out , so she got a boy 's haircut and wore a wig . Becky Bain from Idolator complimented its " retro film stock look " and opined that it " is just a snapshot from some 1970s exploitation movie " , while Bradley Stern from MuuMuse jokingly referenced the album track " Homewrecker " when stating that she " looks like a proper Suzy Homemaker ! ( Or should I say Suzy Homewrecker ? ) " The artwork for the deluxe version features the same picture of Diamandis , although it is tinted purple . The track listing for the standard version was confirmed on 1 March , while the track listing for the deluxe version was announced on 5 March . A limited edition box set of Electra Heart contained the deluxe version of the record , four photo art cards , a ring , perspex , necklace , and pocket mirror .
= = = Music videos = = =
Diamandis released 11 music videos through YouTube during the promotional campaign for Electra Heart . She claimed that their production led her record label into bankruptcy , but stated that they would be released and " finish this era the way I want to . " The first , titled " Part 1 : Fear and Loathing " , was released on 8 August 2011 , and sees Diamandis cutting her long brown hair and singing the track on a balcony during the nighttime . It was followed by " Part 2 : Radioactive " on 22 August , which depicts a blonde @-@ wigged Diamandis travelling across the United States with her romantic interest . The track was released through the iTunes Store on 23 September , and peaked at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart on 15 October . The black @-@ and @-@ white clip " Part 3 : The Archetypes " shows the close @-@ up of a blonde Diamandis while the introduction of " The State of Dreaming " is played ; it introduced the archetypes " housewife " , " beauty queen " , " homewrecker " , and " idle teen " on 15 December . " Part 4 : Primadonna " served as the music video for the lead single from the record on 12 March 2012 .
Uploaded on 18 May , the black @-@ and @-@ white " Part 5 : Su @-@ Barbie @-@ A " is set to the introduction of " Valley of the Dolls " with overlapped commentary mentioning " Quick @-@ Curl Barbie " and " Mod @-@ Hair Ken " ; it depicts Diamandis standing on the porch of a house with her back to the front door . It was followed by " Part 6 : Power & Control " on 30 May , where Diamandis is seen engaging in a series of mind games with her romantic interest . Diamandis alleged that Atlantic Records delayed the premiere of " Part 7 : How to Be a Heartbreaker " because they felt she was " ugly " in the clip ; it was made publicly available on 28 September , and sees Diamandis interacting with several shirtless men in a community shower . " Part 8 : E.V.O.L. " introduced the previously @-@ unreleased track " E.V.O.L " on 14 February 2013 . The black @-@ and @-@ white visual shows a brown @-@ wigged Diamandis looking about a room with white @-@ tiled walls .
" Part 9 : The State of Dreaming " , premiered on 2 March , presents Diamandis lying on a bed while " alternating between sad eyes and a big smile " . It begins with a black @-@ and @-@ white filter , although transitions into color after the first minute . It was followed by " Part 10 : Lies " on 17 July , and employs a similar black @-@ and @-@ white to color technique . Diamandis is first seen looking into the camera wearing little makeup , and is later shown walking into the woods and sitting at a dinner table in the rain . The final music video " Part 11 : Electra Heart " introduced the previously @-@ unreleased title track ; the clip itself contains footage from the earlier music videos . It symbolically ended the promotional era for Electra Heart , with Diamandis having tweeted " Goodbye , Electra Heart ! " on 8 August , the same day the video was released .
= = = Singles = = =
Inspired by the six @-@ single promotional campaign for Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) by Katy Perry , Diamandis planned to release six singles from Electra Heart , however , three tracks were released before she finished promoting the album . " Primadonna " was announced as the lead single from the record on 13 March 2012 , and was released through the iTunes Store in the United States on 20 March . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy spoke favourably of the track , complimenting its overall production and Diamandis ' portrayal of its female archetype . It peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Diamandis ' fifth song to enter the top 40 in the United Kingdom . " Power & Control " was released through the iTunes Store in the United Kingdom on 20 July 2012 and served as the second single from Electra Heart . It peaked at number 193 on the UK Singles Chart . In July 2012 , it was announced that " How to Be a Heartbreaker " would be released as the second single in the United States and the third single in the United Kingdom . Diamandis commented that she had written the track while Electra Heart was being pressed in the United Kingdom , and consequently missed the cut @-@ off for initial inclusion on the record ; however , it was featured in the revised track listing for the American version . The song was released through the iTunes Store on 7 December 2012 , and peaked at number 88 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = = Tour = = =
In February 2012 , Diamandis announced the launch of her headlining The Lonely Hearts Club Tour . It ran alongside the Mylo Xyloto Tour headlined by Coldplay , for which Diamandis served as the supporting act . The Lonely Hearts Club Tour was initially scheduled to begin on 4 May at the Manchester Cathedral in Manchester , although it was delayed after Diamandis sustained a vocal cord injury , and ultimately began on 18 June at The Waterfront in Norwich . The American leg of the tour began on 10 July at The Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles , while the tour itself ended on 29 May 2013 after a performance at the Rumsey Playfield in New York City .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Electra Heart received an average score of 57 , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " , based on 16 reviews . Writing for AllMusic , James Christopher Monger compared the record to the works of American recording artists Kesha and Lady Gaga , and favourably summarised it as " a brooding , sexy , desperate , overwrought , and infectious record that 's both aware and unashamed of its contrivance . " Michael Cragg reviewed the album on behalf of BBC Music ; he felt that the recurring concept of failed romance established " a strange dichotomy " that created a sense of cohesiveness , and elaborated that it " [ pulls ] you sharply into her world . " He considered the second half of the disc to be mildly disappointing , although concluded that this was excusable because the overall record " [ balances ] the ironic and the heartfelt , the quirky and the mainstream , the real and the fake with remarkable aplomb . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly complimented Diamandis for her ability to " rival Katy Perry for catchy hooks , command with the swagger of Gwen Stefani , and even come close to the ethereal vocal exhilaration of Florence Welch . " Stack opined that Electra Heart was a healthy combination of up @-@ tempo recordings and genuinely @-@ delivered ballads , and placed additional praise on the female archetypes explored throughout the album .
The Guardian writer Alexis Petridis was confident that " there 's clearly an interesting pop star " emerging from Diamandis , but suggested that her creativity was restricted by the heavy integration of alter egos and an implied determination for commercial success , which he commented failed to reflect Diamandis ' inventiveness . Simon Price from The Independent accepted that the record was " too professional to be truly terrible " , although noted that Diamandis ' revamped public image as a " British Katy Perry " lacked ingenuity . NME columnist Priya Elan summarised the album as an " expensive @-@ sounding failure " that suffered from its lack of decisiveness . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Laura Snapes questioned the decision of creating the " Electra Heart " character for the record , and suggested that it was unnecessary . She elaborated that " duller and more unbearable " tracks were unavoidable , and expressed particular disappointment because she thought that Electra Heart could have become " one of the year 's most acclaimed pop albums . " Representing The Observer , Kitty Empire assumed that Diamandis ' collaborations with Dr. Luke and Greg Kurstin were evidence of " a big label push " . She compared the disc to the works of Perry and Britney Spears , although felt that Lana Del Rey was more successful in embodying the themes of " love , identity , femininity and America " than Diamandis ' generic production values allowed . Emily Mackay from The Quietus criticised the songs ' titles for being lacklustre , which she sarcastically stated caused listeners " physical pain " , and was disappointed that the character " Electra Heart " was a scapegoat for expressing " all the worst parts of Marina Diamandis that she didn 't want to become . " The harshest review came from the magazine Clash , with George Boorman writing , " ' Electra heart ' is an ingloriously languid statement of Marina 's demise , the final stamp of disapproval on her flailing excuse of a musical career . There is actually a song called ' Bubblegum Bitch ' on this album . ' nuff said . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Electra Heart debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 copies . It became Diamandis ' first chart @-@ topping album in the United Kingdom , although it was additionally distinguished as the lowest @-@ selling number @-@ one record of the 21st century in the country . It was later surpassed by Write It on Your Skin ( 2012 ) by Newton Faulkner , which debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 16 @,@ 647 copies . On 15 April 2016 , Electra Heart was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for exceeding shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . The record additionally reached number one on both the Irish Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart ; it was recognised with a gold certification in the former territory .
Electra Heart performed moderately on additional record charts in Europe . The record peaked at number 11 on the Swiss Hitparade , and reached number 17 on the German Media Control Charts . It charted at number 25 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , number 30 on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista , and number 41 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan . The album reached the lower ends of the Dutch MegaCharts and the Belgian Ultratop in Wallonia , respectively peaking at numbers 92 and 132 in each region . However , it reached number 31 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart and number 32 on the Australian ARIA Charts in Oceania .
Electra Heart debuted at number 31 on the US Billboard 200 , and reached number two on the Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums component chart . It has sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of March 2015 . Elsewhere in North America , the record peaked at number 50 on the Canadian Albums Chart . In August 2012 , Diamandis commented that she believed consumers in the United Kingdom had misinterpreted her comical effort with a perceived abandonment of her original musical inspiration , thus resulting in a relative underperformance in the country . In contrast , she felt that her American audience was more receptive of Electra Heart and her evolving public image .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Electra Heart .
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer
^ [ b ] signifies a remixer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Electra Heart .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Myxobolus cerebralis =
Myxobolus cerebralis is a myxosporean parasite of salmonids ( salmon , trout , and their allies ) that causes whirling disease in farmed salmon and trout and also in wild fish populations . It was first described in rainbow trout in Germany a century ago , but its range has spread and it has appeared in most of Europe ( including Russia ) , the United States , South Africa and other countries . In the 1980s , M. cerebralis was found to require a tubificid oligochaete ( a kind of segmented worm ) to complete its life cycle . The parasite infects its hosts with its cells after piercing them with polar filaments ejected from nematocyst @-@ like capsules .
Whirling disease afflicts juvenile fish ( fingerlings and fry ) and causes skeletal deformation and neurological damage . Fish " whirl " forward in an awkward , corkscrew @-@ like pattern instead of swimming normally , find feeding difficult , and are more vulnerable to predators . The mortality rate is high for fingerlings , up to 90 % of infected populations , and those that do survive are deformed by the parasites residing in their cartilage and bone . They act as a reservoir for the parasite , which is released into water following the fish 's death . M. cerebralis is one of the most economically important myxozoans in fish , as well as one of the most pathogenic . It was the first myxosporean whose pathology and symptoms were described scienti
t | first = M. A. | last2 = Granath | first2 = W. O. Jr . | year = 2003 | title = Whirling disease and salmonid fish : life cycle , biology , and disease | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 89 | issue = 4 | pages = 658 – 667 | doi = 10 @.@ 1645 / ge @-@ 82r | jstor = 3285855 } } < / ref > The parasite is not transmissible to humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
The taxonomy and naming of both M. cerebralis , and of myxozoans in general , have complicated histories . It was originally thought to infect fish brains ( hence the specific epithet cerebralis ) and nervous systems , though it soon was found to primarily infect cartilage and skeletal tissue . Attempts to change the name to Myxobolus chondrophagus , which would more accurately describe the organism , failed because of nomenclature rules . Later , the organisms previously called Triactinomyxon dubium and T. gyrosalmo ( class Actinosporea ) were found to be , in fact , triactinomyxon stages of M. cerebralis , the life cycle of which was expanded to include the triactinomyxon stage . Similarly , other actinosporeans were folded into the life cycles of various myxosporeans .
Today , the myxozoans , previously thought to be multicellular protozoans , are considered animals by many scientists , though their status has not officially changed . Recent molecular studies suggest they are related to Bilateria or Cnidaria , with Cnidaria being closer morphologically because both groups have extrusive filaments , . Bilateria are somewhat closer in some genetic studies . A study in 2015 confirms they are cnidarians .
= = Morphology = =
M. cerebralis has many diverse stages ranging from single cells to relatively large spores , not all of which have been studied in detail .
= = = Triactinomyxon stage = = =
The stages that infect fish , called triactinomyxon spores , are made of a single style that is about 150 micrometers ( µm ) long and three processes or " tails " , each about 200 micrometers long . A sporoplasm packet at the end of the style contains 64 germ cells surrounded by a cellular envelope . There are also three polar capsules , each of which contains a coiled polar filament between 170 and 180 µm long . Polar filaments in both this stage and in the myxospore stage ( see picture above ) rapidly shoot into the body of the host , creating an opening through which the sporoplasm can enter .
= = = Sporoplasm stage = = =
Upon contact with fish hosts and firing of the polar capsules , the sporoplasm contained within the central style of the triactinomyxon migrates into the epithelium or gut lining . Firstly , this sporoplasm undergoes mitosis to produce more amoeboid cells , which migrate into deeper tissue layers , to reach the cerebral cartilage .
= = = Myxosporean stage = = =
Myxospores , which develop from sporogonic cell stages inside fish hosts , are lenticular . They have a diameter of about 10 micrometers and are made of six cells . Two of these cells form polar capsules , two merge to form a binucleate sporoplasm , and two form protective valves . Myxospores are infective to oligochaetes , and are found among the remains of digested fish cartilage . They are often difficult to distinguish from related species because of morphological similarities across genera . Though M. cerebralis is the only myxosporean ever found in salmonid cartilage , other visually similar species may be present in the skin , nervous system , or muscle .
= = Life cycle = =
Myxobolus cerebralis has a two @-@ host life cycle involving a salmonid fish and a tubificid oligochaete . So far , the only worm known to be susceptible to M. cerebralis infection is Tubifex tubifex , though what scientists currently call T. tubifex may in fact be more than one species . First , myxospores are ingested by tubificid worms . In the gut lumen of the worm , the spores extrude their polar capsules and attach to the gut epithelium by polar filaments . The shell valves then open along the suture line and the binucleate germ cell penetrates between the intestinal epithelial cells of the worm . This cell multiplies , producing many amoeboid cells by an asexual cell fission process called merogony . As a result of the multiplication process , the intercellular space of the epithelial cells in more than 10 neighbouring worm segments may become infected .
Around 60 – 90 days postinfection , sexual cell stages of the parasite undergo sporogenesis , and develop into pansporocysts , each of which contains eight triactinomyxon @-@ stage spores . These spores are released from the oligochaete anus into the water . Alternatively , a fish can become infected by eating an infected oligochaete . Infected tubificids can release triactinomyxons for at least a year . The triactinomyxon spores are carried by the water currents , where they can infect a salmonid through the skin . Penetration of the fish by these spores takes only a few seconds . Within five minutes , a sac of germ cells called a sporoplasm has entered the fish epidermis , and within a few hours , the sporoplasm splits into individual cells that will spread through the fish .
Within the fish , both intracellular and extracellular stages reproduce in its cartilage by asexual endogeny , meaning new cells grow from within old cells . The final stage within the fish is the creation of the myxospore , which is formed by sporogony . They are released into the environment when the fish decomposes or is eaten . Some recent research indicates some fish may expel viable myxospores while still alive .
Myxospores are extremely tough : " it was shown that Myxobolus cerebralis spores can tolerate freezing at − 20 ° C for at least 3 months , aging in mud at 13 ° C for at least 5 months , and passage through the guts of northern pike Esox lucius or mallards Anas platyrhynchos without loss of infectivity " to worms . Triactinomyxons are much shorter @-@ lived , surviving 34 days or less , depending on temperature .
= = Pathology = =
M. cerebralis infections have been reported from a wide range of salmonid species : eight species of " Atlantic " salmonids , Salmo ; four species of " Pacific " salmonids , Oncorhynchus ; four species of char , Salvelinus ; the grayling , Thymallus thymallus ; and the huchen , Hucho hucho . M. cerebralis causes damage to its fish hosts through attachment of triactinomyxon spores and the migrations of various stages through tissues and along nerves , as well as by digesting cartilage . The fish 's tail may darken , but aside from lesions on cartilage , internal organs generally appear healthy . Other symptoms include skeletal deformities and " whirling " behavior ( tail @-@ chasing ) in young fish , which was thought to have been caused by a loss of equilibrium , but is actually caused by damage to the spinal cord and lower brain stem . Experiments have shown that fish can kill Myxobolus in their skin ( possibly using antibodies ) , but that the fish do not attack the parasites once they have migrated to the central nervous system . This response varies from species to species .
In T. tubifex , the release of triactinomyxon spores from the intestinal wall damages the worm 's mucosa ; this may happen thousands of times in a single worm , and is believed to impair nutrient absorption . Also , fish infected with worms have lower body mass and may be discolored . Spores are released from the worm almost exclusively when the temperature is between 10 ° C and 15 ° C , so fish in warmer or cooler waters are less likely to be infected , and infection rates vary seasonally .
= = = Susceptibility = = =
Fish size , age , concentration of triactinomyxon spores , and water temperature all affect infection rates in fish , as does the species of the fish in question . The disease has the most impact on fish less than five months old because their skeletons have not ossified . This makes young fish more susceptible to deformities and provides M. cerebralis more cartilage on which to feed . In one study of seven species of many strains , brook trout and rainbow trout ( except one strain ) were far more heavily affected by M. cerebralis after two hours of exposure than other species were , while bull trout , Chinook salmon , brown trout , and Arctic grayling were least severely affected . While brown trout may harbor the parasite , they typically do not show any symptoms , and this species may have been M. cerebralis ' original host . This lack of symptoms in brown trout meant that the parasite was not discovered until after nonnative rainbow trout were introduced in Europe .
= = = Diagnosis = = =
Moderate or heavy clinical infection of fish with whirling disease can be presumptively diagnosed on the basis of changes in behavior and appearance about 35 to 80 days after initial infection , though " injury or deficiency in dietary tryptophan and ascorbic acid can evoke similar signs " , so conclusive diagnosis may require finding myxospores in the fish 's cartilage . In heavy infections , only examining cartilage microscopically may be needed to find spores . In less severe infections , the most common test involves digestion of the cranial cartilage with the proteases pepsin and trypsin ( pepsin @-@ trypsin digest — PTD ) before looking for spores . The head and other tissues can be further examined using histopathology to confirm whether the location and morphology of the spores matches what is known for M. cerebralis . Serological identification of spores in tissue sections using an antibody raised against the spores is also possible . Parasite identity can also be confirmed using the polymerase chain reaction to amplify the 415 base pair 18S rRNA gene from M. cerebralis . Fish should be screened at the life stage most susceptible to the parasites , with particular focus on fish in aquaculture units .
= = Impact = =
Although originally a mild pathogen of Salmo trutta in central Europe and other salmonids in northeast Asia , the spread of the rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) has greatly increased the impact of this parasite . Having no innate immunity to M. cerebralis , rainbow trout are particularly susceptible , and can release so many spores that even more resistant species in the same area , such as S. trutta , can become overloaded with parasites and incur 80 % – 90 % mortalities . Where M. cerebralis has become well @-@ established , it has caused decline or even elimination of whole cohorts of fish .
= = = Impact in Europe = = =
The impact of M. cerebralis in Europe is somewhat lessened because the species is endemic to this region , giving native fish stocks a degree of immunity . Rainbow trout , the most susceptible species to this parasite , are not native to Europe ; successfully reproducing feral populations are rare , so few wild rainbow trout are young enough to be susceptible to infection . On the other hand , they are widely reared for restocking sport @-@ fishing waters and for aquaculture , where this parasite has its greatest impact . Hatching and rearing methods designed to prevent infection of rainbow trout fry have proved successful in Europe . These techniques include hatching eggs in spore @-@ free water and rearing fry to the " ossification " stage in tanks or raceways . These methods give particular attention to the quality of water sources to guard against spore introduction during water exchanges . Fry are moved to earthen ponds only when they are considered to be clinically resistant to the parasite , after skeletal ossification occurs .
= = = Impact in New Zealand = = =
M. cerebralis was first found in New Zealand in 1971 . The parasite has only been found in rivers in the South Island , away from the most important aquaculture sites . Additionally , salmonid species commercially aquacultured in New Zealand have low susceptibility to whirling disease , and the parasite has also not been shown to affect native salmonids . An important indirect effect of the parasites presence is quarantine restriction placed on exports of salmon products to Australia .
= = = Impact in the United States = = =
M. cerebralis was first recorded in North America in 1956 in Pennsylvania , having been introduced via infected trout imported from Europe , and has spread steadily south and westwards . Until the 1990s , whirling disease was considered a manageable problem affecting rainbow trout in hatcheries . However , it has recently become established in natural waters of the Rocky Mountain states ( Colorado , Wyoming , Utah , Montana , Idaho , New Mexico ) , where it is causing heavy mortalities in several sportfishing rivers . Some streams in the western United States have lost 90 % of their trout . In addition , whirling disease threatens recreational fishing , which is important for the tourism industry , a key component of the economies of some U.S. western states . For example , " the Montana Whirling Disease Task Force estimated trout fishing generated US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in recreational expenditures in Montana alone " . Making matters worse , some of the fish species that M. cerebralis infects ( bull trout , cutthroat trout , and steelhead ) are already threatened or endangered , and the parasite could worsen their already precarious situations . For reasons that are poorly understood , but probably have to do with environmental conditions , the impact on infected fish has been greatest in Colorado and Montana , and least in California , Michigan , and New York .
= = Prevention and control = =
Some biologists have attempted to disarm triactinomyxon spores by making them fire prematurely . In the laboratory , only extreme acidity or basicity , moderate to high concentrations of salts , or electric current caused premature filament discharge ; neurochemicals , cnidarian chemosensitizers , and trout mucus were ineffective , as were anesthetized or dead fish . If spores could be disarmed , they would be unable to infect fish , but further research is needed to find an effective treatment .
Some strains of fish are more resistant than others , even within species ; using resistant strains may help reduce the incidence and severity of whirling disease in aquaculture . There is also some circumstantial evidence that fish populations can develop resistance to the disease over time . Additionally , aquaculturists may avoid M. cerebralis infections by not using earthen ponds for raising young fish ; this keeps them away from possibly infected tubificids and makes it easier to eliminate spores and oligochaetes through filtration , chlorination , and ultraviolet bombardment . To minimise tubificid populations , techniques include periodic disinfection of the hatchery or aquaculture ponds , and the rearing of small trout indoors in pathogen @-@ free water . Smooth @-@ faced concrete or plastic @-@ lined raceways that are kept clean and free of contaminated water keep aquaculture facilities free of the disease .
Lastly , some drugs , such as furazolidone , furoxone , benomyl , fumagillin , proguanil and clamoxyquine , have been shown to impede spore development , which reduces infection rates . For example , one study showed that feeding fumagillin to O. mykiss reduced the number of infected fish from between 73 % and 100 % to between 10 % and 20 % . Unfortunately , this treatment is considered unsuitable for wild trout populations , and no drug treatment has ever been shown to be effective in the studies required for United States Food and Drug Administration approval .
Recreational and sports fishers can help to prevent the spread of the parasite by not transporting fish from one body of water to another , not disposing of fish bones or entrails in any body of water , and ensuring boots and shoes are clean before moving between different bodies of water . Federal , state , provincial , and local regulations on the use of bait should be followed .
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= Mwng =
Mwng ( pronounced [ ˈmʊŋ ] ; English : Mane ) is the fourth studio album by Welsh rock band the Super Furry Animals , and the first by the group to have lyrics written entirely in the Welsh language . Mwng was released on 15 May 2000 on the band 's own record label , Placid Casual , following the demise of their former label Creation . The album includes the single " Ysbeidiau Heulog " , and reached number 11 on the UK Albums Chart following its release — the first Welsh @-@ language album to reach the top 20 . This success led to Mwng being mentioned in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom by Elfyn Llwyd , who described the record as a celebration of a " new wave of confidence in the Welsh nation " .
The Super Furry Animals had attempted to make a hit record with a commercial sound with their previous release , 1999 's Guerrilla . The record 's singles failed to hit the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart , so the band decided to go on " pop strike " . The group had written several Welsh @-@ language songs during sessions for Guerrilla , and opted to release them as a coherent album rather than issue " token Welsh songs " as b @-@ sides — reasoning that , if their English pop songs were not going to be played on the radio they may as well release Welsh pop songs that would not get played on the radio . Singer Gruff Rhys stated that , although the decision to release a Welsh language album was not an explicitly political statement , he does feel the record is a " stand against globalisation " . Recording largely took place at Ofn Studios , Llanfaelog , Anglesey in 1999 , with the band sharing production duties with Gorwel Owen . The " lo @-@ fi " album cost just £ 6 @,@ 000 to make , in contrast with the " excessive expense " of Guerrilla , and was recorded almost entirely live .
Mwng is an understated rock record inspired by the band 's love of " Anglo @-@ American pop culture of the 60s , 70s and 80s . " The album has a " wintery persona " that is best summed up by the track " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " . Rhys feels that the record marks the first time the band managed to escape their influences and clearly establish their own sound . The album 's lyrics deal with a diverse set of subjects , such as the death of rural communities , old school teachers , and Sarn Helen ( a Roman road built in Wales ) . Rhys has stated that many of Mwng 's songs are highly personal reflections on what were difficult years for him . Rhys has also expressed the belief that the album is accessible to non @-@ Welsh speakers , as they can pick up on the mood of the songs even if they cannot understand the lyrics . Critical reception was generally positive , although some reviewers criticised the album for its " bare @-@ boned production " . Mwng was included in both the Melody Maker and NME " Best album of 2000 " lists , with the latter calling the record the band 's best release .
= = Origins and recording = =
The Super Furry Animals made a conscious decision to make a commercial @-@ sounding " pop jukebox " record with 1999 's Guerrilla . The band had written the album 's intended singles with the hope that they would become " radio hits " , and were disappointed with the limited success they received : the first single , " Northern Lites " , charted just outside the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart at number 11 , while subsequent releases " Fire in My Heart " and " Do or Die " reached numbers 25 and 20 , respectively . The band blamed their record label , Creation , for the relative failure of the singles — particularly " Northern Lites " , which they felt " could have been bigger " if the label had produced a better music video and conducted a more successful marketing campaign . As a result , the group became tired of playing " chart games " and went on " pop strike " , deciding to release music just " for the joy of it " , with no agenda .
The Super Furry Animals had written several Welsh language songs while they were working on Guerrilla and decided that , rather than releasing " token Welsh songs " as b @-@ sides and album tracks , they would issue them together as a coherent record . These tracks would be augmented by " Dacw Hi " , a song written by Rhys in 1987 that he had never " had a chance to do before " , and a cover of the track " Y Teimlad " , which the group wanted to record because of their admiration for Welsh language band Datblygu ( who originally wrote and recorded the song in 1984 ) . According to Rhys , the Super Furry Animals reasoned that , if their English language pop songs were not getting played on the radio , they may as well make a Welsh language album featuring songs that would not be played on the radio . Rhys has said that , although the decision to release a Welsh language album was not " an explicitly political statement " , he does see Mwng as a " stand against globalisation " , railing against " advanced capitalism " and the lack of interest shown in minority cultures by large companies who " just want to make money " . Rhys has also stated that his boredom with writing songs in English inspired him to write Mwng , and that it is a very personal album , rather than a celebration of Welsh culture .
The " lo @-@ fi " Mwng was recorded over two weeks in late 1999 , and — in contrast with the " excessive expense " of Guerilla — cost just £ 6 @,@ 000 to make . The band chose Gorwel Owen as co @-@ producer , having previously worked with him on their first two albums , 1996 's Fuzzy Logic and 1997 's Radiator . The majority of Mwng was recorded with Owen at Ofn Studios in Llanfaelog , Wales . According to Rhys , the band had to play in separate rooms to avoid the sound of one instrument bleeding onto the track of another during recording due to Ofn 's small size . " Y Gwyneb Iau " and " Ysbeidiau Heulog " were recorded at Famous Studios in Cardiff , and were engineered by Greg Haver , while " Y Teimlad " was recorded at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , and was engineered by Michael Brennan , Jr . " Sarn Helen " was recorded and engineered by keyboardist Cian Ciaran in his living room . Overdubs for all songs were added at Ofn with Owen , who also mixed the album at the studio along with the Super Furry Animals . Songs were recorded almost entirely live , with the band wanting to make a " really immediate record " as a reaction against the drawn out recording sessions for Guerilla and 1997 's Radiator , which had taken several months and proved frustrating for the group . The version of " Nythod Cacwn " that appears on the album is the original demo , with Rhys on drums . The band felt that , although the demo did not sound very professional , there was a warmth to it that would be impossible to recreate were the group to record the song again . The album 's title translates into English as " Mane " . According to Rhys , the band did not have the mane of a particular animal in mind , but felt it could be " an extension of a Super Furry Animal " .
= = Musical style = =
Mwng is a " lo @-@ fi " , raw , and understated record of rock songs , " stripped of the bleeps and squelches " that appear on the Super Furry Animals ' other releases . Although the album 's lyrics are in Welsh , singer Rhys has said that " musically there 's nothing Welsh about it at all " , going on to state that the record 's only real Welsh influences are Datblygu ( the writers of " Y Teimlad " ) and Meic Stevens . Instead , the record is a tribute to the band 's obsession with " Anglo @-@ American pop culture of the 60s , 70s and 80s " , and is an album that " can be understood on a musical level anywhere in the Westernised world " regardless of whether or not the listener can understand the lyrics .
Bassist Guto Pryce said that he feels Mwng " sounds like an album " rather than a collection of individual songs , due to the fact it was recorded live and over a short period of time . According to Rhys , Mwng marks a refining of the group 's sound , with the band having " sieved off " their influences to truly sound like the Super Furry Animals for the first time . Rhys has said that , although keyboardist Cian Ciaran did not explore " digital frontiers " on the album , he was still able to " deconstruct songs " , even when playing the harmonium . The band had previously thought of the saxophone as " the instrument of Satan " , but actually used one on this record for the first time , reasoning that it was appropriate as Mwng is a " darkish album " . Rhys described the album as the band 's " monochrome " record , stating that it is " less dressed up " than their other releases , and that it is a " good introduction to [ the group 's ] songwriting . "
Rhys said that " if there 's a song that sums up the album in terms of mood " , perhaps it is " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " , typifying its " wintery persona " . The track has been described by Rhys as a celebration of the band 's love of The Beach Boys , Love , and Ennio Morricone , featuring layered vocal harmonies . " Pan Ddaw 'r Wawr " features a " wheezing harmonium " and " perishing trumpet swirl " , and has been compared to the music of XTC , Ennio Morricone , and " psychedelic @-@ era " Rolling Stones . According to Rhys , the music of " Sarn Helen " was written to provide the soundtrack to a fictional journey , " cruising down the A5 to Rome in a two @-@ door chariot " . The song has been called " evil personified " and dark , and has been likened to the sound of " an approaching Roman army " . The " folky " , eerily melancholic " Nythod Cacwn " has been compared to the Tori Amos single " Cornflake Girl " . " Y Gwyneb Iau " has been described as a " brass @-@ soaked " cross between the music of Herb Alpert and The Doors , featuring " maudlin horns and military beats " , while Rhys has said that the song is a combination of Nick Drake , Gladys Knight , and The Velvet Underground 's third album . " Ysbeidiau Heulog " and the album 's opening track , " Drygioni " , have been singled out as the only songs on Mwng that are " distinctly cheery " . Both display glam rock influences and have been compared to Roxy Music , with Rhys describing " Ysbeidiau Heulog " as " old time pop music " with vocal harmonies that are a tribute to late 1960s groups such as the West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band and Os Mutantes .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Lyrically , the album deals with subjects as diverse as " isolated communities , old school teachers and Roman roads " , but maintains a " warped coherency " . According to Rhys , Mwng 's lyrics — which he considers to be some of his best — were written " very simply " and convey simple messages . The singer made an effort to be economical with his words , not communicating a lot of information with them . Rhys feels that the album is accessible to non @-@ Welsh speakers , citing his own experience of listening to Nirvana : " If I listen to a Nirvana record I don 't understand most of their lyrics cos he 's just screaming away , but I just understand the frustration and the passion in his voice . I think equally people can get off on this record by just hitting on the mood of the song , or connecting to the mood of the song . "
Several of the songs on Mwng feature quite solemn , personal lyrics , which reflect on a difficult few years for Rhys . The single , " Ysbeidiau Heulog " , is about " looking back at a bad time which had the odd good moment " , while " Pan Ddaw 'r Wawr " deals with the death of rural communities . The singer claims to have wept — rather than sung — the album 's last track , " Gwreiddiau Dwfn " / " Mawrth Oer Ar y Blaned Neifion " , which features lyrics " so bleak it 's almost comic " about " being rooted to a sad piece of land [ ... ] being doomed to live somewhere and that 's all you have and that 's what you 're stuck with " . Rhys has described Datblygu 's " Y Teimlad " as being about " not knowing what love is or what love means . " " Drygioni " is a song about " sleaze [ ... ] about good versus evil , and a person 's need for both " , and " Y Gwyneb Iau " is a " moody song about war " whose title is a Welsh insult that translates into English as " Liverface " . In contrast , " Nythod Cacwn " is a comedic song , based on an incident involving drummer Dafydd Ieuan being chased by bees after he disturbed a beehive while attempting to build a bonfire on a beach . It features lyrics that were " made up on the spot " by Rhys . " Dacw Hi " is inspired by one of Rhys 's former teachers who claimed she had eyes in the back of her head . " Sarn Helen " is about the decline of the Roman road of the same name that was built between North and South Wales . " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " is partly inspired by the ostracisation the band felt from some areas of the Welsh musical community due to their decision to sing in English on earlier albums . The track 's lyrics feature the old Welsh idiom " y cythraul canu " , which means " the demon in music " and refers to the friction this can create between people .
= = Release and legacy = =
The Super Furry Animals had originally intended to issue Mwng in March 2000 , but the release was delayed due to the demise of the band 's UK record label , Creation . The group have variously stated that Creation originally planned to issue Mwng , but allowed the group to buy the rights from them for around £ 6 @,@ 000 , and that the company " didn 't want to take " the record in the first place . The band decided to put the album out on their own label , Placid Casual , as they were worried that a label that did not understand the group might do something " horrific " , such as putting a Welsh flag on the cover . The " Mwng " logo on the cover is based on the logo for Mixmag
Mwng was eventually released on 15 May 2000 in the United Kingdom on CD , cassette , and vinyl , and reached number 11 in the UK Albums Chart . In the United States , Mwng was released on 20 June 2000 by Flydaddy , with a bonus CD entitled Mwng Bach ( pronounced [ ˈmʊŋ ˈbɑːχ ] ; English : Little Mane ) featuring five Welsh language tracks : " Sali Mali " , from the 1995 EP Moog Droog , and four songs which had originally been released in the UK as B @-@ sides . This two @-@ disc version of Mwng was reissued in the US in 2005 by XL Recordings / Beggars Banquet US . " Ysbeidiau Heulog " was released as the only single from the album , and failed to chart inside the UK Singles Top 75 . Although the Super Furry Animals had " no commercial expectations " for the album , Mwng became the first Welsh @-@ language record to reach the Top 20 of the UK album charts , and has frequently been called the biggest @-@ selling Welsh language album of all time . As a result of the record 's success , Mwng was mentioned in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom by Plaid Cymru 's Elfyn Llwyd , who called on his fellow politicians to congratulate the band on their " chart topping new album " and recognise Mwng as a celebration of a " new wave of confidence in the Welsh nation " . Rhys dismissed Llwyd 's statement , saying that the record is very personal and has " bugger all to do with a celebration " .
In 2015 , fifteen years since its release , Domino Records bought the rights to re @-@ issue Mwng , as the album 's original pressing had long since discontinued . Like the American release , the CD edition also came with the bonus Mwng Bach disc , which has been expanded to include live recordings and radio sessions .
= = Critical reception = =
Mwng received generally positive reviews from critics , with a score of 84 on Metacritic denoting " universal acclaim " . Allmusic called the album " terrific " , and stated that the band 's decision to release an all @-@ Welsh record was courageous and proof that they are " the great eccentric band of [ their ] time " . Drowned in Sound called the album " a poignant , dark , curling , bundle of songs " , but expressed sadness that the band 's usual " skewed play on words " are missed by all but Welsh speakers . In contrast , Rolling Stone said that the album 's " tight arrangements of melodic bliss " manage to cross the " Welsh @-@ language barrier . " Yahoo ! Music stated that Mwng cemented the Super Furry Animals ' position as " figureheads of futuristic rock . " The review went on to state that Mwng is " a theoretically disorientating and complex , but triumphantly audacious , experience " , and said that initial reservations about not being able to understand the lyrics were lost when it became clear that Rhys was always " unintelligible [ ... ] on record anyway " .
Matt LeMay , reviewing Mwng on its initial release for Pitchfork , described the album as being not as " fully realised or inventive " as 1999 's Guerrilla and said that , although the record highlights Rhys 's talents for songwriting , the lack of any " electronic wizardry " from keyboard player Ciaran is disappointing . LeMay went on to state , however , that Mwng is " still [ ... ] a damned enjoyable listen " , and said that the record " couples cultural pride with unforgettable melodies in a way few bands have ever attempted " . On the album 's re @-@ release in 2005 , Pitchfork writer Marc Hogan stated that Mwng 's " sinuous pop melodies and organic arrangements " make for an " exciting discovery " , despite the lack of the band 's " usual studio wizardry " . Q said that , while tracks such as " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " and " Y Gwyneb Iau " are " strangely charming , chiming pop music with a twist " , Mwng is hampered by its " bare @-@ boned production " . Mojo , however , described the album as a " sensuous sonic journey " with an " organic , woody , mystical atmosphere " that compares favourably with the overly @-@ produced sounds of the band 's previous records . The magazine went on to suggest the album 's only flaw is that it " manages to lose its way for a while [ ... ] in the middle " , thanks to the poor sequencing of its tracks .
Nude as the News stated that , although the record is " more reserved " than the band 's previous releases , it " conjures up images of the Welsh winter in which the songs were recorded " and fits in with the group 's " unique vision . " Melody Maker described the album as a " sad , beautiful record " , but expressed concern that the Super Furry Animals had moved away from the pop of Guerilla and called on them to deliver another release in the vein of the band 's 1996 single " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " . Nevertheless , Mwng was ranked number 24 in the magazine 's " Albums of the year 2000 " feature . Website SonicNet described the record as a slightly retro album that sees the Super Furry Animals " refashion the past into the present " . Art Sperl , writing for Rock 's Backpages in December 2000 , stated that although the album " [ gathers ] from the past " , the band 's influences are channelled " into a truly organic maverick pop " . NME described Mwng as an antidote to the " preservative pumped @-@ junk " music that they felt was prevalent at the time of the album 's release , and placed it at number nine in their album of the year list for 2000 , calling it the group 's best record . The magazine also described the album as the most accessible Super Furry Animals release , despite its Welsh @-@ language lyrics . Rhys has stated that he considers Mwng to be a " really pure record " .
Accolades
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Album chart position = =
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= Mersea Fort =
Mersea Fort , also known as Cudmore Grove Blockhouse , was an artillery fort established by Henry VIII on the East Mersea coast in 1543 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the River Colne that led to the town of Colchester . It was triangular in shape , with earthwork walls and three bastions to hold artillery . It was demobilised in 1552 , but was brought back into use several times over the next century and saw service during the Second English Civil War of 1648 . The fort hosted an admiralty court to oversea the local oyster trade , until the dilapidation of the site forced the court to move to the Moot Hall in Colchester in the middle of the 18th century . A new gun battery was built at the fort during the Napoleonic Wars , but the fortification then fell into decline and was extensively damaged by the construction of a sea wall along the coast . The remains of the earthworks were excavated by archaeologists between 2002 and 2003 .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Mersea Fort was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences based around simple blockhouses and towers existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III over the annulment of his long @-@ standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , who took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The county of Essex was not a priority for new investment , but the town of Harwich was reinforced in 1539 and further new fortifications , including Mersea Fort , were built along the coast in 1543 , under the direction of Richard Lee and Richard Cawarden , at an estimated total cost of £ 2 @,@ 717 . The fort was positioned on salt marshland on the south side of the River Colne , and would have protected the entrance to the estuary , working together with the new blockhouses built at St Osyth and Brightlingsea . Mersea was triangular , with earthwork walls between approximately 300 feet ( 91 m ) long , further protected by " maunds " , round baskets filled with earth , and a defensive ditch with a drawbridge . On each of the three corners was a circular bastion housing up to four guns . Buildings in the courtyard would have housed the garrison , which comprised a captain , a lieutenant , two soldiers , a porter and between three and six artillery gunners . There was a nearby jetty , probably for use by the fort .
In 1552 the fort was decommissioned , but was subsequently recommissioned by Mary I. In addition to the fort 's military role , it hosted a court to oversee the oysterfields along the East Mersea coast , which were particularly lucrative but at risk of overfishing . In 1566 , Colchester introduced new rules to govern the oyster trade , which were enforced by an admiralty court , held when necessary in Mersea Fort ; the location was chosen so as to demonstrate the town 's authority all the way up to the top of the estuary . A survey in 1586 showed the fort had been abandoned by the military once again : the defences were in a poor state , the guns ' barrels were clogged with dirt and the site had been occupied by an elderly woman . It was brought back into use in 1588 and 1631 to defend against first the Spanish Armada and then the Dunkirker privateers .
= = = = English Civil War and Interregnum = = = =
During the First English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , Mersea Fort saw no action ; after the victory of Parliament in 1646 , the fort 's garrison was demobilised . Conflict flared again in 1648 with the outbreak of the Second English Civil War , and Colchester was taken by the Royalists . The town was immediately besieged by General Thomas Fairfax , who quickly seized Mersea Fort , which controlled the supply route by river into Colchester , before the Royalists could do so . The fort had contained five pieces of artillery : two culverins , two sakers and one drake . A Royalist raiding party of 300 soldiers was sent to recapture the fort , but without success .
Mersea Fort was placed under the command of Captain William Burrell . Guns and ammunition were kept there in case of a fresh rebellion , with a garrison of 36 men , which was temporarily reinforced by an additional squadron of horsemen and 50 foot soldiers in July 1650 . Repairs were made from 1651 onwards , and new accommodation was constructed for the fort 's gunners . After an invasion scare in 1655 , Mersea was temporarily used to imprison Royalists suspected of planning an insurgency against Oliver Cromwell 's Commonwealth government . The fort was then demobilised by Cromwell as part of his efforts to reduce defence costs ; Burrell was ordered to dismantle the fort but the order was never carried out , partially because of the practical difficulties and because of opposition from the owner of the land . The admiralty court continued to be held in the fort , although it proved much harder to enforce the fishery rules because of the political turmoil .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
By the 18th century , Mersea Fort was in ruins . The fishery rules were reinforced by fresh legislation in 1758 , which created a court of conservancy to oversea the oyster stocks . Officially , this court was supposed to sit at the fort , but rather than using the now dilapidated earthworks , it began to meet in Colchester 's Moot Hall . Instead , a ceremony began to take place each year at the Mersea Stone , near to the fort , involving local dignitaries and extensive eating and drinking . The fort was recommissioned during the Napoleonic Wars at the start of the 19th century , and a new gun battery was constructed overlooking the sea , equipped with six 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) guns . After this the fort was abandoned once again . A sea wall was built along the coast early in the century , cutting through the south @-@ east side of the fort . The legislation on oysters was reformed by Parliament in 1870 , which disbanded the previous court structure and severed the historic link with Mersea Fort . A defensive pill @-@ box was constructed at the castle during the Second World War .
In the 21st century , the remains of the site are protected under UK law as a scheduled monument . The site was surveyed in 1982 and excavations were carried out between 2002 and 2003 , analysing surviving timber structures that had been exposed by coastal erosion .
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= Robert of Melun =
Robert of Melun ( c . 1100 – 27 February 1167 ) was an English scholastic Christian theologian who taught in France , and later became Bishop of Hereford in England . He studied under Peter Abelard in Paris before teaching there and at Melun , which gave him his surname . His students included John of Salisbury , Roger of Worcester , William of Tyre , and possibly Thomas Becket . Robert was involved in the Council of Reims in 1148 , which condemned the teachings of Gilbert de la Porrée . Three of his theological works survive , and show him to have been strictly orthodox .
Robert returned to England in 1160 , and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163 . King Henry II of England appointed him to the see , or bishopric , and was influenced by in his decision by Pope Alexander II and Thomas Becket . Following his consecration , Robert became involved in the dispute between Becket and the king , during which he generally took the king 's side . He also served as a papal and a royal judge .
= = Early life = =
Robert was born in England , probably in about 1100 . Nothing else is known of his background . He owed his name to the place where he taught , Melun in France . Robert studied under Peter Abelard and Hugh of St. Victor at the University of Paris , where in 1137 he succeeded Abelard as a teacher in the school on Mont Ste @-@ Geneviève . John of Salisbury and William of Tyre were among his pupils in Paris . King Henry II of England 's cousin , Roger of Worcester , later the Bishop of Worcester , was another of Robert 's students . He probably also taught Thomas Becket , later Archbishop of Canterbury , although this is not certain .
Robert went to Melun in 1142 to direct a school , but returned to Paris in 1147 . He took part in the condemnation of Gilbert de la Porrée at the Council of Rheims in 1148 , working with Peter Lombard to secure Porrée 's recantation . A small consistory court was held after the ending of the council 's deliberations , and was attended by Bernard of Clairvaux and Suger of St Denis , along with Robert and Peter . This court forced Porrée to repudiate his views on the Trinity . A fellow scholar , Herbert of Bosham , described Robert as a great teacher , who " sent forth from himself , like rays of his light , a great and learned host of students " .
= = Appointment to Hereford = =
After teaching as a master of arts in Paris for over forty years , Robert was recalled to England by King Henry II in 1160 , and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163 . He was consecrated at Canterbury on 22 December by Archbishop Thomas Becket . Becket had been prominent among those recommending Robert for the vacancy at Hereford ; one of Becket 's later biographers said that Becket urged the king to find benefices for Englishmen living abroad . There is some evidence that Pope Alexander III had a hand in Robert 's election , as Becket in 1166 reminded Robert and Roger of Worcester that they both owed their episcopates to Alexander .
Little evidence of Robert 's activities survives from his time as bishop , although it is known that he acted as a papal judge @-@ delegate in 1165 . Five dosuments survive from his time at Hereford , as well as confirmations of gifts by previous bishops to Llanthony Priory , which he augmented with another grant of tithes . He also served as a royal judge .
= = Role in the Becket dispute = =
In 1163 , a conflict arose between the king and the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , over the rights of the king in the English church . At a council held at Westminster in October 1163 , the king and Becket contended over the question , with the bishops supporting Becket against the king . Robert was involved in the conflict not only as a bishop @-@ elect , but as an envoy to Becket from the pope , as he accompanied Philip of Aumone , a French abbot , who was sent by Alexander to Becket in after the Council of Westminster to urge Becket not to inflame the situation . Robert went with Philip , probably because it was hoped he would be able to influence Becket .
Robert was present in January 1164 when the king summoned a council of the barons and the bishops to Clarendon , where the king demanded that both groups swear to uphold the royal rights of Henry 's grandfather , King Henry I , without any reservations or conditions . Although Becket at first attempted to resist , he eventually submitted , and then forced the other bishops to swear also . In October 1164 , Becket was accused of denying justice to a royal vassal , tried at a council held at Northampton , and was found guilty although he did not accept the sentence . During the trial , Robert attempted to moderate Becket 's behaviour , by persuading him from having his archiepiscopal cross , a symbol of spiritual authority , carried in front of him when he entered the court , which would have been an insult to the king . Shortly after the trial , Robert interceded with the king to order that no injury be done to Becket , who went into voluntary exile .
Early in Becket 's exile , Robert received a papal censure for not doing more to support Becket . In summer 1165 , Robert accompanied Gilbert Foliot , the Bishop of London , on a papal mission to King Henry , to convey to the king Pope Alexander 's complaints about the king 's behaviour . The king had been preventing his subjects from visiting or appealing to the papacy , and Alexander wished to protest against that , as well as against the king 's treatment of Becket . In 1166 , Becket tried to convince Robert to switch sides , writing to Robert in conciliatory tones . John of Salisbury , a supporter of Becket 's , prevailed upon two French academics to write to Robert , criticising him for hypocrisy .
In October 1166 , Becket ordered Robert and Roger of Worcester to attend him in France , so they could give him guidance on his dispute with the king . When they informed the king of their intended journey he forbade them to leave England . Nevertheless , they attempted to sneak out of the country in February 1167 . They were apprehended on 2 February , and ordered to remain in England not only in the king 's name , but also in Alexander 's .
= = Theology = =
Robert 's theology is expressed in his three surviving works , the Quaestiones de divina pagina , Quaestiones de epistolis Pauli , and the unfinished Sententiae . The dating of the works is problematic , but it appears that the first two works were composed between 1145 and 1157 . The Sententiae was revised twice , probably during the 1150s and the 1160s . His works , especially the Sententiae , cover the entire subject of theology and are strictly orthodox in Christian doctrine .
Robert 's Sententiae , or Summa Theologica , was well known in his time , and has been considered a key connection in theology between Robert 's own teachers ' works and the works of Peter Lombard . Robert is the first commentator on St Paul to say that resistance to a tyrant might be vindicated by the Bible . Robert also opined that a king might be excommunicated if royal actions harmed the church . Robert used Gratian 's works as sources for his own , citing the Decretum Gratiani . Although he used this work , which dealt with church law , he does not appear to have been considered a lawyer , and his training was that of a theologian . Furthermore , his years as a student predated the establishment of canon law as a distinct discipline in the European schools . Robert 's views of the glossators , and their main work Glossa Ordinaria was that they had shortened their glosses to such a point that they made them unintelligible . Robert was also known as a logician , and John of Salisbury named him one of the leading disputatores , or a person who used rhetoric and logic to debate in public .
Although Robert condemned Gilbert Porrée in conjunction with Peter Lombard , he did not agree with Lombard 's Christology , or views on the nature of Jesus Christ . Likewise , although he disagreed with some of Abelard 's teachings , he defended Abelard against charges of heresy . Robert did , however , agree with some of Abelard 's teachings and methods . The introduction to the Sententiae proclaims Robert 's desire to harmonise the writings of two unnamed scholars , who have been identified by modern writers as Hugh of St Victor and Abelard .
= = Death and legacy = =
Robert died on 27 February 1167 . William fitzStephen , one of Becket 's supporters , wrote that Robert died of grief because he was unable to visit Becket in exile . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral . Robert enjoyed a good reputation on the continent , for his knowledge and teaching ability , as well as for his personal qualities . Before his appointment to Hereford , John of Salisbury had praised him , but Robert 's conduct during the Becket controversy soured John 's attitude towards his old teacher .
Robert 's works have been published in four volumes , edited by R. M. Martin . His episcopal documents are in Hereford 1079 – 1234 : English Episcopal Acta Number 7 , published in 1993 .
= = = Translations = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
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= Battle of Neuburg ( 1800 ) =
The Battle of Neuburg occurred on 27 June 1800 in the south German state of Bavaria , on the southern bank of the Danube river . Neuburg is located on the Danube between Ingolstadt and Donauwörth . This battle occurred late in the War of the Second Coalition ( 1798 – 1802 ) , the second war between Revolutionary France and the conservative European monarchies , which included at one time or another Britain , Habsburg Austria , Russia ( until late 1799 ) , the Ottoman Empire ( Turkey ) , Portugal and Naples . After a series of reverses , several of the allies withdrew from the Coalition . By 1800 , Napoleon 's military victories in northern Italy challenged Habsburg supremacy there . French victories in the upper Danubian territories opened a route along that river to Vienna .
In a series of battles in what is now southern Germany , the French pushed the combined Austrian and Coalition force back , first capturing Stockach , then Messkirch , then Biberach . After his loss at Biberach , the Coalition commander Pál Kray withdrew to the fortress at Ulm , leaving detachments to secure the Danube crossings that lay further to the east , at Höchstädt , Blindheim , Donauwörth , and Neuburg . The battle at Neuburg was the last of the Danube campaign for the summer of 1800 ; the armistice between the Habsburgs and the French was signed a couple of days later and ended in late November , and the French ultimately defeated the Austrians at the battles at Ampfing and Hohenlinden . The heaviest action of the battle occurred in the village of Unterhausen , in the outskirts of Neuburg .
= = Background = =
By early 1799 , the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria . The uprising in Naples raised further alarms , and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany . At the beginning of 1800 , the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine . Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120 @,@ 000 troops . In addition to his Austrian regulars , his force included 12 @,@ 000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria , 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz , and 7 @,@ 000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance ( Bodensee ) to protect the Vorarlberg . Kray posted his main body of 95 @,@ 000 soldiers in the L @-@ shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France . Unwisely , Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach , near the northwestern end of Lake Constance , only a day 's march from French @-@ held Switzerland .
= = = Strategic importance of Danube Valley = = =
The French war goal , to occupy Vienna and force the Habsburgs to accept and comply with peace terms established in 1798 , required a double @-@ pronged invasion through northern Italy , which First Consul Napoleon commanded , and through southern Germany , a campaign that fell to Moreau . To secure access into Bavaria and , eventually , to Vienna , the French needed to control the Danube riverway . This was not a new tactic : The stretch of river between Ulm and Neuburg had been the site of major battles of the Thirty Years ' War and War of the Spanish Succession . Between Ulm and Ingolstadt , the Danube grows significantly in volume , making it a wide and swift waterway . The Iller joins the Danube at Ulm , dumping massive amounts of water into the stream ; at Donauwörth , the Lech enters the Danube . Neuburg , the first significant city on the river after Donauwörth , had been the family seat of the princes of Pfalz @-@ Neuburg ; taking it from a princely family of the Holy Roman Empire would be a blow to the morale and prestige of the Habsburgs , whose role it was to protect the small princely domains . Control of the bridges and passages between Ulm and Donauwörth , Neuburg , then Ingolstadt offered an advantage of both transport and prestige .
= = = Preliminary to battle = = =
After withdrawing from Biberach , Kray waited at Ulm for Moreau 's assault , which did not come . Instead of striking directly at the well @-@ fortified and supplied city , Moreau 's first division , approaching Ulm from the south , suddenly veered to the east and struck at the smaller forces posted between Ulm and Donauwörth . Its commander , Claude Lecourbe , secured posts in Landsberg and Augsburg , and left sufficient rearguard troops to protect himself from Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen , who remained in the Tyrol guarding mountain access to Vienna . Lecourbe then approached Dettingen , Blindheim ( Blenheim ) and Höchstädt . The corps of General Paul Grenier had been posted with its right flank to the Danube and Gunzburg , and their left flank at Kinsdorf . General Richepanse protected both shores of the Iller , covering the road from Ulm south to Memmingen , and secured communication with Switzerland ; there , he withstood considerable skirmishing with the Austrians . Three divisions of reserve remained at the hamlets of Kamlack and Mindel , to support an attack made by General Lecourbe on Ulm , in a case it should succeed , or Grenier 's attack upon Günzburg , in case Lecourbe should not succeed . At the battle at Höchstädt , a full Austrian corps maintained possession until dislodged by repeated attacks of carabiners , cuirassiers and hussars , who took about 2 @,@ 000 of the Austrians and Württembergers as prisoners , along with some cannons and standards . Once Höchstädt and its nearby bridges fell on 19 June , the French controlled the Danube crossings between Ulm and Donauwörth . Kray abandoned Ulm , and withdrew further downstream . The next French target would be Neuburg .
= = Orders of battle = =
= = = French = = =
The exact order of battle of French forces is not clear , but contemporary sources suggest the presence of a portion of General Claude Lecourbe 's Corps of 28 @,@ 368 , including the forces of generals Laval , Molitor , Jardon , and Vandamme . This is also confirmed in an extract of Moreau 's dispatch to the French Minister of War , published in the London Chronicle , 10 June 1800 . " The 6th Chasseurs , 13th Cavalry , 4th Hussars and 11th Chasseurs distinguished themselves in this affair . The rest of the division , and that of [ Lecourbe ] , passed rapidly [ along ] the Danube ... General Grenier was equally well prepared . " In addition , the presence ( and death ) of Théophile Corret de la Tour d 'Auvergne , the First Grenadier of France , suggests that the grenadier company of the 46th Demi @-@ brigade infantry de ligne was at least engaged . In addition , General Espagne 's 37th and 84th Regiments were engaged , as were grenadiers the 109th Regiment . Lecourbe mentions the 37th and the 109th several times in his own account of the battle , so apparently they were heavily engaged : this would include the brigades of François Goullus and François Bontemps .
= = = = Lecourbe 's Division , Armée du Danube = = = =
Lecourbe 's division was reformed in April 1800 while still in Switzerland . After the Battle of Messkirch , both Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr and Sainte @-@ Suzanne had retired to the Rhine , taking many of their forces with them . Consequently , Moreau had assigned had the cavalry commanded by Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul to reinforce Lecourbe 's division . Based on the mentions in the dispatches and Lecourbe 's reconstituted division , portions of the following probably were either present or available :
General of Division Dominique Vandamme , Generals of Brigade Jardon , Laval , Molitor :
First Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
36th 83rd , 94th Demi @-@ Brigades de Ligne
8th Hussar Regiment
Total 9 @,@ 963 infantry , 540 cavalry
Generals of Brigade François Goullus and François Bontemps
10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
37th , 84th 109th Demi @-@ Brigades de Ligne
36th 93rd , 94th Regiments de Ligne
9th Hussars
Total 8 @,@ 238 infantry , 464 cavalry
General of Division Montrichard and General of Brigade Joseph Augustin Fournier
10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
38th , 67th Regiments de Ligne
Total 6 @,@ 998
General of Division Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty
Combined Grenadiers , 25th Cavalry , 11th Dragoons , 12th Chàsseurs
Total 1 @,@ 500 infantry , 1 @,@ 280 cavalry
= = = Austrian = = =
The Austrian force included :
FZM Baron von Kray , Commanding
Infanterie Regiments Wenkheim # 35 , Erbach # 42 ( battalions each )
Kür Regiment Lothringen # 7 , Hohenzollern # 8 , Kinsky # 12 ( 6 squadrons each )
Dragoon Regiment Latour # 11 ( 6 squadrons )
Total Austrian force : 8 @,@ 000 men .
= = Battle = =
On 26 June 1800 , Kray 's force held the remaining passages across the Danube between Neuburg and Inglostadt . On that morning , the divisions of Gudin and Montrichard marched toward the junction of the Danube and Lech rivers from Donauwörth . General Gudin 's division followed a southward track toward Pöttmes and established a line north to Ehekirchen , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) ( roughly along what is now road 2035 ) . Montrichard 's division , the 10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère and the 38th and 67th Regiments de Ligne marched toward Neuburg , which he was instructed to occupy with his right wing connecting to Gudin 's and covered the road between Augsburg and Neuburg . Gudin 's division encountered some resistance before it could take possession of Pöttmes , but succeeded with several charges executed by the 6th and 8th Hussars , who also captured 100 horses from the Austrians . General Puthed , who commanded the brigade on General Gudin 's left , took control of Ehekirchen with little opposition .
General Montrichard 's division approached Neuburg on the causeway that ran parallel to the river and took possession of the outskirts of the city with little problem . Kray 's troops , joined with Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen and emerged from Neuburg to defend the outskirts . Both Austrian forces were unprepared for battle at the moment , which allowed Montrichard 's troops to penetrate within four miles of the city with little opposition . Espagne 's brigade supported the advance guard , and after a brief action took the heights of Oberhausen with the 37th and the 84th Regiments . By early afternoon , the Austrians had recovered the village of Niederhausen , but the village of Unterhausen remained in French hands , defended by 100 marksmen , portions of the 37th Regiment and the 1st company of grenadiers of the 109th regiment .
From this point on , combat centered on the village of Unterhausen , 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Neuburg center . A few French platoons drove the Austrians from the forest located between the village and the Danube with a bayonet charge by the grenadiers of the 109th . As French reserves arrived , the Austrians counterattacked and retook the woods , the heights at Oberhausen , and the village . According to Lecourbe 's account , the Austrians , " embolden by this first success , soon covered all the surrounding heights , on which they planted about twenty @-@ five or thirty pieces of cannon . " At eight o 'clock at night , after twelve hours of battle , companies of the 14th and 46th Regiments ( French ) moved along a small road on the right of the village , and another group proceeded on the left , enveloping the village . The subsequent simultaneous French attack at both flanks and the center convinced the Austrians that , despite the defensive barrages laid by their artillery in Oberhausen , the French had been massively reinforced . The attack on the village , executed without firing a shot , involved fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in which the commander of the 46th Regiment and the First Grenadier of France , Latour D 'Auvergne , were both killed .
Outside the village , the French 46th and 14th Light Infantry mingled in combat with the Austrian cavalry , yet managed to hold their own , presumably in squares . This melee continued until about 2200 , when the Austrians withdrew from Unterhausen . Lecourbe ordered his troops not to pursue , as nightfall was on them .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle had immediate implications . General Ney established his headquarters in the castle at Neuburg , which over looks the battlefield . General Moreau ordered the establishment of a tomb on the location were the First Grenadier had fallen . Emperor Francis II dismissed Pál Kray , who had lost an impressive succession of battles , and appointed his brother , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old general major Archduke John , to command the Austrian army . To compensate for John 's inexperience , the emperor named FZM Franz von Lauer as deputy commander and the zealous Oberst ( Colonel ) Franz von Weyrother became Chief of Staff .
In the broader scheme , the series of battles beginning with the losses at Stockach and Engen and ending at Neuburg broke the Austrian control along the strategic Danube . Similarly , in Italy , French successes at the battles at Montebello and Marengo forced Austrian withdrawal to the east . With France threatening Habsburg Austria from the northwest and southwest , the Austrians agreed to a cease fire . Subsequent peace negotiations were complicated by the alliance Austria had made with Britain , and which prevented her from signing any separate peace . The British entered the negotiations to bolster their weakened ally . Initially Britain , which had successfully blockaded French ports , refused the French terms and offered counter terms in September 1800 . Napoleon later claimed that the Austrians did not negotiate in good faith , and sought only to gain time until " the rainy season " ( winter ) , when army movements would be difficult , and the Habsburgs would have an entire season to recruit .
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= There 's Something About Marrying =
" There 's Something About Marrying " is the tenth episode of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . In the episode , Springfield legalizes same @-@ sex marriage to increase tourism . After becoming a minister , Homer starts to wed people to make money . Meanwhile , Marge 's sister Patty comes out as a lesbian and reveals that she is going to marry a woman named Veronica . Marge originally disapproves of this , making Patty frustrated . When Marge accidentally discovers that Veronica is a man cross @-@ dressed as a woman , she decides to keep quiet about it knowing that Patty will be marrying a man . However , at the ceremony , she is so moved by Patty 's vow that she is forced to reveal Veronica 's secret . After the ceremony is abruptly cancelled , Marge tells Patty that she now accepts her sexuality .
This was the third time that an episode of The Simpsons focused on homosexuality . The episode — written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Nancy Kruse — was inspired by the 2004 same @-@ sex weddings that occurred in San Francisco . According to executive producer Al Jean , the staff wanted the episode to explore what the different characters ' stances on same @-@ sex marriage were . Around the time of the episode 's original airdate , February 20 , 2005 , the same @-@ sex marriage question was a hot political issue in the United States and the episode became controversial . " There 's Something About Marrying " received a lot of criticism from conservative groups , including the Parents Television Council and the American Family Association , that claimed it was promoting gay marriage . Jean stated in response that the staff was not taking a side on the issue and that they were just examining all sides of it . Positive reaction to the episode came from , among others , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation and the gay @-@ oriented website AfterEllen.com.
During the first airing , 10 @.@ 5 million people watched " There 's Something About Marrying " and it became the highest rated episode of the season . The episode had received a lot of publicity in the media before its broadcast — not only because of the same @-@ sex marriage controversy but also because of Patty 's outing . It was revealed in July 2004 , that a character would come out as gay in the episode , leading to much speculation from fans and the press . Bookmaker websites were even posting odds on which character it would be , with Patty receiving the best odds .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse torment a tourist named Howell Huser ( a parody of television personality Huell Howser ) , who is then chased out of town by bullies Dolph , Jimbo , and Kearney . Huser is later revealed to be a media personality , and he appears on a network 's morning television show warning tourists against visiting Springfield and giving it his lowest rating for any American location ( six out of ten ) . The Springfield tourism business collapses and Mayor Quimby holds an emergency meeting at the town hall . After many senseless suggestions , Lisa suggests that Springfield legalize same @-@ sex marriage to entice visitors to their town . All of Springfield happily agrees with Lisa 's idea , even Marge . Only one is against the idea , Reverend Lovejoy , who insists they use his ideas to keep same @-@ sex illegal and is ignored . The town makes a commercial that is broadcast throughout America , in the end of it Mayor Quimby warns viewers not to use a certain exit for God 's sake .
Hundreds of homosexual couples soon arrive to Springfield . However , Reverend Lovejoy insists that the Bible forbids same @-@ sex marriage and refuses to marry any gay couples . After hearing this Mayor Quimby says that Lovejoy is an idiot and while overhearing Quimby 's statement that ministers are paid $ 200 per couple , Homer abandons his opposition to the process and decides to become a minister himself with help from the online " e @-@ Piscopal " Church . He marries every gay couple in town , and then puts up a sign saying " Will marry anyone to anything . " While debating the issue with Lovejoy on the television show Smartline , Homer makes a case for gay marriage and mockingly joins the Bible and Lovejoy in matrimony — adding that Lovejoy is the wife and that he owes Homer $ 200 .
Meanwhile , at the Simpson family 's home , Patty comes out of the closet as a lesbian , saying that she is in love with a pro golfer named Veronica and asking Homer to perform the ceremony . This makes Marge extremely uncomfortable , even though the evidence was always there . While Homer accepts Patty 's sexuality , a furious Marge reveals that she doesn 't want her with Veronica and still insists she marries a man . Patty gets angry and points out that Marge acts very " liberal " about the issue but cannot accept her sister 's sexuality , and says she hopes to see Marge at her wedding . Before the wedding , Marge accidentally discovers Veronica is actually a man , ironically while Veronica is singing Aerosmith 's " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " while shaving , and because Veronica left the toilet seat up after leaving . Happily she decides to keep quiet about it knowing that Patty will be marrying a man . But Marge is so moved by Patty 's heartfelt declaration of love for Veronica during the ceremony that she reveals Veronica 's Adam 's apple . " Veronica " explains that as the straight Leslie Robin Swisher , he posed as a woman to get onto the LPGA golf tour . He then asks Patty if she 'll still marry him , but she declines . Afterwards , Marge reconciles with Patty after telling her that she 's learned a lesson and has accepted the fact that Patty 's a lesbian ; they hug after reconciling . Patty and her other sister , Selma , then go to leave a bag at the airport unattended , as a way to meet security personnel they can date .
= = Production = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " was written by co @-@ executive producer J. Stewart Burns and directed by Nancy Kruse as part of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . Work on the episode started in March 2004 , after the 2004 San Francisco same @-@ sex weddings , a period during February 2004 when the city was issuing marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . This served as the Simpsons staff 's inspiration for " There 's Something About Marrying " . The plot point where Springfield tries to increase tourism by marketing towards the LGBT community also had a basis in reality . An example is Fort Lauderdale , which became a popular tourist destination for gays and lesbians in the mid @-@ 2000s . Executive producer Al Jean said they were interested in doing the episode because they could explore the various characters ' different positions on gay marriage while remaining neutral . " Lisa thinks it 's good for civil rights . The reverend of the local Protestant church is opposed to it . Other people think tourists will come to town . Mayor Quimby wants the money . We don 't take a position as much as explore everybody 's positions , " he commented .
Matt Groening , the creator of The Simpsons , stated that the staff wanted to out Patty as gay because portraying her as a " love @-@ starved spinster [ ... ] seemed old " on the show . There had previously been hints about Patty 's orientation . For example , in the season thirteen episode " Jaws Wired Shut " she is part of the Springfield Gay Pride Parade 's " stayin ' in the closet " float , though only her voice was heard and she was not seen .
= = Themes and analysis = =
The episode 's plotline revolves around homosexuality — the third time for The Simpsons . The first was season eight 's " Homer 's Phobia " , and the second was " Three Gays of the Condo " from season fourteen , both of which won Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program . This time it centered on the right for homosexuals to get married and the coming @-@ out of a character . In the episode , Homer is shown as being tolerant with homosexuality , whereas in " Homer 's Phobia " he is portrayed as being strongly homophobic . In that episode , the Simpson family gets a new friend that Homer dissociates himself from after finding out that he is gay . He also fears that the friend will have a negative influence on Bart and decides to ensure Bart 's heterosexuality by taking him to do manly things such as hunting . As James Delingpole of The Daily Telegraph writes , it was first after " Homer 's Phobia " that Homer began to be portrayed as enlightened about homosexuality . Marge , on the other hand , who had previously been portrayed as supportive of gay people on the show , is seen as disapproving of her sister 's sexual orientation .
According to the publications Zeek : A Jewish Journal of Thought and Culture and Value War : Public Opinion and the Politics of Gay Rights , it was the controversial lesbian outing of the main character ( played by Ellen DeGeneres ) in the sitcom Ellen in 1997 that paved the way for Patty 's coming @-@ out in this episode , as well as for many other gay characters on other television shows . In his book Queers in American Popular Culture , Jim Elledge noted that unlike many episodes of The Simpsons that go through a situation and then everything returns to normal during the ending , this one does not . He commented that the staff of the show could have made Patty heterosexual again at the end of the episode and leave it how it was before by having her marry Leslie . Instead , they ended it in a way that could potentially be experienced as distasteful to the heteronormative audience by having Patty exclaim " Hell no ! I like girls ! " to Leslie 's marriage proposal . The author also noted that it is possible the Simpsons staff chose Patty to come out as gay instead of a male character because lesbians were " traditionally considered more acceptable " on television . She did , however , not " adhere to the eroticized male lesbian fantasy or fit into the loveable , asexual guise of the comedy lesbian " that had previously been seen on shows such as Ellen . Instead , Patty is " rude , crude , and not ashamed of declaring her sexual preferences " , and this could make her unpalatable to some viewers according to Elledge .
Around the episode 's original broadcast in early 2005 , the same @-@ sex marriage question was one of the hottest political issues in America . It had been an especially hot topic during the then @-@ recent presidential election in the United States . Marty Kaplan , a professor at Annenberg School for Communication and radio host on Air America Radio , commented that the episode is telling " those who demonize homosexuality , or what [ these people ] call the homosexual agenda , " anything from " lighten up " to " get out of town " . This was not the first time that an episode of the show had brought up a current issue . Writing in an article about " There 's Something About Marrying " for The New York Times , Sharon Waxman said that " as television 's longest @-@ running situation comedy , The Simpsons is no stranger to hot @-@ button social , religious and political issues , mocking wardrobe malfunctions , Hollywood liberals and born @-@ again Christians , among other targets . "
= = Speculation , publicity and broadcast = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " was originally broadcast on February 20 , 2005 in the United States . It was reported a long time in advance of the episode 's airing that a major character would come out as gay during the episode . At the Comic @-@ Con convention in July 2004 , Al Jean revealed : " We have a show where , to raise money , Springfield legalises gay marriage . Homer becomes a minister by going on the internet and filling out a form . A long @-@ time character comes out of the closet , but I 'm not saying who . " This led to much media speculation and publicity in the press for the episode . The last such " mystery Simpsons storyline " , as BBC News called it , occurred with the " Alone Again , Natura @-@ Diddily " episode in which it was announced prior to the broadcast that a character would be killed in the episode , leading to weeks of speculation before the revelation that it was Maude Flanders .
There was a widespread debate among fans of the series as to who the character coming out of the closet would be , also similar to how they years earlier debated who shot the character Mr. Burns . Matt Groening joked at the Comic @-@ Con convention that " it 's Homer " . Many fans correctly guessed that it would be one of Homer 's sisters @-@ in @-@ law , either Patty or Selma , while others believed it to be Waylon Smithers . It had for a long time been hinted on the show that the Smithers character was gay and in love with his boss Mr. Burns . However , as The Baltimore Sun writes , it would have been unlikely for Smithers to be the outed character because it would not have been a surprise to fans , and his love for his heterosexual boss would prevent him from marrying another person . Patty was suspected by fans and the press because she had not often been seen dating men on the show . The tabloid newspaper The Sun revealed already in September 2004 that the character who would come out was Patty , though this was regarded as a rumor and Jean would not confirm it . Bookmakers in the United States and the United Kingdom took bets on which character would be uncovered as homosexual , and if there would be a kiss featured in the episode — BetUS laid odds at four to five that it was Patty , while Smithers had four to one odds and Ned Flanders fifteen to one odds . A kiss was given odds of seven to five . BetUS said gamblers made more than 900 bets on the coming @-@ out on their website . According to The Baltimore Sun , another betting site named PaddyPower.com " stopped taking wagers because so much money was being placed on [ Patty ] . " Jean told The Advocate that he thought it was " an insane thing for someone to take bets on a result that can be determined by other people " , referring to the Simpsons staff , " and could be changed by them at the last minute . "
The episode was heavily promoted and hyped , with some sources calling it " much anticipated " and " long @-@ awaited " . In addition to the publicity about the coming @-@ out of a character , " There 's Something About Marrying " was discussed a lot in the media before its airing because of its gay marriage theme . The entertainment website MovieWeb predicted in October 2004 that the episode would become controversial when it aired because of the large children audience and " also because it comes at a time when many states are seeking to ban same @-@ sex wedding ceremonies . " According to Knight Ridder , " some conservative groups [ ... ] growled in advance over the episode " , but most pre @-@ broadcast publicity was directed at the outing . Mark Pinsky , on the other hand , wrote in his book The Gospel According to The Simpsons that when the announcement that an episode of the show would focus on gay marriage was made , " it stoked a debate that few issues and few television shows could . " Before its original airing , Pinsky was interviewed about the episode on ABC 's World News Tonight , CNN , BBC Radio , and more , as the author of a book on religion in The Simpsons .
The Fox network , which airs The Simpsons , chose to begin the episode with a Parental Advisory warning stating that it " contains discussions of same @-@ sex marriage " and that " parental discretion is advised . " This was a first for the show , which had not received parental advisories before even when dealing with themes such as drug use , gambling addictions , theft , crime , and violence . A warning similar to the one displayed at the beginning of this episode was used in front of the gay @-@ themed " The Puppy Episode " of the Ellen series . The buzz " There 's Something About Marrying " had received attracted a lot of viewers to its broadcast , and therefore the Fox network chose to air it during the ratings sweeps . The episode was watched by 10 @.@ 5 million people in the United States , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . It was up by two million from the season 's average rating .
= = Reception = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " featured the first appearance of an animated same @-@ sex marriage on network television . Television columnist Ray Richmond wrote that the episode was a cultural milestone for The Simpsons and that the " issue [ of gay marriage ] was mainstream to some degree , but now that [ the staff has ] deigned it worthy of the show it is interwoven into the popular culture . The Simpsons bestowed upon something a pop culture status it never had before , simply by being ripe for a joke . " John Kenneth White , author of the book Barack Obama 's America , similarly called " There 's Something About Marrying " a cultural barrier breaker .
The episode , dealing with " one of the most divisive issues in American society " according to The New York Times , became a subject of controversy after its broadcast . The authors of The Marriage and Family Experience called it " one of the more controversial episodes of a frequently controversial cartoon . " Several conservative groups and American Christian conservatives thought it was promoting same @-@ sex marriage . Parents Television Council president L. Brent Bozell III criticized " There 's Something About Marrying " for bringing up the issue . Even though he had not seen the episode himself , he commented that " at a time when the public mood is overwhelmingly against gay marriage , any show that promotes gay marriage is deliberately bucking the public mood . " A researcher for the American Family Association , named Ed Vitagliano , claimed the presentation of same @-@ sex marriage in the episode was " very one @-@ sided " . He said that this episode proved " Hollywood 's blatant pro @-@ homosexual bias " because despite The Simpsons being " generally kind of a wacky animated program " it was not neutral on the issue . Bozell also worried about the influence the episode would have on children , despite the parental discretion advisory at the beginning , commenting : " You 've got a show watched by millions of children . Do children need to have gay marriage thrust in their faces as an issue ? Why can 't we just entertain them ? " Similarly , Vitagliano said that many children watch the The Simpsons and Hollywood " will pull out all the stops to promote same @-@ sex marriage — and children will be influenced by it . "
Mark Washburn of Knight Ridder wrote that at the time of the episode 's broadcast , most Americans were accustomed to seeing homosexual characters on television . He said this is why Patty 's coming @-@ out did not become as controversial as the episode 's examination of the same @-@ sex marriage issue , which was more sensitive in the country then . The controversy became so big that local news programs in certain cities aired segments about it . In response to the claims that this episode was supporting gay marriage , Al Jean replied that " we don 't really take any positions for or against anything , we just like to examine all sides of an issue and I think that anyone who would get their political wisdom from a cartoon might be sadly mistaken . " Likewise , Mark Pinsky writes in The Gospel According to The Simpsons that once the episode ended , it was hard to tell what stance on same @-@ sex marriage the writers had and that " both sides of the controversy had their say , voiced by various Simpsons characters " . Jean has also cited the episode in defense to critics who say The Simpsons has lost its relevance and edginess in later years . In his book The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , John Ortved responded to this , commenting that despite the controversies the episode was " in fact a long @-@ winded and lame exploration of the topic . "
" There 's Something About Marrying " was met with positive reception as well , particularly from gay rights groups . The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) was welcoming of the episode , calling it " a ray of light " . GLAAD executive director Joan Garry enjoyed seeing Marge 's transformation , from having ambivalent feelings for her sister to then supporting her . He commented that " when Marge learns that Patty 's about to marry someone who isn 't really a lesbian , she comes to realize that what her sister really deserves is to be in love with and married to a person who 's right for her . If millions of Simpsons viewers came away from last night 's episode with that little bit of moral truth , it was time well spent . " AfterEllen.com 's David Kennerley approved of the willingness of a " hit network TV show in prime time , watched by children and adults " to " serve up such a politically charged issue " . Rick Garcia , an activist of the gay rights group Equality Illinois , said to the Chicago Tribune that the episode would likely affect society in a positive way because of the iconic status of the show which " shape [ s ] our attitudes " . Unlike many of the conservative groups , Kennerley noted that " in the show 's tradition of equal @-@ opportunity lampooning , the message is not all pro @-@ gay . Irksome lesbian stereotypes abound , and Nelson the bully suggests they ' legalize gay funerals . ' And naturally , Reverend Lovejoy shutters his church to the same @-@ sex sinners . " According to Simpsons writer Mike Reiss , the episode also had supporters among conservative groups . He told Encore magazine that " gay people came out very much in favor of it and were happy with the episode , but arch conservatives and right @-@ wing Christians loved the episode , too , because they seemed to think we were making fun of gay people . We really had it both ways . "
Kennerley further wrote that " based on this episode , [ ... ] The Simpsons is in top form . It still reigns as the funniest , brashest , fastest @-@ paced half @-@ hour you 'll see on television . " Bill Gibron of PopMatters also thought the episode was funny , commenting that it " explored the often @-@ cited ' slippery slope ' of allowing matrimony to be defined outside the parameters of a man and a woman — with hilarious results . " In regards to the revelation that Patty was gay , The A.V. Club wrote that it " wasn 't particularly earth @-@ shattering " but that Marge 's initial reaction provided a good twist to the episode . J. Stewart Burns received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination in the animation category for his work on " There 's Something About Marrying " , although he lost the award to another Simpsons writer .
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= Grenada at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Grenada competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics , held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . The country was represented by eight track and field athletes and one boxer ; of the eight track and field competitors , five were women , and three were men . Although there were no medalists , runners Allison George and Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas progressed past the qualification rounds , and participated on behalf of Grenada in the quarterfinals of their events . Grenada 's Beijing delegation held the largest number of athletes yet sent from Grenada , encompassing nine athletes , and marked the seventh consecutive appearance of Grenada at the Summer Olympics .
Despite controversy surrounding Chinese activities in Tibet , Grenada continued to support the upholding of the Chinese Olympic Games . As thanks , the People 's Republic of China constructed a new cricket stadium on the island , among other activities .
= = Background = =
Grenada 's debut was at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , where it entered six athletes ( five men and one woman ) across two sports ; since its 1984 Los Angeles Olympics appearance and up to the 2008 Beijing appearance , Grenada sent athletes to seven consecutive Olympic games . Its appearance in Beijing marked its largest appearance yet , with nine Olympic participants ; additionally , more women participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Grenada than any previous year , with five female athletes . This accounts for slightly less than half of all women who have participated in the Olympics between the 2008 Games and the Grenadan debut . Although the majority of athletes competing on Grenada 's behalf participated in track and field ( athletics ) events , Rolande Moses participated as a boxer in the welterweight category . Although Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas and Allison George progressed to the semifinals in their respective events , further than the seven other athletes , no Grenadans medaled during the 2008 Summer Olympics .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Women 's 100 m = = =
Sherry Fletcher was the only Grenadan participant in the 2008 Olympic women 's 100m sprint event . She participated in the second heat of the 15 August qualification match against seven other competitors , including American finalist Lauryn Williams . Fletcher ran her event in 11 @.@ 65 seconds , ranking fifth place . She completed the event 0 @.@ 28 seconds slower than French runner Christine Arron , who ranked first in the heat . Overall , Fletcher ranked 40th out of the 85 athletes who ranked in the qualification round , tying with British runner Laura Turner and Vietnamese runner Thi Huong Vu . Damola Osayomi of Nigeria , who ranked first in the qualification round , was 0 @.@ 52 seconds faster than Fletcher , who did not advance to further rounds .
= = = Women 's 200 m = = =
Allison George competed for Grenada in the women 's 200 meter sprint on behalf of its delegation to the 2008 Beijing Olympics . She was placed in the sixth heat of six during the 18 August qualification round . George completed the event in 23 @.@ 45 seconds , ranking sixth in her heat . Semifinalist Nataliia Pygyda of the Ukraine ranked first in the heat , finishing 0 @.@ 54 seconds ahead of George . Out of the 46 athletes who ranked during the qualification round , Allison George ranked 30th place . She qualified for semifinals .
George was placed in heat four of four during the 19 August semifinals round . She completed the event in 23 @.@ 77 seconds , ranking eighth of eighth in her heat , 1 @.@ 17 seconds behind finalist Sherone Simpson of Jamaica , who lead the heat . Overall , George ranked last of 31 ranking athletes during the semifinal round , tying with Eleni Artymata of Cyprus . George did not advance to finals .
= = = Men 's 400 m = = =
Grenada sent two athletes , Alleyne Francique and Joel Phillip , as part of their delegation to represent it in the Men 's 400m sprint . Francique participated in the fifth heat during the 17 August qualification round , ranking sixth of eight athletes . Francique earned a time of 46 @.@ 15 seconds , which was 1 @.@ 19 seconds slower than American runner Lashawn Merritt , the first @-@ place runner in the heat , who would later earn gold in the event . Overall , Francique ranked 35th of 55 athletes . He did not progress to quarterfinals .
Meanwhile , Joel Phillip was placed in the sixth heat during the 17 August qualification race . Phillip also ranked sixth out of eight athletes in his heat , scoring a time of 46 @.@ 30 seconds , which was 1 @.@ 36 seconds behind heat leader Andrew Steele of the United Kingdom . Overall during the qualification match , Phillip ranked 39th of 55 athletes . He did not progress to quarterfinals .
= = = Women 's 400 m = = =
Trish Bartholomew represented Grenada in the women 's 400 meter run . During the 16 August qualification round , Bartholomew participated in the sixth of seven heats . She completed her event in 52 @.@ 88 seconds , taking fifth place out of eight athletes . Bartholomew was one millisecond behind Kineke Alexander of St. Vincent and the Grenadines , who ranked fourth ; and was 1 @.@ 36 seconds behind Jamaica 's Novelene Williams , who took first in the heat . Bartholomew tied with India 's Mandeep Kaur for 33rd place out of 50 athletes . She did not advance to semifinals .
= = = Men 's triple jump = = =
Randy Lewis was the only athlete who represented Grenada in the men 's triple jump event of track and field during the 2008 Olympics . Lewis was placed in the second heat of two during the 17 August qualification round . During the round , Lewis completed his event with a final distance of 17 @.@ 06 meters , ranking fifth in a heat of 18 competitors . Lewis was 0 @.@ 24 meters short of Chinese triple jumper Li Yanxi , who ranked first in the heat and later ranked tenth in finals . Overall , Lewis ranked 15th out of 37 competitors in the qualification round , and did not proceed to finals .
= = = Women 's 800 m = = =
Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas represented Grenada in the women 's 800 meter event during the Beijing Olympics . Placed in heat four of the 14 August qualification round , Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked fifth place out of six with a time of 2 : 00 @.@ 09 . She was within a second of British runner Marilyn Okoro , Slovakian Lucia Klocova , and Australian Tamsyn Lewis , who respectively ranked second , third , and fourth place in the event . Finalist Maria Mutola of Mozambique , who ranked first in the heat , was 1 @.@ 18 seconds faster than Bernard @-@ Thomas . Overall , Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked 7th out of 40 qualifying runners .
Progressing to the semifinal round , Bernard @-@ Thomas was placed in the third heat of three on 16 August . She completed the run in 2 : 01 @.@ 84 , ranking last in her heat and falling 4 @.@ 56 seconds behind heat leader Janeth Jepkosgei Busienei of Kenya . Overall , Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked 21st out of 23 semifinalist runners , and did not advance to the final round .
= = = Women 's long jump = = =
Patricia Sylvester represented Grenada in the women 's long jump event during the 2008 Summer Olympics . Placed in the first of two heats during the 18 August qualification round , Sylvester jumped a distance of 6 @.@ 44 meters . This placed her at 11th of 19 ranking athletes in her heat . Sylvester 's performance was 0 @.@ 35 meters shorter than Maurren Higa Maggi of Brazil , who ranked first in the heat . Of 38 athletes , Patricia Sylvester tied the time of Viorica Tigau of Romania , ranking 21st . She did not advance to semifinals .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Track & road events
Field events
Women
Track & road events
Field events
= = Boxing = =
Grenada sent one boxer to the Olympic boxing tournament . Rolande Moses had fought nine boxing matches , including one at the 2007 World Championships for boxing in Chicago , since starting before he attempted the Olympic qualification event in Trinidad and Tobago . He lost in the qualifying event , although was selected by the Tripartite Commission to attend the Beijing Olympics to supplement the Grenada Olympic team , which historically had had less than six people and thus qualified for the aid .
Rolande Moses participated in the 10 August preliminaries , and was placed in the second bout versus Toureano Johnson of the Bahamas . As Olympic boxing rounds are scored by the number of successful punches scored , the end score of Moses ' bout was 18 to 3 punches , with Moses scoring only 3 punches . Because Moses lost the bout , he did not progress to the Round of 16 , which took place between 14 and 16 August .
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= Alexei Kosygin =
Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin ( Russian : Алексе ́ й Никола ́ евич Косы ́ гин , tr . Aleksej Nikolajevič Kosygin ; IPA : [ ɐlʲɪˈksʲej nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvʲɪtɕ kɐˈsɨɡʲɪn ] ; 21 February [ O.S. 5 March ] 1904 – 18 December 1980 ) was a Soviet @-@ Russian statesman during the Cold War . Kosygin was born in the city of St. Petersburg in 1904 to a Russian working @-@ class family . He was conscripted into the labour army during the Russian Civil War , and after the Red Army 's demobilisation in 1921 , he worked in Siberia as an industrial manager . Kosygin returned to Leningrad in the early 1930s and worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy . During the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) , Kosygin was a member of the State Defence Committee and was tasked with moving Soviet industry out of territories soon to be overrun by the German Army . He served as Minister of Finance for a year before becoming Minister of Light Industry and later , the Minister of Light and Food Industry . Stalin removed Kosygin from the Politburo one year before his own death in 1953 , intentionally weakening Kosygin 's position within the Soviet hierarchy .
After the power struggle triggered by Stalin 's death in 1953 , Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader . On 20 March 1959 , Kosygin was appointed to the position of Chairman of the State Planning Committee ( Gosplan ) , a post he would hold for little more than a year . Kosygin next became First Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers . When Khrushchev was replaced in 1964 , Kosygin and Leonid Brezhnev became Premier and First Secretary respectively . Kosygin , along with Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny , the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , was a member of the newly established collective leadership . Kosygin became one of two major power players within the Soviet hierarchy , the other being Brezhnev , and was able to initiate the failed 1965 economic reform , usually referred to simply as the Kosygin reform . This reform , along with his more open stance on solving the Prague Spring ( 1968 ) , made Kosygin one of the most liberal members of the top leadership .
More conservative members of the top leadership saw some of Kosygin 's policies as too radical , but they were never able to depose him as Premier , even if he and Brezhnev disliked each other . By the 1970s , Brezhnev had consolidated enough power to stop any " radical " reform @-@ minded attempts by Kosygin . In 1980 , Kosygin retired from office due to bad health , dying two months later on 18 December 1980 .
= = Early life and career ( 1904 – 1964 ) = =
Kosygin was born into a Russian working @-@ class family consisting of his father and mother , Nikolai Ilyich and Matrona Alexandrovna and his siblings . The family lived in St. Petersburg . Kosygin was baptised one month after his birth on 7 March .
He was conscripted into a labour army on the Bolshevik side during the Russian Civil War . After the Red Army 's demobilisation in 1921 , Kosygin attended the Leningrad Co @-@ operative Technical School and found work in the system of consumer co @-@ operatives in Novosibirsk , Siberia . When asked why he worked in the co @-@ operative sector of the economy , Kosygin replied , quoting a slogan of Vladimir Lenin : " Co @-@ operation – the path to socialism ! " Kosygin stayed there for six years .
He applied for a membership in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1927 and returned to Leningrad in 1930 to study at the Leningrad Textile Institute ; he graduated in 1935 .
After finishing his studies , Kosygin was employed as a textile mill director . Three years later , he was elected Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Leningrad City Soviets of Working People 's Deputies by the Leningrad Communist Party , and the following year he was appointed People 's Commissar for Textile and Industry and earned a seat on the Central Committee ( CC ) . In 1940 Kosygin became a Deputy chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars , and was appointed in 1943 as Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars of the Russian SFSR .
Kosygin worked for the State Defence Committee during the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) . As Deputy Chairman of the Council of Evacuation , his task was to evacuate industry from territories soon to be overrun by the Germans . He broke the Leningrad Blockade by organising the construction of a supply route and a pipeline on the bottom of Lake Ladoga . Kosygin was a candidate member of the Politburo from 1946 to 1949 , and became a full member toward the end of Joseph Stalin 's rule ; he lost his seat in 1952 . He briefly served as Minister of Finance in 1948 , and as Minister of Light Industry from 1949 to 1953 .
= = = Stalin era = = =
His administrative skills led Stalin to take Kosygin under his wing . Stalin shared information with Kosygin , such as how much money the families of Vyacheslav Molotov , Anastas Mikoyan , and Lazar Kaganovich possessed , spent and paid their staff . A Politburo member earned a modest salary by Soviet standards but enjoyed unlimited access to consumer goods .
Kosygin was sent by Stalin to each home to put their houses into " proper order " . Assignments such as these made Kosygin unpopular with certain members of the Soviet leadership . Kosygin told his son @-@ in @-@ law Mikhail Gvishiani , an NKVD officer , of the accusations leveled against his co @-@ worker Nikolai Voznesensky , then Chairman of the State Planning Committee and a First Deputy Premier , because of his possession of firearms . Gvishiani and Kosygin threw all their weapons into a lake and searched both their houses for any listening devices . They found one at Kosygin 's house , but it might have been installed to spy on Marshal Georgy Zhukov , who had lived there before him . According to his memoirs , Kosygin never left his home without reminding his wife what to do if he did not return from work . After living two years in constant fear , the family reached the conclusion that Stalin would not harm them .
Kosygin , along with Alexey Kuznetsov and Voznesensky , formed a Troika in the aftermath of the war , with all three being promoted up the Soviet hierarchy by high @-@ standing officials such as Stalin . There is a theory that Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov plotted against them in 1950 , and initiated what became known as the Leningrad Affair , which consisted of several fabricated criminal charges against Kuznetsov and Voznesensky . Both were executed . Kosygin 's life , which was connected to Kuznetsov through marriage , was hanging by a thread . How or why Kosygin survived the show trials is unknown , but he , as some jokes say , " must have drawn a lucky lottery ticket " . Nikita Khrushchev blamed Beria and Malenkov for the innocent deaths of Kuznetsov and Voznesensky , and accused Malenkov in 1957 of having concocted the plot so that either Malenkov or Beria would succeed Stalin upon his death .
= = = Khrushchev era = = =
Following Stalin 's death in March 1953 , Kosygin was demoted , but as a staunch ally of Khrushchev , his career soon turned around . While never one of Khrushchev 's protégés , Kosygin quickly moved up the party ladder . Kosygin became an official of the State Planning Committee in 1957 , and was made a candidate member of the Politburo . He was promoted to the State Planning Committee chairmanship , and became Khrushchev 's First Deputy Premier in 1960 . As First Deputy Premier Kosygin travelled abroad , mostly on trade missions , to countries such as North Korea , India , Argentina and Italy , for instance . Later , in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis , Kosygin was the Soviet spokesman for improved relations between the Soviet Union and the United States . Kosygin regained his old seat in the Politburo at the 22nd Party Congress in 1961 .
= = Premiership = =
= = = Brezhnev – Kosygin leadership = = =
When Khrushchev was dismissed as leader in October 1964 , Kosygin took over Khrushchev 's old post as Premier in what initially was a collective leadership , with Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary and Anastas Mikoyan , and later Nikolai Podgorny , as Chairman of the Presidium . The new Politburo had a more conservative outlook than that found under Khrushchev ; Kosygin , Podgorny and Andrei Kirilenko were the most liberal members , Brezhnev and Arvīds Pelše belonged to the moderate faction while Mikhail Suslov retained his leadership of the party 's Stalinist wing .
In October 1964 , at a ceremony in honour of Soviet cosmonauts , Brezhnev called for the strengthening of the Party apparatus . This speech was only the beginning of a large campaign directed against Kosygin . Several newspapers , such as Pravda and Kommunist , criticised the work of the Council of Ministers , and indirectly Kosygin , its chairman , for planning the economy in an unrealistic fashion , and used the highly aggressive rhetoric previously used to condemn Khrushchev against Kosygin .
Brezhnev was able to criticise Kosygin by contrasting him with Vladimir Lenin , whom Brezhnev claimed to have been more interested in improving the conditions of Soviet agriculture than improving the quality of light industrial goods . Kosygin 's support for producing more consumer goods was also criticised by Brezhnev , and his supporters , most notably Konstantin Chernenko , for being a return to quasi First World policies . At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin 's position was weakened when Brezhnev 's supporters were able to increase expenditure on defence and agriculture . However , Brezhnev did not have a majority in the Politburo , and could count on only four votes . In the Politburo Kosygin could count on Kiril Mazurov 's vote , and when Kosygin and Podgorny were not bickering with each other , they actually had a majority in the Politburo over Brezhnev . Unfortunately for Kosygin this was not often the case , and Kosygin and Podgorny were constantly disagreeing on policy .
Early during Kosygin 's tenure , the Brezhnev – Kosygin attempt to create stability was failing on various fronts . From 1969 to 1970 discontent within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that some started to doubt both former and current Soviet policies . Examples include the handling of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia ( which Kosygin initially resisted ) , the decline in agriculture production , the Sino – Soviet border conflict ( he advocated restraint ) , the Vietnam War , and the Soviet – American talks on the limitation of strategic missiles . Two summit conferences between the US and the USSR were held : the Warsaw Pact Summit Conference and the Moscow Summit Conference ; both failed to gain support for Soviet policies .
By 1970 these differences had not been resolved , and Brezhnev postponed the 24th Party Congress and the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1971 – 1975 ) . The delay in resolving these issues led to rumours circulating in Soviet society that Kosygin , or even Brezhnev , would lose their posts to Podgorny . By March 1971 it became apparent that Brezhnev was the leader of the country , with Kosygin as the spokesman of the five @-@ year plan and Podgorny 's position within the collective leadership strengthened .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Early on in his tenure , Kosygin challenged Brezhnev 's right as general secretary to represent the country abroad , a function Kosygin believed should fall into the hands of the head of government , as was common in non @-@ communist countries . This was actually implemented for a short period , which led Henry A. Kissinger to believe that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union . Kosygin , who had been the chief negotiator with the First World during the 1960s , was hardly to be seen outside the Second World after Brezhnev consolidated his position within the Politburo , but also due to Andrei Gromyko 's dislike of Kosygin meddling into his own ministerial affairs .
The Six @-@ Day War in the Middle East had the effect of increasing Soviet – American cooperation ; to improve relations even further , the United States Government invited Kosygin to a summit with Lyndon B. Johnson , the President of the United States , following his speech to the United Nations . At the summit , which became known as the Glassboro Summit Conference , Johnson and Kosygin failed to reach agreement on limiting anti @-@ ballistic missile systems , but the summit 's friendly and even open atmosphere was referred to as the " Spirit of Glassboro " . Relations between the two countries improved further when the 1970 Moscow Treaty was signed on 12 August 1970 by Kosygin and Gromyko and Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel who represented West Germany .
In 1972 , Kosygin signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the government of Iraq , building on strong Soviet ties to the Iraqi Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party and previous close relations with Iraqi leader Abd al @-@ Karim Qasim .
Kosygin protected János Kádár 's economic reforms and his position as leader of the People 's Republic of Hungary from intervention by the Soviet leadership . Polish leader Władysław Gomułka , who was removed from all of his posts in 1970 , was succeeded by Edward Gierek who tried to revitalise the economy of the People 's Republic of Poland by borrowing money from the First World . The Soviet leadership approved both countries ' respective economic experiments , since it was trying to reduce its large Eastern Bloc subsidy programme in the form of cheap oil and gas exports . During the discussions within the Soviet leadership of a possible Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Kosygin reminded leaders of the consequences of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution . Kosygin 's stance became more aggressive later on when he understood that the reforms in Czechoslovakia could be turned against his 1965 Soviet economic reform .
Kosygin acted as a mediator between India and Pakistan in 1966 , and got both nations to sign the Tashkent Declaration . Kosygin became the chief spokesman on the issue of arms control . In retrospect , many of Kosygin 's co @-@ workers felt he carried out his work " stoically " , but lacked " enthusiasm " , and therefore never developed a real taste for international politics .
The Sino – Soviet split chagrined Kosygin a great deal , and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability ; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to increased tension between the USSR and China . Kosygin said , in a close @-@ knit circle , that " We are communists and they are communists . It is hard to believe we will not be able to reach an agreement if we met face to face " . His view on China changed however , and according to Harold Wilson , former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Kosygin viewed China as a " organised military dictatorship " who 's intended goal was to enslave " Vietnam and the whole of Asia " .
During an official visit by an Afghan delegation , Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko criticised Afghan leaders Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin for Stalinist @-@ like repressionist behaviour . He promised to send more economic and military aid , but rejected any proposal regarding a possible Soviet intervention , as an intervention in Afghanistan would strain the USSR 's foreign relations with the First World according to Kosygin , most notably West Germany . However , in a closed meeting , without Kosygin , who strongly opposed any kind of military intervention , the Politburo unanimously supported a Soviet intervention .
= = = Economic policy = = =
= = = = Five @-@ Year Plans = = = =
The Eighth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1966 – 1970 ) is considered to be one of the most successful periods for the Soviet economy and the most successful when it comes to consumer production ( see The " Kosygin " reform ) . The 23rd Party Congress and the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1971 – 1975 ) had been postponed by Brezhnev due to a power struggle within the Soviet leadership . At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin promised that the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan would increase the supply of food , clothing and other household appliances up to 50 percent . The plan envisaged a massive increase in the Soviet standard of living , with Kosygin proclaiming a growth of 40 percent for the population 's cash income in his speech to the congress .
The Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 1981 ) was referred to by Kosygin as the " plan of quality " . Brezhnev rejected Kosygin 's bid for producing more consumer goods during the Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan . Because of it the total volume of consumer goods in industrial production only stood at 26 percent . Kosygin 's son @-@ in @-@ law notes that Kosygin was furious with the decision , and proclaimed increased defence expenditure would become the Soviet Union 's " complete ruin " . The plan was less ambitious than its predecessors , with targets of national industrial growth no higher than what the rest of the world had already achieved . Soviet agriculture would receive a share investment of 34 percent , a share much larger than its proportional contribution to the Soviet economy , as it accounted for only 3 percent of Soviet GDP .
= = = = The " Kosygin " reform = = = =
Like Khrushchev , Kosygin tried to reform the command economy within a socialist framework . In 1965 Kosygin initiated an economic reform widely referred to as the " Kosygin reform " . Kosygin sought to make Soviet industry more efficient by including some market measures common in the First World such as profit making for instance ; he also tried to increase quantity of production , increase incentives for managers and workers , and freeing managers from centralised state bureaucracy . The reform had been proposed to Khrushchev in 1964 , who evidently liked it and took some preliminary steps to implement it . Brezhnev allowed the reform to proceed because the Soviet economy was entering a period of low growth . In its testing phase , the reform was applied to 336 enterprises in light industry .
The reform was influenced by the works of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman . Kosygin overestimated the ability of the Soviet administrative machine to develop the economy , which led to " corrections " to some of Liberman 's more controversial beliefs about decentralisation . According to critics , Kosygin 's changes to Liberman 's original vision caused the reform to fail .
Kosygin , who had for a long time been conscious of the First World 's superiority , believed that decentralisation , semi @-@ public companies , and cooperatives were keys to catching up . His reform sought a gradual change from a " state @-@ administered economy " to an economy in which " the state restricts itself to guiding enterprises " . The reform was implemented , but showed several malfunctions and inconsistencies early on .
= = = = = Results = = = = =
The salary for Soviet citizens increased abruptly by almost 2 @.@ 5 times during the plan . Real wages in 1980 amounted to 232 @.@ 7 rubles , compared to 166 @.@ 3 rubles before the 1965 Soviet economic reform and the Eight @-@ Five Year Plan . The first period , 1960 – 1964 , was characterised by low growth , while the second period , 1965 – 1981 , had a stronger growth rate . The second period vividly demonstrated the success of the Kosygin reform , with the average annual growth in retail turnover being 11 @.@ 2 billion rubles , 1 @.@ 8 times higher than in the first period and 1 @.@ 2 times higher than the third period ( 1981 – 1985 ) . Consumption of goods and daily demand also increased . The consumption of home appliances greatly increased . Refrigerators increased from a low of 109 @,@ 000 in 1964 to 440 @,@ 000 units by 1973 ; consumption declined during the reversal of the reform . Car production increased , and would continue to do so until the late 1980s . The Soviet leadership , under pressure , sought to provide more attractive goods for Soviet consumers .
The removal of Khrushchev in 1964 signalled the end of his " housing revolution " . Housing construction declined between 1960 and 1964 to an average of 1 @.@ 63 million square metres . Following this sudden decrease , housing construction increased sharply between 1965 and 1966 , but dropped again , and then steadily grew ( the average annual growth rate was 4 @.@ 26 million square metres ) . This came largely at the expense of businesses . While the housing shortage was never fully resolved , and still remains a problem in present @-@ day Russia , the reform overcame the negative trend and renewed the growth of housing construction .
= = = = = Cancellation and aftermath = = = = =
With hostility towards reform growing , the poor results , and Kosygin 's reformist stance , led to a popular backlash against him . Kosygin lost most of the privileges he had enjoyed before the reform , but Brezhnev was never able to remove him from the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers , despite his weakened position . In the aftermath of his failed reform , Kosygin spent the rest of his life improving the economic administration through the modification of targets ; he implemented various programmes to improve food security and ensure the future intensification of production . There is no proof to back up the claim that the reform itself contributed to the high growth seen in the late @-@ 1960s , and that its cancellation had anything to do with the stagnating growth of the economy which began in the 1970s .
= = = = 1973 and 1979 reforms = = = =
Kosygin initiated another economic reform in 1973 with the intentions of weakening the central Ministries and giving more powers to the regional authorities in republican and local @-@ levels . The reform 's failure to meet Kosygin 's goal led to its cancellation . However , the reform succeeded in creating associations , an organisation representing various enterprises . The last significant reform undertaken by the pre @-@ perestroika leadership was initiated by Kosygin 's fifth government in a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers . The " Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work " , more commonly known as the 1979 reform . The reform , in contrast to the 1965 reform , was intended to increase the central government 's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries . Due to Kosygin 's resignation in 1980 , and because of Nikolai Tikhonov 's conservative approach to economics , very little of the reform was actually implemented .
= = = Later life , resignation and death = = =
By the early to mid @-@ 1970s Brezhnev had established a strong enough power base to effectively become leader . According to historian Ilya Zemtsov , the author of Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika , Kosygin " began to lose power " with the 24th Party Congress in 1971 which for the first time publicised the formula ' the Politburo led by Brezhnev ' " . Along with weakening Kosygin 's position , Brezhnev moved to strengthen the Party 's hold on the Government apparatus , weakening Kosygin 's position further . Historian Robert Wesson , the author of Lenin 's Legacy : The Story of the CPSU , notes that Kosygin 's economic report to the 25th Party Congress " pointed even more clearly to the end of struggle " between Brezhnev and Kosygin . Kosygin was further pushed aside when Brezhnev published his memoirs , which stated that Brezhnev , not Kosygin , was in charge of all major economic decisions . To make matters worse for Kosygin , Brezhnev blocked any future talks on economic reform within the party and government apparatus , and information regarding the reform of 1965 was suppressed .
Brezhnev consolidated his own position over the Government Apparatus by strengthening Podgorny 's position as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , literally head of state , by giving the office some of the functions of the Premier . The 1977 Soviet Constitution strengthened Podgorny 's control of the Council of Ministers , by giving the post of head of state some executive powers . In fact , because of the 1977 Soviet Constitution , the Council of Ministers became subordinate to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . When Podgorny was replaced as head of state in 1977 by Brezhnev , Kosygin 's role in day @-@ to @-@ day management of government activities was lessened drastically , through Brezhnev 's new @-@ found post . Rumours started circulating within the top circles , and on the streets , that Kosygin would retire due to bad health .
Brezhnev 's consolidation to power weakened Kosygin 's influence and prestige within the Politburo . By the 1970s , when Kosygin 's position was given one blow after another , he was frequently hospitalised and at several occasions Kiril Mazurov , the First Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers , acted on his behalf during Kosygin 's absence . Kosygin suffered his first heart attack in 1976 . After this incident , it is said that Kosygin changed from having a vibrant personality to being tired and fed up ; he , according to people close to him , seemed to have lost the will to continue his work . He twice filed a letter of resignation between 1976 and 1980 , but was turned down on both occasions . During Kosygin 's sick leave , Brezhnev appointed Nikolai Tikhonov to the post of First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Tikhonov , as with Brezhnev , was a conservative , and through his post as First Deputy chairman Tikhonov was able to reduce Kosygin to a standby role . At a Central Committee plenum in June 1980 , the Soviet economic development plan was outlined by Tikhonov , not Kosygin . The powers of the Premier diminished to the point where Kosygin was forced to discuss all decisions made by the Council of Ministers with Brezhnev .
Kosygin was hospitalised in October 1980 ; during his stay Kosygin wrote a brief letter of resignation ; the following day he was deprived of all government protection , communication , and luxury goods he had earned during his political life . Kosygin died alone on 18 December 1980 ; none of his Politburo colleagues , former aides , or security guards visited him . At the end of his life , Kosygin feared the complete failure of the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 1985 ) , claiming that the sitting leadership was reluctant to reform the stagnant Soviet economy . His funeral was postponed for three days , as Kosygin died on the eve of Brezhnev 's birthday . He was buried in Red Square , Moscow . Kosygin was praised by Brezhnev as an individual who " labored selflessly for the good of the Soviet state " . A state funeral was conducted and Kosygin was honoured by his peers ; Brezhnev , Yuri Andropov , and Tikhonov laid an urn containing his ashes at the Kremlin Wall .
= = Personality = =
Compared to other Soviet officials , Kosygin stood out as a pragmatic and relatively independent leader . In a description given by an anonymous high @-@ ranking GRU official , Kosygin is described as " a lonely and somewhat tragic figure " who " understood our faults and shortcomings of our situation in general and those in our Middle East policy in particular , but , being a highly restrained man , he preferred to be cautious . " An anonymous old co @-@ worker of Kosygin said " He always had an opinion of his own , and defended it . He was a very alert man , and performed brilliantly during negotiations . He was able to cope quickly with the material that was totally new to him . I have never seen people of that calibre afterwards . "
Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau said Kosygin was like " Khrushchev without the rough edges , a fatherly man who was the forerunner of Mikhail Gorbachev " . He noted that Kosygin was willing to discuss issues so long that the Soviet position was not tackled head @-@ on . Former United States Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger said that Kosygin was devoted , nearly fanatically , to his work . Kosygin was viewed by Western diplomats as a pragmatist " with a glacial exterior who was orthodox if not rigid " . Andrei Sakharov , a Soviet dissident , believed Kosygin to be " the most intelligent and toughest man in the Politburo " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical assessments = = =
Kosygin would prove to be a very competent administrator , with the Soviet standard of living rising considerably due to his moderately reformist policy . Kosygin 's moderate 1965 reform , as with Nikita Khrushchev 's thaw , radicalised the Soviet reform movement . While Leonid Brezhnev was content to maintain the centralised structure of the Soviet planned economy , Kosygin attempted to revitalise the ailing economic system by decentralising management . Following Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , the reform movement was split between Yuri Andropov 's path of discipline and control and Gorbachev 's liberalisation of all aspects of public life .
Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika author Ilya Zemtsov describes Kosygin as a " Determined and intelligent , an outstanding administrator " and claims he distinguished himself from the other members of the Soviet leadership with his " extraordinary capacity for work " . Historians Moshe Lewin and Gregory Elliott , the authors of The Soviet Century , describes him as a " phenomenal administrator " . " His strengths " , David Law writes , was " his exceptional capability as an administrator " . According to Law Kosygin proved himself to be a " competent politician " also . Historians Evan Mawdsley and Stephen White claim that Brezhnev was unable to remove Kosygin because his removal would mean the loss of his last " capable administrator " . In their book , The Unknown Stalin , Roy Medvedev and Zhores Medvedev called Kosygin an " outstanding organiser " , and the " new Voznesensky " . Historian Archie Brown , the author The Rise & Fall of Communism , believes the 1965 Soviet economic reform to have been too " modest " , and claimed that Kosygin " was too much a product of the Soviet ministerial system , as it evolved under Stalin , to become a radical economic reformer " . However , Brown does believe that Kosygin was " an able administrator " . Gvishiani , a Russian historian , concluded that " Kosygin survived both Stalin and Khrushchev , but did not manage to survive Brezhnev . "
Kosygin was viewed with sympathy by the Soviet people , and is still presently viewed as an important figure in both Russian and Soviet history . Because of Kosygin 's popularity among the Soviet people , Brezhnev developed a " strong jealousy " for Kosygin , according to Nikolai Egorychev . Mikhail Smirtyukov , the former Executive Officer of the Council of Ministers , recalled that Kosygin refused to go drinking with Brezhnev , a move which annoyed Brezhnev gravely . Nikolai Ryzhkov , the last Chairman of the Council of Ministers , in a speech to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union in 1987 referred to the " sad experiences of the 1965 reform " , and claimed that everything went from bad to worse following the reform 's cancellation .
= = = Honours = = =
During his lifetime , Kosygin received seven Orders and two Awards from the Soviet state . He was awarded two Hero of Socialist Labour ( USSR ) ; one being on his 60th birthday by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1964 , on this occasion he was also awarded an Order of Lenin and a Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal . On 20 February 1974 , to commemorate his 70th birthday , the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet awarded him another Order of Lenin and his second Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal . In total , Kosygin was awarded six Orders of Lenin by the Soviet state , and one Order of the October Revolution and one Order of the Red Banner of Labour . During a state visit to Peru in the 1970s with Leonid Brezhnev and Andrei Gromyko , all three were awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun by President Francisco Morales Bermúdez . The Moscow State Textile University was named in his honour in 1981 , in 1982 a bust to honour Kosygin was placed in Leningrad , present day St. Petersburg . In 2006 the Russian Government renamed a street after him .
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= Florence Fuller =
Florence Ada Fuller ( 1867 – 17 July 1946 ) was a South African @-@ born Australian artist . Originally from Port Elizabeth , Fuller migrated as a child to Melbourne with her family . There she trained with her uncle Robert Hawker Dowling and teacher Jane Sutherland and took classes at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School , becoming a professional artist in the late 1880s . In 1892 she left Australia , travelling first to South Africa , where she met and painted for Cecil Rhodes , and then on to Europe . She lived and studied there for the subsequent decade , except for a return to South Africa in 1899 to paint a portrait of Rhodes . Between 1895 and 1904 her works were exhibited at the Paris Salon and London 's Royal Academy .
In 1904 , Fuller returned to Australia , living in Perth . She became active in the Theosophical Society and painted some of her best @-@ known work , including A Golden Hour , described by the National Gallery of Australia as a " masterpiece " when it acquired the work in 2013 . Beginning in 1908 , Fuller travelled extensively , living in India and England before ultimately settling in Sydney . There , she was the inaugural teacher of life drawing at the School of Fine and Applied Arts , established in 1920 by the New South Wales Society of Women Painters . She died in 1946 .
Highly regarded during her active career as a portrait and landscape painter , by 1914 Fuller was represented in four public galleries — three in Australia and one in South Africa — a record for a woman who was an Australian painter at that time . In 1927 she began almost twenty years of institutionalization in a mental asylum , however , and her death went without notice . After her death , information about her was frequently omitted from reference books about Australian painters and knowledge of her work became obscure despite her paintings being held in public art collections including the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Art Gallery of Western Australia , the National Gallery of Australia , the National Gallery of Victoria , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and Australia 's National Portrait Gallery .
= = Early life and career = =
Florence Fuller was born in Port Elizabeth , South Africa , in 1867 , a daughter of Louisa and John Hobson Fuller . She had several siblings , including sisters Amy and Christie , both of whom subsequently became singers .
The family migrated to Australia when Florence was a child . She worked as a governess while undertaking studies in art , and first took classes at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School in 1883 , then again for a further term of study in 1888 . During this period she was a student of Jane Sutherland , referred to in the Australian Dictionary of Biography as " the leading female artist in the group of Melbourne painters who broke with the nineteenth @-@ century tradition of studio art by sketching and painting directly from nature " .
Fuller 's uncle was Robert Hawker Dowling , a painter of orientalist and Aboriginal subjects , as well as portraits and miniatures . British @-@ born , he had grown up in Tasmania and made a living there as a portraitist , before returning to his native England at age thirty . For the next two decades , his works were frequently hung at the Royal Academy . He returned to Australia in 1885 , and Fuller became his pupil . In that year , aged eighteen , Fuller received a commission from Ann Fraser Bon , philanthropist and supporter of Victoria 's Aboriginal people . The commission was for Barak – last chief of the Yarra Yarra Tribe of Aborigines , a formal oil on canvas portrait of the Indigenous Australian leader , William Barak . Ultimately , that painting was acquired by the State Library of Victoria . Although the painting is an important work regularly used to illustrate this significant figure in Australia 's history , interpretations of Fuller 's portrait are mixed : one critic noted the painting 's objectivity and avoidance of romanticising Aboriginal people , while another concluded that " Fuller is painting an ideal rather than a person " .
In 1886 , Dowling returned to his native England . Giving up her work as a governess , Fuller began to paint full @-@ time , and had opened her own studio before she had turned twenty . Dowling had intended to return to Australia and had left behind an incomplete portrait of the Victorian governor 's wife , Lady Loch . He died , however , not long after arriving in England ; Fuller then completed Dowling 's commission . Lady Loch became her patron . Other early portraits followed : two pictures of homeless children , entitled Weary ( inspired by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem on child labour " Weariness " ) and Desolate , in 1888 ; and Gently Reproachful circa 1889 . Weary was acquired by the Art Gallery of New South Wales in 2015 . The gallery 's curator of Australian art described the depiction of billboard posters in the painting as giving it a " sense of gritty realism that was arguably unprecedented in Australian art . "
Also in 1889 , Fuller was awarded a prize by the Victorian Artists Society for best portrait by an artist under twenty @-@ five .
= = Europe and South Africa = =
In 1892 , Fuller travelled to the Cape of Good Hope " to convalesce " , although from what illness or injury , her biographer Joan Kerr does not say . While there , she was a guest of her uncle Sir Thomas Ekins Fuller , a member of the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope , and through him she met Cecil Rhodes , the Colony 's Prime Minister , who commissioned her to paint a landscape showing his home . Two years later , she travelled on to England and France , where she remained for a decade . In the 1890s , Australian artists studying abroad favoured Paris over London , and Fuller was no exception . Other Australians studying in France around that time included Agnes Goodsir , Margaret Preston , James Quinn , and Hugh Ramsay . Fuller studied first at the Académie Julian , where her teachers included William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau , and later , Raphaël Collin , one of whose studios she managed for a time . Many of the French art schools had only recently opened their doors to women , and those at Académie Julian experienced poor , overcrowded conditions and contempt from the ( mostly male ) teachers . Despite this , Fuller 's skills developed , and contemporary critics commented favourably on the influence of the French training .
During her time in Europe , Fuller had great success . After a pastel portrait of hers was accepted for the Paris Salon in 1895 , two of her paintings were shown there in 1896 . That was followed by another , La Glaneuse , in 1897 , in which year she also had a work accepted by the Royal Academy in London . She exhibited in many other locations : the Royal Institute of Oil Painters and Manchester Art Gallery in England , as well as the Victorian Artists Society and the New South Wales Society of Artists , and at the Melbourne studio of Jane Sutherland . There was even a painting , Landscape , hung in the exhibition for the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Bendigo . Not all her time was spent in Europe , however ; in 1899 she returned to South Africa to paint Cecil Rhodes. one source suggests that she ultimately prepared five portraits of the founder of Rhodesia . A later newspaper report stated that Fuller also travelled and made sketches in Wales , Ireland , and Italy .
While in Europe , Fuller painted Inseparables , which portrays the figure of a girl sitting reading a book . It was acquired by the Art Gallery of South Australia . When hanging the work as part of its exhibition The Edwardians , the National Gallery of Australia described the painting as one suggesting a love of reading . In contrast , art historian Catherine Speck regarded the work as " subversive " because of its portrayal of a young woman " gaining knowledge " . In November 1902 , the Australian Federal International Exhibition was held . It was opened by the Governor of Victoria Sir George Clarke , who spoke of its goal to advance " the industrial progress of Australia " . The event occupied the entire Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne , and was dominated by an exhibition of art , both Australian and international . Included in this extensive survey of painting were six works by Fuller .
= = Perth = =
Further recognition came with the hanging of one of Fuller 's paintings , Summer Breezes , at the Royal Academy in 1904 . Other Australian artists whose works were hung at the same time included Rupert Bunny , E. Phillips Fox , Albert Fullwood , George Lambert , and Arthur Streeton . Fuller was the only woman painter to be represented . A critic writing in The West Australian observed :
The work ... is essentially Australian in almost every detail . Standing in a sunlit Australian paddock , a lithesome Australian blonde holds her summer hat on against the rude caresses of an Australian breeze — a subject simple but grand in its simplicity ... Next to its suggestion of breezy sunshine and the incidental portrayal of willowy grace the picture is to be admired for its colour scheme ... The details of the picture disclose untiring care .
By the time Summer Breezes was on display , Fuller had returned to Australia , not to her previous home in Melbourne but to Perth in Western Australia , where she joined her sister , Amy Fuller , who was a singer . Although only in her mid @-@ thirties , Fuller 's background made her " one of the most experienced artists in Western Australia at this time " . For the next four years , she painted portraits , including one of Western Australian politician James George Lee Steere , undertaken posthumously from photographs and recollections of those who had known him . It was acquired by the gallery whose board he chaired . She also took on students , including French @-@ Australian artist Kathleen O 'Connor .
Fuller 's paintings from this period included A Golden Hour , described by the National Gallery of Australia as " a masterpiece ... giving us a gentle insight into the people , places and times that make up our history " . The painting , an oil on canvas 109 cm ( 43 in ) high and 135 cm ( 53 in ) wide , portrays a woman and a man standing together in a rural setting in late afternoon , surrounded by grass , scattered gum trees , and Xanthorrhoea . When the painting was put up for sale in 2012 , the auction house catalogue stated that it had been owned by William Ride , former director of the Western Australian Museum . It reported :
The current owners assert that Professor Ride always understood the figures in the picture were Sir John Winthrop Hackett , ( then owner of The West Australian newspaper , well known business man and philanthropist , whose gift allowed the construction of the impressive University of Western Australia buildings and St. George 's Residential College ) and his new wife , Deborah Vernon Hackett " .
In addition to appearing as the small figure of a woman in A Golden Hour , Deborah Vernon Hackett was also the subject of a portrait , painted around 1908 , again during Fuller 's time in Perth . Anne Gray , the head of Australian art at the National Gallery of Australia , observed of Fuller 's approach to the newspaperman 's wife , that :
Fuller portrayed her sitter sympathetically , capturing the young woman 's grace and charm . But she also conveyed the complexity of the young Mrs Hackett 's character through her soft , feminine , pale @-@ blue dress counterpoised by the dramatic black hat and direct gaze .
Fuller painted other works for the Hacketts . In a 1937 piece reflecting on early twentieth @-@ century art in Western Australia , a reviewer recalled :
Dr. ( later Sir Winthrop ) Hackett was a great patron of Miss Fuller , and he was a constant visitor to her dignified studio , above his office in the old West Australian Chambers . The first portrait I saw Miss Fuller working on was of Mrs. E. Chase ... The portrait was a commission from Dr. Hackett , and was destined to hang in his gallery . Miss Fuller painted Lady Hackett both before and after her marriage , and one particularly happy picture of her is as a young girl gathering wildflowers in the Darlington hills . Her portraits of the first Hackett babies were charming studies of childhood .
= = Theosophy and later career = =
Biographer Joan Kerr speculated that it may have been Jane Sutherland who introduced Fuller to Theosophy , a spiritual and mystical philosophy that teaches the unity of existence and emphasises the search for universal wisdom . Described by art historian Jenny McFarlane as " the most important counter @-@ cultural organisation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries " , it was influential throughout Fuller 's life . She joined the society in Perth on 29 May 1905 , after hearing charismatic theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater during his lecture tour . Bessie Rischbieth was a feminist who joined at the same time , and together they influenced the movement 's development in early twentieth century Perth . Fuller was variously secretary , treasurer , and librarian of the local branch of the Theosophical Society .
In 1906 Fuller 's portrait of feminist and theosophist Annie Besant was among the paintings exhibited at the West Australian Art Society 's annual exhibition . Around the same period , she painted other portraits of the movement 's leading figures , including Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky . These representations departed from the academic portraiture in which Fuller had trained , as she incorporated practices of intuition and visualisation " inspired by Indian aesthetics as mediated by the Theosophical Society " .
In 1907 , Besant became the president of the Theosophical Society globally , and set to work with a major expansion of the organisation 's headquarters at Adyar , in what was then , Madras . When it was announced that Besant would undertake a speaking tour of Australia in 1908 , she was expected to stay with Fuller while in Perth . Some months later in 1908 , Fuller left Western Australia and travelled to India , staying at Adyar . Of her time in India , Fuller wrote :
I went in search not only of beauty , and light , and colour , and the picturesqueness in general , which delight the eye and emotions of all artists — but of something deeper — something less easily expressed . I spent two and a half years in a community that is quite unique — perhaps the most cosmopolitan settlement in the world — the headquarters of the Theosophical Society ... Well , I painted there , of course , but my art was undergoing a change , and I felt that it could not satisfy me unless it became so much greater .
Fuller 's time at Adyar was eventful . Leadbeater arrived around the same time as Fuller , and soon afterward he " discovered " the person he believed would become a global teacher and orator , Jiddu Krishnamurti ( then in his teens ) . Leadbetter and others tutored Krishnamurti . Fuller may have taught him photography . She also had a small studio built in the grounds , and painted . Her works from the period include a portrait of Leadbeater and Portrait of the Lord Buddha . McFarlane emphasises the significance of the latter work , pointing out that it is " strikingly modern " in comparison to all of Fuller 's other work , and more radical than compositions created by Grace Cossington Smith and Roland Wakelin , half a decade later . The painting owes much to theosophy 's emphasis on seeing the subject " through a psychic , visionary experience " .
Sources describing Fuller 's movements after her time in India sometimes are ambiguous . She arrived in England in June 1911 , where she marched with Besant in the suffragette protests associated with the coronation of George V. She continued to paint portraits , but found it difficult to realise the transformation in her art that she had conceptualised in India :
I have painted a great many portraits since I have been in England , and have been , I suppose , fairly successful — though I have done nothing in any way remarkable . The hidden inner life has not yet succeeded in expressing itself on canvas , and I can only write myself as one who aspires to a greater art , but who has not yet achieved .
Fuller subsequently travelled from London to India in 1914 . One newspaper report described her as a " visitor " to Sydney in 1916 , although McFarlane says she travelled there with Leadbeater and remained in the city . Another report stated that she visited Brisbane a year later . Both newspaper pieces indicated that Fuller had spent a period painting in Java ( at that time part of the Dutch East Indies ) , although when this occurred is not clear , and such a visit is not mentioned by McFarlane . There was at least one subsequent substantial journey , as Fuller arrived again to Sydney , via Perth , from India in 1919 . At some point following these travels , Fuller settled permanently in Mosman in Sydney 's northern suburbs , where she continued to paint , including miniatures . Her 1916 visit to Sydney had included an exhibition of a group of her miniatures , all of them portraits of theosophists including Besant and Henry Olcott , co @-@ founder of the Theosophical Society .
In 1920 , the Society of Women Painters in New South Wales established a School of Fine and Applied Arts , with Florence Fuller appointed as the inaugural teacher of life classes . At the exhibition held to mark the school 's establishment , Fuller displayed a portrait of the organisation 's founder , Mrs Hedley Parsons . When the society held a show in 1926 , a portrait by Fuller was one of those selected for favourable comment , but the general opinion of The Sydney Morning Herald reviewer was that " the exhibitors have let their style harden into a groove " . Fuller continued to be associated with the theosophical community as her health and economic circumstances deteriorated .
In 1927 , at the age of sixty , she was committed to Gladesville Mental Asylum ( as it was then known ) , where she died nearly two decades later , on 17 July 1946 . She was buried at Rookwood Cemetery .
= = Style and legacy = =
Gwenda Robb and Elaine Smith , in their Concise Dictionary of Australian Artists , considered Fuller 's art to be created in " a free painterly style indebted to Impressionism " . During the first decade of the twentieth century , reviews drew attention to her distinctively Australian style . When one of Fuller 's works was included in an exhibition of colonial artists in London ( including paintings from Canada and Australia ) , the correspondent from the Adelaide Advertiser described Fuller 's contribution as " most Australian in feeling " . Reviewing her work hung in the Royal Academy in 1904 , a Perth critic reported : " Of the 16 or 17 Australian artists exhibiting at the Academy , Miss Fuller was the only one who chose a typically Australian scene . Her picture shows a young girl in thin white , clinging , dress , standing on a bushy piece of country ... As the London Observer says , the atmosphere that bathes the graceful figure of the girl is capitally managed with its note of subtropical heat " . One reviewer thought very highly of her portraits , but was less convinced about Fuller 's approach to the Australian light , writing :
She had less success with our landscapes than with her figure subjects . That was the result of her passion for toning her pictures for ultimate indoor hanging . Thereby she lost , or illuminated , the hard Australian , hard light and shade , and startling relative values . Observable too was the influence of the English school in her rendering of our foliage ; never could she bring herself to see our trees as dim coloured as they usually are .
Art critic and curator Jenny McFarlane considered Fuller 's work to be complex , drawing not only on European modernist academic traditions and Australian subjects , but also at times , incorporating " radical stylistic innovations " that drew on Indian artistic tradition and theosophy 's ideas .
Reviewing the Western Australian Art Society 's exhibition in 1906 , the critic for Perth 's Western Mail considered Fuller 's works to be the finest on show , and that " the occasion provides another triumph for Miss Fuller " . In 1914 , it was reported that Fuller was represented in four public galleries — three in Australia and one in South Africa — a record for an Australian woman painter at that time . Yet although she experienced considerable success during her early life , Fuller subsequently became almost invisible . No obituaries appeared in the newspapers in 1946 . She is not mentioned at all in Janine Burke 's Australian Women Artists 1840 – 1940 , Max Germaine 's Dictionary of Women Artists in Australia , nor Caroline Ambrus 's Australian Women Artists . Despite this , in 2013 , Ann Gray described Fuller as " an important Australian woman artist and arguably Western Australia 's most significant artist from the Federation period " . Works by Fuller are held by the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Art Gallery of Western Australia , the National Gallery of Australia , the City of Perth , the National Gallery of Victoria , Australia 's National Portrait Gallery , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the State Library of Victoria . Internationally , her work is held by the Newport Museum and Art Gallery in South Wales .
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= Jenny Schecter =
Jennifer " Jenny " Diane Schecter is a fictional character from the American Showtime television drama series The L Word , played by Mia Kirshner . Jenny debuted on @-@ screen during the pilot episode and remained until the series ' final episode . Jenny became well documented in the media for her outlandish plots . Jenny was created by series creator Ilene Chaiken , based on herself as a younger woman living in the lesbian community . Chaiken implemented a series of changes to the character , one of which being the inclusion of a sexual abuse storyline and self @-@ harm , which some critics observed as being attempts to make her likable in the LGBT community . One storyline that gained mainstream attention was adopting a homeless dog , only to have it put down for personal gain . Other storylines include stripping , writing novels , coming out , directing a film , affairs , and her possible murder . The final season is based around the lead @-@ up to her death , during which Jenny made herself extremely unpopular with her friends , who became suspects .
Jenny 's character was unpopular with both fans and critics throughout the entire series because of her frequent narcissistic tendencies , her prima donna ways , her egotistical attitude , irresponsibility , frequent self @-@ pity and selfish persona . She has also been labeled a " love to hate " character . The majority of critics have been intrigued by her " polarising personality " and branded it as one of the main reasons to watch the series . New York magazine gave a large amount of praise to Jenny and on one occasion stated : " Jenny Schecter is The L Word , and the death of her is the death of the show . " Kirshner received critical praise for her portrayal of the character . Kirshner has stated she loved playing Jenny because she felt like a brand new character during each season . She has also stated that it is difficult for people to like the character as she can be " very despicable " and even the LGBT community does not like her because of her " duplicity and confusion " .
= = Character creation and casting = =
Series creator Ilene Chaiken created Jenny . She based her on her own past experiences of coming out and dealing with the everyday life in the lesbian community as a younger woman . Like Jenny , Chaiken had befriended a group of lesbians who ran a cafe and had her first sexual encounter with a female . Actress Mia Kirshner was cast in the role . Chaiken admitted she had been searching for the right actress to play Jenny " for a long time " . Kirshner auditioned via video tape , Chaiken recalled that upon viewing it she thought Kirshner was " stunning " . She thought Kirshner had " riveting beauty that is unlike anyone else 's , and she was so deep and intense . "
Kirshner would often express her concern that she was not challenged enough or not making Jenny as " deep enough " as she could be . Chaiken said it was these qualities that made Kirshner " the bravest and boldest of actors " and branded her " utterly fearless " in her approach to Jenny .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterization = = =
Throughout her duration on the series , Jenny went on a journey from the very first episode , which saw her transform into a selfish egotist and many observers have perceived her as a narcissist , and even as a borderline sociopath . This latter assessment was based early on around her recurrent lying , and the fact she seems to excuse her own cheating in the first few seasons as a corollary of empowerment and as research for her book : which features an experimentalist female character who is evidently herself . Kirshner has described Jenny as mostly being duplicitous and confused . Jenny often acted " utterly impulsive " . Kirshner said it is very hard for people in the series and the viewers to like Jenny because she is " a very despicable character who lies , cheats , behaves and treats other people horribly for no reason , and is extremely selfish , self @-@ indulgent and so terribly truthful ... and she does not hesitate to hide any it . "
Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe described Jenny stating : " Dreary , confused , introverted narcissist [ ... ] downcast , secretive , almost Goth in her black moodiness , she is the epitome of an unhappy egotist . She is so consumed with the ups and downs of her own depression and self @-@ loathing , she just doesn 't have the energy to look outward . Her misery is her mirror , and she 's forever gazing into it . " New York Magazine describe Jenny as a capricious yet obnoxious type of character adding that she can be patronizing . They also observe her as looking " fabulous , fun , and sexy but her downfall is her annoying side . " Diane Shipley of The Guardian branded Jenny a " whiny egomaniac " . Lesbian magazine Curve brands Jenny a " narcissistic navel @-@ gazer " .
= = = Sexuality = = =
When Jenny is introduced on @-@ screen she arrives in Los Angeles to stay with her boyfriend Tim Haspel ( Eric Mabius ) . Tim is described as the person who makes Jenny " feel the safest in the world " . She soon becomes aware her neighbors Tina Kennard ( Laurel Holloman ) and Bette Porter ( Jennifer Beals ) are lesbians . Kirshner said that Jenny becomes intrigued by lesbians and attends their party . They introduce her to Marina Ferrer ( Karina Lombard ) , she senses that Jenny wants some danger in her life . When Marina kisses her , Jenny sees her life going into a tailspin and forces her to reckon with herself . Jenny acknowledges her passion for Marina , but realizes that being unfaithful will ruin " the one stable relationship she 's ever had " . However , they begin an affair . In the show 's companion book " The L Word : Welcome to our planet " , they describe Jenny 's confusion as leaving her " unmoored " . She was alone in battling the heartache , along with facing " an overwhelming identity crisis " in a place that was not yet her home .
Kirshner opined that the situation with Jenny was " not pretty " . Jenny loves two people at once , She is the kind of character " who will just grab experiences because of the holes inside her [ ... ] she will leave the casualties in the wake behind her . " Kirshner often pushed and encouraged for more truth . She made Jenny 's sex scenes " darker , painful , and sometimes not so pretty to watch " . Kirshner did not mind portraying sex scenes with other females . She described them as " more fun and easier " and that she genuinely felt there was " nothing to be ashamed of . " For her there was a " comfort level that is beautiful " . Kirshner had never appeared nude in previous roles , but she requested to go nude as Jenny in certain scenes to add to the reality .
Chaiken decided to keep audiences guessing about Jenny 's sexuality . She stated that whilst sexuality can be fluid , that Jenny 's sexuality " definitely exists on the edge of fluidity " . This was because she had planned to have Jenny romantically involved mostly with females , but with some males too .
= = = Sexual abuse = = =
One of Jenny 's storylines in season two was her revelation of being sexually abused as a child . The events were portrayed in a series of flashbacks and dream sequences . Yet , this left viewers confused about what actually happened to Jenny . During an interview with LGBT monthly magazine The Advocate , Chaiken commented about the storyline : " Well we all know it was an incident of sexual abuse . I had not wanted to be more explicit about it than that – one because memory of trauma is very strange . Who knows what happened to Jenny ? Jenny doesn 't necessarily know herself . "
Chaiken also didn 't want to portray Jenny 's ordeal in an explicit manner , confirming this she said : " I am loath to portray rape as a filmmaker . I think it is really hard to do it without somehow becoming complicit and exploitative . And so as much as it 's important to talk about it , I wanted to be vague and not milk it . " Chaiken has also admitted that the use of dream sequences involving Jenny were not a successful inclusion , but claimed it was necessary to portray Jenny coming to terms with her abuse . Heather Hogan of AfterEllen criticized the storyline because there was no conclusion to it , also stating it was never explored enough , leading everyone to think she was just a jerk .
= = = Transformation = = =
Jenny was negatively received amongst TV critics and viewers from the very first episode after she cheated on her nice guy boyfriend , Tim , with another woman for no clear reason . This prompted Chaiken to implement a series of changes to Jenny to help make her more likable . Chaiken defended Jenny stating : " I 'm well aware of the response to Jenny . I love the character , and I love that people are passionate about her . I know there are a lot of people who just can 't stand her . And that 's why it 's so important to have that character in the mix . " Kirshner defended Jenny stating : " Jenny 's a very controversial character . I think the great thing about her is the fact that she 's so flawed . " During season two Jenny is seen coming out , getting her hair cut and becoming best friends with Shane McCutcheon ( Katherine Moennig ) . AfterEllen.com stated that Jenny cutting off her hair was a defining moment in her development because it also symbolized her cutting all of the bad stuff that happened before out of her life . Jenny 's transition continued into season three , Chaiken stated : " We find Jenny coming together , I predict this [ ... ] that Jenny will be more likable and accessible to the audience than she has ever been . She 's recovering . "
In 2009 , Chaiken was still confused over Jenny 's bad reception , of why it might be she said : " People read into the character that she was a manipulator , self @-@ absorbed , and a trouble maker who puts other people in service of her own neurotic agenda . I think people react so strongly because Jenny is just a mess in the way that so many people are . "
Of her character 's changes after season five , Kirshner stated : " I think she 'll continue to be just like a tumbleweed and a car crash and I 'm happy for that , I don 't want it to be wrapped up . She 'll never be normal and that 's just the way it is . " Responding to the criticism Jenny has received , Kirshner states : " Well , I agree with what 's said about the character for the most part . But again ... it 's my job . So , I mean , it 's a fun character . "
= = = Murder = = =
In December 2008 it was announced that the show 's creators had decided to kill the character off . It was confirmed that Jenny would still appear throughout the season in a " flashback " format . The first episode of the final season starts with Jenny 's murder . However the final series focuses on the events leading up to her death . Chaiken revealed that each episode would focus and tease with another motive . She described how it would play out , stating : " There 's one character at the beginning of each show who comes forward with the motive of the moment . This would be my reason for killing Jenny . " The storyline was described as a " sub @-@ plot " which would define the final season , but not " overpower " it . However , when the final episode aired there was no reveal to who killed Jenny . Showtime released a mini @-@ series titled " Interrogation Tapes " online , via the official website . Each video featured a fellow character being interviewed over the death of Jenny - although the killer was still not revealed . Kate Aurthur of Los Angeles Times questioned if viewers would still want to watch the season after Jenny is killed . New York later gave a large amount of praise to Jenny commenting : " Jenny Schecter is The L Word , and the death of her is the death of the show . " Diane Shipley of The Guardian stated her death was long overdue . Websites started selling " I killed Jenny Schecter " merchandise . Lydia Martin of The Miami Herald said Chaiken was being manipulative not revealing Jenny 's killer , so viewers would watch their online series . She also wanted to know " who the fuck " killed her because it did not give a " decent " ending to the show . Heather Hogan of AfterEllen stated that Jenny 's ending was a dis @-@ service to the character having never found out who killed her .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Jenny grew up in Illinois with her mother Sandy . She disliked her step @-@ father Warren and wanted to leave home as soon as she could . Jenny became a writer of fiction at a young age , she completed her Master of Fine Arts at the Iowa Writer 's Workshop at the University of Iowa . She won a major literary award and has had one of her short stories published . Jenny dates a man named Tim who she moved to Los Angeles to start a new life with .
= = = 2004 – 09 = = =
In season one , Jenny arrives to stay with her boyfriend Tim . On her very first night in Los Angeles , Jenny attends a party with her neighbors Tina and Bette where she meets Marina . Despite knowing of her relationship with Tim , Marina ambushes Jenny in the toilet and kisses her , and they start an affair , showing Jenny fighting her feelings and questioning her sexuality . Jenny begins to outright lie to Tim and everyone else about her infidelity . When Tim finds out about the affair , he forces Jenny to marry him . She later goes back to Marina , goes on a date with Dana Fairbanks ( Erin Daniels ) and briefly dates a much older woman , Robin ( Anne Ramsay ) .
In season two , Tim decides to move out and leave town - his faith and trust in Jenny - and humanity in general - destroyed by her infidelity and outright deception . Jenny becomes best friends with Shane , and invites her to move in . She begins a relationship with Shane 's ex @-@ girlfriend Carmen de la Pica Morales ( Sarah Shahi ) , but Carmen later goes back to Shane . Jenny starts having flashbacks of her childhood in which it is revealed she was sexually abused . Jenny starts writing another book and taking a college writing class to improve her fiction skills . Jenny 's teacher accuses her of being a non @-@ fiction writer because of her prose resembling Jenny 's past . Mark Wayland ( Eric Lively ) , a filmmaker who moves into the house to help pay their rent , starts spying on Jenny , Carmen and Shane , with hidden cameras . Jenny is hurt when the truth is revealed because she trusted him . Jenny becomes depressed and in the season finale she self @-@ harms by cutting herself with razor blades .
In season three , Jenny is sent away to a clinic in Illinois home town . There she meets Moira Sweeney ( Daniela Sea ) , who is transitioning into a man . They begin a relationship and return home . Max begins to take the first steps of his transition . Max 's hormone blockers result in his temper flaring ; he starts being slightly abusive to Jenny . Jenny later decides to end their relationship . She then writes a story about all her friends for The New Yorker .
In season four , the story later gets turned into a stage play , then a film titled Lez Girls . Marina briefly returns during the play , portraying Jenny 's character . Jenny realizes she is over Marina after being propositioned by her . Jenny becomes more mentally unbalanced when she adopts a dog to get close to a female veterinarian . The vet is a girlfriend of a columnist who gave Jenny 's story a bad review . Pretending to be distraught , Jenny has the dog put down . Jenny begins secretly dating the woman as part of her plan to ruin her girlfriend 's career . When Jenny is found out , she accused of being manipulative and evil .
In season five , while filming Lez Girls , she is promoted as the director . Jenny hires Adele Channing ( Malaya Rivera Drew ) as her personal assistant . Jenny then starts a relationship with the film 's biggest star , Niki Stevens ( Kate French ) . While on a camping trip , Jenny and Niki make a private sex tape . Adele then steals the tape and makes numerous copies . Niki , who is a closeted lesbian and needs to stay in the closet for the sake of her career , is shocked when Adele reveals her plans to send the tapes to the media if Jenny doesn 't hand the director 's job to her . She stands down and asks Niki to join her ; they split up when she doesn 't join her . Shane later sleeps with Niki , leaving Jenny heartbroken .
In season six , it is revealed that Jenny is dead . The series then reverts three months before the incident , picking up from the previous series finale . Shane 's ex @-@ girlfriend Molly Kroll ( Clementine Ford ) gives Jenny a letter of apology addressed to Shane . Jenny hides the letter so Shane will not find it . Tina defends Jenny after the original film reels of Lez Girls are stolen , preventing the film from being released . Jenny later starts a relationship with Shane . Jenny steals Alice Pieszecki 's ( Leisha Hailey ) ideas for a play which sparks a feud between the pair . Alice tries to convince everyone that the ideas were hers . Jenny keeps up the pretense and convinces everyone it is an original idea . Alice tries to break Shane and Jenny up to no avail . Jenny then reveals to Dylan Moreland ( Alexandra Hedison ) that Helena Peabody ( Rachel Shelley ) and the rest of their friends are setting her up to find out if she is in love with Helena or her money . Jenny starts teasing Max by buying him feminine gifts for his pregnancy . This alienates Shane and is worsened by her trust issues involving Shane 's fidelity . Shane sleeps with Niki once more and their relationship reaches a breaking point . Helena later finds out that Jenny revealed the truth to Dylan . This makes Helena desperate for revenge on her old friend . Tina and Shane later find Molly 's letter in the loft . Tina then finds the stolen originals of Lez Girls and she goes to confront Jenny .
Jenny spends her final days putting together a film of memories for Bette and Tina . The film contains friends past and present sharing their best moments . During the going @-@ away party held for Bette and Tina , who are planning on moving to New York , they watch the film and Jenny is found dead in the swimming pool in the back yard . It is assumed that she either fell or was pushed from the landing above the back steps , which is unfinished and lacks a proper railing . Because so many people have been offended , betrayed and hurt by Jenny , there are many suspects and they are interrogated .
= = Reception = =
In the book Blood Moon 's GT Gay and Lesbian Film , Darwin Porter brands Jenny " one of the most annoying , needy characters on television " and calls her a " lost damaged soul " . Fellow cast member Leisha Hailey has commented that Jenny is at her best when she is spiraling out of control . Hillary Frey of The New York Observer opined that Jenny provided " voyeuristic pleasure " for straight females in season one . She said she believed Jenny 's confusion to whom she should be with was plausible . Also adding the fact she gradually became self @-@ obsessed – yet still conveyed the " thrill and pleasure of a fresh sexual experience " , while portraying the sadness .
Jenny was criticized by Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe for her narcissistic tendencies . Kera Bolonik of New York magazine stated that " Jenny @-@ bashing " became a spectator sport from her inception . She also described Jenny 's development as going through different stages stating : " Season 1 : Selfish Jenny , Season 2 : Victimized Jenny , Season 3 : Heartless Jenny , Season 4 : Vindictive Jenny , Season 5 : Bitchy and narcissistic Jenny , Season 6 : Dead Jenny . " New York magazine later praised Jenny stating : " We don 't condone Jenny 's narcissism , her prima @-@ donna @-@ ness , or her questionable writing skills . But she is highly entertaining — and more important , her polarizing personality exposes the people around her . " In 2009 by the time season six was on air , the magazine claimed that Jenny was one step away from a Lesbian backlash , joking : " If only she would sing an acoustic version of the show 's ear @-@ melting theme song intermittently during the next episode to ensure that the entire Sapphic nation hits the streets bearing torches and pitchforks , all calling her name . "
New York magazine also describe the series and how Jenny took on the whole character traits of the show : " Like Jenny , The L Word was , at any given moment , capricious , obnoxious , patronizing , fabulous , fun , sexy , non sequitur , overreaching , under @-@ reaching , annoying , and yes , unforgettable . Not one other character besides Jenny embodied the whole character of the show . " British lesbian magazine Diva call Jenny " the girl we love to hate . " They also opined that " poor old Jenny didn 't have much going for her from the start . " That after her failed romances with Tim and Marina , she " got all pretentious " when she became an author . They also branded her the most hated lesbian character since Joan Ferguson ( Maggie Kirkpatrick ) on Prisoner : Cell Block H , credited most of the hatred upscaling when she had her dog put down and praised Kirshner for rising to the challenge of playing her .
Jennifer Thomas of Pioneer Press compiled a list of 12 of the best TV characters of 2009 ; Jenny was number 7 on her list and stated : " Jenny is a rare combination of destruction , self @-@ destruction , naivety and insanity . You can 't help but want to strangle her , but then she goes all needy and fragile . " She also claimed that the season finale was a let @-@ down , but Jenny would have been happy that even in death she was the center of attention and meddling in her friends lives .
Thomas has also said : " Jenny has always been a complex , and fascinating character , who you occasionally want to slap and shake . ( Or , in the case of the dog , just , well , murder her . ) Without her , though , the show wouldn 't be half as interesting . Just when you think you 've seen every bit of crazy Jenny can dish out , she digs deep and finds some new neuroticism . She 's fragile , but she 's steel @-@ spined when it comes to accepting responsibility for the havoc she wreaks in her life and everyone else 's . "
Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe compiled his list of most annoying TV characters . Jenny came second on the list and he stated : " Wow . The gods of narcissism blessed Jenny bigtime . She was just too , too self @-@ centered . She sucked the life out of everyone who crossed her path . " He also opined that Kirshner 's portrayal of Jenny 's " vanity and chameleon @-@ like qualities " was perhaps too convincing . He perceived scriptwriters as eventually understanding the " profundity of Jenny 's annoying effect " , and decided to escalate it . Gilbert concluded that in early seasons , when writers wanted the audience 's sympathy with Jenny 's journey of self @-@ realization , he " wanted her to leave The Planet for good . " Regarding Jenny 's mental state , Lydia Martin from The Miami Herald quipped " ( Marina ) sauntered into The Planet just to fuck with Jenny 's head . As if Jenny 's head needed the encouragement " .
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= 2012 Tour de France , Stage 11 to Stage 20 =
Stage 11 of the 2012 Tour de France was contested on 12 July and the race concluded with Stage 20 on 22 July . The second half of the race was situated entirely within France ; starting with a mountain stage from Albertville to La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles – incorporating two hors catégorie climbs during the stage – before the customary race @-@ concluding stage finish on the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris .
Following his victory in the ninth stage individual time trial , Team Sky rider Bradley Wiggins held the lead into the second half of the race . He maintained his race lead throughout the second half of the race , holding a lead of 2 minutes and 5 seconds – transpiring from stage 9 – until the race 's final individual time trial , held on the penultimate day of the race . Wiggins won the stage by 1 minute and 16 seconds ahead of his team @-@ mate Chris Froome , and Wiggins ultimately held his lead into Paris the following day to win the race overall by 3 minutes and 21 seconds , to become the first rider from Great Britain to win a Grand Tour race . Froome finished second , while the final podium was completed by former Vuelta a España winner Vincenzo Nibali , riding for the Liquigas – Cannondale team , who was the only other rider to finish within 10 minutes of Wiggins ' final overall time .
Only Wiggins ' team @-@ mate Mark Cavendish was able to win more than one stage during the second half of the race , winning two of the final three stages including a fourth consecutive final stage victory in Paris . This victory allowed him to become the most prolific sprinter at the Tour de France with 23 stage victories , surpassing the record of 22 which had been held for 48 years by France 's André Darrigade . Three French riders – Pierre Rolland , Pierrick Fédrigo and Thomas Voeckler – each took a stage victory during the second half of the race , with Voeckler 's victory in the queen stage helping in part for him to become the eventual winner of the mountains classification . Other stage victories were taken by David Millar , André Greipel , Luis León Sánchez and Alejandro Valverde .
During the fourteenth stage of the race , Wiggins neutralised the peloton on the descent from the Mur de Péguère climb , after carpet tacks were found to be responsible for around thirty punctures on the climb itself . Among those delayed was the defending champion Cadel Evans , who suffered three punctures on the climb and had lost around two minutes before Wiggins called a truce in the main field , allowing the breakaway to finish the stage over eighteen minutes clear of the pack . Following the raid of the Cofidis team hotel during the first rest day , the second rest day was marked by a positive drugs test by RadioShack – Nissan rider Fränk Schleck , the third @-@ placed rider from the 2011 race . Schleck quit the race after traces of xipamide , a banned sulfonamide diuretic drug , were found in the A @-@ sample of his urine , and was later confirmed by the B @-@ sample .
= = Classification standings = =
= = Stage 11 = =
12 July 2012 — Albertville to La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles , 148 km ( 92 @.@ 0 mi )
The stage was spent entirely in the Alps with two hors catégorie climbs – the Col de la Madeleine after 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) and the Col de la Croix de Fer after 93 km ( 57 @.@ 8 mi ) ; both of which had summits at 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) or higher – before the finish at La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles . The Col de la Croix de Fer was the highest point reached in the Alps in the 2012 Tour , so the leader across the summit would win the Souvenir Henri Desgrange . The finish was a first @-@ category climb of 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) at an average gradient of 6 @.@ 1 % . Much like the previous day , a large breakaway was formed after several different groups advanced clear of the main field as they approached the first climb of the day , at the Col de la Madeleine .
In total , there were 28 riders in the group at one point ; at the top of the climb , the pace picked up and the group splintered into several mini @-@ groups as Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Peter Velits scored the maximum points on offer for the climb , followed closely by Astana rider Fredrik Kessiakoff . Velits and Kessiakoff pulled out a 45 @-@ second advantage on the descent , but eight riders eventually bridged the gap and rejoined the duo before the Col de la Croix de Fer . Team Europcar had two riders in the group , with Christophe Kern setting the pace for team @-@ mate Pierre Rolland , and the tempo was again splitting the group up . Back in the peloton , young rider classification leader Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) attacked on the climb , as the benchmark for a later move by his team @-@ mate Cadel Evans . They acquired a 30 @-@ second lead at one point before Team Sky brought Bradley Wiggins back up to them . Kessiakoff just bettered Rolland for the mountains points atop the Col de la Croix de Fer , with the peloton around two minutes behind .
The group containing Wiggins and other overall contenders dropped a minute further back on the early parts of the Col du Mollard , where the breakaway consisted of Velits , Rolland , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Chris Anker Sørensen and Robert Kišerlovski of Astana , with Movistar Team 's Vasil Kiryienka later joining up . Rolland crashed on the descent from the climb , having taken first place points over the summit , while Sørensen was in difficulty to stay with the lead . Liquigas – Cannondale rider Vincenzo Nibali tried to breach the peloton on two occasions on the final climb , catching up with Lotto – Belisol 's Jurgen Van den Broeck who had escaped with eighth stage winner , FDJ – BigMat 's Thibaut Pinot . Evans cracked on the climb , losing time to Wiggins , team @-@ mate Chris Froome and other contenders . Froome put Wiggins into difficulty at one point , but backed the pace down via his team radio . Up front , Rolland was the last remaining rider of the breakaway , and soloed to his second Tour stage win , and his team 's second stage win in a row . Pinot led the yellow jersey group across the line almost a minute down , while Evans lost almost 90 seconds on Wiggins , Froome and Nibali , who filled the top three places overall at the conclusion of the stage .
= = Stage 12 = =
13 July 2012 — Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Maurienne to Annonay @-@ Davézieux , 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi )
With a parcours of 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi ) , the twelfth stage was the longest of the Tour ; the race left the Alps but only after a pair of first @-@ category climbs – the 1 @,@ 188 m ( 3 @,@ 898 ft ) Col du Grand Cucheron and the 1 @,@ 134 m ( 3 @,@ 720 ft ) Col du Granier – in the first 80 km ( 49 @.@ 7 mi ) , although there was also a third @-@ category climb of the Côte d 'Ardoix within the final 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) , before the finish in Annonay @-@ Davézieux . As had been the case in the previous two stages , there was another large breakaway group that set the tempo outside of the peloton in the early running . At its maximum , the group contained nineteen riders , but it had been reduced to eleven by the time the group reached the foot of the opening climb , the Col du Grand Cucheron .
Robert Kišerlovski of Astana took the maximum points on offer for the climb , to help protect the lead of the classification , held by team @-@ mate Fredrik Kessiakoff . Cofidis rider David Moncoutié tried to bridge the gap to reach the lead group , but crashed heavily on the descent from the climb . He had to abandon the race with abrasions . Kišerlovski also took maximum points on the Col du Granier , which made Kessiakoff 's lead safe for another day . After reaching the mid @-@ stage feeding zone in Saint @-@ Joseph @-@ de @-@ Rivière , the lead group split and five riders – David Millar of Garmin – Sharp , Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Jean @-@ Christophe Péraud , Euskaltel – Euskadi 's Egoi Martínez , Kišerlovski and Cyril Gautier , looking to give Team Europcar a third win in a row – accelerated away to a near 13 @-@ minute lead at its maximum . With none of the riders being in overall contention , the peloton let the group go and decided not to chase them down before the finish .
None of the quintet attacked each other , and they remained as one into the final 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of the stage . Kišerlovski played his hand first , launching an attack with 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , but Péraud closed down the move almost immediately ; a secondary move took Martínez and Gautier out of the equation for the stage victory . Péraud accelerated again and Millar latched onto his wheel with Kišerlovski unable to follow the pair . Millar took the front inside the final 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , but Péraud remained on his wheel until just before 200 m ( 660 ft ) to go ; he launched his attack , but Millar beat him to the line for his fourth individual stage victory at the Tour – his first since 2003 – and the fourth different British rider to take a stage win at the 2012 Tour . The peloton was led across the line almost eight minutes down by the top two in the points classification , Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss and Liquigas – Cannondale 's Peter Sagan . Sagan protested the sprint finish of Goss , feeling that he had impeded him in the closing metres . Race officials agreed with Sagan and demoted Goss to seventh – helped in part by a one @-@ second time gap between them and the rest of the field – and penalised him 30 points in the classification , and 30 seconds overall .
= = Stage 13 = =
14 July 2012 — Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Cap d 'Agde , 217 km ( 134 @.@ 8 mi )
This transitional stage took the Tour to the Mediterranean Sea . The day 's only categorised climb over Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair at Sète and the wind off the sea were two potential disruptions to the race in the final 28 km ( 17 @.@ 4 mi ) of the stage . For the celebration of Bastille Day , the breakaway had extensive French representation , with five of the eight @-@ rider move – Cofidis rider Samuel Dumoulin , FDJ – BigMat 's Mathieu Ladagnous , Jimmy Engoulvent of Saur – Sojasun , Maxime Bouet ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) and Jérôme Pineau , representing the Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step team – from the country . The group was rounded out by Pablo Urtasun of Euskaltel – Euskadi , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Michael Mørkøv and Argos – Shimano rider Roy Curvers .
The octet made their escape in the opening 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) of the stage , and their advantage eventually stemmed to a maximum of almost 10 minutes at the 35 km ( 21 @.@ 7 mi ) mark , before Orica – GreenEDGE sent riders forward to the front of the peloton in order to bring the gap down . Urtasun led the group across the line at the stage 's intermediate sprint point in Mas @-@ de @-@ Londres , but behind , points classification leader Peter Sagan ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) was able to launch his sprint for the line before Orica – GreenEDGE 's sprinter Matthew Goss did so , and extended his lead in the standings as a result . Pineau looked to go clear with 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) to go , but his move was anticipated by Mørkøv , before he attacked of his own accord . Mørkøv held a one @-@ minute advantage over his former breakaway companions all the way to the foot of the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair , but the peloton were able to close the advantage to them all before the summit of the climb .
BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans and Lotto – Belisol rider Jurgen Van den Broeck both attacked on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair , and their accelerated pace ripped the peloton apart , with many riders falling off the back of the peloton . Around 25 riders remained in the lead group , with only Sagan and Van Den Broeck 's team @-@ mate André Greipel out of the sprinters making the group . Further moves came from Astana rider Alexander Vinokourov , Michael Albasini of Orica – GreenEDGE , and Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez , but they were closed down by Lotto – Belisol – looking after Greipel for the finish – and Team Sky for race leader Bradley Wiggins . Wiggins led out team @-@ mate Edvald Boasson Hagen for the sprint , but Greipel launched his own off his wheel and managed to fend off a quick @-@ finishing Sagan to take his third stage win of the Tour by half a wheel , the first such feat by a German rider since Erik Zabel in 2001 .
= = Stage 14 = =
15 July 2012 — Limoux to Foix , 191 km ( 118 @.@ 7 mi )
The race entered the lower Pyrenees with two first @-@ category climbs ; the 1 @,@ 517 m ( 4 @,@ 977 ft ) Port de Lers and the Mur de Péguère , reaching an elevation of 1 @,@ 375 m ( 4 @,@ 511 ft ) . The Mur de Péguère was featuring for the first time in the Tour de France ; with sections of the climb in excess of 16 % . Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were closed down shortly after . It was not until a quarter of the way through the stage – some 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) in – that a move was allowed to be established on the road , when eleven riders went clear including the points classification leader Peter Sagan of Liquigas – Cannondale , who was looking to extend his points advantage over his rivals André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) and Orica – GreenEDGE rider Matthew Goss .
By the time that Sagan had crossed over the intermediate sprint line first , at Tarascon @-@ sur @-@ Ariège , the leaders ' advantage was already over thirteen minutes , and was increasing by the kilometre due to the wet conditions on the roads . At the Port de Lers , the eleven riders were fifteen minutes clear when Cyril Gautier ( Team Europcar ) developed a problem with his bike and had to stop for a change of equipment , losing around 40 seconds to his ten companions . He would not bridge back to them , and ultimately lost fourteen minutes to them by the stage finish . Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez attacked on the Mur de Péguère , with only Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Gorka Izagirre and Sandy Casar of FDJ – BigMat able to follow originally . Sagan later brought himself back up to the group , before Casar pulled a few seconds clear over the summit .
At the summit of the climb , carpet tacks were thrown onto the road causing as many as thirty riders to puncture , including Gilbert 's team @-@ mates Cadel Evans and Steve Cummings , while race leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) changed his bike as a precaution . As a result , Wiggins called a temporary halt to the racing on the descent . At this time , Pierre Rolland ( Team Europcar ) attacked and gained a two @-@ minute margin over the peloton , but a combination of the tempo set by Lotto – Belisol and Liquigas – Cannondale , and Rolland realising the situation behind – later apologising for his actions – meant that he was brought back to the field , and they continued to slowly roll towards the finish in Foix . At the front , Sánchez attacked with around 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining , and eventually soloed his way to a fourth career stage victory at the Tour . Sagan led home a group of four riders almost a minute behind , while the peloton eventually crossed the line over eighteen minutes behind Sánchez .
= = Stage 15 = =
16 July 2012 — Samatan to Pau , 158 @.@ 5 km ( 98 @.@ 5 mi )
The stage ran through the foothills of the Pyrenees , in the Gers and Pyrénées @-@ Atlantiques departments . There were three minor climbs in the final third of the stage , which was expected to suit the remaining sprinters . Like the previous day , small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were unsuccessful . The most prominent of these was a five @-@ rider move , involving Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Bert Grabsch , Garmin – Sharp rider David Millar , Andriy Hryvko of Astana , Rui Costa ( Movistar Team ) and Yukiya Arashiro , representing Team Europcar . The peloton did not allow them to gain an advantage of more than 30 seconds , and they were eventually brought back to the main field at the 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) mark .
Another five @-@ rider group formed immediately thereafter , consisting of Christian Vande Velde ( Garmin – Sharp ) , Arashiro 's team @-@ mate Thomas Voeckler , FDJ – BigMat 's Pierrick Fédrigo , Cofidis rider Samuel Dumoulin and Dries Devenyns of Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step . Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Nicki Sørensen chased the quintet down for around 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) , and eventually made the group a sextet , after his team set the tempo in the main field for a while . The peloton had reduced the gap to the leaders to around five minutes at one point , but eventually decided to allow the breakaway to battle it out for stage honours . Voeckler took maximum points on all three categorised climbs prior to the closing 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , before Sørensen launched the first sustained attacks prior to the finish . However , Fédrigo and Vande Velde gained some ground with their attack at 6 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to go , and they contested the sprint in Pau ; Vande Velde tried to launch his sprint first , but Fédrigo saw the move and remained in front , to take his second stage win in Pau – after a previous victory in 2010 – and fourth of his career . The remaining members of the breakaway came in before the main field , with Lotto – Belisol 's André Greipel leading them home 11 ' 50 " down on Fédrigo .
= = Stage 16 = =
18 July 2012 — Pau to Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon , 197 km ( 122 @.@ 4 mi )
After the second and final rest day , the race entered the high mountains with the queen stage crossing two hors catégorie climbs – the Col d 'Aubisque and the Col du Tourmalet – followed by the first @-@ category climbs of the Col d 'Aspin and the Col de Peyresourde , completing the so @-@ called " Circle of Death " , before dropping down to the finish in Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon . The first rider over the Tourmalet – the highest point reached in both the Pyrenees and the 2012 Tour as a whole at 2 @,@ 115 m ( 6 @,@ 939 ft ) – received the Souvenir Jacques Goddet .
Almost forty riders – around a quarter of the race 's peloton at the start of the stage – made it into the early breakaway after around 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) , including three riders in the lower reaches of the top twenty placings overall , mountains classification leader Fredrik Kessiakoff ( Astana ) and stage @-@ winners Thomas Voeckler of Team Europcar and FDJ – BigMat rider Pierrick Fédrigo . Voeckler and Kessiakoff led the group over the top of the Col d 'Aubisque , with the group remaining together until the foot of the Col du Tourmalet . Here , the group started to fragment after Garmin – Sharp 's Dan Martin accelerated with Kessiakoff and Rabobank 's Laurens ten Dam in tow . BMC Racing Team rider George Hincapie , Chris Anker Sørensen of Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank and Saur – Sojasun 's Brice Feillu later joined the group up front , but only Voeckler and Feillu remained together at the top of the climb , where Voeckler further cut into Kessiakoff 's polka @-@ dot jersey lead . The peloton crossed the summit around ten minutes later .
Voeckler and Feillu had an advantage of almost two minutes at the bottom of the Col d 'Aspin , while Martin – on his own after being the last to be dropped by the French pairing out front – was joined by Hincapie and six other riders . With added pressure from Sørensen and RadioShack – Nissan rider Jens Voigt , Kessiakoff was dropped by the group , and aided the efforts for Voeckler to take the lead in the mountains classification . Back in the peloton , the tempo set by Liquigas – Cannondale and Team Sky was reducing the numbers in the group , and eventually , BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans lost contact on the climb . However , with team @-@ mates around him , he was able to rejoin the group before the final climb of the Col de Peyresourde . A third of the way up the climb , Voeckler left his companion Feillu behind , and set off on a solo attack . Evans again fell off the back of the group , as Vincenzo Nibali ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) decided to make a preliminary attack on his rivals , Team Sky 's Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome .
Wiggins and Froome were able to make their way back up to Nibali , sandwiching him with Froome on the front and Wiggins at the back of the trio . Voeckler cemented his mountains classification lead by reaching the summit of the Col de Peyresourde first , with the remaining riders of the breakaway spread out between him and the group of Wiggins , Froome and Nibali . Sørensen trailed Voeckler by a minute @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . Nibali attacked twice more on the steepest part of the climb , but Wiggins shadowed the move and kept himself up with Nibali . At the front , Voeckler descended towards the finish in Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon with a 1 ' 40 " lead over Sørensen , and held the lead to the end for his second stage win of the race , and repeated his 2010 stage victory in the town . Sørensen remained 1 ' 40 " behind in second , while Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Gorka Izagirre bested Alexander Vinokourov ( Astana ) for third place . Nibali , Wiggins and Froome came in seven minutes after Voeckler , while Evans lost almost five minutes to the trio , falling from fourth to seventh in the general classification behind Lotto – Belisol rider Jurgen Van den Broeck , RadioShack – Nissan 's Haimar Zubeldia and his own team @-@ mate Tejay van Garderen . Cofidis rider Jan Ghyselinck finished four seconds outside the stage 's cutoff time , but he was given a reprieve by the comissaires to continue in the Tour , making him the new lanterne rouge .
= = Stage 17 = =
19 July 2012 — Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon to Peyragudes , 143 @.@ 5 km ( 89 @.@ 2 mi )
The final day in the mountains saw the race cross the first @-@ category Col de Menté and the second @-@ category Col des Ares before reaching the last hors catégorie climb of the Tour , the Port de Balès . The race then dropped down , before returning over the uncategorised Col de Peyresourde – crossing the summit for the second consecutive day – followed by a summit finish at the Peyragudes ski resort . With a scheduled parcours of 143 @.@ 5 km ( 89 @.@ 2 mi ) , the stage was the shortest of the mountain stages of the 2012 Tour .
Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first half @-@ hour of racing after several attacks were closed down before a gap could be established . It was not until the Col de Menté that the early foundations of a breakaway were laid with the two mountains classification combatants , Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler and Fredrik Kessiakoff of Astana again battling it out for points ; Voeckler prevailed ahead of Kessiakoff . The two riders were also a part of a seven @-@ rider breakaway that formed on the descent from the climb . The group was also bolstered for a time by Liquigas – Cannondale rider Vincenzo Nibali , third place in the general classification behind Team Sky duo Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome , but he eventually sat up from the group as the breakaway was not likely to be given an advantage if Nibali was in the group .
A ten @-@ rider chase group formed behind the leaders , and eventually joined up with them around halfway through the stage . Voeckler bettered Kessiakoff at the Côte de Burs , to extend his lead in the classification ; the peloton were around three minutes behind , but closing gradually . Following a move by a pair of Euskaltel – Euskadi riders , Rui Costa ( Movistar Team ) attacked out of the group as a set @-@ up for his team leader Alejandro Valverde , who followed his move several kilometres later . Costa paced him for a time before Valverde went clear on his own , and built up a 35 @-@ second lead at the summit of the Port de Balès , while the peloton had closed by half a minute to trail him by around two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . The peloton caught the group of chasers including Voeckler , Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step rider Levi Leipheimer and Blel Kadri of Ag2r – La Mondiale , on the descent with only Valverde remaining ahead as they hit the Col de Peyresourde .
For the second ascent of the Col de Peyresourde during the race , the riders would take the climb in the opposite direction from what they had done on the previous day , before a slight descent and then the final climb to Peyragudes . Valverde held a lead of 1 ' 20 " at the top of the uncategorised pass , with only a handful of riders remaining with the group of the maillot jaune , including the top four in the general classification . Valverde was holding his own off the front , and the gap was fluctuating between 1 ' 20 " and 1 ' 30 " for several kilometres as they neared the summit , which came at the flamme rouge point . Lotto – Belisol 's Jurgen Van den Broeck tried to attack , but was pulled back by the Froome and Wiggins tandem , which then accelerated away from their rivals and set off after Valverde . Ultimately , they came up short due to Froome having to wait three times for Wiggins as the race leader was several metres behind his domestique on certain parts of the climb . Valverde achieved his fourth career stage victory at the Tour , nineteen seconds ahead of Froome and Wiggins , who in turn extended their advantage over the rest of the field .
= = Stage 18 = =
20 July 2012 — Blagnac to Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde , 222 @.@ 5 km ( 138 @.@ 3 mi )
Despite being ranked a " flat stage " , there were four ranked climbs during the day which had the potential to produce a successful break from the peloton . In the early kilometres of the stage , a group of six riders instigated the first breakaway of the day , but after the peloton allowed them to create an advantage on the roads , they were brought back to the confines of the peloton not long later . There was then an uneventful period in the action , with no major attacks going off the front , until the first categorised climb of the day , at the Côte de Saint @-@ Georges .
On the climb itself , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Nick Nuyens and Team Europcar 's Yukiya Arashiro attacked up the hill , before they were joined by fourteen other riders to create the second major breakaway of the day 's stage . The best @-@ placed rider amongst the group was Rui Costa of the Movistar Team – just under half an hour behind the race leader Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky – who was fresh from his set @-@ up work for team @-@ mate Alejandro Valverde the previous day . Around halfway through the stage , the advantage between the sixteen leaders and the main field reached its highest point of the day , at the 3 ' 30 " mark , before BMC Racing Team and Ag2r – La Mondiale set the tempo to start bringing the leaders back to the peloton . In the peloton , several riders fell to the ground after a dog ran into their path , slowing the pace as a whole . Among those involved was BMC Racing Team 's Philippe Gilbert , who had to be restrained when back on his feet . Liquigas – Cannondale sent their riders forward to set the pace on the front of the group in the hopes of setting Peter Sagan up for a fourth stage victory of the race , and the gap reduced under two minutes inside of 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining .
At the head of the race , Garmin – Sharp 's David Millar attacked on the Côte de Souillac , where moves from Arashiro and Wiggins ' team @-@ mate Edvald Boasson Hagen followed not long later . Five riders – Lotto – Belisol rider Adam Hansen , Alexander Vinokourov of Astana , Nuyens , Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) and FDJ – BigMat 's Jérémy Roy – came together at the bottom of the Côte de Lissac @-@ sur @-@ Couze , before Nuyens and Roy were dropped on the climb . They were replaced in the group by Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Nicolas Roche , RadioShack – Nissan rider Andreas Klöden and Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank , with the six riders remaining together off the front into the finishing straight in Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde . Roche and Sánchez attacked for the line , but both riders were usurped by the finish of Team Sky sprinter Mark Cavendish following a lead @-@ out from Boasson Hagen . Cavendish went around the outside of the pairing and took his 22nd Tour stage victory on the line , matching the tallies of Lance Armstrong , and André Darrigade for fourth place in the all @-@ time Tour stage wins list , and tying Darrigade 's record for victories by a sprinter . Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss and Sagan also managed to get ahead of Sánchez and Roche in the closing stages , for second and third places respectively , but were around ten lengths behind Cavendish at the finish .
= = Stage 19 = =
21 July 2012 — Bonneval to Chartres , 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) , ( ITT )
The penultimate stage of the Tour was the final individual time trial with good roads into the centre of the city of Chartres . With other noted specialists within the time trial discipline having already abandoned the race , the top two riders in the general classification – Team Sky pairing Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome – were expected to be the favourites for the stage , having finished first and second in the ninth stage time trial . As was customary of time trial stages , the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . Thus , Jimmy Engoulvent of Saur – Sojasun , who , in 153rd place , trailed overall leader Wiggins by 3 hours , 49 minutes and 9 seconds , was the first rider to set off on the stage .
Engoulvent recorded a time of 1 hour , 12 minutes and 49 seconds for the course as he was first to reach the line ; but his lead was short @-@ lived as several minutes later , Cofidis rider Julien Fouchard went round the course over two minutes quicker than the time of Engoulvent . Garmin – Sharp 's Johan Vansummeren was the first rider to record a time below 1 hour and 10 minutes with a time of 1 hour , 9 minutes and 24 seconds , before Argos – Shimano rider Patrick Gretsch recorded a time almost three minutes quicker , having passed the two riders that started directly before him – at one @-@ minute intervals – on the course , and another on the finish line . Gretsch 's time held for a considerable amount of time – around 2 hours – and was ultimately good enough for him to place sixth in the final stage results . It was not until the 88th rider to start the course that his time was beaten . Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank set the best time at each of the three intermediate time @-@ checks along the 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) parcours and eventually crossed the finish line in a time of 1 hour , 6 minutes and 3 seconds , to surpass Gretsch 's time by thirty @-@ eight seconds .
The Spanish national champion 's time held right into the final riders to take to the course , now at three @-@ minute intervals for the last 14 riders . BMC Racing Team 's Tejay van Garderen , the holder of the white jersey for the young rider classification leader , went beneath Sánchez 's time at the first split , but faded on the rest of the course and eventually finished 44 seconds outside of his time in third place . He had already passed his team @-@ mate Cadel Evans , who had started three minutes ahead , on course , and the Boulder , Colorado native later dedicated his performance to the victims of the shooting in nearby Aurora . Only Froome and Wiggins beat the time of van Garderen at the first time @-@ point , with Wiggins beating Froome by a dozen seconds ; Wiggins continued to extend his lead on course , holding a 54 @-@ second buffer at the second time @-@ check , and 1 ' 15 " at the third . Froome crossed the line in a time of 1 hour , 5 minutes and 29 seconds to beat Sánchez 's time by 34 seconds , but Wiggins achieved his second stage win of the race , adding one second to his advantage between the third time @-@ check and the finish ; punching the air as he crossed the finish line . The only change in positions for the general classification inside the top ten was Evans being passed for sixth place by RadioShack – Nissan 's Haimar Zubeldia – despite nearly hitting a barrier during his pass through the course – by a margin of eight seconds .
= = Stage 20 = =
22 July 2012 — Rambouillet to Paris ( Champs @-@ Élysées ) , 120 km ( 74 @.@ 6 mi )
The Tour concluded with the now @-@ customary stage finish on the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris . The stage had an easy start – with two fourth @-@ category climbs 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) apart , inside the first third of the stage – before eight high @-@ speed laps , followed by the finish , which was expected to result in a sprint for the line . In keeping with tradition , the final stage began at a slow pace , and was a largely ceremonial procession through the suburbs of Paris . Shortly after the riders reached the circuit in the centre of the city , racing began in earnest , and after various unsuccessful attempts , the main break was initiated by Jens Voigt ( RadioShack – Nissan ) and Lampre – ISD 's Danilo Hondo with around 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go .
Hondo led the field across the final intermediate sprint point of the race , with Voigt just behind . Hondo did not remain out front however , as Voigt was eventually joined by ten other riders to form the breakaway , with their advantage eventually reaching a maximum of around thirty seconds in the closing stages . Hondo later crashed on the final lap , along with Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Mickaël Cherel , but both riders eventually remounted to finish the stage . As the peloton closed down the leaders ' advantage , mainly through the work of Team Sky , Liquigas – Cannondale and Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank , the breakaway lost members , until they were all caught with 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining . The lead @-@ out train for Mark Cavendish ( Team Sky ) , held the lead of the race through the final corners , and he won the final stage for the fourth successive year , becoming the first incumbent world champion to win on the Champs @-@ Élysées . His 23rd stage victory allowed him to move into fourth place on the all @-@ time Tour stage wins list , while the leaders of the four classifications finished in the peloton to secure their victories , and the traditional prize @-@ giving was made shortly after the race .
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= Ashland , Oregon =
Ashland is a city in Jackson County , in the State of Oregon . It lies along Interstate 5 approximately 16 mi ( 26 km ) north of the California border and near the south end of the Bear Creek Valley , an arm of the Rogue Valley . As of July 1 , 2013 , the city 's population was estimated to be 20 @,@ 713 .
The city is the home of Southern Oregon University ( SOU ) and the Oregon Shakespeare Festival ( OSF ) . These are important to Ashland 's economy , which also depends on restaurants , galleries , and retail stores that cater to playgoers and other visitors . Lithia Park along Ashland Creek , historic buildings , and a paved intercity bike trail provide additional tourist attractions .
Ashland , originally called Ashland Mills , was named after Ashland County , Ohio , the original home of founder Abel Helman , and secondarily for Ashland , Kentucky , where other founders had family connections . Ashland has a mayor @-@ council government assisted by citizen committees . Historically , its liberal politics have differed , often sharply , with much of the rest of southwest Oregon .
= = History = =
Prior to the arrival of settlers in mid @-@ 19th century , the Shasta people lived in the valley along the creek approximately where Ashland is located . Early Hudson 's Bay Company hunters and trappers , following the Siskiyou Trail , passed through the site in the 1820s . In the late 1840s , settlers ( mostly American ) following the Applegate Trail began passing through the area . By the early 1850s , the Donation Land Act brought many white settlers into the Rogue Valley and into conflict with its native people . These often violent clashes continued until 1856 .
In 1851 , gold was discovered at Rich Gulch , a tributary of Jackson Creek , and a tent city developed on its banks , the area later known as Jacksonville . Settlers arrived in the Ashland area in January 1852 , including Robert B. Hargadine , Sylvester Pease , Abel D Helman , Eber Emery , and others . Helman and Hargadine filed the first donation land claims in Ashland . Helman and Emery built a sawmill along what they called Mill Creek ( later renamed Ashland Creek ) to turn timber into lumber for settlers . In 1854 , they and another settler , M. B. Morris , built a second mill , Ashland Flouring Mills , to grind local wheat into flour . The community around the mill became known as Ashland Mills . A post office was established in Ashland Mills in 1855 with Helman as postmaster .
During the 1860s and 1870s the community grew , establishing a school , churches , businesses , and a large employer , Ashland Woolen Mills , which produced clothing and blankets from local wool . In 1871 , the Post Office dropped " Mills " from Ashland 's name . In 1872 Reverend J. H. Skidmore opened a college , Ashland Academy , a predecessor of Southern Oregon University .
In 1887 , Portland , Oregon , and San Francisco , California , were joined by rail at Ashland . Until 1926 , when most rail service began taking a different route ( east through Klamath Falls to avoid the steep grade through the Siskiyou Mountains ) , Ashland thrived on rail trade of local products , including pears , peaches , and apples .
In 1908 , the Women 's Civic Improvement Club petitioned for the creation of a park — Ashland Canyon Park — along Ashland Creek . The discovery of lithia water near Emigrant Lake around the same time led to a plan to establish a mineral spa at the park . Voters approved bonds to pay for the project , which included piping the mineral water from its source to Ashland . The town engaged John McLaren , landscape architect of San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park , to design the park , renamed Lithia Springs Park , later shortened to Lithia Park . Although the park was popular , the mineral spa plans proved too expensive for local taxpayers and were abandoned in 1916 . Meanwhile , entrepreneurs took to bottling and selling mineral waters from the area 's springs .
During the Fourth of July celebration in 1935 , Angus L. Bowmer arranged the first performances of what would become the Oregon Shakespeare Festival . The festival grew during the 20th century , and has become an award @-@ winning and internationally @-@ known regional theater company .
Many of Ashland 's historic buildings have been preserved and restored . The city has 48 individual structures and 2 historic districts ( the Ashland Railroad Addition District and the Downtown District ) on the National Register of Historic Places . The structures include the Enders Building ( home of the Columbia Hotel ) , which from 1910 to 1928 contained the largest mercantile establishment between Sacramento and Portland .
= = Geography = =
Ashland is at 1 @,@ 949 feet ( 594 m ) above sea level in the foothills of the Siskiyou and Cascade ranges , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of the California border on Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . About 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Ashland and 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of the California border is Siskiyou Summit , which at 4 @,@ 310 feet ( 1 @,@ 310 m ) is the highest point on I @-@ 5 . Ashland is about 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Medford and about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Portland . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of about 6 @.@ 6 square miles ( 17 @.@ 1 km2 ) , all land .
Ashland Creek and its tributaries begin on the flanks of Mount Ashland , at 7 @,@ 533 feet ( 2 @,@ 296 m ) above sea level in the Siskiyou Mountains south of the city . Upstream ( south ) of the city boundary , these streams flow mainly through the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . The creek flows through the city to meet Bear Creek , which roughly parallels I @-@ 5 along the east side of Ashland . Bear Creek , one of many streams in the Rogue Valley , flows generally northwest to join the Rogue River near Gold Hill , and from there the Rogue River flows generally west to its mouth on the Pacific Ocean . Ashland and the Bear Creek Valley are part of the Rogue Valley .
Oregon Route 99 , running roughly parallel to I @-@ 5 , passes through downtown Ashland . Oregon Route 66 enters Ashland from the east and intersects Route 99 near the city center .
= = = Climate = = =
Ashland lies within Oregon 's southwest interior climate zone , in which all but the higher @-@ elevation sites are in the rain shadow of the Oregon Coast Range to the west . The largest urban areas in this zone in addition to Ashland are Medford and Grants Pass in the Rogue Valley , and Roseburg in the Umpqua River Valley further north . Although the mountain peaks in this zone receive up to 120 inches ( 3 @,@ 000 mm ) of precipitation a year , the urban areas and the valleys in which they lie generally get 20 inches ( 510 mm ) or less . This valley climate is particularly good for growing fruit , especially pears , and for producing other crops and farm goods such as hay , grain , poultry , and beef .
Cloud cover in nearby Medford varies from an average of 21 percent in July to 86 percent in December . On average , precipitation falls in Ashland on 114 days each year and totals about 20 inches ( 510 mm ) . The average annual snowfall is only 1 @.@ 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 6 cm ) . The average relative humidity , measured at 4 p.m. daily , is 47 percent in Medford , varying from 26 percent in July to 76 percent in December . According to the Köppen climate classification system , Ashland has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) .
The coolest month is December , with an average high temperature of 47 ° F ( 8 ° C ) , and the warmest month is July , with an average high of about 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) . The highest temperature ever recorded in Ashland was 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) , observed in August 1981 , and the record low of − 4 ° F ( − 20 ° C ) occurred in December 1972 .
= = Demographics = =
In the census of 2010 , there were 20 @,@ 078 people , 9 @,@ 409 households , and 4 @,@ 542 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 047 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 176 / km2 ) . There were 10 @,@ 455 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 587 per square mile ( 613 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was about 90 % White , 1 % African American , 1 % Native American , 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % Pacific Islander , 1 @.@ 4 % from other races , and 4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were about 5 % of the population .
There were 9 @,@ 409 households out of which about 21 % had children under the age of 18 living with them . About 34 % were married couples living together ; 10 % had a female householder with no husband present , about 4 % had a male householder with no wife present , and about 52 % were non @-@ families . About 38 % of all households were made up of individuals and 13 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 03 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 63 .
The median age in the city was 42 @.@ 9 years . About 16 % of residents were under the age of 18 , and about 16 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 . Rounded to the nearest whole number , 21 % were from 25 to 44 years old ; 30 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 18 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was about 46 % male and 54 % female .
In 2010 , the median income for a household in the city was $ 41 @,@ 334 , and the median income for a family was $ 58 @,@ 409 . Males had a median income of $ 50 @,@ 368 versus $ 34 @,@ 202 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 28 @,@ 941 . About 21 % of the population and 13 % of families had incomes below the poverty line . Out of the total population , about 30 % of those under the age of 18 and 3 @.@ 5 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
= = Government = =
Ashland has a mayor – council government consisting of a mayor and six council members elected by the city 's voters to serve four @-@ year terms . John Stromberg , whose term ends in 2016 , is the current mayor . Unelected citizen committees assist the mayor and council in setting legislative goals .
Peter Buckley , a Democrat from Ashland , represents Ashland and all of Oregon House District 5 in the state legislature . As part of Oregon Senate District 3 , Ashland is represented by Democrat Alan Bates . At the federal level , Greg Walden , a Republican , speaks for Ashland and the rest of Oregon 's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives . Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley , both Democrats , serve the state of Oregon in the United States Senate .
Historically , Ashland has been something of a political outlier in southwest Oregon . In the presidential election of 1860 , Ashland favored Abraham Lincoln while its neighbors strongly preferred pro @-@ slavery candidates . In the early 1900s , Ashland voters supported women 's suffrage and prohibition , generally out of step with the rest of the region . In more recent elections , liberal Ashland has supported tax levies and environmental regulations opposed by voters elsewhere in Jackson and nearby counties . Critics sometimes refer to the city as the People 's Republic of Ashland .
= = Economy = =
Income from tourism is important to Ashland 's economy . A large number of restaurants , galleries , and retail stores cater to thousands of visitors who attend plays each year at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival . In 2011 , the festival sold more than 390 @,@ 000 tickets to its theater productions .
The town 's largest employer is Southern Oregon University ( SOU ) , which has a faculty and staff of more than 750 . In addition to the Oregon Shakespeare Festival and the university , health @-@ service providers make significant contributions to the economy . Businesses related to outdoor recreation , transportation , technology , and light manufacturing are also important . In 2010 , the Shakespeare Festival employed about 500 people , the hospital about 400 , the public schools about 300 , and the City of Ashland about 250 . The Bathroom Readers ' Press , which produces the Uncle John 's Bathroom Reader books , is based in Ashland and San Diego . Brammo , specializing in battery @-@ electric motorcycles , was based in Ashland but moved to Talent .
= = Arts and culture = =
The Oregon Shakespeare Festival has grown from a summer outdoor series in the 1930s to a season that stretches from February to October , incorporating Shakespearean and non @-@ Shakespearean plays at three theaters . The OSF has become the largest regional repertory theater in the United States .
The Oregon Cabaret Theater features musicals and comedy throughout the year . Opened in 1986 , the dinner theater occupies a former First Baptist Church built in Mission Revival style . The Ashland Independent Film Festival , which shows international and domestic films of almost every genre , takes place each April in the Varsity Theatre downtown . About 90 films are shown during the five days of the festival . In 2009 , Ashland was the setting for the movie version of Neil Gaiman 's Coraline .
The annual Ashland New Plays Festival ( ANPF ) is a nonprofit organization that encourages playwrights to develop new work through public readings . Each year , the ANPF holds an international competition that winnows hundreds of submissions to four plays that are read to live audiences by professional actors during a five @-@ day festival in October .
= = = Museums and other points of interest = = =
The National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory in Ashland is the world 's only laboratory dedicated to solving crimes against wildlife . Using forensic science , experts at the laboratory help wildlife officers to investigate possible crimes against animals and to establish links between victims and suspects in cases that go to court . The laboratory has assisted the International Criminal Police Organization ( INTERPOL ) and foreign agencies concerned with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITIES ) .
The Ashland City Band ( ACB ) was organized in the late 19th century as the Ashland Brass Band . The band used an octagonal gazebo @-@ style bandstand in Lithia Park until the Butler Memorial Band Shell was built in Lithia Park in 1946 . The ACB gives public concerts there each summer between June and August .
= = Parks = =
Lithia Park is a 93 @-@ acre ( 38 ha ) park , including 42 acres ( 17 ha ) on the National Register of Historic Places , that begins near the downtown shopping area and extends upstream along Ashland Creek near the center of the city . It includes two ponds , a Japanese garden , tennis courts , two public greens , a bandshell ( outdoor stage ) and miles of hiking trails . The name Lithia comes from natural mineral water found in the Ashland area . It has a strong mineral taste and slight effervescence , and the lithia water fountains found on the town plaza are frequently tasted by unsuspecting tourists ( often at the behest of residents or frequent visitors who use the fountains as a cheap , humorous Ashland initiation rite ) .
A hiking and biking path , the Bear Creek Greenway , begins in Ashland near the intersection of West Nevada Street with Helman Street , close to the confluence of Ashland Creek ( which flows through Lithia Park ) . with Bear Creek . The 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) path follows Bear Creek between Ashland and Central Point and passes through Talent , Phoenix , and Medford .
= = Education = =
Southern Oregon University , a public co @-@ ed four @-@ year university founded in 1926 , offers courses of study toward degrees in the liberal arts , science , business , and education . Students can focus on any of more than 30 major fields or enroll in programs such as Shakespeare Studies and other minors . With an enrollment of about 6 @,@ 200 undergraduates as of Fall 2014 , this urban university also offers graduate @-@ level programs on its 175 @-@ acre ( 71 ha ) campus .
About 57 percent of the university 's students are women , and about 43 percent are men . Their most popular major fields include those related to business , psychology , visual and performing arts , social sciences , and protective services such as law enforcement and firefighting . The student – faculty ratio in 2013 – 14 is 20 to 1 . Tuition in 2013 – 14 is $ 7 @,@ 863 per year for Oregon residents and $ 20 @,@ 238 for all others .
The Ashland School District oversees three elementary schools , one of which is a magnet school focused on science and the arts ; one middle school ; one high school ; and a community learning center . Ashland High School was ranked 1,395th best among the nation 's public high schools and 15th best in Oregon by U.S. News & World Report as of 2013 .
= = Media = =
The Ashland Daily Tidings is published Monday through Saturday . The Mail Tribune , a morning daily published Monday through Sunday in Medford , also serves Ashland . Fifteen radio stations operate in the region around Ashland , including Jefferson Public Radio and KSKQ , an independent non @-@ profit broadcasting at 89 @.@ 5 FM . A former student @-@ run radio station with the call letters KSOC and the nickname " Radio Free Ashland " shut down in February 2013 after 14 years of broadcasting . Rogue Valley Community Television , based at Southern Oregon University , serves Jackson and Josephine counties . Ashland has no commercial television stations , but nearby Medford has seven .
= = Infrastructure and public services = =
The Asante Ashland Community Hospital is a general medical and surgical hospital that is part of the Asante health network based in Medford . As of 2015 , it has 49 inpatient beds .
The Ashland Public Library building was expanded from the city 's original Carnegie library . In 2003 , the historic Carnegie portion of the library was restored . In 2006 , budget problems led to the closing in April 2007 of the Ashland Library and 14 others in Jackson County . The event , which lasted until October 2007 , was the largest library closure in U.S. history . Although some of its services are handled by a private company , Library Systems and Services , the Ashland branch remains part of the Jackson County network of public libraries .
Rogue Valley Transportation District ( RVTD ) Route 10 and Route 15 provides bus service to much of the city , both routes running every 30 minutes providing a combined service frequency of 15 minutes . Route 10 also provides service to Medford , where passengers can connect to any of the other six RVTD routes as well as to Southwest POINT , a daily shuttle operated by Klamath Shuttle carrying passengers between Brookings and the Amtrak station in Klamath Falls . The Klamath Falls Amtrak Station serves the Coast Starlight long @-@ haul passenger train on track owned by the Union Pacific Railroad . Ashland Municipal Airport , with a 3 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) asphalt runway , offers general aviation services . Medford International Airport , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Ashland , also serves the city .
The City of Ashland moved to improve local broadband Internet access in the late 1990s by creating the Ashland Fiber Network ( AFN ) and building a fiber optic ring inside the city boundaries . However , by 2006 the city faced difficulties servicing AFN 's debt load , which was approaching $ 15 @.@ 5 million . The city hired a new AFN director , Joe Franell , who suggested scrapping cable television service while retaining the more profitable high @-@ speed Internet access . In October 2006 , the cable television service was transferred to a local company , Ashland Home Net , while the City retained both the infrastructure and the wholesale Internet business .
= = Sister city = =
Ashland has one sister city :
Guanajuato , Mexico
= = Notable people = =
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= Rockin ' Robin ( wrestler ) =
Robin Denise Smith ( born October 9 , 1964 ) , better known by her ring name Rockin ' Robin , is an American former professional wrestler . As the daughter of Aurelian " Grizzly " Smith , she is a second @-@ generation wrestler . Her brother Sam Houston and half @-@ brother Jake " The Snake " Roberts are also wrestlers . Smith worked for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in the 1980s . She held the WWF Women 's Championship from October 1988 until it was retired in 1990 . She then worked on the independent circuit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
Smith grew up in a wrestling family and enjoyed going to wrestling shows , where she claims she and her siblings were treated like celebrities . Smith later decided to become a professional wrestler and trained , along with her sister @-@ in @-@ law Nickla Roberts ( known by her ring name Baby Doll ) , under Nelson Royal . During 1987 , Smith competed as Rockin ' Robin in Wild West Wrestling , where she feuded with Debbie Combs and Sue Green . When the WWF decided to restart their women 's division in the late 1980s , both women tried out for the company , but the role ultimately went to Smith . Smith , as Rockin ' Robin , debuted in the WWF in late 1987 . She competed at the first Survivor Series as a member of The Fabulous Moolah 's team . Throughout 1988 , she feuded with Sensational Sherri for the WWF Women 's Championship .
On October 7 , 1988 , she defeated Sensational Sherri , who had held the title for fifteen months prior , for the Women 's Championship in Paris . At the Royal Rumble in 1989 , she defended the title against Judy Martin . Smith defended the belt against Martin for the first six months of 1989 . In the meantime , at WrestleMania V , she sang " America the Beautiful " to open the show . Smith continued to defend the Women 's title against Martin throughout the summer of 1989 . She held the championship until 1990 , when she left the company . At that time , the title was retired by the WWF due to inactivity . Smith is still in possession of the title belt . The title remained inactive until 1993 .
= = = Independent circuit = = =
Unlike some former WWF wrestlers , Smith was able to continue using her ring name after leaving the company because she owned the rights to it . In 1990 , wrestler Hiro Matsuda , who had feuded with her father in the 1960s , picked Smith to tour for All Japan Women 's Pro Wrestling . In Japan , Smith teamed with Luna Vachon . The Japanese bookers gave the girls a positive review for their work with the company .
In the United States , Smith defeated Peggy Lee Leather for the Ladies Major League Wrestling 's International Championship . She still occasionally defended the WWF Women 's Championship , even though the title was officially declared vacant by the World Wrestling Federation . In May 1991 she defended the WWF Women 's Championship against " Japanese Women 's Champion " Madusa Miceli on a Great Lakes Wrestling Association event . On June 9 , 1991 , she defeated Candi Devine in Herb Abrams 's Universal Wrestling Federation to become the first UWF Women 's Champion at UWF Beach Brawl . She also competed in the Ladies Professional Wrestling Association ( LPWA ) , forming a tag team with Wendi Richter . She competed at LPWA 's only pay @-@ per @-@ view , LPWA Super Ladies Showdown .
= = Personal life = =
Smith and her brother Sam Houston are the children of Aurelian " Grizzly " Smith and were born after his first marriage dissolved . Her half @-@ brother is Jake " The Snake " Roberts , who was born during their father 's first marriage . Robin and her brothers all wrestled in the WWF at the same time in the 1980s , but their relationship was never mentioned on @-@ screen at the request of Robin . Author and former National Wrestling Alliance president Howard Brody alleges in his book Swimming with Piranhas that Robin was a victim of sexual abuse at the hands of her father . According to Brody , Robin was removed from her father 's care when her mother discovered what had been happening .
After leaving the WWF in 1990 , Smith was married to a man named Harvey Zitron . Zitron was sentenced to 81 months in federal prison for 10 counts of filing false tax returns , identity theft and access device fraud . After divorcing , she moved to Louisiana and opened a telemarketing company that sold industrial chemicals and precious metals . Later , she opened a real estate appraisal business . During this time , Smith had a drinking problem but eventually was able to quit altogether .
In 2005 , Smith 's home and all of her belongings were destroyed by Hurricane Katrina . During the aftermath of the hurricane , she stayed with family in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . She now runs a real estate appraisal business in Hammond , Louisiana .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Bulldog
Signature moves
Crossbody , sometimes from the top rope
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Cauliflower Alley Club
Women 's Wrestling Award ( 2011 )
Great Lakes Wrestling Association
GLWA Women 's Championship ( 1 time , first )
Ladies Major League Wrestling
LMLW International Championship ( 1 time )
Universal Wrestling Federation
UWF Women 's World Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
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= Confederate government of Kentucky =
The Confederate government of Kentucky was a shadow government established for the Commonwealth of Kentucky by a self @-@ constituted group of Confederate sympathizers during the American Civil War . The shadow government never replaced the elected government in Frankfort , which had strong Union sympathies . Neither was it able to gain the whole support of Kentucky 's citizens ; its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth . Nevertheless , the provisional government was recognized by the Confederate States of America , and Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 . Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag .
Bowling Green was designated the Confederate capital of Kentucky . Due to the military situation in the state , the provisional government was exiled and traveled with the Army of Tennessee for most of its existence . For a short time in the autumn of 1862 , the Confederate Army controlled Frankfort , the only time a Union capital was captured by Confederate forces . During this occupation , General Braxton Bragg attempted to install the provisional government as the permanent authority in the Commonwealth . However , Union General Don Carlos Buell ambushed the inauguration ceremony and drove the provisional government from the state for the final time . From that point forward , the government existed primarily on paper and was dissolved at the end of the war .
The provisional government elected two governors . George W. Johnson was elected at the Russellville Convention and served until his death at the Battle of Shiloh . Richard Hawes was elected to replace Johnson and served through the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
Kentucky 's citizens were split regarding the issues central to the Civil War . The state had strong economic ties with Ohio River cities such as Pittsburgh and Cincinnati while at the same time sharing many cultural , social , and economic links with the South . Unionist traditions were strong throughout the Commonwealth 's history , especially in the east . With economic ties to both the North and the South , Kentucky had little to gain and much to lose from a war between the states . Additionally , many slaveholders felt that the best protection for slavery was within the Union .
The presidential election of 1860 showed Kentucky 's mixed sentiments when the state gave John Bell 45 % of the popular vote , John C. Breckinridge 36 % , Stephen Douglas 18 % , and Abraham Lincoln less than 1 % . Historian Allan Nevins interpreted the election results to mean that Kentuckians strongly opposed both secession and coercion against the secessionists . The majority coalition of Bell and Douglas supporters was seen as a solid moderate Unionist position that opposed precipitate action by extremists on either side .
The majority of Kentucky 's citizens believed the state should be a mediator between the North and South . On December 9 , 1860 , Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin sent a letter to the other slave state governors , suggesting that they come to an agreement with the North that would include strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act , a division of common territories at the 37th parallel , a guarantee of free use of the Mississippi River , and a Southern veto over slave legislation . Magoffin proposed a conference of slave states , followed by a conference of all the states to secure the concessions . Because of the escalating pace of events , neither conference was held .
Governor Magoffin called a special session of the Kentucky General Assembly on December 27 , 1860 , to ask the legislators for a convention to decide the Commonwealth 's course in the sectional conflict . The Louisville Morning Courier on January 25 , 1861 articulated the position that the secessionists faced in the legislature , " Too much time has already been wasted . The historic moment once past , never returns . For us and for Kentucky , the time to act is NOW OR NEVER . " The Unionists , on the other hand , were unwilling to surrender the fate of the state to a convention that might " in a moment of excitement , adopt the extreme remedy of secession . " The Unionist position carried after many of the states rights ' legislators , opposing the idea of immediate secession , voted against the convention . The assembly did , however , send six delegates to a February 4 Peace Conference in Washington , D.C. , and asked Congress to call a national convention to consider potential resolutions to the secession crisis , including the Crittenden Compromise , proposed by Kentuckian John J. Crittenden .
As a result of the firing on Fort Sumter , President Lincoln sent a telegram to Governor Magoffin requesting that the Commonwealth supply four regiments as its share of the overall request of 75 @,@ 000 troops for the war . Magoffin , a Confederate sympathizer , replied , " President Lincoln , Washington , D.C. I will send not a man nor a dollar for the wicked purpose of subduing my sister Southern states . B. Magoffin " Both houses of the General Assembly met on May 7 and passed declarations of neutrality in the war , a position officially declared by Governor Magoffin on May 20 .
In a special congressional election held June 20 , Unionist candidates won nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional seats . Confederate sympathizers won only the Jackson Purchase region , which was economically linked to Tennessee by the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers . Believing defeat at the polls was certain , many Southern Rightists had boycotted the election ; of the 125 @,@ 000 votes cast , Unionists captured close to 90 @,@ 000 . Confederate sympathizers were dealt a further blow in the August 5 election for state legislators . This election resulted in veto @-@ proof Unionist majorities of 76 – 24 in the House and 27 – 11 in the Senate . From then on , most of Magoffin 's vetoes to protect southern interests were overridden in the General Assembly .
Historian Wilson Porter Shortridge made the following analysis :
With secession no longer considered a viable option , the pro @-@ Confederate forces became the strongest supporters for neutrality . Unionists dismissed this as a front for a secessionist agenda . Unionists , on the other hand , struggled to find a way to move the large , moderate middle to a " definite and unqualified stand with the Washington government . " The maneuvering between the two reached a decisive point on September 3 when Confederate forces were ordered from Tennessee to the Kentucky towns of Hickman and Columbus . Union forces responded by occupying Paducah .
On September 11 , the legislature passed a resolution instructing Magoffin to order the Confederate forces ( but not the Union forces ) to leave the state . The Governor vetoed the resolution , but the General Assembly overrode his veto , and Magoffin gave the order . The next week , the assembly officially requested the assistance of the Union and asked the governor to call out the state militia to join the Federal forces . Magoffin also vetoed this request . Again the assembly overrode his veto and Magoffin acquiesced .
= = Formation = =
A pro @-@ Confederate peace meeting , with Breckinridge as a speaker , was scheduled for September 21 . Unionists feared the meeting would lead to actual military resistance , and dispatched troops from Camp Dick Robinson to disband the meeting and arrest Breckinridge . Breckinridge , as well as many other state leaders identified with the secessionists , fled the state . These leaders eventually served as the nucleus for a group that would create a shadow government for Kentucky . In his October 8 " Address to the People of Kentucky , " Breckinridge declared , " The United States no longer exists . The Union is dissolved . "
On October 29 , 1861 , 63 delegates representing 34 counties met at Russellville to discuss the formation of a Confederate government for the Commonwealth . Despite its defeats at the polls , this group believed that the Unionist government in Frankfort did not represent the will of the majority of Kentucky 's citizens . Trigg County 's Henry Burnett was elected chairman of the proceedings . Scott County farmer George W. Johnson chaired the committee that wrote the convention 's final report and introduced some of its key resolutions . The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government . Both Breckinridge and Johnson served on the Committee of Ten that arranged the convention .
On November 18 , 116 delegates from 68 counties met at the William Forst House in Russellville . Burnett was elected presiding officer . Fearing for the safety of the delegates , he first proposed postponing proceedings until January 8 , 1862 . Johnson convinced the majority of the delegates to continue . By the third day , the military situation was so tenuous that the entire convention had to be moved to a tower on the campus of Bethel Female College , a now @-@ defunct institution in Hopkinsville .
The first item was ratification of an ordinance of secession , which proceeded in short order . Next , being unable to flesh out a complete constitution and system of laws , the delegates voted that " the Constitution and laws of Kentucky , not inconsistent with the acts of this Convention , and the establishment of this Government , and the laws which may be enacted by the Governor and Council , shall be the laws of this state . " The delegates proposed a provisional government to consist of a legislative council of ten members ( one from each Kentucky congressional district ) ; a governor , who had the power to appoint judicial and other officials ; a treasurer ; and an auditor . The delegates designated Bowling Green ( then under the control of Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston ) as the Confederate State capital , but had the foresight to provide for the government to meet anywhere deemed appropriate by the council and governor . The convention adopted a new state seal , an arm wearing mail with a star , extended from a circle of twelve other stars .
The convention unanimously elected Johnson as governor . Horatio F. Simrall was elected lieutenant governor , but soon fled to Mississippi to escape Federal authorities . Robert McKee , who had served as secretary of both conventions , was appointed secretary of state . Theodore Legrand Burnett was elected treasurer , but resigned on December 17 to accept a position in the Confederate Congress . He was replaced by Warren County native John Quincy Burnham . The position of auditor was first offered to former Congressman Richard Hawes , but Hawes declined to continue his military service under Humphrey Marshall . In his stead , the convention elected Josiah Pillsbury , also of Warren County . The legislative council elected Willis Benson Machen as its president .
On November 21 , the day following the convention , Johnson wrote Confederate president Jefferson Davis to request Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Burnett , William Preston , and William E. Simms were chosen as the state 's commissioners to the Confederacy . For reasons unexplained by the delegates , Dr. Luke P. Blackburn , a native Kentuckian living in Mississippi , was invited to accompany the commissioners to Richmond , Virginia . Though Davis had reservations about circumvention of the elected General Assembly in forming the Confederate government , he concluded that Johnson 's request had merit , and on November 25 , recommended Kentucky for admission to the Confederacy . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 .
= = Activity = =
On November 26 , 1861 , Governor Johnson issued an address to the citizens of the Commonwealth blaming abolitionists for the breakup of the United States . He asserted his belief that the Union and Confederacy were forces of equal strength , and that the only solution to the war was a free trade agreement between the two sovereign nations . He further announced his willingness to resign as provisional governor if the Kentucky General Assembly would agree to cooperate with Governor Magoffin . Magoffin himself denounced the Russellville Convention and the provisional government , stressing the need to abide by the will of the majority of the Commonwealth 's citizens .
During the winter of 1861 , Johnson tried to assert the legitimacy of the fledgling government but its jurisdiction extended only as far as the area controlled by the Confederate Army . Johnson came short of raising the 46 @,@ 000 troops requested by the Confederate Congress . Efforts to levy taxes and to compel citizens to turn over their guns to the government were similarly unsuccessful . On January 3 , 1862 , Johnson requested a sum of $ 3 million ( $ 71 million as of 2016 ) from the Confederate Congress to meet the provisional government 's operating expenses . The Congress instead approved a sum of $ 2 million , the expenditure of which required approval of Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin and President Davis . Much of the provisional government 's operating capital was probably provided by Kentucky congressman Eli Metcalfe Bruce , who made a fortune from varied economic activities throughout the war .
The council met on December 14 to appoint representatives to the Confederacy 's unicameral provisional congress . Those appointed would serve for only two months , as the provisional congress was replaced with a permanent bicameral legislature on February 17 , 1862 . Kentucky was entitled to two senators and 12 representatives in the permanent Confederate Congress . The usual day for general elections being passed , Governor Johnson and the legislative council set election day for Confederate Kentucky on January 22 . Voters were allowed to vote in whichever county they occupied on election day , and could cast a general ballot for all positions . In an election that saw military votes outnumber civilian ones , only four of the provisional legislators were elected to seats in the Confederate House of Representatives . One provisional legislator , Henry Burnett , was elected to the Confederate Senate .
The provisional government took other minor actions during the winter of 1861 . An act was passed to rename Wayne County to Zollicoffer County in honor of Felix Zollicoffer , who died at the Battle of Mill Springs . Local officials were appointed in areas controlled by Confederate forces , including many justices of the peace . When the Confederate government eventually disbanded , the legality of marriages performed by these justices was questioned , but eventually upheld .
= = = Withdrawal from Kentucky and death of Governor Johnson = = =
Following Ulysses S. Grant 's victory at the Battle of Fort Henry , General Johnston withdrew from Bowling Green into Tennessee on February 7 , 1862 . A week later , Governor Johnson and the provisional government followed . On March 12 , the New Orleans Picayune reported that " the capital of Kentucky [ is ] now being located in a Sibley tent . "
Governor Johnson , despite his presumptive official position , his age ( 50 ) , and a crippled arm , volunteered to serve under General John C. Breckinridge and Colonel Robert P. Trabue at the Battle of Shiloh . On April 7 , Johnson was severely wounded in the thigh and abdomen , and lay on the battlefield until the following day . Johnson was recognized by acquaintance and fellow Freemason , Alexander McDowell McCook , a Union general . Johnson died aboard the Union hospital ship Hannibal , and the provisional government of Kentucky was left leaderless .
= = = Richard Hawes as governor = = =
Prior to abandoning Bowling Green , Governor Johnson requested that Richard Hawes come to the city and help with the administration of the government , but Hawes was delayed due to a bout with typhoid fever . Following Johnson 's death , the provisional government elected Hawes , who was still recovering from his illness , as governor . Following his recovery , Hawes joined the government in Corinth , Mississippi , and took the oath of office on May 31 .
During the summer of 1862 , word began to spread through the Army of Tennessee that Generals Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith were planning an invasion of Kentucky . The legislative council voted to endorse the invasion plan , and on August 27 , Governor Hawes was dispatched to Richmond to favorably recommend it to President Davis . Davis was non @-@ committal , but Bragg and Smith proceeded , nonetheless .
On August 30 , Smith commanded one of the most complete Confederate victories of the war against an inexperienced Union force at the Battle of Richmond . Bragg also won a decisive victory at the September 13 Battle of Munfordville , but the delay there cost him the larger prize of Louisville , which Don Carlos Buell moved to occupy on September 25 . Having lost Louisville , Bragg spread his troops into defensive postures in the central Kentucky cities of Bardstown , Shelbyville and Danville and waited for something to happen , a move that historian Kenneth W. Noe called a " stupendously illogical decision . "
Meanwhile , the leaders of Kentucky 's Confederate government had remained in Chattanooga , Tennessee , awaiting Governor Hawes ' return . They finally departed on September 18 , and caught up with Bragg and Smith in Lexington , Kentucky on October 2 . Bragg had been disappointed with the number of soldiers volunteering for Confederate service in Kentucky ; wagon loads of weapons that had been shipped to the Commonwealth to arm the expected enlistees remained unissued . Desiring to enforce the Confederate Conscription Act to boost recruitment , Bragg decided to install the provisional government in the recently captured state capital of Frankfort . On October 4 , 1862 , Hawes was inaugurated as governor by the Confederate legislative council . In the celebratory atmosphere of the inauguration ceremony , however , the Confederate forces let their guard down , and were ambushed and forced to retreat by Buell 's artillery .
= = Decline and dissolution = =
Following the Battle of Perryville , the provisional government left Kentucky for the final time . Displaced from their home state , members of the legislative council dispersed to places where they could make a living or be supported by relatives until Governor Hawes called them into session . Scant records show that on December 30 , 1862 , Hawes summoned the council , auditor , and treasurer to his location at Athens , Tennessee for a meeting on January 15 , 1863 . Hawes himself unsuccessfully lobbied President Davis to remove Hawes ' former superior , Humphrey Marshall , from command . On March 4 , Hawes told Davis by letter that " our cause is steadily on the increase " and assured him that another foray into the Commonwealth would produce better results than the first had .
The government 's financial woes also continued . Hawes was embarrassed to admit that neither he nor anyone else seemed to know what became of approximately $ 45 @,@ 000 that had been sent from Columbus to Memphis , Tennessee during the Confederate occupation of Kentucky . Another major blow was Davis ' 1864 decision not to allow Hawes to spend $ 1 million that had been secretly appropriated in August 1861 to help Kentucky maintain its neutrality . Davis reasoned that the money could not be spent for its intended purpose , since Kentucky had already been admitted to the Confederacy .
Late in the war , the provisional government existed mostly on paper . However , in the summer of 1864 , Colonel R. A. Alston of the Ninth Tennessee Cavalry requested Governor Hawes ' assistance in investigating crimes allegedly committed by Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan during his latest raid into Kentucky . Hawes never had to act on the request , however , as Morgan was suspended from command on August 10 and killed by Union troops on September 4 , 1864 .
There is no documentation detailing exactly when Kentucky 's provisional government ceased operation . It is assumed to have dissolved upon the conclusion of the Civil War .
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= SMS Bayern =
SMS Bayern was the lead ship of the Bayern class of battleships in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The vessel was launched in February 1915 and entered service in July 1916 , too late to take part in the Battle of Jutland . Her main armament consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns in four turrets , which was a significant improvement over the preceding König 's ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 inch ) guns . The ship was to have formed the nucleus for a fourth battle squadron in the High Seas Fleet , along with three of her sister ships . Of the other ships only one — Baden — was completed ; the other two were canceled later in the war when production requirements shifted to U @-@ boat construction .
Bayern was commissioned midway through the war , and had a limited service career . The first operation in which the ship took part was an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea on 18 – 19 August 1916 , a month after she had been commissioned . The ship also participated in Operation Albion in the Gulf of Riga , but shortly after the German attack began on 12 October 1917 , Bayern was mined and had to be withdrawn for repairs . She was interned with the majority of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow in November 1918 following the end of World War I. On 21 June 1919 , Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the fleet to be scuttled ; Bayern sank at 14 : 30 . In September 1934 , the ship was raised , towed to Rosyth , and scrapped .
= = Design = =
Bayern was 179 @.@ 4 m ( 588 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline , and an even 180 m ( 590 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 4 m ( 30 ft 6 in – 30 ft 10 in ) Bayern displaced 28 @,@ 530 metric tons ( 28 @,@ 080 long tons ) at a normal displacement ; at full combat load , she displaced up to 32 @,@ 200 t ( 31 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Bayern was powered by three Parsons steam turbines rated at 34 @,@ 521 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 742 kW ) and three oil @-@ fired and eleven coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers , and on trials achieved 55 @,@ 202 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 164 kW ) ; she had a maximum speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The ship could carry up to 3 @,@ 400 t ( 3 @,@ 300 long tons ; 3 @,@ 700 short tons ) of coal and 620 t ( 610 long tons ; 680 short tons ) of fuel oil , which provided a maximum range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was the first German warship armed with eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns . The primary battery guns were arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns and five 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Upon commissioning , she carried a crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 129 enlisted men . The ship had an armored belt that was 170 – 350 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick and an armored deck that was 60 – 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Her forward conning tower had 400 mm ( 16 in ) sides , and the main battery turrets had 350 mm thick sides and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick roofs .
= = Service history = =
Bayern was ordered with the provisional name " T " in 1912 , under the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed that year . Work began at the Howaldtswerke Dockyard in Kiel under construction number 590 . The ship was laid down in 1913 and launched on 18 February 1915 . After fitting @-@ out and sea trials , the ship was commissioned on 15 July 1916 , a month and a half too late for her to participate in the Battle of Jutland . Bayern joined the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet upon her commissioning . The ship would have been available for the operation , but the ship 's crew , composed largely of the crew from the recently decommissioned battleship Lothringen , was given leave . She had cost the Imperial German Government 49 million Goldmarks . Bayern was later joined in service by one sister ship , Baden . Two other ships of this class , Sachsen and Württemberg , were canceled before they were completed . At the time of her commissioning , Bayern 's commander was Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Max Hahn . Ernst Lindemann , who went on to command the battleship Bismarck during her only combat sortie in World War II , served aboard the ship as a wireless operator . On 25 May , Ludwig III of Bavaria , the last King of Bavaria , visited the ship . Bayern briefly served as the fleet flagship , from 7 to 16 August .
Admiral Reinhard Scheer planned a fleet advance for 18 – 19 August 1916 ; the operation consisted of a bombardment conducted by the I Scouting Group . This was an attempt to draw out and destroy Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers . As Moltke and Von der Tann were the only two German battlecruisers still in fighting condition , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the unit for the operation : Bayern and the two König @-@ class ships Markgraf and Grosser Kurfürst . Admiral Scheer and the rest of the High Seas Fleet , including 15 dreadnoughts , were to trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . Another sortie into the North Sea followed on 18 – 20 October , and the German fleet again encountered no British naval forces .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to evict the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . To this end , the Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic islands of Ösel , particularly the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint Army @-@ Navy operation to capture Ösel and Moon islands ; the primary naval component consisted of the flagship Moltke and the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . At this time , the V Division included the Bayern and four König @-@ class battleships . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with 9 light cruisers , 3 torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on 12 October , when Bayern , along with Moltke and the four Königs , began firing on the Russian shore batteries at Tagga Bay . Simultaneously , the five Kaisers engaged the batteries on the Sworbe peninsula ; the objective was to secure the channel between Moon and Dagö islands , thus blocking the only escape route of the Russian ships in the gulf . Bayern 's role in the operation was cut short when she struck a naval mine at 5 : 07 while moving into her bombardment position at Pamerort . The mine explosion killed one Unteroffizier and six sailors , allowed 1 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of water into the ship and caused the forecastle to sink by 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Despite the damage inflicted by the mine , Bayern engaged the naval battery at Cape Toffri on the southern tip of Hiiumaa . Bayern was released from her position at 14 : 00 . Preliminary repairs were made on 13 October in Tagga Bay . The temporary repairs proved ineffective , and Bayern had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs ; the return trip took 19 days . Repairs lasted from 3 November to 27 December , during which the forward torpedo tube room was stripped of its equipment and the torpedo ports were sealed . The room was then turned into an additional watertight compartment . Four 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were also installed during the repairs .
On 16 October , two König @-@ class battleships and several smaller vessels were sent to engage the Russian battleships in the Gulf of Riga . The following day , König and Kronprinz engaged the Russian battleships — König dueled with Slava and Kronprinz fired on both Slava and the cruiser Bayan . The Russian vessels were hit dozens of times , until at 10 : 30 the Russian naval commander , Admiral Bakhirev , ordered their withdrawal . Slava had taken too much damage , and was unable to escape ; instead , she was scuttled and her crew was evacuated on a destroyer . By 20 October , the naval operations were effectively over ; the Russian fleet had been destroyed or forced to withdraw , and the German army held the islands in the gulf .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following her return to the fleet , Bayern was assigned to security duties in the North Sea . Admiral Scheer had used light surface forces to attack British convoys to Norway beginning in late 1917 . As a result , the Royal Navy attached a squadron of battleships to protect the convoys , which presented Scheer with the possibility of destroying a detached squadron of the Grand Fleet . Scheer remarked that " A successful attack on such a convoy would not only result in the sinking of much tonnage , but would be a great military success , and would ... force the English to send more warships to the northern waters . " Scheer instituted strict wireless silence in preparation for the planned attack . This denied the British the ability to intercept and decrypt German signals , which had previously been a significant advantage . The operation called for Hipper 's battlecruisers to attack the convoy and its escorts on 23 April while the battleships of the High Seas Fleet stood by in support .
On 22 April , Bayern and the rest of the German fleet assembled in the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven and departed the following morning at 06 : 00 . Heavy fog forced the Germans to remain inside their defensive minefields for half an hour . Hipper 's forces were 60 nmi ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) west of Egerö , Norway , by 05 : 20 on 24 April . Despite the success in reaching the convoy route undetected , the operation failed due to faulty intelligence . Reports from U @-@ boats indicated to Scheer that the convoys sailed at the start and middle of each week , but a west @-@ bound convoy had left Bergen on Tuesday the 22nd and an east @-@ bound group left Methil , Scotland , on the 24th , a Thursday . As a result , there was no convoy for Hipper to attack .
The same day , one of Moltke 's screws slipped off , which caused serious damage to the power plant and allowed 2 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water into the ship . Moltke was forced to break radio silence in order to inform Scheer of the ship 's condition , which alerted the Royal Navy to the High Seas Fleet 's activities . Beatty sortied with a force of 31 battleships and four battlecruisers , but was too late to intercept the retreating Germans . The Germans reached their defensive minefields early on 25 April , though approximately 40 nmi ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) off Helgoland Moltke was torpedoed by the submarine E42 . Moltke successfully returned to port .
= = = Fate = = =
From 23 September to early October , Bayern served as the flagship of the III Squadron , under Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Hugo Kraft . Bayern was to have taken part in what would have amounted to the " death ride " of the High Seas Fleet shortly before the end of World War I. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from its base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Großadmiral of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet .
While the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , war @-@ weary sailors began rioting . On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on several battleships mutinied ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchor , and acts of sabotage were committed on board the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland . The order to sail was rescinded in the face of this open revolt . In an attempt to suppress the mutiny , the battleship squadrons were dispersed . Bayern , along with the rest of the III Squadron , was sent to Kiel .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the majority of the High Seas Fleet was to be interned in the Royal Navy base in Scapa Flow . Bayern was listed as one of the ships to be handed over . On 21 November 1918 , the ships to be interned , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , sailed from their base in Germany for the last time . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , before meeting a flotilla of 370 British , American , and French warships for the voyage to Scapa Flow .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered his ships to be sunk . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Bayern sank at 14 : 30 . The ship was raised on 1 September 1934 and was broken up the following year in Rosyth . The ship 's bell was eventually delivered to the German Federal Navy and is on display at Kiel Fördeklub .
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= Sins of My Father ( song ) =
" Sins of My Father " is a song recorded by American recording artist Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . The song , a collaborative effort between Usher , Terry Lewis , Salaam Remi , and Rico Love , tells the story of a " tortured soul " in a " volatile " relationship . " Critics noted Usher 's relationship with ex @-@ wife Tameka Foster to be the basis of the song , which contains references to their children together . Usher himself added that the song itself is a " kind of testament " for the type of father he is .
" Sins of My Father " is a soul song that contains prominent blues , dub , Motown and reggae influences . It received universal acclaim from music critics , who cited it as a stand @-@ out track on Looking 4 Myself . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 62 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 5 @,@ 813 digital copies .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Sins of My Father " was written by Usher , Rico Love , Salaam Remi and Terry Lewis . The production of the song was helmed by Remi , with Love also serving as its co @-@ producer . Remi has previously produced songs such as " Made You Look " ( God 's Son , 2002 ) for American rapper Nas and " You Know I 'm No Good " ( Back to Black , 2006 ) for late English singer Amy Winehouse .
In an interview with SoulCulture , Usher told that the inspiration for writing " Sins of My Father " is about dealing with things that people can 't understand . He further stated that the past can bring people " down a road " because they are not aware of it . According to him , " The time spent with a father will teach you a certain understanding of live and how to cope and deal with things . The lack of a father being there can also teach you how to deal with life – and that ’ s what ' Sins Of The Father ' is about ... That statement was made because that ’ s something that I felt . " Usher added that the song itself is a " kind of testament " for the father he is .
Gleyder " Gee " Disla and Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded " Sins of My Father " at Jungle City Studios in New York City , Doppler Studios in Atlanta , Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank and Instrument Zoo in Miami . Alex Fremin , Jacob Dennis , Max Unruh and Ramon Rivas served as recording assistants . It was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studio in Universal City , while Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers served as a mixing assistant . The track 's producer Remi together with Vincent Henry and Czech Film Orchestra , provided the " Sins of My Father " instrumentation .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Sins of My Father " is a soul song with prominent blues , dub , Motown and reggae influences that runs for three minutes and 56 seconds . The song 's instrumentation consists of bass , keyboards , guitar , drums , horns , saxophone and strings which are played by the Czech Film Orchestra . According to Jim Farber of Daily News , " Sins of My Father " consists of " some of the sexy , retro shading " that can be seen in the Remi produced songs by Amy Winehouse . Popdust 's Andrew Unterberger commented that the track " sounds like a death rattle , a hypnotically low bass line slinking around some ominously shook maracas , a molasses @-@ slow drum loop , and by the end , even some John Barry @-@ cinematic @-@ style strings . " He further stated that " Sins of My Father " is a step " bluesier and evil @-@ er , sounding more from the legacy of Howlin ’ Wolf and Screamin ’ Jay Hawkins — not quite as guttural , but Ush [ er ] still uses all the tools at his disposal , even breaking out the fake voodoo accent , and more than gets the point across . "
Lyrically , " Sins of My Father " is about being a " tortured soul " in a " volatile " relationship . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush hinted at Foster to be the bases of the song . The narrator " believes that his bad relationship is karma for his father being a rolling stone . " " Sins of My Father " begins with Usher gasping " My sons , Keep them ... please forgive me . " Unterberger of Popdust concluded that the track gets more intense , as Usher sings in the song ’ s opening verse : " I think this woman went and put a hex on me / Oh now , why ’ d I let her go and put that sex on me ? " . The pre @-@ chorus features Usher yelping in falsetto : " But she didn ’ t make me pay for it with my money ! / OWWWW ! ! ! " . According to Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine , " Usher soulfully pays for his father 's promiscuous ways over melodic soundcapes " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Sins of My Father " received universal acclaim from music critics . Nathan S. of DJBooth called the " openly autobiographical " song the most affecting track he has " done in years " . He concluded by stating : " I can 't think of any other artist of Usher 's status who would tie his cheating ways to an absent father , and for that he deserves some applause " . Eric Arredondo of Beats Per Minute stated that in " Sins of My Father " , Usher shows " more bite in his voice " than he has ever heard before , and that " it helps to make a song that is both fun and slightly sinister " . Natalie Shaw of BBC Music called " Sins of My Father " outstanding , commenting that Usher 's " slink here sounds sinister , for the first time , fearing he 'll fall under a demon woman 's deathly voodoo while slack , deep beats play out " .
Rap @-@ Up labelled " Sins of My Father " as one of their favorite songs on the album , alongside " Climax " , " Lemme See " and " Twisted " , while Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush called " Sins of My Father " a " big standout " on the album . Ryan Hadfield of Consequence of Sound labelled " Sins of My Father " as an " essential track " of Looking 4 Myself and stated that , alongside " What Happened to U " , the song displays the same " vocal prowess " as the rest of the album , but is matched with " beats of higher sophistication which avers his earnest attempt to deviate from a traditional blend of R & B and hip @-@ hop " . According to Verse of SoulCulture " ' Sins Of My Father ' , with its reggae vibe meets Marvin Gaye or Curtis Mayfield sensibilities addressing family issues this is the sort of track we need to hear more of from our artists . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Jungle City Studios , New York City ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , Georgia ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; Instrument Zoo , Miami , Florida ; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads , " Sins of My Father " charted in lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 62 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 5 @,@ 813 digital copies .
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= North Island ( Houtman Abrolhos ) =
North Island is the northernmost island in the Houtman Abrolhos , a coral reef archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Mid West Western Australia . Located about 14 km ( 9 mi ) from the nearest island group , it is one of the largest islands in the Houtman Abrolhos , and one of the few to support dune systems . It has relatively diverse flora dominated by chenopod shrubs and fauna that includes the introduced tammar wallaby , around seven species of reptile , and about 15 resident bird species .
First recorded and surveyed in 1840 , North Island has been a seasonal camp for western rock lobster fishermen since the beginning of the 20th century , and this remains the principal focus of human activity on the island . There is also a small amount of tourism , though for the most part it is reserved as conservation habitat for vegetation communities and rare birds .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The earliest recorded sighting of North Island occurred in May 1840 , during the third survey voyage of HMS Beagle , commanded by John Clements Wickham . It was sighted from the peak of Flag Hill on East Wallabi Island in early May , explored on 22 May , and given its name due to " its relative position to the remainder of Houtman 's Abrolhos " . Before he left the island , Wickham left a letter in a bottle atop the highest hill , which he accordingly christened Record Hill .
A map of the island first appeared in 1845 on a British Admiralty chart entitled " The Houtman Rocks " . The following year , Wickham 's lieutenant , John Lort Stokes , published the first account of the island in his Discoveries in Australia . He observed :
" The island was about a mile across , and nearly circular . It was surrounded by a range of hills , with a flat in the centre , covered with coarse grass , where a great many quails were flushed , affording good sport , but not a single wallaby . "
= = = Development of industry and infrastructure = = =
A western rock lobster fishery developed on the island in the early 20th century . There are records of the island being used as a base for crayfishers as early as 1902 , and for many years it was used as an anchorage by anglers . It was not until 1947 , however , that a seasonally inhabited permanent camp was established there . According to former crayfisher Ron Bertelsen , the first camp was established by skippers George Barker and George Nelson and deckhand John Long , who relocated there when lobsters around Pigeon Island grew scarce . They camped at the southern end of North Island in a camp initially built from packing case timbers . A local carrier boat , the Betty Margaret , serviced the camp . From about 40 seasonal inhabitants in 1940 , the population grew to about 130 by 2003 . An airstrip was built in 1979 .
= = = Visits by naturalists = = =
A number of naturalists have visited the island , starting with the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands in 1913 . This expedition spent little time on North Island , as shore collecting was not very successful there , and other islands appeared better suited to their work . Expedition members nevertheless published substantial information about the island , including a description of its physiography and a list of its vertebrates .
Australian ornithologist Dom Serventy visited the island in 1945 but left no published account . In 1959 , a group from the University of Western Australia 's Department of Zoology , accompanied by the English botanist Mary Gillham , travelled to the island ; a brief article on its physiography , vegetation and vertebrate fauna was published the following year by Glen Storr . More recent visitors have included P. R. Howden in 1974 , Robert Ivan Taylor Prince in 1976 , Ronald Eric Johnstone in 1981 and 1983 , Phillip Fuller in 1992 , and Judith Harvey and Vanda Longman in 1999 .
= = Geography = =
Nominally located at 28 ° 18 ′ 9 ″ S 113 ° 35 ′ 41 ″ E , North Island is an isolated island , separated from its nearest neighbours in the Wallabi Group by the 14 km ( 9 mi ) wide South Passage . Despite this separation , it is sometimes treated as part of that group . It is roughly diamond @-@ shaped and is approximately 2 km ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 mi ) long from south to north , and 1 1 ⁄ 2 km ( 1 mi ) from west to east , giving it an area of about 180 hectares ( 450 ac ) .
Two high points are named Record Hill and Latitude Hill . These are the only gazetted places on the island , although some other features have informal names : The most northerly and southerly point on the island have been called " North Point " and " South Point " respectively , and in 1960 a high point in the northwest corner of the island was referred to as " Northwest Hill " .
On the eastern side is a seasonally inhabited permanent fishers ' camp . There is an unnamed lighthouse on the western side , a trig point on the eastern side , and a gravel airstrip near the centre .
The island is surrounded by a coral reef flat . This extends about 1 1 ⁄ 2 km ( 1 mi ) to the west of the island , and over 3 km ( 2 mi ) to the north and south , but the reef margin lies quite close to the island on the eastern side . Most of the reef is not navigable , but a passage through the reef just north of the island is named Suda Bay Passage ; one just south of the island is named Barker Passage ; and there are a few breaks or channels on the eastern side of the island where boats may obtain shelter in bad weather . An area of reef immediately north of the island is named The Flat , and at the northern extreme of the reef is a breaker named The Big Breaker . About 200 m ( 660 ft ) west of the island is a small rock informally known as " Shag Rock " , but with no official name ; it differs from Shag Rock in the Wallabi Group further south .
Like the rest of the Houtman Abrolhos , North Island is Australian territory . It is a part of Western Australia , and falls within the boundaries of the federal Electoral Division of Durack and the state electoral district of Geraldton . It is part of the Houtman Abrolhos Nature Reserve , an A @-@ class reserve managed by Western Australia 's Department of Fisheries .
= = Geology and physiography = =
The basement of North Island is the Wallabi Limestone , a dense calcretised , coral limestone platform that underlies the entire Wallabi Group . Arising abruptly from a flat shelf , it is about 40 m ( 131 ft ) thick , and of Quaternary origin . Areas of reef that formed during the Eemian interglacial ( about 125 @,@ 000 years ago ) , when sea levels were higher than at present , are now emergent in places , and these form the basement of the group 's central platform islands , namely West Wallabi Island , East Wallabi Island and North Island .
North Island 's basement for the most part does not exceed 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in elevation . Much of it is capped by aeolianite , and nearly all of it is covered with sand , but there are some exposed outcrops . The southern margin of the island , for example , takes the form of a low cliff , which is severely undercut by the sea in many places .
There are extensive dunes of unconsolidated Holocene sand along both the western and eastern sides of the island . The topography of these dunes varies with time : in 1913 , Dakin recorded the dunes as being a good deal higher in the east than in the west , but in 1960 Storr found the eastern dunes to be severely eroded , apparently because of a fire that burnt much of the island 's vegetation in 1935 . In the centre of the island is a low plain with a sinkhole in its southwest corner and a small salt lake near its northern edge . The soil in the centre of the plain is shallow loam , whereas the rim is deeper and composed largely of shell fragments .
= = Climate = =
An automatic weather station has been installed on the island since 1990 , and hourly measures of precipitation , air temperature , wind speed , wind direction , relative humidity and atmospheric pressure have been publicly available since then . This is the only weather station in the Houtman Abrolhos , so its data underlies climatic models of the island chain as a whole . Based on the data for North Island , the Houtman Abrolhos has been described as having a Mediterranean climate with warm , dry summers and cooler , wet winters . Mean temperatures range from 9 @.@ 3 to 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 49 to 67 ° F ) in July , and from 19 @.@ 1 to 32 @.@ 4 ° C ( 66 to 90 ° F ) in February . This is a substantially smaller range than on the mainland : the summer temperature is typically a degree cooler , while winter temperatures are a good deal warmer . This is due to the influence of the ocean , in particular the Leeuwin Current .
Eighty @-@ six percent of the island 's rain falls between April and September ; on average there are 89 rain days , resulting in 469 mm ( 18 in ) of rain . The wettest month is June , when over 100 mm ( 4 in ) typically falls . In contrast , only about 70 mm ( 3 in ) can be expected to fall between October and March .
It is nearly always windy . During summer a high @-@ pressure ridge lies to the south , causing persistent winds from the southeast or southwest at speeds exceeding 17 kn ( 31 km / h ) almost half the time . During autumn and winter , the ridge moves north , increasing atmospheric pressure over the islands and creating variable winds . Winter tends to produce both the strongest gales and the most frequent periods of calm . In addition to these winds , there is daily pattern of land breezes in the morning , followed by the onset of south @-@ westerly sea breezes in the afternoon . This pattern is caused by temperature differences between the land and the ocean ; it is not as strong in the Houtman Abrolhos chain as on the mainland , but is present .
Three classes of storm have been identified in the region . Brief squalls may occur between December and April . A tropical cyclone occurs in the area about once in three years , between January and April ; these may generate extremely high wind speeds that are potentially destructive . During winter , extra @-@ tropical cyclones sometimes pass south of Geraldton , generating winter gales with gusts of up to 35 m / s ( 115 ft / s ) , the wind direction from the northwest initially , then gradually moving around to southerly .
= = Flora = =
Most of North Island is dominated by chenopod shrubs , generally less than a metre ( 3 ft ) high . The beach vegetation is largely Spinifex longifolius ( beach spinifex ) , Salsola kali ( prickly saltwort ) , Atriplex cinerea ( grey saltbush ) and naturalised Cakile maritima ( sea rocket ) . Stable dunes are vegetated by Atriplex paludosa ( marsh saltbush ) , Scaevola crassifolia ( thick @-@ leaved fan @-@ flower ) , Olearia axillaris ( coastal daisy @-@ bush ) , Myoporum insulare ( blueberry tree ) and Exocarpos sparteus ( broom ballart ) . Sheltered areas behind dunes support Salsola kali and Myoporum insulare and also Nitraria billardierei ( nitre bush ) , the last of these being the only plant on the island to grow over 1 1 ⁄ 2 m ( 5 ft ) high . In areas where limestone is close to the surface , the vegetation consists of Pimelea microcephala ( shrubby rice @-@ flower ) , Spyridium globulosum ( basket bush ) and Acanthocarpus preissii .
The rim of the central plain is vegetated by a dense shrubland of Rhagodia baccata ( berry saltbush ) , Atriplex paludosa and Threlkeldia diffusa ( coast bonefruit ) . Nearer the centre , the vegetation consists of Frankenia pauciflora ( seaheath ) , Muellerolimon salicorniaceum and Tecticornia arbuscula ( bulli bulli ) , although T. arbuscula is replaced by Tecticornia halocnemoides ( shrubby samphire ) where the soil is shallow . The most low @-@ lying area of the central plain , south of the salt lake , is water @-@ logged in winter ; it is vegetated by a dense mat of Sarcocornia quinqueflora ( beaded samphire ) , Sporobolus virginicus ( marine couch ) and Suaeda australis ( seablite ) .
The dune , limestone and salt lake vegetation communities on North Island are considered to have high conservation significance . The dune and limestone communities have high biodiversity , are highly sensitive to disturbance and regenerate slowly . The salt lake community is considered significant because of the rarity of salt lakes on offshore islands .
According to a survey published in 2001 , the following vascular plants occur on North Island :
= = Fauna = =
= = = Mammals = = =
No land mammals are known to be native to North Island , but the Australian sea lion ( Neophoca cinerea ) occasionally hauls out on the island 's beaches , and it has been suggested that the island once had a native population of tammar wallaby ( Macropus eugenii ) .
Stokes explicitly stated the tammar wallaby to be absent from North Island in 1840 , and it was not recorded by the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition in 1913 . It was apparently introduced to the island in the 1920s , as early fishermen reported seeing it between 1928 and 1930 . This introduction failed , possibly due to overgrazing . The species was not found by Serventy during his 1945 visit , nor by Storr in 1959 , but the latter found plenty of remains , mostly mandibles . Storr interpreted these remains as predating the 1920s introduction , suggesting that a native population of tammars became extinct on the island before 1840 . Albert Russell Main agreed , but the theory has not been accepted by later researchers .
In 1985 , five tammar wallabies were introduced onto North Island , and the population established successfully . Possible reasons for this success include the absence of the wallabies ' natural predator , the carpet python ( Morelia spilota imbricata ) ; the availability of additional food and water from the fishers ' huts , which are occupied during the harshest time of the year ; and the presence of the air strip , which apparently provides additional food for them . By the 2000s , there were over 450 tammar wallabies on the island . The wallabies overgrazed and ringbarked the native vegetation , particularly the area burnt in 1935 , thus reducing vegetation cover and causing a serious decline in populations of some plant species . In 2003 , island residents asked the Department of Conservation and Land Management ( CALM ; now the Department of Environment and Conservation ) for help in managing the issue . CALM staff visited the island in April and May of that year and produced a report recommending an investigation into controlling population levels by the use of implanted contraceptives . Exploration of this option began in 2005 , but in July 2007 the research was discontinued . Around 60 wallabies were removed to educational institutions for research purposes , and culling began . By February 2008 , the wallaby population had been reduced to around 25 individuals .
The only other mammal known to occur on the island is the naturalised house mouse ( Mus Musculus ) . Eight European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) were introduced in 1934 , and were found to be " exceedingly numerous " by 1945 , but by 1960 they were extinct , apparently from predation by feral cats . Neither rabbits nor cats are now reported as naturalised on the island .
= = = Reptiles = = =
Reptiles recorded on North Island include Binoe 's prickly gecko ( Heteronotia binoei ) , the gecko Christinus marmoratus , the Jew lizard ( Pogona barbata ) , King 's skink ( Egernia kingii ) , the western limestone ctenotus ( Ctenotus australis ) , the western worm lerista ( Lerista praepedita ) , the common dwarf skink ( Menetia greyii ) , and the Abrolhos bearded dragon ( Pogona minor minima ) . The carpet python was reported as present on the island in very low numbers before 1960 , but it has never been observed there by naturalists , and is now absent .
The green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) has been observed in large numbers near the shore , and it has been claimed that they breed on the island , but this has never been verified . If it is true , then North Island would be the species ' most southerly breeding site in Western Australia .
= = = Birds = = =
The birds most often mentioned in relation to North Island are the Abrolhos painted buttonquail ( Turnix varius scintillans ) , a rare subspecies of the widespread painted buttonquail ( Turnix varius ) known only from the Wallabi Group and protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 ; and the brush bronzewing ( Phaps elegans ) , one of the most common birds on North Island , the mainland populations of which are decreasing .
Other birds known to breed on North Island include the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus cristatus ) , greater crested tern ( Thalasseus bergii ) , Caspian tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ) , silver gull ( Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae novaehollandiae ) , and welcome swallow ( Hirunda neoxena ) . Birds commonly recorded as resident on the island but not recorded as breeding there include the Pacific reef heron ( Egretta sacra ) , white @-@ bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster ) , red @-@ capped plover ( Charadrius ruficapillus ) , fairy tern ( Sterna nereis nereis ) , Australasian pipit ( Antus novaseelandiae australis ) and western silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis chloronotus ) . The sooty oystercatcher ( Haematopus fuliginosus fuliginosus ) and white @-@ backed swallow ( Cheramoeca leucosterna ) have also rarely been observed as resident on the island .
The most common visitors to the island are the bar @-@ tailed godwit ( Limosa lapponica baueri ) , grey @-@ tailed tattler ( Tringa brevipes ) , ruddy turnstone ( Arenaria interpres interpres ) , red @-@ necked stint ( Calidris ruficollis ) and curlew sandpiper ( Calidris ferruginea ) . Other observed visitors include the great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo novaehollandiae ) , nankeen kestrel ( Falco cenchroides cenchroides ) , banded lapwing ( Vanellus tricolor ) , greater sand plover ( Charadrius leschenaultii ) , whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus variegatus ) , greenshank ( Tringa nebularia ) , sanderling ( Calidris alba ) , willie wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys ) and brown songlark ( Cincloramphus cruralis ) .
North Island is part of the Houtman Abrolhos Important Bird Area , identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for supporting large numbers of breeding seabirds .
= = Human uses = =
The entire Houtman Abrolhos is protected by an A @-@ class nature reserve that is wholly vested in Western Australia 's Minister for Fisheries for purposes of " Conservation of Flora and Fauna , Tourism , and for Purposes Associated with the Fishing Industry " .
= = = Fishing industry = = =
North Island 's primary human use is as a seasonal camp for Western Rock Lobster fishers . During lobster season , which runs from 15 March to 30 June , North Island 's camp is occupied by about 130 fishers . The camp is serviced by a carrier boat , the North Islander , which visits the island every three days , bringing supplies and taking out the catch and any domestic waste .
= = = Conservation = = =
North Island is considered to have high conservation value with respect to its populations of brush bronzewing and Abrolhos painted buttonquail , and its dune , limestone and salt lake vegetation communities . The potential existence of historically significant artefacts on Record Hill , namely the bottle left by Wickham and Stokes in 1840 , has not been assessed .
A 514 ha ( 1 @,@ 270 acres ) area of reef immediately south of North Island is designated a Reef Observation Area ( ROA ) . Fishing is prohibited in this area , except for the use of lobster pots . One of four ROAs in the Houtman Abrolhos , these protected areas are intended to help conserve species of territorial fish that are fished elsewhere , and to provide divers with the opportunity to observe large populations that are not frightened by their approach .
= = = Tourism = = =
With extensive sand beaches , seabird breeding areas , and good dive sites in the Reef Observation Area to the south of the island , North Island is considered an attractive tourist site . However , all of the island 's limited anchorage and jetty space is occupied by commercial fishers , so landings from private or charter boats are possible only by prior arrangement . Moreover , visitors are not permitted to camp on the island . North Island accounts for about 3 @.@ 5 % of private recreational boat trips to the Houtman Abrolhos and about 1 % of commercial charter boat trips . The most recent tourism plan for the Houtman Abrolhos supports the continued use of North Island by private charter boats and the use of the airstrip for tourism purposes , but recommends against the establishment of a land @-@ based tourist site there .
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= Presidential Council for Minority Rights =
The Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) is a non @-@ elected government body in Singapore established in 1970 , the main function of which is to scrutinize most of the bills passed by Parliament to ensure that they do not discriminate against any racial or religious community . If the Council feels that any provision in a bill amounts to a differentiating measure , it will report its findings to Parliament and refer the bill back to Parliament for reconsideration . The Council also examines subsidiary legislation and statutes in force on 9 January 1970 . One member of the PCMR is nominated by the Chairman to the Presidential Elections Committee , which is empowered to ensure that candidates for the office of President have the qualifications required by the Constitution . The President also appoints and dismisses the chairman and members of the Presidential Council for Religious Harmony ( " PCRH " ) , established by the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act ( Cap . 167A , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) , on the advice of the PCMR , and the PCMR is responsible for determining whether PCRH members who are not representatives of major religions in Singapore have distinguished themselves in public service or community relations in Singapore .
The Council is made up of its Chairman ( as of 6 November 2012 the Chief Justice of Singapore , Sundaresh Menon ) , up to ten permanent members who are appointed for life , and up to ten ordinary members who are appointed for a period of three years and may be re @-@ appointed . Appointments are made by the President on the advice of the Cabinet . If the President does not concur with Cabinet 's advice , he may veto appointments . However , he is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers ( " CPA " ) , and if the CPA does not concur with his view , Parliament may override his decision with a resolution passed with a two @-@ thirds majority vote . The President has no power to remove current PCMR members .
The Constitution only requires members of the Council to be Singapore citizens residing in Singapore who are at least 35 years old . There is no restriction on Cabinet ministers and members of political parties . Moreover , the Prime Minister may authorize any Minister , Minister of State or Parliamentary Secretary to attend Council meetings . It has been noted that this may have a chilling effect on the Council 's deliberations as such a guest might be the author or a vocal proponent of the legislation under scrutiny . On the other hand , it has been suggested that members with political affiliations can often make the biggest contribution towards the Council 's discussions . Another criticism of the PCMR 's composition is that having judges on the Council may lead to a conflict of interest as they may have to exercise judicial review over Acts of Parliament they have either endorsed or rejected previously .
All proceedings of the Council are conducted in private , and the Council is prohibited from hearing objectors or examining witnesses regarding any bill or law under consideration . Since its establishment , the PCMR has not found any legislation to contain differentiating measures .
= = Role = =
The Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) is a non @-@ elected body established in 1970 under Part VII of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore to fulfil the roles of safeguarding minority rights and advising the Government and the Parliament of Singapore . Its general function , as articulated in the Constitution , is " to consider and report on such matters affecting persons of any racial or religious community in Singapore as may be referred to the Council by Parliament or the Government " . To fulfil its role as a safeguard against any parliamentary or executive propensity to majoritarian or sectarian politics , it may constrict the Government 's freedom to discriminate against racial and religious communities by obstructing the passage of new laws and regulations that it deems to contain such " differentiating measures " .
As a legislative review mechanism , it plays a " limited quasi Second Chamber " role . It has also been called " the closest body [ Singapore has ] to a Second Chamber for many years " . However , the Council has been criticized for lacking teeth to act as a real check on potential legislative abuses . As of 2009 , the PCMR had not issued an adverse report regarding any piece of legislation referred to it . Nevertheless , it forms part of the statutory framework for the People 's Action Party government 's internationally lauded efforts in managing minority issues in multiethnic Singapore . Former Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar , formerly a member of the Council , has noted that the PCMR is also a symbol of the paramount importance placed on racial harmony in a world still rife with racial and communal conflict .
= = Origin = =
= = = The Wee Chong Jin Constitutional Commission = = =
On 18 January 1966 , shortly after Singapore 's independence , the President of Singapore appointed a Constitutional Commission helmed by Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin to consider how the rights of racial , linguistic , and religious minorities in the nascent nation should be protected . Singapore had just been ejected from Malaysia , and had experienced an extended period of racial and religious tension resulting from the Maria Hertogh riots . This experience reinforced the need for a multiracial society based on equality among races .
The Commission , in its report on 27 August 1966 , found that such equality was best protected by giving minority rights equal footing with the fundamental liberties in the Constitution . In addition , it recommended a " Council of State " , an advisory body that would inform the Government of the effects its laws would have on minorities . This concept was based on the Kenyan Council of State which was established in 1958 during its phase of transition to African majority rule . The idea of an advisory body which could not significantly impede the legislative agenda was viewed by lawmakers as a promising innovation . In addition , the creation of an advisory council ensuring equal treatment in legislation was very much in line with the idea that , as citizens become increasingly aware of racial and religious issues , national growth will very much depend on an approach to such problems that is not fraught with religious and racial tensions .
Some of the recommendations for the new Council of State included the following :
Members of the Council were to be appointed after consultation with the Prime Minister , but at the President 's discretion .
No member should belong to a political party .
Membership would be assigned and renewed for a specified period of either three , six or nine years .
Proceedings should be held in public .
= = = Parliamentary debate on the Constitution ( Amendment ) Bill 1969 = = =
The Constitution ( Amendment ) Act 1969 was passed on 23 December 1969 to create the " Presidential Council " based heavily on the proposed Council of State . The amendment took effect on 9 January 1970 . This Council was subsequently renamed the Presidential Council for Minority Rights in 1973 . Although the proposal of the Commission was accepted by Parliament , it nonetheless made several changes that led to the substantial differences from the original proposal , including the following :
Appointments to the Council are made by the President on the advice of the Cabinet .
There are two categories members , namely , permanent and non @-@ permanent members , with the permanent members holding life tenure .
Members of Parliament ( MPs ) , including ministers , are not precluded from sitting in the Council and serving their terms in Parliament simultaneously .
Affiliation with a political party is not a bar to Council membership .
Supporters of the new body heralded the Presidential Council as a step forward in enhancing the country 's democratic spirit . Its establishment was seen as putting a limit on possible dictatorial measures in legislation , which is especially important in a one @-@ party dominated Parliament like Singapore 's . Even if the new Council 's powers were strictly limited to giving advice , this was justified on the basis that it would nevertheless serve to alert the public should the Government proceed to enact an Act which prejudices a class of minorities . Indeed , the Constitutional Commission had intended for the Council of State " to fix the attention of the public on any matter originating from Parliament which may adversely affect the interests of any minority group " .
= = Composition , appointment and term of office of members = =
= = = Composition = = =
The Presidential Council can consist of no more than 21 persons at any one time . The Council is made up of its Chairman , up to ten permanent members who are appointed for life , and up to ten ordinary members who are appointed for a period of three years and may be re @-@ appointed . The distinction between permanent and non @-@ permanent members was not one of the recommendations of the Constitutional Commission , and the Government did not adopt the Commission 's proposal that members should not belong to a political party . It has been suggested that this causes the PCMR 's composition to be " somewhat weighted in favour of the Government and to that extent derogates from the concept of an uncommitted council of elders which sits as a watchdog over the rights of individuals " .
The Chairman is responsible for convening and presiding at all meetings of the Council , but whenever the office of Chairman is vacant , the Council may elect any member to act as Chairman . The Chairman has an original vote but not a casting vote . No fewer than eight members , including the Chairman or another member appointed to preside in his place , must convene in order for the Council to transact any business . Any motion in the Council fails in the event of a tie .
= = = Appointment and term of office = = =
The members of the Presidential Council are not elected , but appointed by the President on advice of the Cabinet . No public nomination process or vote is stipulated in the Constitution . The President , if he does not concur with the Cabinet , may veto the appointment . However , he is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers ( " CPA " ) , a constitutional body that advises the President on appointments of key public officials and matters relating to Singapore 's financial reserves . If he exercises his veto without the CPA 's concurrence , Parliament may overrule his decision with a resolution passed with a two @-@ thirds majority vote . The President has no power to remove current members .
Members of the Council must be Singapore citizens of at least 35 years of age residing in Singapore . Apart from these qualifications stated in the Constitution , there was an indication in the Parliamentary debates leading to the PCMR 's introduction that permanent members of the PCMR are very likely to be drawn from " men of distinction " who hold or have held high public appointments , such as former prime ministers , the Chief Justice , former chief justices , judges , the Speaker of the Parliament of Singapore , the Chairman of the Public Service Commission , the Attorney @-@ General and former permanent secretaries . Non @-@ permanent members will probably be mature citizens who have rendered distinguished public service , or are prominent members of their professions .
A member may be disqualified if he is found to be of unsound mind , if he becomes insolvent or is an undischarged bankrupt , if he is convicted and sentenced to imprisonment of not less than one year or a fine of not less than S $ 2 @,@ 000 , or if he has lost his Singaporean citizenship or declared himself allied to a foreign country . Any questions as to membership or disqualification are determined by a tribunal convened in secret that consists of a Supreme Court judge appointed by the Chief Justice and two members appointed by the Council . The Constitution does not stipulate any procedure for the removal of a member besides disqualification and the member 's own resignation .
= = = Current membership = = =
As of 1 April 2015 , there are 19 members on the PCMR , five of whom are permanent members . The Chairman is Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon ( who took over from former Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong who retired on 5 November 2012 ) , and prominent members include Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong , Attorney @-@ General V. K. Rajah , and the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore William Goh . Former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was a permanent member of the Council until his death on 23 March 2015 .
= = = Issues = = =
The existence of permanent members ; the opacity of appointment ; and the inclusion of members of the Government , political parties , and their allies may mean that the PCMR could be used as a tool for the government of the day to remain in power despite its waning popularity in the future .
While the President may block certain appointments to the Council , he cannot remove a permanent member from his seat . In fact , it does not appear that any person has the power to do so . The door may be open for potential abuse with appointments based on some political agenda rather than merit . The counterpoint is that it is precisely those in power who are best placed to scrutinize bills for illegitimate differentiating measures , because " it is often those with political affiliations who can make the biggest contribution to the discussion ; if nothing else , from the folly and error of their past ways " .
The presence of judicial members on the Council may also pose additional problems . There is a possibility of conflict of interest for judges who sit as members of the Council if they find themselves having to review the very Acts of Parliament that they have either endorsed or rejected previously . This is exacerbated by the fact that the Council , in examining the legitimacy of Bills , plays a quasi @-@ judicial role . There may be confusion as regards the legality of a piece of legislation if , for example , it was initially condemned by the Council but enacted by the Government and later endorsed by the courts upon judicial review . When the potential conflict between the Chief Justice 's role as head of the judiciary and as Chairman of the Council was raised in 2010 by Githu Muigai , the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism , Racial Discrimination , Xenophobia and Related Tolerance , he was informed that the Chief Justice would recuse himself from any matter in which a conflict arose .
On the other hand , it has been suggested that the enactment of a statute by Parliament in the face of an adverse report by the PCMR should be taken as a " mere disagreement over the interpretation of the Constitution and thus should not foreclose judicial review " . However , this depends on whether the statute in question is a constitutional amendment or an ordinary Act of Parliament . Acts of Parliament may be disputed in court for their lack of compliance with the Constitution , but constitutional amendments may not be .
Further , scrutinizing legislation to determine if it contravenes fundamental liberties is traditionally the function of the judiciary . Even though the PCMR can potentially prevent an unconstitutional piece of legislation from coming into force , there is doubt as to whether the Council 's members have sufficient legal training to undertake the burdensome task .
= = Powers and functions = =
The PCMR may examine bills , subsidiary legislation , and written laws in force on 9 January 1970 for any " differentiating measure " , which is defined as any measure " which is , or is likely in its practical application to be , disadvantageous to persons of any racial or religious community and not equally disadvantageous to persons of other such communities , either directly by prejudicing persons of that community or indirectly by giving advantage to persons of another community " . All proceedings are conducted in private , and the Council is prohibited from hearing objectors or examining witnesses regarding any bill or law under consideration .
Such privacy means that the Council is denied even a modest " sanction " of publicity . Under the Constitutional Commission 's original proposal , the PCMR was meant to hold its meetings publicly in Parliament , and publish reports of such proceedings . These proposals were rejected on the ground that such publicity might have the adverse consequence of giving members a public forum at which to further their own agendas . E.W. Barker , the Minister for Law and National Development , commented in Parliament that having the discussions in private helps to ensure that they are conducted frankly and constructively , and not held with an eye on the press or with a view to scoring political points .
The validity of such measures to promote free discussion may be negated by Article 87 of the Constitution , which provides that any Minister , Minister of State or Parliamentary Secretary specially authorized by the Prime Minister may attend these private meetings . There may be a real chilling effect on the deliberations when a guest might well be the author or a vocal proponent of the legislation being scrutinized .
Moreover , the Council 's secrecy has been criticized as contrary to its status as a symbol of racial harmony in Singapore . The discharge of such a role requires that the PCMR projects an image of effectiveness , which the current requirement of secrecy arguably impedes . Secret discussions also prevent the public from being informed about controversial issues that may have arisen in the course of implementing new laws , especially those which may affect the rights of minorities .
= = = Bills = = =
The Speaker of Parliament is required to refer all bills , with some exceptions , to the PCMR for consideration immediately after the third reading of the bill in Parliament and obtain the Council 's report on it before the bill may be sent to the President for assent .
The Council must make its report to Parliament within 30 days of the passage of any bill that is referred to it , judging if any provisions of the Bill are " discriminatory or inconsistent with fundamental liberties " . However , if the bill is particularly complex or of great length , the Speaker has the discretion to extend the deadline upon application by the Chairman . If the Council fails to make a report within the given timeframe , it is " conclusively presumed " that the Council is satisfied that the bill is free from differentiating measures .
The referral of a bill only after its third reading means that Parliament will not have the opportunity of considering the Council 's views on the bill prior to the debate . The Wee Chong Jin Commission had advocated for the Council to consider each bill after it had been introduced during its second reading , on the presumption that the Council would express views that would benefit the debate on the bill . Additionally , since Parliament has already passed the bill , Parliament may consider it a " point of honour to maintain its original view ... whatever the merits of the Council 's objections " as they have already debated the bill and may decide to " stick to their original guns " .
If the Council does make an adverse report , Parliament may amend the bill to rid it of any differentiating measures before sending it back to the Council for inspection . The MP having charge of the bill may give two clear days ' notice of the amendments he or she proposes to move in Parliament to the provisions of the bill that were adversely reported upon by the Council . The bill then stands recommitted to a committee of the whole Parliament on those provisions , and the proposed amendments are considered . Parliament then resumes , and the MP having charge of the bill reports whether the amendments were agreed to by the committee . If so , the MP moves that the amended bill should be resubmitted to the Council . There is uncertainty as to whether the Council will have to make another report within any time limit , or if the bill will then be directly presented to the President for assent .
Alternatively , Parliament may effectively ignore the Council 's adverse report with a motion passed with an affirmative vote of two @-@ thirds of its members . Again , the MP in charge of the bill must give two clear days ' notice of his intention to move that the bill be presented to the President for assent despite the adverse report . Following a debate , MPs vote on the motion by taking a division . If Parliament rejects the adverse report in this way , Parliament may send the bill , notwithstanding any differentiating measures , to the President for assent . These overriding mechanisms against adverse reports present difficulties when seen in the light of Article 12 of the Constitution , which is meant to guarantee equal protection under the law to minorities without discrimination , since bills containing differentiating measures that are presented to the President for assent can be seen as " inconsistent with the fundamental liberties of the subject " .
= = = = Excluded types of bills = = = =
Three types of bills are expressly excluded from the scrutiny of the PCMR :
Money bills ; that is , bills which contains provisions dealing with public money , taxation , payments of debts or charges on public funds , grants of money to the Government , the raising or guaranteeing of loans , and any ancillary matters relating to such matters .
Bills that the Prime Minister certifies as affecting " the defence or security of Singapore , or which relate to the public safety , peace or good order of Singapore " .
Bills that the Prime Minister certifies to be so urgent that any delay in enactment would be detrimental to the public welfare .
It has been argued that such exemptions are too wide and may be open to abuse . For instance , it is up to the Speaker to determine whether any bill falls within the definition of a money bill , and once he has certified his opinion on the matter in writing , that is " conclusive for all purposes and shall not be open to question in any court " . Moreover , grounds upon which bills may be excluded such as " public safety " and " peace " , have been described as " nebulous " with potentially wide definitions that are open to abuse by the government in power . As regards a bill that has been enacted on a certificate of urgency and assented to by the President , the Speaker is required to send the Act of Parliament to the Council as soon as possible for its report , which is then presented to Parliament . However , the Constitution contains no provisions as to any steps that Parliament is required to take to amending the Act if an adverse report is made .
= = = Subsidiary legislation and certain written laws = = =
All new subsidiary legislation must be sent to the Council for scrutiny within 14 days of their publication in the Government Gazette . The Council is then required to make its report to the Speaker and the appropriate Minister within 30 days . However , unlike with bills , there is no provision to extend the original deadline . As with bills , tardiness in sending an adverse report results in a conclusive presumption that the Council finds no differentiating measures in the subsidiary legislation . Where the Council issues an adverse report , the Minister must revoke or amend the offending provision within six months of the report , unless Parliament passes a resolution confirming that provision .
The Council may also make a report on any written law in force on 9 January 1970 , but there is no constitutional provision that requires Parliament or the relevant Minister to act on it .
= = = Other functions of the Council and its members = = =
One of the members of the Presidential Elections Committee , which is the body empowered to ensure that candidates for the office of President have the qualifications required by the Constitution , is a member of the PCMR appointed to this post by the Chairman of the Council .
The Council also effectively decides the composition of the Presidential Council for Religious Harmony ( " PCRH " ) , established by the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act . The President appoints the chairman and the members of the PCRH on the advice of the Council , and the Council is responsible for determining whether the members of the PCRH who are not representatives of major religions in Singapore have " distinguished themselves in public service or community relations in Singapore " . The President is also required to consult the Council before revoking the membership of any member of the PCRH . However , the President has the discretion to veto any appointment or revocation if he does not agree with the PCMR .
= = The PCMR as an " Upper Chamber " = =
The Singaporean Parliament is unicameral in nature , consisting of a single legislative body tasked with making laws . However , the notion of a second legislative chamber was considered on two separate occasions . In 1954 , a constitutional commission headed by Sir George William Rendel rejected a proposal for a second chamber composed solely of minority representatives , citing its unsuitability in a tiny state like Singapore and arguing that it might end up being unnecessarily bureaucratic . It also asserted that such an upper House might potentially be detrimental to social cohesion . This issue was also considered by the Wee Chong Jin Commission , which rejected it on similar grounds .
The PCMR 's power to review and block the passage of Bills is regarded by some as an indication of its potential as a second chamber . The Council 's functional design , however , makes it only a very weak legislative review mechanism . The Council has no power to investigate alleged breaches of minority rights . The general public has also no right of making their views or complaints known to the Chamber . In addition , the lack of a veto power means that currently the most the Council can do is delay the passage of bills and prompt further parliamentary deliberation of the bills in question . But it has yet to do even this much . On those occasions where the Council might have rightly drawn attention to differentiating measures in proposed Bills , the legislature has pre @-@ empted this by inserting " notwithstanding clauses " in the Constitution . Such clauses declare that laws that contravene a constitutional provision are nevertheless valid .
An alternative view is that it is not the formal structure of the Council – which in theory is capable of exercising judicial , legislative and review functions – but the presence of a practically single @-@ party Parliament that drastically undermines the PCMR 's powers , restricting it solely to an advisory capacity . This may not be the case if a strong Opposition exists in Parliament to obstruct the mustering of the required two @-@ thirds voting majority required to push through legislation without the endorsement of the Council .
Besides being criticized for its limited powers , there is also some concern that the Council 's responsibilities may go too far . By taking up the function of scrutinizing existing and prospective legislation for differentiating measures and inconsistencies with fundamental liberties , the Council may be encroaching on the functions of constitutional interpretation , which is traditionally the function of courts . Even though the Council has the additional advantage of identifying potentially unconstitutional legislation at an early stage , thereby preventing unnecessary litigation in the future , there is doubt as to the ability of the Council to take on such a task . Given that constitutional interpretation is traditionally the function of lawyers and the courts , the task may be best carried out by the legally trained members of the PCMR .
= = = Legislation = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act ( Cap . 167A , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) ( " MRHA " ) .
Standing Orders of the Parliament of Singapore ( 2010 Ed . ) , archived from the original on 1 October 2011 .
= = = Other works = = =
Khoo , Francis Kah Siang ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper III " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 14 – 19 .
Mak , Andrew Yen @-@ Chen ( 1992 ) , " The Need for a Second Chamber in Singapore " , Singapore Law Review 13 : 109 – 131 .
Marshall , David S [ aul ] ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper II " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 9 – 13 .
Neo , Jaclyn Ling @-@ Chien ( 2009 ) , " The Protection of Minorities and the Constitution : A Judicious Balance ? " , in Thio , Li @-@ ann ; Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] , eds . , Evolution of a Revolution : Forty Years of the Singapore Constitution , Singapore : Routledge @-@ Cavendish , pp. 234 – 259 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 43862 @-@ 9 .
Report of the Constitutional Commission , 1966 [ chairman : Wee Chong Jin C.J. ] , Singapore : Government Printer , 1966 , OCLC 51640681 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " The Legislature " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 299 – 359 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Tan , Seow Hon ( 1995 ) , " The Constitution as ' Comforter ' ? – An Assessment of the Safeguards in Singapore 's Constitutional System " , Singapore Law Review 16 : 104 – 156 .
Thio , Su Mien ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper I " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 2 – 8 .
Wan , Wai Yee ( 1994 ) , " Recent Changes to the Westminster System of Government and Government Accountability " , Singapore Law Review 15 : 297 – 332 .
= = = Articles and websites = = =
De Cruz , Gerald ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper IV " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 20 – 25 .
Tan , Eugene ; Chan , Gary ( 25 September 2007 ) , " The Legislature " , The Singapore Legal System , Singaporelaw.sg , Singapore Academy of Law , archived from the original on 24 July 2011 , retrieved 30 September 2011 .
Tan , Yee Lin ( 31 October 2009 ) , The Presidential Council for Minority Rights , Singapore Infopedia , National Library Board , archived from the original on 28 September 2011 , retrieved 28 September 2011 .
= = = Books = = =
Tommy Koh , ed . ( 2006 ) , " Presidential Council for Minority Rights " , Singapore : The Encyclopedia , Singapore : Editions Didier Millet in association with the National Heritage Board , p . 422 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4155 @-@ 63 @-@ 2 , archived from the original on 11 May 2012 .
Report of the Select Committee on the Constitution ( Amendment ) Bill [ Parl . 7 of 1969 ] , Singapore : Printed by Tan Boon Poh , Acting Government Printer , 1969 .
Tan , Kevin ( 1999 ) , " Parliament and the Making of Law in Singapore " , in Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] , ed . , The Singapore Legal System ( 2nd ed . ) , Singapore : Singapore University Press , pp. 123 – 159 , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 213 @-@ 1 .
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= Basil W. Duke =
Basil Wilson Duke ( May 28 , 1838 – September 16 , 1916 ) was a Confederate general officer during the American Civil War . His most noted service in the war was as second @-@ in @-@ command for his brother @-@ in @-@ law John Hunt Morgan ; Duke would later write a popular account of Morgan 's most famous raid : 1863 's Morgan 's Raid . He took over Morgan 's command after Morgan was shot by Union soldiers in 1864 . At the end of the war , Duke was among Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's bodyguards after his flight from Richmond , Virginia , through the Carolinas .
Duke 's lasting impact was as a historian and communicator of the Confederate experience . As a historian he helped to found the Filson Club Historical Society and started the preserving of the Shiloh battlefield . He wrote numerous books and magazine articles , most notably in the Southern Bivouac . When he died , he was one of the few high @-@ ranking Confederate officers still alive . Historian James A. Ramage said of Duke , " No Southerner was more dedicated to the Confederacy than General Basil W. Duke " .
= = Early life and career = =
Basil Wilson Duke was born in Scott County , Kentucky , on May 28 , 1838 ; the only child of Nathaniel W. Duke and his wife , the former Mary Pickett Currie . He was 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) , slightly @-@ built , with a resonant voice . A relative described him as " essentially a man of the 17th century , that century in half armor , torn between chivalry and realism " .
Duke 's parents died during his childhood : Mary , when Basil was eight , and Nathaniel when Basil was 11 ; save for an instance in his Reminiscences , he seldom mentioned them . He attended Georgetown College ( 1853 – 1854 ) and Centre College ( 1854 – 1855 ) , before studying law at Lexington , Kentucky 's Transylvania University . After graduating in 1858 , he went to St. Louis , Missouri in 1858 to practice law , as his older cousin , also named Basil Duke , was practicing law there , and there were already a multitude of lawyers in Lexington .
= = Civil War service = =
When the American Civil War started in 1861 , Duke was still in Missouri , where he helped in the initial forays for Missouri 's secession from the United States . ( Missouri would have both Federal and Confederate governments during the War . ) On January 7 , 1861 , he and four others created The Minute Men , a pro @-@ secession militia @-@ like organization , in response to many pro @-@ Northern politicians being recently elected in St. Louis . Duke quickly became the leader , despite being only 23 years old . He formed the organization into five companies and sought to acquire the federal arsenal in St. Louis for the secessionist movement . He made a habit of placing secessionist flags at prominent locations , looking to start fights with pro @-@ Union forces . He would eventually be indicted for arson and treason but managed to escape back into Kentucky .
Once back to Lexington , Kentucky , Duke married Henrietta Hunt Morgan , sister of John Hunt Morgan . Their wedding took place on June 19 , 1861 . Duke would return to Missouri to help Confederate forces in Missouri under the command of Brigadier General Thomas Hindman , but would eventually return to Kentucky at Brigadier General William J. Hardee 's insistence . By October 1861 , he had enlisted in his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's ( Morgan 's ) command and was subsequently elected Second Lieutenant .
Duke was twice wounded during the War . At the Battle of Shiloh , he was swinging his saber at a Union soldier when he was shot in the left shoulder by a Brown Bess musket . The bullet exited his right shoulder , barely missing the spine . After recuperating , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and a few months later , to colonel . Duke 's second wound came at Elizabethtown , Kentucky 's Rolling Fork River during Morgan 's Christmas Raid of 1862 , when , on December 29 , he was hit by a shell fragment while leading the back guard as the rest of Morgan 's men crossed a stream ; his men initially assumed he was dead .
Duke was the principal trainer for mounted combat for Morgan 's Raiders and participated in Morgan 's audacious Ohio Raid , during which he was captured at the Battle of Buffington Island on July 19 , 1863 , while leading troops in a delaying tactic which allowed other Confederate forces either to escape across the Ohio River with Adam " Stovepipe " Johnson or to advance further into Ohio with Morgan , although shortly thereafter , he too was captured . Duke would remain in captivity until August 3 , 1864 , when he was exchanged . He could probably have escaped with Morgan and Thomas Hines but felt that to do so would hurt their chances , as Morgan was easily replaced in his cell by his brother , but no similar replacement as a temporary deception was there for Duke .
After Morgan was killed on September 4 , 1864 , Duke assumed command of Morgan 's forces and on September 15 , 1864 , was promoted to brigadier general and sent to Virginia . He was with Jefferson Davis shortly after the Confederate President fled Richmond . Duke was in the final Confederate war council at the Burt @-@ Stark Mansion in Abbeville , South Carolina , on May 2 , 1865 . Duke surrendered to Union officials on May 10 , 1865 , in Washington , Georgia .
As an officer , Duke 's way of " gently ordering " soldiers under his command allowed him to have friendly relations with his men . He loved fighting , was steadfast during difficult moments in conflicts , and was described as a " spit @-@ and @-@ polish " officer .
= = Postbellum = =
After the war , Duke moved to Louisville , Kentucky , in March 1868 , where he would live for most of his remaining life . He returned to practicing law later that year , with his primary client being the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . He served as their chief counsel and lobbyist , despite the L & N Railroad being a favorite victim of Morgan 's raiders during the war . He briefly served in the Kentucky General Assembly from 1869 to 1870 , resigning as he felt a conflict of interest being a lobbyist for the L & N. Duke also served as the Fifth Judicial District 's commonwealth attorney from 1875 to 1880 .
Duke became greatly involved in writing the history of the Civil War and related topics . He helped to found Louisville 's Filson Club ( now The Filson Historical Society ) in 1884 , writing many of their early papers . From 1885 to 1887 he edited the magazine Southern Bivouac . He also wrote three books : History of Morgan 's Cavalry ( 1867 ) , History of the Bank of Kentucky , 1792 @-@ 1895 ( 1895 ) , and Reminiscences of General Basil W. Duke ( a collection of various magazine articles he wrote ) ( 1911 ) . A prominent writer of the Southern experience , he neither advocated slavery , nor apologized for it ; although thinking it a good thing to have been abolished , he insisted that Northern claims of excessive abuse of slaves was exaggerated .
After 1900 , Duke began to withdraw from his public career . By 1903 he ceased doing work for the L & N. In 1904 he was appointed commissioner of Shiloh National Military Park by President Theodore Roosevelt , with whom he had become friendly after their having been introduced to each other at the Filson Club . Duke was devastated when , on October 20 , 1909 , his wife of fifty years , Henrietta , died of sudden heart failure . Afterward , he lived with his daughter Julia and her family in Louisville 's Cherokee Park . Prior to his death in 1916 , Duke had been one of the last surviving Confederate general officers . In his final years he spent much of his time handling requests made by those with questions about the Confederacy , even during the time that he was recovering from cataract surgery in 1914 . Two years later , during a visit to his daughter , Mary Currie , in Massachusetts , Duke underwent surgery in a New York City hospital , first , on September 1 , to have his right foot amputated and then , on September 11 , to have his right leg amputated at the knee . Five days later , on September 16 , 1916 , he died , one of the last surviving high @-@ ranking Confederate officers . Duke was buried beside his wife in front of the John Hunt Morgan grave in the Hunt family plot in Lexington Cemetery . In addition to his exploits as a Confederate commander , perhaps his lasting fame is as a master chronicler of Confederate military history .
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= CFM International CFM56 =
The CFM International CFM56 ( U.S. military designation F108 ) series is a family of high @-@ bypass turbofan aircraft engines made by CFM International ( CFMI ) , with a thrust range of 18 @,@ 500 to 34 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 82 to 150 kilonewtons ) . CFMI is a 50 – 50 joint @-@ owned company of SNECMA , France and GE Aviation ( GE ) , United States . Both companies are responsible for producing components and each has its own final assembly line . GE produces the high @-@ pressure compressor , combustor , and high @-@ pressure turbine , and SNECMA manufactures the fan , gearbox , exhaust and the low @-@ pressure turbine , and some components are made by Avio of Italy . The engines are assembled by GE in Evendale , Ohio , and by SNECMA in Villaroche in France . The completed engines are marketed by CFMI . Despite initial export restrictions , it is one of the most common turbofan aircraft engines in the world , in four major variants .
The CFM56 first ran in 1974 . In April 1979 , the joint venture had not received a single order in five years and was two weeks away from being dissolved . The program was saved when Delta Airlines , United Airlines , and Flying Tigers chose the CFM56 to re @-@ engine their DC @-@ 8s and shortly thereafter it was chosen to re @-@ engine the KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker fleet of the U.S. Air Force – still its biggest customer . The first engines entered service in 1982 . Several fan blade failure incidents were experienced during the CFM56 's early service , including one failure that was a cause of the Kegworth air disaster , and some engine variants experienced problems caused by flight through rain and hail . Both these issues were resolved with engine modifications .
As of June 2016 , as the most used high bypass turbofan , it achieved more than 800 million engine flight hours , and at a rate of one million flight hours every eight days it will achieve one billion flight hours by 2020 . It have more than 550 operators and more than 2 @,@ 400 CFM56 @-@ powered jet aircraft are in the air at any moment . It is known for its dependability : its average time on wing is 30 @,@ 000 hours before a first shop visit , with the current fleet record at 50 @,@ 000 hours .
As of July 2016 , 30 @,@ 000 engines have been built : 9 @,@ 860 CFM56 @-@ 5 engines for the Airbus A320ceo and A340 @-@ 200 / 300 and more than 17 @,@ 300 CFM56 @-@ 3 / -7B engines for the Boeing 737 Classic and 737NG . CFM plans to produce 1 @,@ 700 engines in 2016 , the highest production rate in the industry , and there are 3 @,@ 000 engines in backlog .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Research into the next generation of commercial jet engines , high @-@ bypass ratio turbofans in the " 10 @-@ ton " ( 20 @,@ 000 lbf ; 89 kN ) thrust class , began in the late 1960s . SNECMA , who had mostly built military engines until then , was the first company to seek entrance into the market by searching for a partner with commercial experience to design and build an engine in this class . They considered Pratt & Whitney , Rolls @-@ Royce , and GE Aviation as potential partners , and after two company executives , Gerhard Neumann from GE and René Ravaud from SNECMA , introduced themselves at the 1971 Paris Air Show a decision was made . The two companies saw mutual benefit in the collaboration and met several more times , fleshing out the basics of the joint project .
Pratt & Whitney dominated the commercial market at this point in time . GE needed an engine in this market class , and SNECMA had previous experience of working with them , collaborating on the production of the CF6 @-@ 50 turbofan for the Airbus A300 . Pratt & Whitney was considering upgrading their JT8D to compete in the same class as the CFM56 as a sole venture , while Rolls @-@ Royce dealt with financial issues that precluded them from starting new projects ; this situation caused GE to gain the title of best partner for the program .
A major reason for GE 's interest in the collaboration , rather than building a 10 @-@ ton engine on their own , was that the SNECMA project was the only source of development funds for an engine in this class at this particular time . GE was initially considering only contributing technology from its CF6 engine rather than its much more advanced F101 engine , developed for the B @-@ 1 Lancer supersonic bomber . The company was faced with a dilemma when the United States Air Force ( USAF ) announced its Advanced Medium STOL Transport ( AMST ) project in 1972 which included funding for the development of a 10 @-@ ton engine – either to build a " limited " technology 10 @-@ ton engine with SNECMA , or a similar engine with " advanced " technology on their own . Concerned that the company would be left with only the " limited " engine in its portfolio if it did not win the Air Force contract ( for which it was competing with Pratt & Whitney and a General Motors division with its " advanced " engine ) , GE decided to apply for an export license for the F101 core technology .
= = = Export issues = = =
GE applied for the export license in 1972 as their primary contribution to the 10 @-@ ton engine project . The United States Department of State 's Office of Munitions Control recommended the rejection of the application on national security grounds ; specifically because the core technology was an aspect of a strategic national defense system ( the B @-@ 1 bomber ) , it was built with Department of Defense ( and therefore American taxpayer ) money , and that exporting the technology to France would limit the number of American workers on the project . The official decision was made in a National Security Decision Memorandum signed by the National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on 19 September 1972 .
While national security concerns were cited as the grounds for rejection , politics played an important role as well . The project , and the export issue associated with it , was considered so important that French President Georges Pompidou appealed directly to U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1971 to approve the deal , and Henry Kissinger brought the issue up with President Pompidou in a 1972 meeting . GE reportedly argued at the highest levels that having half of the market was better than having none of it , which they believed would happen if SNECMA pursued the engine on their own without GE 's contribution . Nixon administration officials feared that this project could be the beginning of the end of American aerospace leadership .
There was also speculation that the rejection may have been , in part , retaliation for French involvement in convincing the Swiss not to purchase American @-@ made A @-@ 7 Corsair II aircraft that had been competing against a French design , the Dassault Milan . In the end , the Swiss did not purchase either aircraft , opting for the Northrop F @-@ 5E Tiger II instead .
= = = = 1973 Nixon – Pompidou meeting = = = =
Despite the export license being rejected , both the French and GE continued to push the Nixon Administration for permission to export the F101 technology . Efforts continued throughout the months following the rejection , culminating in the engine becoming an agenda topic during the 1973 meeting of Presidents Nixon and Pompidou in Reykjavík . Discussions at this meeting resulted in an agreement that allowed the development of the CFM56 to proceed . Contemporary reports state that the agreement was based on assurances that the core of the engine , the part that GE was developing from the military F101 , would be built in the U.S. and then transported to France in order to protect the sensitive technologies . The joint venture also agreed to pay the U.S. an $ 80 million royalty fee ( calculated at $ 20 @,@ 000 per engine predicted to be built ) as repayment for the development money provided by the government for the F101 engine core . Documents declassified in 2007 revealed that a key aspect of the CFM56 export agreement was that the French government agreed not to seek tariffs against American aircraft being imported into Europe .
= = = CFM International = = =
With the export issue settled , GE and SNECMA finalized the agreement that formed CFM International ( CFMI ) , a 50 – 50 joint company that would be responsible for producing and marketing the 10 @-@ ton engine , the CFM56 . The venture was officially founded in 1974 . The two primary roles for CFMI were to manage the program between GE and SNECMA , and to market , sell and service the engine at a single point of contact for the customer . CFMI was made responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day decision making for the project , while major decisions ( developing a new variant , for example ) required the go @-@ ahead from GE and SNECMA management .
The CFMI board of directors is currently split evenly between SNECMA and GE ( five members each ) . There are two vice presidents , one from each company , who support the President of CFMI . The president tends to be drawn from SNECMA and sits at CFMI 's headquarters near GE in Cincinnati , Ohio .
The work split between the two companies gave GE responsibility for the high @-@ pressure compressor ( HPC ) , the combustor , and the high @-@ pressure turbine ( HPT ) ; SNECMA was responsible for the fan , the low @-@ pressure compressor ( LPC ) , and the low @-@ pressure turbine ( LPT ) . SNECMA was also responsible for the initial airframe integration engineering , mostly involving the nacelle design , and was initially responsible for the gearbox , but shifted that work to GE when it became apparent that it would be more efficient for GE to assemble that component along with their other parts .
= = Development = =
= = = Overview = = =
Development work on the CFM56 began before CFMI was formally created . While work proceeded smoothly , the international arrangement led to unique working conditions . For example , both companies had assembly lines , some engines were assembled and tested in the U.S. and others in France . Engines assembled in France were subject to the initially strict export agreement , which meant that GE 's core was built in the U.S. , then shipped to the SNECMA plant in France where it was placed in a locked room into which even the President of SNECMA was not allowed . The SNECMA components ( the fore and aft sections of the engine ) were brought into the room , GE employees mounted them to the core , and then the assembled engine was taken out to be finished .
The first completed CFM56 engine first ran at GE in June 1974 with the second running in October 1974 . The second engine was then shipped to France and first ran there on 13 December 1974 . These first engines were considered " production hardware " as opposed to test examples and were designated as the CFM56 @-@ 2 , the first variant of the CFM56 .
The engine flew for the first time in February 1977 when it replaced one of the four Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines on the McDonnell Douglas YC @-@ 15 , an entrant in the Air Force 's Advanced Medium STOL Transport ( AMST ) competition . Soon after , the second CFM56 was mounted on a Sud Aviation Caravelle at the SNECMA flight test center in France . This engine had a slightly different configuration with a long bypass duct and mixed exhaust flow , rather than a short bypass duct with unmixed exhaust flow . It was the first to include a " Thrust Management System " to maintain engine trim .
= = = First customers = = =
After testing the engine for several years , both in the air and on the ground , CFMI searched for customers outside of a possible AMST contract . The main targets were re @-@ engine contracts for the Douglas DC @-@ 8 and the Boeing 707 airliners , including the related military tanker , the KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker . There was little initial interest in the engine , but Boeing realized that the CFM56 might be a solution to upcoming noise regulations . After announcing that a 707 would be configured with the CFM56 engine for flight tests in 1977 , Boeing officially offered the 707 @-@ 320 with the CFM56 engine as an option in 1978 . The new variant was listed as the 707 @-@ 700 . Due to limited interest from the airlines in a re @-@ engined 707 , Boeing ended the 707 @-@ 700 program in 1980 without selling any aircraft . Despite the lack of sales , having the commercial 707 available with the CFM56 helped the engine 's competitiveness for the KC @-@ 135 re @-@ engine contract .
= = = = KC @-@ 135R = = = =
Winning the contract to re @-@ engine the KC @-@ 135 tanker fleet for the USAF would be a huge boon to the CFM56 project ( with more than 600 aircraft available to re @-@ engine ) , and CFMI aggressively pursued that goal as soon as the Request For Proposals ( RFP ) was announced in 1977 . Like other aspects of the program , international politics played their part in this contract . In efforts to boost the CFM56 's chances versus its competitors , the Pratt & Whitney TF33 and an updated Pratt & Whitney JT8D , the French government announced in 1978 that they would upgrade their 11 KC @-@ 135s with the CFM56 , providing one of the first orders for the engine .
The USAF announced the CFM56 as the winner of the re @-@ engine contract in January 1980 . Officials indicated that they were excited at the prospect of replacing the Pratt & Whitney J57 engines currently flying on the KC @-@ 135A aircraft , calling them " ... the noisiest , dirtiest , [ and ] most fuel inefficient powerplant still flying " at the time . The re @-@ engined aircraft was designated the KC @-@ 135R . The CFM56 brought many benefits to the KC @-@ 135 , decreasing takeoff distance by as much as 3 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) , decreasing overall fuel usage by 25 % , greatly reducing noise ( 24 dB lower ) and lowering total life cycle cost . With those benefits in mind , the United States Navy selected the CFM56 @-@ 2 to power their variant of the Boeing 707 , the E @-@ 6 Mercury , in 1982 . In 1984 the Royal Saudi Air Force selected the CFM56 @-@ 2 to power their E @-@ 3 Sentry aircraft ( also related to the 707 airframe ) . The CFM56 @-@ 2 @-@ powered E @-@ 3 also became the standard configuration for aircraft purchased by the British and French .
= = = = DC @-@ 8 = = = =
By the end of the 1970s , airlines were considering upgrading their aging Douglas DC @-@ 8 aircraft as an alternative to buying new quieter and more efficient aircraft . Following the French KC @-@ 135 order in 1978 , the April 1979 decision by United Airlines to upgrade 30 of their DC @-@ 8 @-@ 61 aircraft with the CFM56 @-@ 2 was important for securing the development of the CFM56 ; GE and SNECMA were two weeks away from freezing development had that order not materialized . This decision marked the first commercial purchase ( rather than government / military ) of the engine , and Delta Air Lines and Flying Tiger Line soon followed suit , giving the CFM56 a firm footing in both the military and commercial realms .
= = = = Boeing 737 = = = =
In the early 1980s Boeing selected the CFM56 @-@ 3 to exclusively power the Boeing 737 @-@ 300 variant . The 737 wings were closer to the ground than previous applications for the CFM56 , necessitating several modifications to the engine . The fan diameter was reduced , which reduced the bypass ratio , and the engine accessory gearbox was moved from the bottom of the engine ( the 6 o 'clock position ) to the 9 o 'clock position , giving the engine nacelle its distinctive flat @-@ bottomed shape . The overall thrust was also reduced , from 24 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 lbf ( 107 to 89 kN ) , mostly due to the reduction in bypass ratio .
Since the small initial launch order for twenty 737 @-@ 300s split between two airlines , over 5 @,@ 000 Boeing 737 aircraft had been delivered with CFM56 turbofans by April 2010 .
= = = Continued development = = =
= = = = Tech56 and Tech Insertion = = = =
In 1998 , CFMI launched the " Tech56 " development and demonstration program to create an engine for the new single @-@ aisle aircraft that were expected to be built by Airbus and Boeing . The program focused on developing a large number of new technologies for the theoretical future engine , not necessarily creating an all @-@ new design . When it became clear that Boeing and Airbus were not going to build all @-@ new aircraft to replace the 737 and A320 , CFMI decided to apply some of those Tech56 technologies to the CFM56 in the form of the " Tech Insertion " program which focused on three areas : fuel efficiency , maintenance costs and emissions . Launched in 2004 , the package included redesigned high @-@ pressure compressor blades , an improved combustor , and improved high- and low @-@ pressure turbine components which resulted in better fuel efficiency and lower nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) emissions . The new components also reduced engine wear , lowering maintenance costs by about 5 % . The engines entered service in 2007 , and all new CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 7B engines are being built with the Tech Insertion components . CFMI also offers the components as an upgrade kit for existing engines .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 7B " Evolution " = = = =
In 2009 , CFMI announced the latest upgrade to the CFM56 engine , the " CFM56 @-@ 7B Evolution " or CFM56 @-@ 7BE . This upgrade , announced with improvements to Boeing 's 737 Next Generation , further enhances the high- and low @-@ pressure turbines with better aerodynamics , as well as improving engine cooling , and aims to reduce overall part count . CFMI expected the changes to result in a 4 % reduction in maintenance costs and a 1 % improvement in fuel consumption ( 2 % improvement including the airframe changes for the new 737 ) ; flight and ground tests completed in May 2010 revealed that the fuel burn improvement was better than expected at 1 @.@ 6 % . Following 450 hours of testing , the CFM56 @-@ 7BE engine was certified by FAA and EASA on 30 July 2010 and delivered since mid @-@ 2011 .
The CFM56 @-@ 5B / 3 PIP ( Performance Improvement Package ) engine include these new technologies and hardware changes to lower fuel burn and lower maintenance cost . Airbus A320s were to use this engine version starting in late 2011 .
= = = = LEAP = = = =
The LEAP is a new engine design based on and designed to replace the CFM56 series , with 16 % efficiency savings by using more composite materials and achieving higher bypass ratios of over 10 : 1 . LEAP is expected to enter service in 2016 .
= = Design = =
= = = Summary = = =
The CFM56 is a high @-@ bypass turbofan engine ( most of the air accelerated by the fan bypasses the core of the engine and is exhausted out of the fan case ) with several variants having bypass ratios ranging from 5 : 1 to 6 : 1 , generating 18 @,@ 500 to 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 80 kN to 150 kN ) of thrust . The variants share a common design , but the details differ . The CFM56 is a two @-@ shaft ( or two @-@ spool ) engine , meaning that there are two rotating shafts , one high @-@ pressure and one low @-@ pressure . Each is powered by its own turbine section ( the high @-@ pressure and low @-@ pressure turbines , respectively ) . The fan and booster ( low @-@ pressure compressor ) evolved over the different iterations of the engine , as did the compressor , combustor and turbine sections .
= = = Combustor = = =
Most variants of the CFM56 feature a single @-@ annular combustor . An annular combustor is a continuous ring where fuel is injected into the airflow and ignited , raising the pressure and temperature of the flow . Other types of combustors include can combustors , where each combustion chamber is separate , and canannular which is a hybrid of the two . Fuel injection is regulated by a Hydromechanical Unit ( HMU ) , built by Honeywell . The HMU regulates the amount of fuel delivered to the engine by means of an electrohydraulic servo valve that , in turn , drives a fuel metering valve , that provides information to the full authority digital engine controller ( FADEC ) .
In 1989 , CFMI began work on a new , double @-@ annular combustor . Instead of having just one combustion zone , the double @-@ annular combustor has a second combustion zone that is used at high thrust levels . This design lowers the emissions of both nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The first CFM56 engine with the double @-@ annular combustor entered service in 1995 , and the combustor is used on " Tech Insertion " CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 7B variants .
GE started developing and testing a new type of combustor called the Twin Annular Premixing Swirler combustor , or " TAPS " , during the Tech 56 program . This design is similar to the double @-@ annular combustor in that it has two combustion zones ; this combustor " swirls " the flow , creating an ideal fuel – air mixture . This difference allows the combustor to generate much less NOx than other combustors . Tests on a CFM56 @-@ 7B engine demonstrated an improvement of 46 % over single @-@ annular combustors and 22 % over double @-@ annular combustors . The analytical tools developed for TAPS have also been used to improve other combustors , notably the single @-@ annular combustors in some CFM56 @-@ 5B and -7B engines .
= = = Compressor = = =
The high @-@ pressure compressor @-@ HPC , that was at the center of the original export controversy , features nine stages in each variant of the CFM56 . The compressor stages have been developed from GE 's " GE1 / 9 core " ( namely a single @-@ turbine , nine @-@ compressor stage design ) which was designed in a compact core rotor . The small span of the compressor radius meant that the entire engine could be lighter and smaller , as the accessory units in the system ( bearings , oiling systems ) could be merged to the main fueling system running on aviation fuel . As design evolved HPC design improved through better airfoil design . As part of the Tech @-@ 56 improvement program CFMI has tested the new CFM @-@ 56 model with six @-@ stage high @-@ pressure compressor stages ( discs that make up the compressor system ) that was designed to deliver same pressure ratios ( pressure gain 30 ) similar to the old nine @-@ stages compressor design . The new one was not fully replacing the old one , but it offered an upgrade in HPC , thanks to improved blade dynamics , as a part of their " Tech Insertion " management plan from 2007 .
= = = Exhaust = = =
CFMI tested both a mixed and unmixed exhaust design at the beginning of development ; most variants of the engine have an unmixed exhaust nozzle . Only the high @-@ power CFM56 @-@ 5C , designed for the Airbus A340 , has a mixed @-@ flow exhaust nozzle .
GE and SNECMA also tested the effectiveness of chevrons on reducing jet noise . After examining configurations in the wind tunnel , CFMI chose to flight @-@ test chevrons built into the core exhaust nozzle . The chevrons reduced jet noise by 1 @.@ 3 perceived loudness decibels during takeoff conditions , and are now offered as an option with the CFM56 for the Airbus A321 .
= = = Fan and booster = = =
The CFM56 features a single @-@ stage fan , and most variants have a three @-@ stage booster on the low @-@ pressure shaft , with four stages in the -5B and -5C variants . The booster is also commonly called the " low @-@ pressure compressor " ( LPC ) as it sits on the low @-@ pressure shaft and compresses the flow initially before reaching the high @-@ pressure compressor . The original CFM56 @-@ 2 variant featured 44 tip @-@ shrouded fan blades , although the number of fan blades was reduced in later variants as wide @-@ chord blade technology developed , down to 22 blades in the latest variant , the CFM56 @-@ 7 .
The CFM56 fan features dovetailed fan blades which allows them to be replaced without removing the entire engine , and GE / SNECMA claim that the CFM56 was the first engine to have that capability . This attachment method is useful for circumstances where only a few fan blades need to be repaired or replaced , such as following bird strikes .
The fan diameter varies with the different models of the CFM56 , and that change has a direct impact on the engine performance . For example , the low @-@ pressure shaft rotates at the same speed for both the CFM56 @-@ 2 and the CFM56 @-@ 3 models ; the fan diameter is smaller on the -3 , which lowers the tip speed of the fan blades . The lower speed allows the fan blades to operate more efficiently ( 5 @.@ 5 % more in this case ) , which increases the overall fuel efficiency of the engine ( improving specific fuel consumption nearly 3 % ) .
= = = Reverse thrust = = =
The CFM56 is designed to support several reverse thrust systems which help slow and stop the aircraft after landing . The variants built for the Boeing 737 , the CFM56 @-@ 3 and the CFM56 @-@ 7 , use a cascade type of thrust reverser . This type of thrust reverse consists of sleeves that slide back to expose mesh @-@ like cascades and blocker doors that block the bypass air flow . The blocked bypass air is forced through the cascades , reducing the thrust of the engine and slowing the aircraft down .
The CFM56 also supports pivoting @-@ door type thrust reversers . This type is used on the CFM56 @-@ 5 engines that power many Airbus aircraft . They work by actuating a door that pivots down into the bypass duct , both blocking the bypass air and deflecting the flow outward , creating the reverse thrust .
= = = Turbine = = =
All variants of the CFM56 feature a single @-@ stage high @-@ pressure turbine ( HPT ) . In some variants , the HPT blades are " grown " from a single crystal superalloy , giving them high strength and creep resistance . The low @-@ pressure turbine ( LPT ) features four stages in most variants of the engine , but the CFM56 @-@ 5C has a five @-@ stage LPT . This change was implemented to drive the larger fan on this variant . Improvements to the turbine section were examined during the Tech56 program , and one development was an aerodynamically optimized low @-@ pressure turbine blade design , which would have used 20 % fewer blades for the whole low @-@ pressure turbine , saving weight . Some of those Tech56 improvements made their way into the Tech Insertion package , where the turbine section was updated . The turbine section was updated again in the " Evolution " upgrade .
The high @-@ pressure turbine stages in the CFM56 are internally cooled by air from the high @-@ pressure compressor . The air passes through internal channels in each blade and ejects at the leading and trailing edges .
= = Variants = =
= = = CFM56 @-@ 2 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 2 series is the original variant of the CFM56 . It is most widely used in military applications where it is known as the F108 ; specifically in the KC @-@ 135 , the E @-@ 6 Mercury and some E @-@ 3 Sentry aircraft . The CFM56 @-@ 2 comprises a single @-@ stage fan with 44 blades , with a three @-@ stage LP compressor driven by a four @-@ stage LP turbine , and a nine @-@ stage HP compressor driven by a single @-@ stage HP turbine . The combustor is annular .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 3 series = = =
The first derivative of the CFM56 series , the CFM56 @-@ 3 is designed for Boeing 737 Classic series ( 737 @-@ 300 / -400 / -500 ) , with static thrust ratings from 18 @,@ 500 to 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 82 @.@ 3 to 105 kN ) . A " cropped fan " derivative of the -2 , the -3 engine has a smaller fan diameter at 60 in ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) but retains the original basic engine layout . The new fan is primarily derived from GE 's CF6 @-@ 80 turbofan rather than the CFM56 @-@ 2 , and the booster was redesigned to match the new fan .
A significant challenge for this series was achieving ground clearance for the wing @-@ mounted engine . This was overcome by reducing the intake fan diameter and relocating the gearbox and other accessories from beneath the engine to the sides . The resulting flattened nacelle bottom and intake lip yielded the distinctive appearance of the Boeing 737 with CFM56 engines .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 4 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 4 series was a proposed improved version of the CFM56 @-@ 2 designed for the Airbus A320 family of aircraft . Competing with the RJ500 engine being developed by Rolls @-@ Royce , the -4 series was designed to produce 25 @,@ 000 lbf ( 110 kN ) and was to feature a new 68 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) fan , a new low @-@ pressure compressor and a full authority digital engine controller ( FADEC ) . Soon after the upgrade project was launched in 1984 , International Aero Engines offered their new V2500 engine for the A320 . CFMI realized that the CFM56 @-@ 4 did not compare favorably with the new engine and scrapped the project to begin working on the CFM56 @-@ 5 series .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 5 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 5 series is designed for the Airbus aircraft and has a very wide thrust rating of between 22 @,@ 000 and 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 97 @.@ 9 and 151 kN ) . It has three distinct sub @-@ variants ; the CFM56 @-@ 5A , CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 5C , and differs from its Boeing @-@ fitted cousins by featuring a FADEC and incorporating further aerodynamic design improvements .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5A series = = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 5A series is the initial CFM56 @-@ 5 series , designed to power the short @-@ to @-@ medium range Airbus A320 family . Derived from the CFM56 @-@ 2 and CFM56 @-@ 3 families , the -5A series produces thrusts between 22 @,@ 000 and 26 @,@ 500 lbf ( 98 kN and 118 kN ) . Aerodynamic improvements such as an updated fan , low @-@ pressure compressor , high @-@ pressure compressor and combustor make this variant 10 – 11 % more fuel efficient than its predecessors .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5B series = = = =
An improvement of the CFM56 @-@ 5A series , it was originally designed to power the A321 . With a thrust range between 22 @,@ 000 and 33 @,@ 000 lbf ( 98 kN and 147 kN ) it can power every model in the A320 family ( A318 / A319 / A320 / A321 ) and has superseded the CFM56 @-@ 5A series . Among the changes from the CFM56 @-@ 5A is the option of a double @-@ annular combustor that reduces emissions ( particularly NOx ) , a new fan in a longer fan case , and a new low @-@ pressure compressor with a fourth stage ( up from three in earlier variants ) . It is the most numerous engine supplied to Airbus .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5C series = = = =
With a thrust rating of between 31 @,@ 200 and 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 139 kN and 151 kN ) , the CFM56 @-@ 5C series is the most powerful of the CFM56 family . It powers Airbus ' long @-@ range A340 @-@ 200 and -300 airliners , and entered service in 1993 . The major changes are a larger fan , a fifth low @-@ pressure turbine stage , and the same four @-@ stage low @-@ pressure compressor found in the -5B variant .
Unlike every other variant of the CFM56 , the -5C features a mixed @-@ exhaust nozzle , which offers slightly higher efficiency .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 7 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 7 powers the Boeing 737 Next Generation series ( 737 @-@ 600 / -700 / -800 / -900 ) . The CFM56 @-@ 7 first ran on 21 April 1995 is rated with takeoff thrust from 19 @,@ 500 to 27 @,@ 300 lbf ( 86 @.@ 7 kN to 121 kN ) . It has higher thrust ranges , improved efficiency , and lower maintenance costs than its predecessor , the CFM56 @-@ 3 series . It incorporates features from the CFM56 @-@ 5 series such as FADEC , double @-@ annular combustor ( as an option ) , and improved internal design . The basic mechanical arrangement is as the -3 series , but all aspects were aerodynamically improved from that model . For example , the improved wide @-@ chord fan blades allowed the total number of fan blades to be reduced from 38 to 24 . Other improvements came from material advances , such as the use of single @-@ crystal turbine blades in the high @-@ pressure turbine .
The CFM56 @-@ 7 @-@ powered 737 is granted 180 @-@ minute Extended @-@ Range , Twin @-@ Engine Operations ( ETOPS ) approval by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration . It also powers the military versions of the Next @-@ Generation 737 , the C @-@ 40 Clipper , the P @-@ 8 Poseidon , and Boeing 737 AEW & C.
= = Reliability = =
The CFM56 have an in @-@ flight shutdown rate of 1 incident per 333 @,@ 333 hours . Record time on wing before the first shop visit was 30 @,@ 000 hours in 1996 , to 40 @,@ 729 hours in 2003 and 50 @,@ 000 hours in 2016 .
There have been several engine failures in the early service of the CFM56 family which were serious enough to either ground the fleet or require aspects of the engine to be redesigned . The engines have also suffered , periodically , from thrust instability events tentatively traced to Honeywell 's hydromechanical unit .
= = = Rain and hail ingestion = = =
There are several recorded incidents of CFM56 engines flaming out in heavy rain and / or hail conditions , beginning early in the CFM56 's career . In 1987 , a double flameout occurred in hail conditions ( the pilots managed to relight the engines ) , followed by the TACA Flight 110 incident in 1988 . Both CFM56 engines on the TACA 737 flamed out while passing through hail and heavy rain , and the crew was forced to land without engines on a grassy levee near New Orleans , Louisiana . CFMI modified the engines by adding a sensor to force the combustor to continuously ignite under these conditions .
In 2002 , Garuda Indonesia Flight 421 had to ditch in a river because of hail @-@ induced engine flameouts , killing a flight attendant and injuring dozens of passengers . Prior to this accident , there were several other incidents of single or dual flameouts due to these weather conditions . After three incidents through 1998 , CFMI made modifications to the engine to improve the way in which the engine handled hail ingestion . The major changes included a modification to the fan / booster splitter ( making it more difficult for hail to be ingested by the core of the engine ) and the use of an elliptical , rather than conical , spinner at the intake . These changes did not prevent the 2002 accident , and the investigation board found that the pilots did not follow the proper procedures for attempting to restart the engine , which contributed to the final result . Recommendations were made to better educate pilots on how to handle these conditions , as well as to revisit FAA rain and hail testing procedures . No further engine modifications were recommended .
= = = Fan blade failure = = =
One issue that led to accidents with the CFM56 @-@ 3C engine was the failure of fan blades . This mode of failure led to the Kegworth air disaster in 1989 , which killed 47 people and injured 74 more . After the fan blade failed , the pilots mistakenly shut down the wrong engine , resulting in the damaged engine failing completely when powered up for the final approach . Following the Kegworth accident , CFM56 engines fitted to a Dan @-@ Air 737 @-@ 400 and a British Midland 737 @-@ 400 suffered fan blade failures under similar conditions ; neither incident resulted in a crash or injuries . After the second incident , the 737 @-@ 400 fleet was grounded .
At the time it was not mandatory to flight test new variants of existing engines , and certification testing failed to reveal vibration modes that the fan experienced during the regularly performed power climbs at high altitude . Analysis revealed that the fan was being subjected to high @-@ cycle fatigue stresses worse than expected and also more severe than tested for certification ; these higher stresses caused the blade to fracture . Less than a month after grounding , the fleet was allowed to resume operations once the fan blades and fan disc were replaced and the electronic engine controls were modified to reduce maximum engine thrust to 22 @,@ 000 lbf ( 98 kN ) from 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 105 kN ) . The redesigned fan blades were installed on all CFM56 @-@ 3C1 and CFM56 @-@ 3B2 engines , including over 1 @,@ 800 engines that had already been delivered to customers .
= = = Fuel flow problems = = =
Airlines have reported 32 events involving sudden instability of thrust , at various points during flight , including high thrust settings during climb to altitude . The problem has been long @-@ standing . In 1998 , two 737 pilots reported that their engine throttles suddenly increased to full thrust during flight . A very recent investigation has led to the tentative conclusion that the problem originates in the Hydromechanical unit , and may involve an unacceptable level of fuel contamination ( with water , or particulate matter , including biodegradable material that create solids in the fuel ) , or overuse of biocides to reduce bacterial growth . Boeing told Aviation Week and Space Technology that CFM International had revised its FADEC software . The new software " ' reduces the duration and degree of thrust @-@ instability events ' by cycling the FMV { fuel monitoring valve } and the EHSV ( electrohydraulic servo unit ) to clean the EHSV spool . " This software fix is not intended to be a definitive solution to the problem ; CFM claimed that no further reports have reached it after this change was made .
= = Applications = =
Airbus A320 family
Airbus A318
Airbus A340
Boeing 707 @-@ 700 ( prototype only )
Boeing 737 Classic
Boeing 737 Next Generation
Boeing 737 AEW & C
Boeing C @-@ 40 Clipper
Boeing P @-@ 8 Poseidon
Boeing Business Jet
Boeing E @-@ 3D Sentry
Boeing E @-@ 6 Mercury
Boeing KC @-@ 135R Stratotanker
Boeing RC @-@ 135
Douglas DC @-@ 8 Super 70
= = Specifications ( CFM56 @-@ 7B18 ) = =
Data from CFM International
= = = = General characteristics = = = =
Type : Twin @-@ spool , high @-@ bypass turbofan
Length : 98 @.@ 7 in ( 2 @.@ 5 m )
Diameter : 61 in ( 1 @.@ 55 m ) ( fan )
Dry weight : 5 @,@ 216 lb ( 2 @,@ 366 kg ) ( dry )
= = = = Components = = = =
Compressor : Single @-@ stage fan , 3 @-@ stage low @-@ pressure compressor , 9 @-@ stage high @-@ pressure compressor
Combustors : annular
Turbine : Single @-@ stage high @-@ pressure turbine , 4 @-@ stage low @-@ pressure turbine
= = = = Performance = = = =
Maximum thrust : 19 @,@ 500 lbf ( 86 @.@ 7 kN )
Overall pressure ratio : 32 @.@ 8 : 1
Bypass ratio : 5 @.@ 5 : 1
Air mass flow : 677 lb / s ( 307 kg / s )
Thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio : 3 @.@ 7 : 1
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= Jean Baptiste Point du Sable =
Jean Baptiste Point du Sable ( or Point de Sable , Point au Sable , Point Sable , Pointe DuSable ) ( before 1750 – August 28 , 1818 ) is regarded as the first permanent resident of what became Chicago , Illinois . Little is known of his life prior to the 1770s . In 1779 , he was living on the site of present @-@ day Michigan City , Indiana , when he was arrested by the British military on suspicion of being an American sympathizer in the American Revolutionary War . In the early 1780s he worked for the British lieutenant @-@ governor of Michilimackinac on an estate at what is now the city of St. Clair , Michigan , before moving to settle at the mouth of the Chicago River . He is first recorded living in Chicago in early 1790 , having apparently become established sometime earlier . He sold his property in Chicago in 1800 and moved to St. Charles , Missouri , where he died in 1818 .
Point du Sable has become known as the " Founder of Chicago " . In Chicago , a school , museum , harbor , park and bridge have been named , or renamed , in his honor ; and the place where he settled at the mouth of the Chicago River in the 1780s is recognized as a National Historic Landmark , now located in Pioneer Court .
= = Biography = =
There is no known record of Point du Sable 's life prior to the 1770s ; his birth year , place of birth , and parents are unknown , though he is known from contemporary sources to have been of African descent . Juliette Kinzie , another early pioneer of Chicago , Illinois , never met Point du Sable but stated in her 1856 memoir that he was " a native of St. Domingo " ( the island of Hispaniola ) . This became generally accepted by scholars as his place of birth . Historian Milo Milton Quaife , however , regarded Kinzie 's account of Point du Sable as " largely fictitious and wholly unauthenticated " . Quaife later put forward a theory that he was of French @-@ Canadian origin . A historical novel published in 1953 ( see below ) helped to popularize the commonly recited claim that he was born in 1745 in Saint @-@ Marc in Saint @-@ Domingue ( now Haiti ) . Point du Sable married a Potawatomi woman named Kitihawa ( Christianized to Catherine ) on October 27 , 1788 in a Catholic ceremony in Cahokia , an old French missionary town on the Mississippi River . , though they were likely married earlier in the 1770s in the Native American tradition . They had a son named Jean and a daughter named Susanne .
In a footnote to a poem titled Speech to the Western Indians , Arent DePeyster , British commandant at Fort Michilimackinac from 1774 to 1779 ( a former French fort in what was by then the British Quebec Territory ) , noted that " Baptist Point de Saible " was " handsome " , " well educated " , and " settled in Eschecagou " . When he published this poem in 1813 , DePeyster presented it as a speech that he had made at the Indian village of Abercroche ( now Harbor Springs , Michigan ) on July 4 , 1779 . This footnote has led many scholars to assume that Point du Sable had settled in Chicago by 1779 , however letters written by traders in the late 1770s suggest that Point du Sable was at this time settled at the mouth of Trail Creek ( Rivière du Chemin ) at what is now Michigan City , Indiana . In August 1779 , Point du Sable was arrested at Trail Creek by British troops and imprisoned briefly at Fort Michilimackinac . From the summer of 1780 until May 1784 , Point du Sable managed the Pinery , a tract of woodlands claimed by British Lt. Patrick Sinclair on the St. Clair River in eastern Michigan . Point du Sable and his family lived at a cabin at the mouth of the Pine River in what is now the city of St. Clair .
Point du Sable settled on the north bank of the Chicago River close to its mouth at some time in the 1780s . The earliest known record of Point du Sable living in Chicago is an entry that Hugh Heward made in his journal on May 10 , 1790 during a journey from Detroit across Michigan and through Illinois . Heward 's party stopped at Pointe du Sable 's house en route to the Chicago portage ; they swapped their canoe for a pirogue that belonged to Point du Sable , and they bought bread , flour and pork from him . Perrish Grignon , who visited Chicago in about 1794 , described Point du Sable as a large man who was a wealthy trader . In 1800 he sold his farm to John Kinzie 's frontman , Jean La Lime , for 6 @,@ 000 livres ; the bill of sale , which was rediscovered in 1913 in an archive in Detroit , outlined all of the property Point du Sable owned as well as many of his personal artifacts . This included a house , two barns , a horse drawn mill , a bakehouse , a poultry house , a dairy and a smokehouse . The house was a 22 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m × 12 @.@ 2 m ) log cabin filled with fine furniture and paintings .
After Point du Sable sold his property in Chicago he moved to St. Charles , Missouri , where he was commissioned by the colonial governor to operate a ferry across the Missouri River . He died in 1818 , and was buried in St. Charles , in an unmarked grave in St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery . His entry in the parish burial register does not mention his origins , parents , or relatives , it simply describes him as negre ( French for black ) . The St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery was moved twice in the 19th century , and oral tradition and records of the Archdiocese of St. Louis suggested that Point du Sable 's remains were also moved . On October 12 , 1968 , the Illinois Sesquicentennial Commission erected a granite marker at the site believed to be Point du Sable 's grave in the third St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery . In 2002 an archaeological investigation of the grave site was initiated by the African Scientific Research Institute at the University of Illinois at Chicago . Researchers using a combination of ground penetrating radar surveys and excavation of a 9 @-@ by @-@ 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 7 m ) area did not find any evidence of any burials at the supposed grave site , leading the archaeologists to conclude that Point du Sable 's remains may not have been moved from one of the two previous cemeteries .
= = Theories and legends = =
= = = Early life = = =
Though there is little historical evidence regarding Point du Sable 's life before the 1770s , there are a number of theories and legends that give accounts of his early life . Writing in 1933 , Milo Milton Quaife identified a French immigrant to Canada , Pierre Dandonneau , who acquired the title " Sieur de Sable " and whose descendants were known by both the names Dandonneau and Du Sable . Quaife was unable to find a direct link to Point du Sable , but identified descendants of Pierre Dandonneau living around the Great Lakes region in Detroit , Mackinac , and St Joseph , leading him to speculate that Point du Sable 's father was a member of this family , whilst his mother was a slave . In 1951 a pamphlet by Joseph Jeremie , a native of Haiti , was published in which he claimed to be the great grandson of Point du Sable . Based on family recollections and tombstone inscriptions he claimed that Point du Sable was born in Saint @-@ Marc in Haiti , studied in France , returned to Haiti to deal coffee before traveling to French Louisiana . Historian and Point du Sable biographer John F. Swenson has called these claims " elaborate , undocumented assertions ... in a fanciful biography " . In 1953 Shirley Graham built on the work of Quaife and Jeremie in a historical novel of Point du Sable that she described as " not accurate history nor pure fiction " , but rather " an imaginative interpretation of all the known facts " . This book presented Point du Sable as the son of the mate on a pirate ship , the Black Sea Gull , and a freed slave called Suzanne . Despite lack of evidence , and the continued debate about Point du Sable 's early life , parentage , and birthplace , this popular story is widely presented as being definitive .
= = = Peoria = = =
In 1815 a land claim that had been submitted by Nicholas Jarrot to the land commissioners at Kaskaskia , Illinois Territory was approved . In the claim Jarrot asserted that a " Jean Baptiste Poinstable " had been " head of a family at Peoria in the year 1783 , and before and after that year " , and that he " had a house built and cultivated land between the Old Fort and the new settlement in the year 1780 " . This document has been taken by Quaife and other historians as evidence that Point du Sable lived at Peoria prior to his arrival at Chicago , however , records show that Point du Sable was living at the Pinery in Michigan in the early 1780s . In addition , the Kaskaskia land commissioners identified many fraudulent land claims , including two previously submitted in the name of Point du Sable . Nicholas Jarrot , the claimant , was involved in many fraudulent land claims , and Swenson suggests that this claim was also fraudulent , made without the knowledge of Point du Sable . Although apparently in conflict with some of the above information , some historical records contend that DuSable bought land in Peoria from J.B.Maillet in March 13 , 1773 and sold it to Isaac Darneille in 1783 when he moved to be the first " permanent " European resident of Chicago .
= = = Departure from Chicago = = =
Point du Sable left Chicago in 1800 . Point du Sable sold his property to John Kinzie and moved to Missouri , at that time part of French Louisiana . The reason for his departure is unknown . In her memoir , Juliette Kinzie suggested that " perhaps he was disgusted at not being elected to a similar dignity [ great chief ] by the Pottowattamies . " In 1874 Nehemiah Matson elaborated on this story , claiming that Point du Sable was a slave from Virginia who had moved with his master to Lexington , Kentucky in 1790 . According to Matson , Point du Sable became a zealous Catholic in order to convince a Jesuit missionary to declare him chief of the local Native Americans , and left Chicago when the natives refused to accept him as their chief . Quaife dismisses both these stories as being fictional .
In her 1953 novel Graham suggests that Point du Sable left Chicago because he was angered with the United States government , which wanted him to buy the land on which he had lived and called his own for the previous two decades . The 1795 Treaty of Greenville and the subsequent westward migration of Indians away from the Chicago area might also have influenced his decision .
= = Legacy and honors = =
= = = Founder of Chicago = = =
Point du Sable is the earliest recorded resident of the settlement close to the mouth of the Chicago River that grew to become the city of Chicago . He is therefore widely regarded as the first permanent resident of Chicago and given the appellation " Founder of Chicago " .
The expedition headed by Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette in 1673 , though probably not the first Europeans to visit the area , are the first recorded to have crossed the Chicago Portage and travelled along the Chicago River . Marquette returned in 1674 , camped a few days near the mouth of the river , then moved on to the portage , where he stayed through the winter of 1674 – 75 . Joliet and Marquette did not report any Indians living near the Chicago River area at this time , though archaeologists have since discovered numerous Indian village sites elsewhere in the greater Chicago area . Two of La Salle 's men built a stockade at the portage in the winter of 1682 / 1683 . However , in 1697 Henri Tonti , Michel Accault , and François de La Forêt received permission from Governor Frontenac to establish a fortified trading post at Chicagou managed by Pierre de Liette , Tonti ’ s cousin , a Franco @-@ Italian , which lasted until c.1705. De Liette kept a journal of his experiences living with the Illinois natives for those years he lived with them at the Chicago trading post . De Liette , describes in his writings the game of lacrosse played by the Indians on the extensive meadow behind these villages . In Chicago De Liette ran the trading post in partnership with François Daupin de La Forêt , Michel Accault , and Henri de Tonti [ located probably near today`s Tribune Tower ] which he had to close , leaving in 1705 after the king revoked his trading license .
The Mission of the Guardian Angel was somewhere in the vicinity of Chicago from 1696 until it was abandoned in around 1700 . The Fox Wars effectively closed the Chicago area to Europeans in the first part of the 18th century . The first non @-@ native to re @-@ settle in the area may have been a trader named Guillory , who might have had a trading @-@ post near Wolf Point on the Chicago River in around 1778 . After Point du Sable , Antoine Ouilmette is the next recorded resident of Chicago ; he claimed to have settled at the mouth of the Chicago River in July 1790 , a few months after Hugh Heward visited Point du Sable .
= = = Memorials = = =
By the 1850s , historians of Chicago recognized Point du Sable as the city 's earliest non @-@ native permanent settler . For a long time , however , the city did not honor him in the same manner as other pioneers . A plaque was erected by the city in 1913 at the corner of Kinzie and Pine Streets to commemorate his homestead . In the planning stages of the 1933 – 1934 Century of Progress International Exposition a number of African @-@ American groups campaigned for Point du Sable to be honored at the fair . At this time , few Chicagoans had even heard of Point du Sable and the fair 's organizers presented the 1803 construction of Fort Dearborn as the city 's historical beginning . The campaign was successful however , and a replica of Point du Sable 's cabin was presented as part of the " background of the history of Chicago . "
In 1965 a plaza called Pioneer Court was built on the site of Point du Sable 's homestead as part of the construction of the Equitable Life Assurance Society of America building . The Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite was designated as a National Historic Landmark on May 11 , 1976 , as a site deemed to have " exceptional value to the nation . " Pioneer Court is located at what is now 401 N. Michigan Avenue in the Near North Side of Chicago . In 2009 , the City of Chicago and a private donor erected there a large bronze bust of Point du Sable by Chicago @-@ born sculptor Erik Blome . In February 2016 the bust was temporarily relocated to 400 N. Michigan Ave for the construction of a new Apple Store , but will return to its original location once construction is completed . In October 2010 , the Michigan Avenue Bridge was renamed DuSable Bridge in honor of Point du Sable . Previously a small street named De Saible Street had been named after him .
A number of Chicago institutions have been named in honor of Point du Sable . DuSable High School opened in Bronzeville in 1934 . Today it is a building for three schools : Daniel Hale Williams Prep School of Medicine , the Bronzeville Scholastic Institute , and the DuSable Leadership Academy . Dr. Margaret Taylor @-@ Burroughs , a prominent African @-@ American artist and writer taught at the school for twenty @-@ three years . She and her husband co @-@ founded the DuSable Museum of African American History , located on Chicago 's South Side , which was renamed in honor of Point du Sable in 1968 . DuSable Harbor is located in the heart of downtown Chicago at the foot of Randolph Street , and DuSable Park is an urban park ( 3 @.@ 24 acres ( 13 @,@ 100 m2 ) ) in Chicago currently awaiting redevelopment . It was originally announced in 1987 by Mayor Harold Washington . The US Postal Service has also honored Point du Sable with the issue of a Black Heritage Series , 22 @-@ cent postage stamp on February 20 , 1987 .
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= Olivia ( Fringe ) =
" Olivia " is the first episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Fringe . The episode was co @-@ written by J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and was directed by Joe Chappelle . The third season spent its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Olivia " was placed in the latter . This is indicated in the introduction of the episode , with the same red screen used in the last season 's finale , " Over There " . " Olivia " follows the cliffhanger left by the second season , in which Olivia Dunham is trapped in the parallel universe . The episode explores the consequences of Olivia 's abduction by Walternate , and her attempt to go back to the prime universe .
Though Fox was initially worried about an entire episode set in the other universe , they soon came to appreciate the storyline . The episode included the first appearances of guest actors Andre Royo and Amy Madigan , who would both appear in several later episodes . It first aired in the United States on Fox in September 23 , 2010 , receiving almost all positive reviews due to the combination of emotional storylines , suspense , action , and humor . Many thought it was a good indicator of what the rest of the season had to offer , while others appreciated the numerous popular culture references that set the two universes apart .
= = Plot = =
In the previous episode " Over There " , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and Walter ( John Noble ) used Olivia 's ability to cross from the prime universe into the parallel one , where Walter 's son , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , was being kept . After dealing with their respective counterparts from the parallel universe , " Fauxlivia " ( Torv ) and Walternate ( Noble ) , Olivia and Walter were able to successfully free Peter . As they prepared to return to the prime universe , Walternate ordered Fauxlivia to take Olivia 's place , returning with Walter and Peter , both unaware of the swap .
Olivia is captured by Walternate 's forces , imprisoned in the government facility on Liberty Island and put through both physical and psychological treatments by Walternate to make her believe that she is really the Fauxlivia of the parallel universe . Olivia manages to escape the facility and make it to " Manhatan " ( in the Other Side parallel universe , the island is spelled with only one " T " ) . She coerces a taxi driver named Henry ( Andre Royo ) to drive her to the Opera House where she believes she can return home , by threatening to harm his family , but by the time she arrives , an " Amber protocol " has been issued , sealing the building in " amber " , a substance that the Other Side Fringe Division deploys to envelop time fractures . She directs Henry to the address for Massive Dynamic , but finds the facility does not exist in this universe . As Henry goes to a gas station to fill his taxi , Olivia cries to herself in the station 's bathroom .
Meanwhile , the Fringe division is falsely told that their Olivia has escaped . Agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) , still needing hyperbaric treatment to regrow his skin after being burned , and Agent Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) follow a tracking device on Henry 's taxi . When they arrive at the station , Olivia orders Henry to drive away , and manages to fire at a small valve on a gas tank , allowing the explosion to cover their trail . Walternate , watching the altercation on monitors , notes Olivia has gained the marksmanship ability that the alternate Olivia possesses , and begins to think the serum is working . Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) theorizes in a later conversation that the rush of adrenaline effectively enhanced the potency of his chemical agents to brainwash Olivia .
Henry removes the tracker from his taxi , having become sympathetic towards Olivia . Olivia gives him an address to a " safe house " in a suburban area , and , once there , thanks him and allows him to go . However , Henry remains parked on a nearby street . In the home , Olivia discovers her mother Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) , who , in the prime universe , had died when Olivia was a teenager . Olivia , seeing her mother and the memories of her mother , cries into her arms , as she is awash in Fauxlivia 's memories . By the time Charlie arrives , Olivia fully believes she is Fauxlivia , and after saying goodbye to her mother , returns willingly with Charlie to Fringe headquarters . Henry , after watching Charlie 's car pull away , drives off on his own .
The episode closes in the prime universe , where Peter explains the events of his time in the parallel universe to disinterested government agents . Meanwhile , Fauxlivia engages in idle chatter with Walter , nearly slipping and revealing her identity to him due to her lack of knowledge of the prime universe 's popular culture . When Peter leaves , he kisses Fauxlivia and the three leave to get dinner .
= = Production = =
" Olivia " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and was directed by co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle . The producers revealed the episode title on June 30 , 2010 . After they began their search in mid @-@ June for a fifty- to sixty @-@ year @-@ old actress to play Olivia 's mother , Entertainment Weekly reported on July 2 that Amy Madigan had been cast as Marilyn Dunham for roughly four episodes , beginning with the season premiere . The character was described as " lovely and together " and deeply devoted to her daughter . Further reporting a week later revealed that The Wire actor Andre Royo had been cast for the season premiere as Henry Higgins , " a soulful taxi driver who is unexpectedly forced into a tense situation with Olivia " . Henry Higgins is also the name of a character in My Fair Lady . Even before " Olivia " aired , Royo 's guest appearance was extended to appear in a second episode . Guest actor Seth Gabel returned as the recurring character Lincoln Lee , and required four to five hours of make @-@ up in order to play a recovering burn victim .
Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman decided to alternate the episodes between the prime and parallel universes because they " thought that the best way to really thoroughly tell these stories was to dive into them wholeheartedly ... [ in order to fully explore ] the journey that our heroine is on and then come back over here because [ Altlivia ] is embedded in our team , we have point of view characters in both universes and it seemed to us the perfect opportunity to really explore in a really thorough fulsome way the alternate universe " . Wyman elaborated that he felt fans " would really appreciate a mythology in two places " , and showing both universes " just presented itself in such a natural organic way to evolution in our storytelling " . Fox however was initially worried about the premise 's sustainability , and that an episode without Peter or Walter " wouldn 't feel like our show anymore , " to which Pinkner responded that " not unlike a show like Lost , Fringe has to constantly evolve , to move and grow and go forward , otherwise we 'll get bored , the cast will get bored , the audience will get bored " . After the first three episodes , both Fox and Warner Bros. became more favorable to the storyline .
When discussing the many differences between the prime and parallel universes in an interview , Pinkner explained that " one of the big themes of the show is how small choices that you make define you as a person and can change your life in large ways down the line " . Pinkner and the rest of the Fringe production team loved the opportunity to build an entire new world , and asked themselves what life would have been like in its most mundane forms , such as within daily routines . Pinkner thought it allowed them to create and explore many " what @-@ if " moments , such as if the September 11 attacks had occurred against the White House instead of the Twin Towers , or if the Statue of Liberty still possessed its shiny copper sheen . Pinkner elaborated in another interview that when the " perfectionist " crew were writing and constructing the parallel universe , they spent a lot of time on a high " level of attention and detail " that had all of the different departments and actors weighing in . Pinkner thought that because the parallel universe is effectively breaking down with " World War II " -like conditions , these " sort of tough times forge more noble , stronger people " . To better differentiate the two universes , the producers changed the color of the opening credit sequences by making the parallel universe red and the prime universe blue . As with the opening credits in " Peter " , the episodes featuring the parallel universe displayed certain fringe science words in that world , including wormholes , speciation , pandemics , and telepathy .
= = Cultural references = =
Many differences between the two universes were related to popular culture . A photograph of Fauxlivia wearing a gold medal in marksmanship is shown , proving that unlike the prime universe , the parallel universe has that particular event in their Olympic Games . The radio in Henry 's taxi can be heard mentioning former president John F. Kennedy is stepping down from his role as ambassador , proving that he was not assassinated . On that same taxi , Dogs is depicted to be a musical in the parallel universe New York City , instead of Cats . Their mail is delivered by the " U.S. Mail Service " with a different logo , instead of the United States Postal Service , and there are apparently daily flights to the moon .
Actor Tom Cruise is mentioned for " kick [ ing ] ass " on television , implying that he is not a movie star in the parallel universe . When Olivia reminds him she knows his identification information , Henry mentions a " Jedi mind trick " , a reference to Star Wars , which is one popular culture similarity the two universes seem to share . When searching for the headquarters of Massive Dynamic , Olivia instead finds a site entitled " Martin Luther King / Eldridge Cleaver Memorial Park " , which implies that King was also not assassinated , but instead developed a close relationship with Black Panther militant and Soul On Ice author Cleaver . The park sign also reads " We Have a Dream " , which is a slight deviation from King 's " I Have a Dream " speech , and suggests that he and Cleaver wrote it together .
As Olivia enters the park , she is passed by a man riding a penny @-@ farthing bicycle . As these have not been shown elsewhere , it does not seem likely that they are a common means of transportation in the alternate universe , but rather that this is a reference to The Prisoner , in which similar mind @-@ games were used against an agent being held prisoner .
In the prime universe , Fauxlivia tells Walter that she has not seen shoes like his Wallabees ( a line of shoes from C & J Clark ) " in a while , " and asks if he is " bringing them back . " Walter responds by asking her , " Where did they go ? " indicating that they were also found in the alternate universe until some recent time ( within Olivia 's lifetime ) , but are no longer found there .
= = Reception = =
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " Olivia " , with the intention of having " students learn about the types of hormones and how they are used to regulate various functions in an organism . "
= = = Ratings = = =
" Olivia " premiered to 5 @.@ 83 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 1 rating for viewers 18 – 49 . Fringe was down thirty percent from the previous season 's premiere , " A New Day in the Old Town " . Time shifted viewing gave the premiere a 44 % increase , as its 18 – 49 rating rose to 3 @.@ 1 . Out of all the network shows , this was the largest gain of the week . Time shifted viewing also increased the total number of viewers to 7 @.@ 837 million . Fringe faced tough competition during its timeslot from the high @-@ rated Grey 's Anatomy and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly expected a big event in the vein of the second season premiere , and was pleasantly surprised to find something different : " a beautifully emotional hour with suspense , humor , and kissing ... [ that was ] superb and surprising " . Josh Wigler of MTV wrote that Fringe " proved once again that it 's one of the most the most innovative , entertaining genre shows currently airing on television , " and he couldn 't wait for next week 's episode . Jason Hughes of TV Squad enjoyed the episode , and praised how " the show 's creators have come up with a crazy , but fun , way of " showing both universes every other episode .
Brooklynne Kelly Peters from Blast Magazine praised Anna Torv 's acting , because she " brings a sensitivity to Olivia 's character that is heart @-@ wrenching but so well integrated into her character that action scenes seem totally natural for her " . The standout for her however , was John Noble 's performance , as he played " lovable and brilliant " Walter and " chillingly conniving " Walternate , both of which makes him " an even more unforgettable character " as the audience sees what Walter could have been . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , writing that " the third season of Fringe opened tonight with one of the strongest , boldest episodes in the whole run of the series " . Murray especially praised the " well @-@ written , acted and photographed " taxi scenes between Olivia and Henry . The Los Angeles Times ' Andrew Hanson particularly enjoyed the nine @-@ minute opening , writing that he loved the episode because of three reasons : Olivia " kicked butt " and stayed a step ahead of Walternate , her struggles with identity , and all of the careful details put into the parallel universe .
After watching the first several episodes of season three , Aaron Riccio of Slant Magazine gave the show 3 @.@ 5 / 4 stars , and praised it for making a " huge , game @-@ changing step forward " . He continued that " Hard science meets soft comedy , and the results are consistently surprising and rarely disappointing . The solid mythology and high stakes keep the series moving as forward as quickly as FlashForward and The Event , but the dual tones of the two worlds offer considerably more breadth in the stories it tells ... [ " Olivia " was ] captivating television " . Robert Bianco from USA Today praised Torv , Noble , and Jackson 's performances . He however disliked the new plotline of two Olivias , explaining " It 's hard to fault the execution of the first two episodes , which skillfully set up Fringe 's two competing universes and two misplaced Olivias ... Yet well @-@ done isn 't the same as welcome . I 'm not giving up on the show , which was one of last year 's best . But I don 't want to spend weeks watching our Olivia suffer and their Olivia make Walter and Peter suffer . You have to give writers leeway to take you where they want to go — but at a certain point , commercial entertainment has to be entertaining , or there 's no reason to watch " .
= = = Awards and nomination = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Olivia " , along with the season three episodes " Entrada " , " Marionette " , and Bloodline " for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
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= Macabeemyrma =
Macabeemyrma is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae containing the single species Macabeemyrma ovata , described in 2006 from Ypresian stage ( Early Eocene ) deposits of British Columbia , Canada . Only a single specimen is known ; a holotype queen found preserved as a compression fossil . The specimen had no wings and small portions of its legs and eyes were faintly preserved . It was a large ant , reaching 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in length . This ants ' behaviour would have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants , such as foraging singly in search for arthropod prey and nesting in soil or in trees . Macabeemyrma shows similarities to extinct ants in the genus Ypresiomyrma , and to the living Nothomyrmecia macrops , but has not been conclusively assigned to any tribe , instead generally regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , the sole specimen lacks definitive traits , and its classification in Myrmeciinae , and even its identity as an ant , has been challenged .
= = History and classification = =
Macabeemyrma ovata is known only from a single fossil specimen : a mostly complete adult queen , preserved as a compression fossil in fine @-@ grained shale . The shale is from fossiliferous outcrops at the McAbee Fossil Beds , part of an unnamed formation in the Kamloops group which outcrops east of Cache Creek in British Columbia , Canada . The holotype specimen was collected by an unknown person and donated to Thompson Rivers University in 2002 . The specimen was described by Bruce Archibald , Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of Harvard University 's Museum of Comparative Zoology , with their 2006 type description of the genus and species . The generic name Macabeemyrma is a toponym of the type locality at McAbee combined with the Greek myrmex , meaning " ant " . The specific epithet ovata , from the Latin " ovatus " meaning " egg shaped " , refers to the shape of the head capsule .
Archibald and colleagues originally classified Macabeemyrma as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae , as it could not be confidently placed into any ant tribe . However , in a 2008 paper , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland , noted that the specimen shares some traits found in other ant subfamilies and some wasps , and lacks key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) of the ant family , Formicidae , and thus argued Macabeemyrma could only be confidently classified as incertae sedis within the order Hymenoptera . A subsequent report describing new fossil myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues without comment on the views of Baroni Urbani .
The following cladograms generated by Archibald and colleagues show two possible phylogenetic positions of Macabeemyrma among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; the cladogram on the right included three additional extinct genera compared to that on the left . They suggest that Macabeemyrma ovata and other extinct ants such as Avitomyrmex and Ypresiomyrma may be closely related to the living Nothomyrmecia macrops .
= = Description = =
The overall body of the ant is poorly preserved and much of it is indistinct . Macabeemyrma ovata is about 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long with a distinct elongated oval head capsule that is about 1.5x longer than wide . The holotype is missing the wings and some portions of the legs while the eyes are very faintly preserved . It could not be confirmed whether its eyes were compound or not , but if it was to be confirmed they would share similar eye characteristics to Myrmecia . The exact shape of the mandibles cannot be properly determined , but they are elongated and not subtriangular which is normal for other members of Myrmeciinae except the genus Myrmecia . Its elongated head and mandibles distinguish this species from those in the genus Ypresiomyrma , which are otherwise thought to have a close phylogenetic relationship due to similarities . The waist consists of a single segment , and whether or not the ant has a sting cannot be fully determined due to the condition of the specimen collected .
= = Ecology = =
Archibald and colleagues suggested the life habits of Macabeemyrma ovata may have been similar to extant Myrmeciinae ants . The ant is large with long legs and elongated mandibles . It presumably had large eyes that were used to hunt for prey and navigation , and the ant was possibly equipped with a sting . Colonies most likely nested in the soil like most other Myrmeciinae , but like some Myrmecia species it is possible they were an arboreal nesting species . Workers were solitary foragers , foraging on the ground or onto vegetation while preying on arthropods . Workers most likely did not recruit other ants to food sources or lay down pheromone trails .
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= Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II =
The Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II continued essential overseas trade in the conflict , a period referred to as The Long Watch by Irish mariners .
Irish merchant shipping saw to it that vital imports continued to arrive and exports , mainly food supplies to Great Britain , were delivered . Irish ships sailed unarmed and usually alone , identifying themselves as neutrals with bright lights and by painting the Irish tricolour and EIRE in large letters on their sides and decks . Nonetheless twenty percent of seamen serving in Irish ships perished , victims of a war not their own : attacked by both sides , though predominantly by the Axis powers . Often , Allied convoys could not stop to pick up survivors , while Irish ships always answered SOS signals and stopped to rescue survivors , irrespective of which side they belonged to . Irish ships rescued 534 seamen .
At the outbreak of World War II , known as " The Emergency " , Ireland declared neutrality and became isolated as never before . Shipping had been neglected since the Irish War of Independence . Foreign ships , on which Ireland 's trade had hitherto depended , were less available ; neutral American ships would not enter the " war zone " . In his Saint Patrick 's Day address in 1940 , Taoiseach ( Prime Minister ) Éamon de Valera lamented :
" No country had ever been more effectively blockaded because of the activities of belligerents and our lack of ships ... "
Ireland was a net food exporter . The excess was shipped to Britain . The Irish Mercantile Marine ensured that Irish agricultural , and other , exports reached Britain , and that British coal arrived in Ireland . Some foods such as wheat , citric fruits and tea were imported . Ireland depended on , mainly , British tankers for petroleum . Initially Irish ships sailed in British convoys . In the light of experience they chose to sail alone , relying on their neutral markings . German respect for that neutrality varied from friendly to tragic .
" Cross @-@ channel " trade , between Ireland and Britain , was from both national perspectives , the most important Irish trade route . Irish ships crossed the Atlantic on a route defined by the Allies : a line from Fastnet Rock to the Azores and then along the line of latitude at 38 ° North . Ships on the " Lisbon @-@ run " , imported wheat and fruits from Spain and Portugal , as well as goods transhipped from the Americas . They followed the line of longitude at 12 ° West , while Allied convoys to Gibraltar were 20 ° West .
There were never more than 800 men , at any one time , serving on Irish ships in the war .
= = Background = =
Following independence in 1921 , there was no state encouragement to develop the mercantile marine . " Our new leaders seemed to turn their backs upon the sea and to ignore the fact that we are an island " . Each year the fleet declined . In 1923 , the merchant fleet consisted of 127 ships . This number dropped every year until 1939 when , at the start of World War II , the fleet numbered only 56 ships . Only 5 % of imports were carried on Irish flagged vessels . There were several reasons for this decline : a consequence of the war of independence , a policy of self @-@ sufficiency , the economic depression , the lack of investment and government neglect . Foreign ships , on which Ireland had hitherto depended , were withdrawn . " In the period April 1941 and June 1942 only seven such ships visited the country " . The war of independence ( 1919 – 1921 ) , and the civil war ( 1921 – 1922 ) which followed it , left the country in near economic collapse . There had been destruction of industry and infrastructure . Many industries relocated abroad . It was often cheaper to transport by sea , within Ireland , rather than using the poor road and rail networks . To take advantage of this commercial opportunity , new coasters were acquired in the 1930s , intended to ply between Irish ports . These ships would be invaluable once hostilities began . Many of these small coasters were lost , particularly on the " Lisbon run " , a voyage for which they were never intended .
The then Taoiseach ( Prime Minister ) Éamon de Valera advocated a policy of self @-@ sufficiency . Foreign imports were discouraged . " It was an important status symbol in the modern world for a country to produce her own goods and be self @-@ sufficient . "
The global economic depression of the early 1930s impacted upon Ireland less because of the partial recovery following the civil war and because industry was protected behind tariff barriers established in the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War ( 1932 – 1938 ) . The need for extra sea capacity was readily met by British and other foreign ships . Foreign ships were used , rather than preserving the home fleet . Banks were reluctant to lend to Irish industry , preferring British government gilts .
Although there was state support for many industries , this did not extend to shipping . In 1933 de Valera 's government established the Turf Development Board , turf became Ireland 's primary source of fuel during the emergency years and was stockpiled as imported coal was in short supply . In 1935 civil servants in de Valera 's own department warned him of the consequences a war would have on the importation of fuel . He ignored that warning . Earlier , in 1926 the Ports and Harbours Tribunal was initiated . The tribunal received " abundant evidence " of " inefficient , uneconomic and extravagant management " . It submitted a report in 1930 with recommendations which were not implemented until after the war . The tribunal observed " the public generally do not , we fear , appreciate the importance of our harbours ... " . Vickers @-@ Armstrongs liquidated their subsidiary Vickers ( Ireland ) Ltd. on 15 November 1938 ; their Dublin Dockyard had ceased operation in 1937 .
On 2 September 1939 the " realisation dawned on Ireland that the country was surrounded by water and that the sea was of vital importance to her " . By this point , however , British wartime restrictions on shipping were already in place . Historian Bryce Evans has argued that the failure of Seán Lemass and others to establish an Irish mercantile marine in the 1930s would exacerbate Irish supply problems in the Second World War .
= = = Response = = =
Seán Lemass as Minister for Industry and Commerce , and later Minister for Supplies sought to address these issues . Many infant industries were developed in the 1930s behind a protective tariff barrier . ( This is the origin of the term " Tariff Jews " , Seán Lemass from 1932 helped Jewish entrepreneurs to set up manufacturing businesses ) These industries proved valuable in the war years . They reduced the need for imports , for example in 1931 over five million pairs of shoes were imported , by 1938 this had fallen to a quarter of a million pairs . Between 1931 and 1938 , Gross Industrial Output rose from £ 55 million to £ 90 million ; and Industrial Employment from 162 @,@ 000 to 217 @,@ 000 . In 1933 the government established the Industrial Credit Corporation to finance industry . In 1938 , Life Assurers were required to hold their reserves in Ireland , to make capital available for industry ; promptly five of the six UK providers closed , lodging their business with Irish Assurance . Private enterprises established included : Grain Importers Ltd . , Animal Feed Stuffs Ltd . , Fuel Importers Ltd . , Oil and Fats Ltd . , Timber Importers Ltd . , and Tea Importers Ltd . Industry was encouraged , such as the plans for Irish National Refineries Ltd. to build an oil refinery . The former Vickers repair yard in Dublin port was reopened , in 1940 , by the Dublin Port and Docks Board . It repaired British and Irish ships . Semi @-@ state enterprises were established , including Irish Shipping in 1941 which purchased nine vessels and leased six more .
= = = War declared = = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War Ireland declared neutrality . There were a total of 56 Irish ships at the outbreak of World War II ; 15 more were purchased or leased in the conflict , and 16 were lost . Up to then most Irish @-@ registered ships had been flying the red ensign of the United Kingdom Merchant Navy . All were required by UK law to fly the Red Ensign , but some , such as the Wexford Steamship Company ships , had always travelled under the tricolour . With the outbreak of hostilities , choices were forced . The Irish government ordered all Irish ships to fly the tricolour . Some British ships were on the Irish register , such as the whalers which were Scottish @-@ owned ( Christian Salvesen Shipping ) but Irish @-@ registered in order to take advantage of the Irish whale quota . The six whale catchers and the two factory ships were pressed into British naval service , after their owners transferred them to the British registry . Some ships which could be described as British also choose the Tricolour . Kerrymore , which was registered as belonging to R McGowan of Tralee , was actually owned by Kelly Colliers of Belfast . Most of the crew had addresses in loyalist areas of Belfast . For six years they sailed under the tricolour .
The Belfast Steamship Company 's MV Munster which operated the Belfast to Liverpool route , ( both British ports ) flew the tricolour . But , no flag was a protection against mines ; Munster struck a mine approaching Liverpool and sank . There were over 200 passengers and 50 crew on board . A few hours later they were all rescued by the collier Ringwall . Four were injured ; and one died later . The L & NWR ferries Cambria , Hibernia and Scotia were Irish @-@ registered and sailed between Dún Laoghaire and Holyhead , under the Red Ensign . Their British crews were taken aback when the tricolour was hoisted . They went on strike and refused to sail until the ships were transferred to the British registry and red ensign was restored . Scotia was sunk in the Dunkirk evacuation with the loss of 30 crew and 300 troops . Hibernia had a fortunate escape on the night of 20 December 1940 . She was berthing at Dún Laoghaire when a German bomber swooped down . All lights were extinguished . Bombs fell on the nearby Sandycove railway station . The GWR ferries operated the Rosslare to Fishguard route sailed under the red ensign . Thirty lives were lost when their Saint Patrick was bombed and sunk . The British and Irish Steam Packet Company had some of its ships on the British registry with others on the Irish registry .
= = Cargo = =
= = = Exports = = =
The main export was agricultural produce to Britain . In the First World War , Ireland 's food production increased to meet Britain 's needs ; a pattern which would be repeated for the Second World War . In 1916 there were 1 @,@ 735 @,@ 000 acres ( 702 @,@ 130 ha ) under plough , this increased to 2 @,@ 383 @,@ 000 acres ( 964 @,@ 370 ha ) in 1918 , and then fell back . By the start of the trade war in 1932 tillage had fallen to 1 @,@ 424 @,@ 000 acres ( 576 @,@ 270 ha ) .
The trade war between Ireland and Britain started in 1932 , in which Britain imposed a tax on Irish products . Cattle from the Irish Republic were taxed but cattle from Northern Ireland were not . So , cattle were smuggled across the border . In 1934 / 5 , about 100 @,@ 000 cattle were " exported " in this way . The Department of Supplies was " all in favour of the smuggling and urged that nothing should be done which might stop it " . By then , Britain was anxious to secure Irish food supplies before another world war . Survival in the looming war was the spur . There were a series of agreements from the " cattle @-@ coal pact " of 1935 to the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade Agreement of 1938 which ended the dispute , on terms favourable to Ireland .
Under the " cattle @-@ coal pact " , the British set up a central authority for the purchase of cattle , under John Maynard Keynes . The prices set before the war were attractive . As the war progressed , open market prices rose dramatically . Cattle from Northern Ireland fetched a better price , so smuggling , as practised in the trade war , resumed . In answer to the demand for food in World War II , the area under plough increased from 1 @,@ 492 @,@ 000 acres ( 603 @,@ 790 ha ) in 1939 to 2 @,@ 567 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 038 @,@ 830 ha ) in 1944 . Studies are inconclusive on how vital Irish food exports were to Britain , due to the difficulties in accounting for the effect of smuggling , the unreliability of statistics , and wartime censorship . While Ireland 's food production was increasing , British food imports were falling ; for example the UK imported 1 @,@ 360 @,@ 000 tons of food in August 1941 , but only 674 @,@ 000 tons in August 1942 .
Before and during the second world war , Ireland was a net food exporter and the Irish people enjoyed a high calorie diet . ( Nonetheless the poor experienced real deprivation ) . Food was donated to war @-@ refugees in Spain . The nation did need to import certain foods , such as fruits , tea and wheat . Nearly half of Ireland 's wheat was imported from Canada . Domestic food production relied on imported fertilizer and imported animal feeding stuffs . In 1940 , 74 @,@ 000 tons of fertilizer were imported , only 7 @,@ 000 tons arrived in 1941 . Similarly 5 million tons of animal feed were imported in 1940 , falling to one million in 1941 and negligible quantities thereafter .
= = = Imports = = =
Although Ireland had a surplus of food , some foods were not grown in Ireland , as the climate was unsuitable . Only small plots of wheat were cultivated . A series of orders for compulsory tillage were enacted , with the threat that those who did not put their fields to wheat would have their land confiscated . In 1939 , 235 @,@ 000 acres ( 95 @,@ 100 ha ) of wheat were planted ; by 1945 this had increased to 662 @,@ 000 acres ( 267 @,@ 900 ha ) . Yet , a shortfall remained and imports were required.Clashes between smugglers and Customs were commonplace . In 1940 the infamous " Battle of Dowra " took place on the border of Leitrim and Fermanagh . Revenue crews from Blacklion and Glenfarne intercepted over one hundred men with donkey loads of smuggled flour . Unwilling to part with their bounty , the smugglers used cudgels , boots , stones and fists in the ensuing struggle . Most of the flour was destroyed in the fray and some Revenue people were injured .
Early in 1942 , the Allies restricted wheat deliveries to Ireland . In return , the Irish threatened to withhold the export of Guinness beer . To the great annoyance of David Gray , the United States Ambassador to Ireland , Ireland received 30 @,@ 000 tons of wheat . Gray complained of a waste of " a vital necessity for what Americans regard at the best as a luxury and at worst a poison " .
By 1944 – 45 coal imports were only one @-@ third of those of 1938 @-@ 9 and supplies of oil had almost ceased . The production of town gas , manufactured from imported coal , was so adversely affected that regulations were brought in limiting its use , enforced by the " Glimmer Man " . Britain relaxed these restrictions from 19 July 1944 .
There were plans to build an oil refinery in Dublin . In the event , this refinery was not completed . Nonetheless seven oil tankers were built in Bremen @-@ Vegesack , Germany for Inver Tankers Ltd . Each 500 feet ( 150 m ) long and capable of carrying 500 tons were on the Irish register . Britain asked Ireland to requisition the tankers , The reply was that it was not Irish policy to requisition vessels , instead offering to transfer them to the British register . They were transferred on the 6th , war had been declared on the 3rd .
Two days after the transfer , on 11 September 1939 , while still flying the Irish tricolour , Inverliffey was sunk . In spite of Captain William Trowsdale 's protestation that they were Irish , U @-@ 38 said that they " were sorry " but they would sink Inverliffey as she was carrying petrol to England , considered contraband to the Germans . U @-@ 38 's next encounter with the Irish tricolour was less gallant . U @-@ 38 shelled the fishing trawler Leukos , all 11 crew were lost . Inver Tankers ' entire fleet was lost in the war .
= = U @-@ boat encounters = =
Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz issued a standing order to U @-@ boats on 4 September 1940 , which defined belligerent , neutral and friendly powers . Neutral included " Ireland in particular " . The order concluded : " Ireland forbids the navigation of her territorial waters by warships under threat of internment . That prohibition is to be strictly observed out of consideration for the proper preservation of her neutrality . Signed , Dönitz " . However those orders did not always protect Irish ships . Wolf Jeschonnek , commander of U @-@ 607 was mildly reprimanded " An understandable mistake by an eager captain " for sinking Irish Oak . When U @-@ 46 sank Luimneach on the Lisbon run , her commander recorded in his war diary " flying a British or Irish flag " . A supplement to Dönitz 's order found after U @-@ 260 was scuttled off Cork read : " for political reasons , Irish ships and also at times Irish convoys are not to be attacked within the blockade zone if they are seen to be such . However , there is no special obligation to determine neutrality in the blockade zone . " .
There were many encounters with U @-@ boats , some pleasant , others not so . On 16 March 1942 Irish Willow was stopped by U @-@ 753 , which signalled " Send master and ship 's papers " . As Capt Shanks hailed from Belfast and therefore legally a British subject , this was considered unwise . Chief Officer Harry Cullen and four crew rowed to the U @-@ boat . He said that his ( 39 @-@ year @-@ old ) captain was too elderly for the boat . He added that it would be Saint Patrick 's Day in the morning . They were treated to schnapps in the conning tower and given a bottle of cognac to bring back to Irish Willow . Later , Irish Willow performed a dangerous rescue of 47 British sailors from Empire Breeze .
On 20 March 1943 U @-@ 638 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Oskar Bernbeck stopped Irish Elm . Rough seas prevented Elm 's crew from pulling their rowboat alongside the submarine to present their papers , so the interview was conducted by shouting . In the course of the conversation , Elm 's Chief Officer Patrick Hennessy gave Dún Laoghaire as his home address . Bernbeck asked if " the strike was still on in Downey 's " , a pub near Dún Laoghaire harbour . ( The Downey 's strike started in March 1939 and lasted 14 years . )
= = Convoys = =
The Irish and British authorities co @-@ operated in the chartering of ships . They made combined purchases of wheat , maize , sugar , animal feeds and petrol . At the start of the war , Irish ships joined convoys protected by the Royal Navy . The advantages were protection and cheaper insurance . These advantages were not borne out by experience . So they chose to sail alone .
The ability to insure ships , cargo , and crew has a significant impact on the profitability of shipping . Insurance of Irish ships in the ' Long Watch ' was problematic . One important aspect of this was that Irish ships usually didn 't travel in convoy and insurers such as Lloyd 's of London charged a higher premium to insure ships not in convoy . An example of the insurance problems faced , concerns the crew of City of Waterford . When this ship joined Convoy OG 74 , the lives of the crew were insured . The ship suffered a collision with the Dutch tugboat Thames , and sank . Waterford 's crew was rescued by HMS Deptford and then transferred to the rescue ship Walmer Castle . Walmer Castle was bombed two days later and five of City of Waterford 's survivors died . When their families made life insurance claims , they were refused , because at their time of death they were not crew of City of Waterford , but passengers of Walmer Castle . Later the Irish government introduced a compensation scheme for seamen lost or injured on Irish ships and Irish Shipping opened its own marine insurance subsidiary , which made a handsome profit .
Two Limerick Steamship Company ships , Lanahrone and Clonlara were part of the " nightmare convoy " OG 71 , which left Liverpool on 13 August 1941 . As merchant ships of a neutral country the Limerick ships had no blackout facilities , and the Master of the British Convoy Commodore 's ship , the liner Aguila , objected that this would make the convoy visible to the enemy at night . In an apparently vain attempt to make them less visible , the Vice Admiral who was Convoy Commodore positioned the two Irish ships in the centre of the convoy . On 19 August in separate attacks the Norwegian destroyer HNoMS Bath was drawn away from the convoy and sunk by U @-@ 204 , and three minutes later U @-@ 559 sank the British merchant ship Alva . Clonlara rescued 13 survivors from Alva . Two hours later U @-@ 201 sank the Commodore ship Aguila and the British cargo ship Ciscar . Two days later U @-@ 564 sank Clonlara . The Flower @-@ class corvette HMS Campion rescued 13 survivors ( eight from Clonlara , five from Alva ) . Eight merchant ships , two naval escorts and over 400 lives were lost .
Five of the convoy 's surviving merchant ships reached Gibraltar ; 10 retreated to neutral Portugal . This was described as " a bitter act of surrender could ever come our way " . In Lisbon Lanahrone 's crew went on strike , which was resolved with extra life @-@ rafts and pay . The crew of Irish Poplar was waiting in Lisbon ; when the remnants of OG 71 limped in . The crew of Irish Poplar resolved to sail home alone . While City of Dublin brought Clonlara 's survivors to Cork , Lanahrone joined Convoy HG 73 . Nine of the 25 ships in that convoy were lost . These experiences and the inability of the Royal Navy to protect merchant ships had a most profound effect on all Irish Ships . Thereafter they were blacked out when sailing in Allied convoys . Ship @-@ owners , on the advice of their masters , decided not to sail their vessels in British convoys and by the early months of 1942 the practice had ceased .
Captain William Henderson of Irish Elm , returning from a transatlantic voyage reported " circled by two German bombers , probably Condors , they circled for a considerable time and inspected closely but didn 't molest . The incident had given the crew great confidence in the protection afforded by the neutral markings " .
= = Trade routes = =
= = = British routes = = =
This " cross @-@ channel " trade accounted for most of Ireland 's trade . The ships ranged , in age , from Dundalk built , two years before the start of the war , in 1937 to Brooklands built in 1859 . The most important vessels to Ireland were the ten colliers and to Britain the livestock carriers . Initially Germany respected the neutrality of Irish vessels , apologising for the first attack on the collier Kerry Head and paying compensation . Losses came from mines , rather than direct attacks . Meath suffered such a fate ; while she was being inspected by the British Naval Control Service , she was struck by a magnetic mine , drowning seven hundred cattle , and destroying both vessels .
In August 1940 Germany " required " Ireland to cease food exports to Britain . On 17 August 1940 , Germany declared a large area around Britain to be a " scene of warlike operations " . It was believed that attacks on Irish ships and the bombing of Campile was to reinforce that message . Lord Haw @-@ Haw in a broadcast on German , threatened that Dundalk would be bombed if the export of cattle to Britain continued . On 24 July 1941 , George 's Quay , Dundalk was bombed . Nonetheless , the trade continued .
The first attack , after the German ultimatum , was against the schooner Lock Ryan , returning to Arklow . She was strafed and bombed by three German aircraft . Fortunately Lock Ryan 's cargo of china clay absorbed the blast and although badly damaged , she survived . Germany acknowledged the attack but refused to pay compensation for the damage as she was in " the blockaded area " , " through which the Irish had been offered free passage but on terms which were rejected " . There were many attacks on ships on the cross @-@ channel trade . In 1940 nine Irish ships were lost . That figure may be small compared with Allied losses , but it represents a larger proportion of the small Irish fleet .
There were restrictions on reporting attacks on ships . Frank Aiken , the government minister whose responsibilities included censorship , reverted this policy . His intention was to let Germany know that the Irish public know , and " they don 't like it " . There had been a British proposal for transshipment . William Warnock , the Irish chargé d 'affaires in Berlin told Germany that Ireland was refusing to transship British cargoes , while protesting against the attacks on Irish ships , and other neutral ships with Irish cargoes . Deliberate attacks on cross @-@ channel shipping ceased on 5 November 1941 , when the collier Glencree was strafed . There were attacks on other routes . Mines were a constant danger .
= = = The Iberian trade = = =
On November 1939 , Roosevelt signed the Fourth Neutrality Act forbidding American ships from entering the " war zone " , which was defined as a line drawn from Spain to Iceland . Cargoes intended for Ireland were shipped to Portugal . It was up to the Irish to fetch them from there . This route , known as the Iberian Trade or the Lisbon run . Setting sail from Ireland , the ships would carry agricultural products to the United Kingdom . There they would discharge their cargo , load up on fuel , pick up a British export ( often coal ) , and carry it to Portugal . In Portugal , usually Lisbon , Irish ships loaded the waiting American cargo , such as fertilizer or agricultural machinery .
Sometimes the cargo was not there : it may have been delayed , or lost at sea due to the war . In this case , the Irish captains would load a " cargo of opportunity " and bring it back to Ireland . This might be wheat or oranges ; on occasions , they even purchased their own cargo of coal . MV Kerlogue was fortunate to have a cargo of coal when two unidentified aircraft attacked her with cannon fire . The shells lodged in the coal , rather than piercing her hull . Britain denied involvement , but when the coal was discharged shell fragments of British manufacture were found . The attackers were de Havilland Mosquitos of the Polish squadron of the RAF .
The Cymric was not so fortunate , she vanished in the same waters without a trace .
The Lisbon run was undertaken by small coastal trading vessels , commonly called coasters , which were not designed for deep @-@ sea navigation . Small , and having low freeboard ( frequently around one foot ( 30 cm ) ) these ships were designed never to be out of sight of land , and to be able to make quickly to a harbour when the weather turned foul . Kerlogue has become the exemplar of the Irish Mercantile Marine in the Emergency . Only 335 gross register tons ( GRT ) and 142 feet ( 43 m ) long , Kerlogue was attacked by both sides and rescued both sides . Her rescue of 168 German sailors , given her size , was dramatic . From January 1941 , British authorities required Irish ships to visit a British port and obtain a " navicert " . This visit sometimes proved fatal . It also added up to 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) to the voyage . A ship with a " navicert " was given free passage through allied patrols and fuel , however they would be searched . Irish ships on the " Lisbon run " carried UK exports to Spain and Portugal .
= = = Atlantic routes = = =
Some British ships traded between Ireland and Britain . Other destinations were served by Irish and other neutral ships . Philip Noel @-@ Baker ( Churchill 's Parliamentary Secretary ) was able to tell the British parliament that " no United Kingdom or Allied ship has been lost while carrying a full cargo of goods either to or from Eire on an ocean voyage . " He added " a very high proportion of imports from overseas sources into Eire , and of such exports as are sent overseas from Eire , are already carried in ships on the Eire or on a neutral register . " and " The trade between Great Britain and Eire is of mutual benefit to both countries , and the risks to British seamen which it involves are small . "
In the economic depression , the Limerick Steamship Company sold both its ocean @-@ going ships , Knockfierna and Kilcredane . They were Ireland 's last ocean @-@ going ships . At the outbreak of hostilities Ireland did not have a ship designed to cross the Atlantic . British ships were not available . American ships would only travel to Portugal . Ireland depended on other neutrals . In 1940 a succession of these ships , from Norway , Greece , Argentina , and Finland , usually carrying wheat to Ireland , were lost . Soon many of these nations were no longer neutral . Ireland had to acquire its own fleet . Irish Shipping was formed . Irish Poplar was Irish Shipping 's first ship . It was acquired in Spain after it had been abandoned by its crew . Other ships were acquired from Palestine , Panama , Yugoslavia , and Chile . The Irish government minister Frank Aiken negotiated the bareboat chartering of two oil @-@ burning steamships from the United States Maritime Commission 's reserve fleet . They were both lost to U @-@ boats . Irish Oak was sunk in controversial circumstances by U @-@ 607 . All 33 crew of Irish Pine were lost when she was sunk by U @-@ 608 . Three ships were from Estonia , They were in Irish ports when Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union . Their crews refused to return to the new Estonian SSR . The ships were sold to Irish Shipping . The SS Cetvrti ( Jugoslavia ) was abandoned in Dingle Bay after being strafed on 1 December 1940 . She was salvaged by Fort Rannoch of the Irish Navy ; she was purchased and renamed Irish Beech . An Italian ship , Caterina Gerolimich had been trapped in Dublin since the outbreak of the war . After the fall of Italian Fascism she was chartered , repaired and renamed Irish Cedar . When the war was over , she returned to Naples with a cargo of food , a gift from Ireland to war @-@ ravaged Italy . Irish Hazel was bought on 17 June 1941 . She was 46 years old , and required extensive repairs . " She was fit for nothing but the scrap yard . " A British yard bid for , and won , the contract to renovate her . This work was completed in November 1943 . Even though the Irish government paid for her purchase and for the repairs she was requisitioned by the British Ministry of War Transport and renamed Empire Don . She was returned to Irish Shipping in 1945 .
The Irish Shipping fleet imported , across the Atlantic : 712 @,@ 000 tons of wheat , 178 @,@ 000 tons of coal , 63 @,@ 000 tons of phosphate ( for fertilizer ) , 24 @,@ 000 tons of tobacco , 19 @,@ 000 tons of newsprint , 10 @,@ 000 tons of timber and 105 @,@ 000 tons of assorted other cargo . Figures from the other shipping companies have not survived .
= = After the war = =
When the hostilities were over , on 16 May 1945 , Éamon de Valera , in his speech to the nation said : " To the men of our Mercantile Marine who faced all the perils of the ocean to bring us essential supplies , the nation is profoundly grateful . " The Ringsend area of Dublin has a long maritime tradition . When housing was being redeveloped in the 1970s , some streets were named after ships which were lost : Breman Road , Breman Grove , Cymric Road , Isolda Road , Pine Road , Leukos Road , Kyleclare Road and Clonlara Road . The " An Bonn Seirbhíse Éigeandála " for " An tSeirbhís Mhuir @-@ Thráchtála " or in English : " Emergency Service Medal " of the " Mercantile Marine Service " , was awarded to all who had served six months , or longer , on an Irish @-@ registered ship in the Emergency .
On 24 September 2001 , a plinth and plaque , embossed with the Irish tricolour was erected to commemorate those crews lost on neutral Irish registered vessels in 1939 @-@ 45 . " a very significant gesture by our British friends towards recognising the debt of honour owed to all shipmates irrespective of nationality who lost their lives in the Second World War . " in the National Memorial Arboretum in England .
In Dublin , an annual commemoration , is held on the third Sunday of November . The Cork commemoration is held on the fourth Sunday of November in the former offices of the White Star Line . The Belfast commemoration is held on the second Sunday of May .
= = Publications = =
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= 1948 FA Charity Shield =
The 1948 FA Charity Shield was the 26th Charity Shield , an annual English association football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League and FA Cup . It was the first edition held since the postponement of football during the Second World War . The match , held at Highbury on 6 October 1948 , was contested by Arsenal , champions of the 1947 – 48 Football League and Manchester United , who beat Blackpool in the final of the 1947 – 48 FA Cup . This was Arsenal 's eighth Charity Shield appearance to Manchester United 's third .
Watched by a crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 , Reg Lewis , Bryn Jones , and Ronnie Rooke each scored for the league champions inside the first 15 minutes . Manchester United responded by scoring twice before the half @-@ time break through Jack Rowley and Ronnie Burke . Lionel Smith 's own goal in the 53rd minute made the scoreline 4 – 3 , and though United 's attack were dominant in the second half , there were no further goals . Arsenal were awarded the Shield by A.V. Alexander , the Minister of Defence . Gate receipts for the match came to a total of £ 4 @,@ 300 .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , and then by 1913 teams of amateur and professional players . In 1921 , it was played by the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time . After a ten @-@ year absence due to the suspension of football during the Second World War , the Charity Shield made a return in 1948 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1948 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1947 – 48 Football League First Division . It was the club 's sixth league title and striker Ronnie Rooke scored 33 goals in the campaign to become the division 's top goalscorer . The other Charity Shield place went to Manchester United who beat Blackpool to win the final of the 1947 – 48 FA Cup . Manchester United 's progress in the competition was unique as the club was drawn against teams from the First Division in every round . Their home ties were staged at three different grounds as Old Trafford was being repaired from the damage sustained in the Manchester Blitz .
This was Arsenal 's eighth Charity Shield appearance ; prior to the game they had won five Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 ) , and lost two ( 1935 , 1936 ) . By contrast Manchester United were undefeated in the Charity Shield ; the club won their previous two appearances , in 1908 and 1911 . Manchester United had beaten Arsenal 1 – 0 the last time the two clubs met at Highbury , for a league fixture on 30 August 1948 ; Charlie Mitten scored the only goal of the match .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal began the quicker of the two teams . Inside a minute , a miskick by Manchester United left back John Aston troubled his defence , and presented Reg Lewis and Rooke with shooting opportunities . After three minutes , Arsenal took the lead ; combination play from Jimmy Logie and Bryn Jones forced goalkeeper Jack Crompton out of his area , and ended with Jones hitting the ball high into an empty net . Lewis headed in Archie Macaulay 's cross from the right to double Arsenal 's lead , and the team scored their third almost immediately , when Rooke maneuvered past the United defence to shoot past Crompton .
United regrouped and scored immediately . Charging forward , John Anderson and Jack Rowley each shot wide , before Johnny Morris 's effort hit the post . The ball rebounded to Rowley , whose shot went in past goalkeeper George Swindin . United were in full ascendancy – " Anderson and Warner were winning the ball in mid @-@ field , and bringing it through to their forwards [ ... ] , making the Arsenal defence feel the strain , " so said The Times football correspondent . In the 35th minute however , Lewis scored his second goal of the match , beating Allenby Chilton to the ball first and going past Crompton . Five minutes before half @-@ time , United halved Arsenal 's lead – a well @-@ worked move started by Carey in his own half was finished off by Burke .
Arsenal struggled to regain fluency in the second half , as their opponents dominated play . In the 53rd minute , United scored to make it 4 – 3 ; Charlie Mitten 's flick in the area was diverted into the Arsenal net by Lionel Smith for an own goal . United fashioned further chances through Burke and Rowley , but for large periods of the second half the Arsenal defence stood firm . Jones ' headed goal was rule out for offside , after which the match descended into a contest between United 's attack and Arsenal 's defence . Jimmy Delaney came closest to equalising late on , when he darted forward and missed by inches .
= = = Details = = =
Source
= = Post @-@ match = =
A.V. Alexander , the Minister of Defence presented Arsenal with the Shield . Assessing the match the next day , Daily Express football correspondent John MacAdam wrote : " Charity begins at home , they say , and , by golly , it began at Highbury yesterday , for Arsenal were the luckiest team in the world to beat Manchester United 4 – 3 in the F.A. Charity Shield match between the winners of the League and the Cup . " The Times correspondent assessed , " Arsenal won because they sneaked a commanding lead of three goals , before Manchester had realised they were in London , " and concluded the piece with the sentence " It had been a game worthy of the occasion and of two fine clubs . " Gate receipts for the match totalled £ 4 @,@ 300 .
Manchester United ended the season as runners @-@ up to Portsmouth in the Football League First Division , and reached the semi @-@ final stage of the FA Cup . Arsenal progressed no further than the fourth round of the cup competition , and finished sixth in the league . The two clubs next faced each other in the Charity Shield in 1993 , when Manchester United won the inaugural Premier League title , and Arsenal were FA Cup winners in the 1992 – 93 season .
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= Folie à Deux ( album ) =
Folie à Deux ( / fɒˈliː ə ˈduː / ; French for " A Madness Shared by Two " ) is the fourth studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy . Produced by Neal Avron , the album was recorded from July to September 2008 at The Pass Studios and The Casita in Hollywood , California . As the follow @-@ up to the band 's commercially successful 2007 effort Infinity on High , it was released by Island Records on December 10 , 2008 , after the original November 4 release was postponed to avoid conflicts with the United States presidential election . Like the band 's two previous releases , Folie à Deux was musically composed by lead vocalist and guitarist Patrick Stump , with lyrics penned by bassist Pete Wentz . In regard to the writing process , the band considered Folie à Deux to be the band 's most collaborative record at the time .
The album was recorded in relative secrecy compared to the press that its predecessor possessed . The recording sessions inspired lyricism that related to decaying relationships , moral dilemmas , and societal shortcomings , many with a political edge . It is the first Fall Out Boy album with lyrics that are less autobiographical . The album 's style moved away from early emo power chords and toward a wider variation in genre . Fall Out Boy recruited several guest artists for Folie à Deux , as well as employing instruments and recording techniques previously unfamiliar to the group . To promote the album , the band launched a viral campaign based around a Big Brother @-@ type organization named " Citizens For Our Betterment " ( CFOB ) and embarked on an extensive tour schedule .
Folie à Deux was released in the United States on December 16 , 2008 , and received favorable reviews from most music critics , although fan opinions were mixed . Positive reviews focused on the creativity and various styles touched on , while the more negative reviews expressed concern that the record was overly indulgent . The album debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart with 149 @,@ 000 first week sales but was less commercially successful than Infinity on High . As of February 2013 Folie à Deux has sold 449 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after 500 @,@ 000 copies were shipped . The album spawned four singles . " I Don 't Care " , the first single , reached number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum . Folie à Deux was Fall Out Boy 's last studio album released before the band 's 2009 – 13 hiatus .
= = Background = =
Fall Out Boy began writing material for a possible successor shortly after the release of the 2007 album , Infinity on High . In March 2008 , the band attempted to enter the The Guinness Book of World Records for being the only musical act to perform in all seven continents in nine months , planning to perform in Antarctica for an audience of scientists . However , the group was unable to make the flight from Punta Arenas , Chile to Antarctica due to poor weather . Despite this unsuccessful attempt , the group felt energized from the experience and became inspired to write more music . This led to more material to sift through when the band decided to enter the studio . Fall Out Boy spent time during June 2008 formulating ideas at Avron 's home , where " three to four " song ideas were developed . Lead vocalist / guitarist Patrick Stump and bassist / lyricist Pete Wentz began turning these ideas into songs over the following month . Wentz explained that the process was the same as usual : " I 'll go over to Patrick 's house and he 'll kind of just sit there and play songs , and I 'll be like , ' Ah , that one 's awesome ! ' "
The band intended to work on new music sooner , but the release of its cover of Michael Jackson 's " Beat It " as a single stood in the way . The single " stalled out " the label , who wanted the band to film a music video for further promotion . Stump entered the studio with the intention of being less " self @-@ indulgent " , believing he dominated the band 's previous record . He wished to focus more on creating a cohesive album in which different sounds come together instead of featuring his vocals at the forefront . With the help of Neal Avron , who produced Fall Out Boy 's last two records , the quartet decided to simplify the music on Folie à Deux as opposed to the multi @-@ layered sound of Infinity on High . The band was interviewed about the album constantly before even a single note was recorded , leading to misconceptions about how the record would sound . The album was first rumored to consist of entirely acoustic folk music , while other sources later alleged it would delve into rap @-@ rock .
= = Recording and production = =
The band members decided to keep publicity down during the album 's recording , as they were taken aback by such press surrounding Infinity on High . Stump entered the studio with music for almost 50 songs . Folie à Deux was intended to be very different from the previous three Fall Out Boy albums , which were all interconnected musically and thematically ; Stump described the new songs as " having a lot of freedom [ ... ] it 's our first just plain old record in a while . " However , the sessions proved to be difficult for the band . Stump called the making of the album " painful " , noting that he and Wentz quarreled over many issues , revealing " I threw something across the room over a major @-@ to @-@ minor progression . " On previous albums , guitarist Joe Trohman felt that he and drummer Andy Hurley did not have enough musical freedom and that Stump and Wentz exerted too much control over the group : " I felt , ' Man , this isn 't my band anymore . ' It 's no one 's fault , and I don 't want to make it seem that way . It was more of a complex I developed based off of stuff I was reading . It 's hard to hear , ' Joe and Andy are just along for the ride . ' " To amend the situation , Trohman sat down with Stump to communicate his concerns , which led to more collaboration on Folie à Deux . " It made me feel like I owned the songs a lot more . It made me really excited about contributing to Fall Out Boy and made me find my role in the band , " Trohman recalled .
The group purposely cut short the amount of time set aside for recording the album , and did not notify its label before beginning work on the record . The members hoped that these steps would bring them back to the days when they were a young , broke band who had to finish an album before the money ran out . " There was something really interesting about that creative process when we were starting out , " explained Stump . " The more time you have , the more potential you have for excess . " He felt that the process was reminiscent of the making of Take This to Your Grave because both albums were created using a " first @-@ thought , best @-@ thought " mentality : " I think we were trying to find what making a record that way would sound like now , but with four adult Fall Out Boys . " Trohman called the recording process " fun because [ it ] was so collaborative , " but difficult because it was rushed .
In September , the band was still finalizing cameos , recording with Brendon Urie of Panic ! at the Disco and Pharrell Williams . The band desired to work with Kanye West , but ran out of time . Pharrell laid down beats and Stump would add vocals and melodies for " w.a.m.s. " The collaboration with Elvis Costello in " What a Catch , Donnie " was spontaneous . The band sent Costello the song , and although he had been suffering from bronchitis , he decided to participate . Stump was particularly excited about the collaboration , as Hurley noted that " Elvis is Patrick 's favorite person on earth as a musician , singer and songwriter . " Wentz felt that cameos were necessary to portray the album 's messages , stating " More than anything , they serve the purpose of a character in a musical , where this character 's voice makes the most sense ... Certain lines need to be conveyed in certain ways . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
On Folie à Deux , Fall Out Boy continued its pattern of musical experimentation that began on the band 's previous album , Infinity on High . Singer / guitarist Patrick Stump was once again the primary composer , and attempted to create compositions that echoed the themes discussed in Wentz 's lyrics . As the lyrical content shifted in new directions from the group 's previous works , the musical style employed by the other band members evolved as well . On this topic , Trohman commented " It 's not like we said , ' We want to push the envelope , ' It 's not that at all . We just wanted to try cooler things . The album still sounds like Fall Out Boy . It has big choruses . But you can 't do the same thing every record . "
The record contains more instruments not present in the band 's previous work , including synthesizers , sequenced drums , and strings . Critics noted similarities between the album and 1980s arena rock . Joey Rosen of Rolling Stone commented that " They further explore their funky side here : Stump is emerging as one of the world 's most unlikely blue @-@ eyed @-@ soul stars , breathing life into classic R & B chord progressions and flaunting his agile voice . " Trohman drew influence from Queen while creating guitar harmonies to match Stump 's vocals on the record , while his other styles were inspired by Metallica , Prince , and The Rolling Stones . He also employs a jazz guitar interlude on " w.a.m.s. " which has been likened to Steely Dan .
The pregap hidden track " Lullabye " is an acoustic ballad influenced by Bob Dylan , written with the intention of helping Wentz ' son , Bronx Mowgli , fall asleep . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly categorized the album 's opener , " Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes " , as a " towering guitar anthem built on wedding @-@ march organs , thundering drums , and singer Patrick Stump 's limber vocals . " " Coffee 's for Closers " is similarly percussive and features drummer Andy Hurley drawing influence from marching band drumwork . The first single " I Don 't Care " has been described as " disco rockabilly " , and contains a repeating blues riff throughout the song ; Stump 's vocal performance on the track has been compared to John Lee Hooker .
" Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " is an example of the album 's theme of contrasting moods , and " struts in on a massive drum line and crunching , processed guitars , gets amplified by a four @-@ piece horn section , then falls away to a simple , somber piano line " according to James Montgomery of MTV . The Elton John @-@ influenced " What a Catch , Donnie " is a piano @-@ driven ballad which features a string section in the background . As the song closes , it features Brendon Urie , Alexander DeLeon , Travie McCoy , Gabe Saporta , Elvis Costello and William Beckett singing parts of previous Fall Out Boy songs . According to Stump , the song contains lyrics that were important to the band and " gives us the chance for this record to come full circle " . The backing vocals in " America 's Suitehearts " have been compared to groups such as The Beatles .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Pete Wentz was once again the primary lyricist of the band during the production of the album . Stump said that Wentz " totally outdid himself on this record . He doesn 't even know how good his lyrics are here . " Wentz , despite many recent personal developments ( marriage to Ashlee Simpson , birth of his son , Bronx ) , desired to shift the focus away from himself and turn it outward onto the world . For the first time on a Fall Out Boy album , Folie is rarely autobiographical , as the band believed the format was " losing its luster " because " everyone was doing it . " The songs on the album explore decaying relationships , moral dilemmas , and societal shortcomings , as well as concepts such as trust , infidelity , responsibility , and commitment . Stump tagged Folie à Deux as a " message record " that takes aim at " the materialistic dance between any two parties obsessed with each other , whether it 's teenage girls and handbag makers , politicians and lobbyists or tabloids and stars . " Folie à Deux also dissects how self @-@ motivated American culture is , and many of the lyrics are intended to be satirical . While the album does contain political overtones , the band wanted to avoid being overt about these themes , leaving many lyrics open to interpretation for listeners .
Wentz referred to " I Don 't Care " as a " narcissist 's anthem " that addresses the current generation 's short attention span . Wentz further explored the subjects of narcissism and apathy in " ( Coffee 's for Closers ) " , as Stump explained , " The past decade has been totally about ' me . ' It 's totally about ' Oh , I 'm sad . I want this . I know somebody who knows this person . Me me me me me , ' so that 's what that song is about . " Additionally , " America 's Suitehearts " discusses society 's fixation with celebrities and the desire to let them do no wrong . " 27 " explores the hedonistic lifestyles common in rock and roll music . The title is a reference to the 27 Club , a group of influential musicians , including Janis Joplin , Kurt Cobain , and Jim Morrison , who all died at the age of 27 . Wentz felt that he was living a similarly dangerous lifestyle , and was " stoked " to make it to his 28th birthday . Stump added " There was a countdown clock and everything . I remember , our manager called me up on Pete 's 28th birthday and screamed , ' We made it ! ' "
= = Title and artwork = =
Folie à deux is a rare psychiatric syndrome in which symptoms of a delusional belief are transmitted from one individual to another . The same syndrome shared by more than two people may be called folie à trois , folie à quatre , folie en famille or even folie à plusieurs ( " madness of many " ) . Recent psychiatric classifications refer to the syndrome as dependency psychotic disorder or induced delusional disorder , although the research literature largely uses the original name . The disorder was first conceptualized in 19th century French psychiatry . In keeping with the record 's socially aware nature , the band felt that the term was relevant to the candidates in the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Stump further clarified the title 's meaning : " The irony is that people will probably mistake the title as something about romantic relationships in some way . And it 's our only record where that theme is not touched upon . "
On September 13 , 2008 , the album artwork was revealed on the band 's website . The cover of the album was painted by artist Luke Chueh . Wentz contacted Chueh and asked him to create the piece , to which the artist agreed . Chueh recalled of the situation , " They were great to work with , having given me full creative control over both the artwork and the final design of the [ sic ] cover . " Chueh used the title and underlying themes of the album as inspiration for the artwork . " The title of the album is Folie à Deux , and when considering this with the band 's popularity , I chose to focus on the idea of fandom , and how some people are willing to take their love / infatuation to levels that are obviously unhealthy . " Wentz currently owns the original painting . The disc 's liner notes contain pictures of the band members with blank pages next to them ; the group allowed fans to submit pictures they had drawn in the spaces and posted them to the band 's website .
= = Promotion and release = =
As the release of the new album approached , the band and its management found that they would have to navigate changes in the music industry , which Hurley described as " a completely different place . " Facing declining record sales , the lack of a proper outlet for exhibition of music videos , and the economic crisis , Hurley commented that " people are buying things they need to survive rather than records and concert tickets . " The group 's 2007 album Infinity on High sold one million copies , which was considered a disappointment compared to From Under the Cork Tree 's sales of three million . Trohman attributed this to " the same reason that nobody 's records are selling that well : there 's so much turmoil in the music industry , so much downsizing , and people are finding different ways to get their music more and more all the time . There 's very little we can do about that as a band . All we can do is try to make great music and hope it connects with people . "
= = = Citizens for Our Betterment and Welcome to the New Administration = = =
A viral campaign was launched by Pete Wentz on August 18 , 2008 , to promote the album . It was inspired by George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1949 ) , and the autocratic , overbearing Big Brother organization . The campaign started when the website for Wentz 's Decaydance Records label was supposedly " hacked " by an organization called " Citizens for Our Betterment " ( CFOB ) . Clues were left in links and images on the website , and Wentz left clues on his personal blog . On August 19 , Wentz ' wife Ashlee Simpson was seen carrying a pamphlet for the organization , raising suspicion and sparking many rumors online . In the days that followed , new posts appeared on the Citizens For Our Betterment website and Wentz continued to blog , at times referring to November 4 , the same day as the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Meanwhile , another band , Copeland , launched its own viral campaign . As part of it , Copeland launched a similarly named site , CitizensFourOurBetterment.com , and spread links through various Fall Out Boy fan blogs to attract more people to the new website .
While this mixing of campaigns was done without the knowledge of the members of Fall Out Boy , Wentz did post an acknowledgement on August 22 , when CFOB again " hijacked " Decaydance Records website . Decaydance act The Cab began performing with " Citizens for Our Betterment " written on the group 's instruments . Finally , on August 26 , a blog post of a press release was made on the band 's FriendsOrEnemies.com page ; it announced Folie à Deux as the title of the upcoming album , due for release on November 4 . Wentz said of the endeavor " To me , this is not a marketing campaign . It is a way to cause excitement about your art and have people earn it and understand it ... I don 't believe the full campaign has begun , and I also believe people are taking over the ship in a truly viral way . It doesn 't hurt anyone , and hopefully it tells the story of the project better and makes it more appreciated . "
It also revealed that a mixtape , titled Welcome to the New Administration , was available for download for free on the FriendsOrEnemies website . The mixtape contained several snippets of new Fall Out Boy tracks , as well as new music from other bands such as Gym Class Heroes , Cobra Starship , and Panic ! at the Disco . However none of the titles were confirmed for Folie à Deux . It also featured a song titled " America 's Sweethearts " which was eventually confirmed for the album but with an alternate spelling , " America 's Suitehearts " . The band confirmed that it intended to release the mixtape in conjunction with the " Citizens " campaign , and felt that it was relevant to not only the themes of the album , but the 2008 election as well . Wentz explained " The whole campaign is part of the record and people can call it whatever they want , but the mixtape was part of that campaign , and we 'll see what happens from here ... In creating this autocratic organization , we created a democratic campaign , because people have made it go the direction they wanted it to go . "
= = = Release date change = = =
Initially , the album 's release date was reported to be November 4 , 2008 — meaning that it would coincide with the 2008 presidential election . Fall Out Boy later announced on October 13 , 2008 , that the early November date was in doubt , citing concerns over the planned election day tie @-@ in . The band stressed out and worked very hard on a tight deadline to get the album out on November 4 . While on a promotional tour in Spain , the band realized that things were " spinning out of control " , and , in a rushed @-@ out statement , explained :
Six months ago we thought it would be a fun idea to release our album on election day but this is not the election to be cute . We felt as though rather than making a commentary we were only riding the wave of the election . This seemed less and less like what we intended to do and more of a gimmick . It is now in the hands of our label to give us a new release date . It is our intent to get our record out this year and as soon as possible -- as we made sure to have it done in time for its original release .
Deciding to postpone the album release in a season in which artists Kanye West ( 808s & Heartbreak ) , Britney Spears ( Circus ) and Guns N ' Roses ( Chinese Democracy ) had already set release dates , the only one available was six weeks later than expected . It was soon announced that a new release date for Folie was December 16 , 2008 . Although December 16 was not an ideal date according to demographic marketing analysis , Stump said " we put our eight feet down [ and ] told our label it must come out this year . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Folie à Deux has sold 449 @,@ 000 copies in the US to date February 2013 , but did not perform as well commercially as its predecessor , Infinity on High . It debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 149 @,@ 000 copies during a highly competitive week with other big debuts , becoming Fall Out Boy 's third consecutive top ten album . This is in contrast to the band 's more successful previous effort which shifted 260 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week to debut at number one the chart . Folie spent two weeks within the top 20 out of its 22 chart weeks . It also entered Billboard 's Rock Albums and Alternative Albums charts at number three . With 39 @,@ 000 digital downloads as part of its sales totals in its debut week , the record opened at number one on Billboard Digital Albums chart , the band 's second number one album on that chart . Fall Out Boy was bested in the group 's chart debut by R & B singers Keyshia Cole — whose A Different Me landed at number two on sales of more than 321 @,@ 000 — and Jamie Foxx , whose Intuition logged 265 @,@ 000 for a number three debut . Taylor Swift 's Fearless reigned at number one during that week . Within two months of its release , Folie à Deux was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Outside the United States , the album was also less widely successful than Infinity on High but managed to reach the top 10 in Australia where it received a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . On the Australian chart , the record debuted and peaked at number nine and spent its first seven weeks within the top 20 out of its fifteen weeks in the top 40 . In the United Kingdom , the album spent six weeks on the UK Albums Chart and was later certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipments of 60 @,@ 000 units . Folie logged 12 weeks on the New Zealand Albums Chart with a peak of 26 . The album also peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the Top Canadian Albums chart .
= = = Singles = = =
Three singles were released from the album : " I Don 't Care " , " America 's Suitehearts " and " What a Catch , Donnie " . As part of a new marketing ploy , Fall Out Boy released several songs on iTunes before the release of Folie à Deux . When purchased , the songs would go towards purchasing the entire album as part of the " Complete My Album " feature . The lead single , " I Don 't Care " was released on September 8 , 2008 , reaching a peak at number twenty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies . In Australia , the song peaked at number twenty on the ARIA singles chart , being certified Gold by the ARIA , denoting shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . The music video for the single was released on the internet on September 25 , but was pulled from iTunes and YouTube shortly after . Wentz wrote angrily on his blog , finding the video was full of product placement shots for Nokia phones .
" I Don 't Care " was followed by the digital release of " Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " on October 7 , 2008 . It debuted and peaked at number 74 on the Hot 100 and on the Digital Songs chart at number 40 . It also reached the Canadian charts at number 64 . Contrary to popular misconception , the song was not an actual single , rather it was just a song posted online . The second digital song , " What a Catch , Donnie " , was released a short time later on October 15 , 2008 , charting at number 94 on the Hot 100 , number fifty @-@ three on Digital Songs and number ninety @-@ five in Canada week of November 1 . The release was followed by the Suave Suarez remix of " I Don 't Care " on November 4 . The third digital song , " America 's Suitehearts " ( later becoming the second radio single ) was also released digitally to iTunes on December 2 , 2008 .
" Headfirst Slide Into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " , " What a Catch , Donnie " and " America 's Suitehearts " were digitally released before the album as part of iTunes ' " Complete My Album " feature . " America 's Suitehearts " was then commissioned as the album 's second single on January 12 , 2009 . As a single it reached number 78 on the Hot 100 , number 71 on Digital Songs week ending May 16 , 2009 , as well as peaking at number 30 on the Pop Songs chart on April 25 . In Australia , the song hit number 26 and logged in at number ninety @-@ seven in the UK . " Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " impacted United States modern rock radio on June 15 , 2009 , while " What a Catch , Donnie " was later issued as Folie à Deux 's third and last single . However , neither re @-@ entered any charts . Music videos were created for each .
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 21 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Dan Martin of NME gave the record a very positive review , calling a " defining statement " with the band 's " most stylistically hatstand @-@ but @-@ indisputably @-@ best songs yet . " He wrote , " We 're not saying it 's as good as genre watermarks American Idiot or The Black Parade . We 're just saying it comes close , " closing with calling it a " staggering achievement . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic rated the album four out of five stars and compared it to labelmate Panic ! at the Disco 's effort earlier in the year , Pretty . Odd . He wrote that " Fall Out Boy capture the Zeitgeist of the latter half of the 2000s better than any band : there 's so much going on in Folie à Deux , you either choose to take it all seriously or take none of it . Fall Out Boy make as much sense when heard either way . " Scott Heisel wrote for Alternative Press , commending the band for its " creativity , ingenuity and willingness to try just about anything . " He compared the meaning of the term folie à deux ( " a madness shared by two " ) to the two very distinct feelings expressed in the different sides of the record , calling the album a good representation of the band 's career .
Many critics commented on the album 's musical experimentation . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , in his review , stated that " the musical mix on Folie à Deux suggests a band with an advanced case of ADD , ricocheting between genres and eras , tempos and time signatures , often several times in a given song . " Spin 's David Marchese complimented the album 's forays into strange territories , calling tracks such as " I Don 't Care " and " What a Catch , Donnie " impressive . Rock Sound 's Faye Lewis also enjoyed the variety , calling the album " a non @-@ stop exotic cabaret for the ears , delivering a far @-@ reaching selection of songs that leap between a blend of catchy pop punk . " However , some critics felt that the band was excessive in its attempts to create a diverse work . Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times believed that " Folie à Deux imagines itself in the stadium . [ ... ] It 's not that FOB can 't have grandiosity , but every stadium needs open air . " She called the album 's sounds a " pleasure bot of right @-@ now pop , adroitly programmed with crunchy ' 80s melodies , emo 's dark prowess and symphonies à la Sgt. Pepper 's , " while stating " For all the steps forward , Folie a Deux also seems to contain a microchip for its own destruction . "
Q called the album " a barrelling , hugely confident record that should see Fall Out Boy swiftly elevated into mainstream rock 's premier league , " and Blender called it " the brightest , breeziest , giddiest record Fall Out Boy have ever made . " Blender ranked Folie at number 10 on its 33 best albums of the year list . Jaimie Hodgson of The Observer complimented producer Neal Avron 's " squeaky clean " production . In a more negative review of the album , Jesse Cataldo of Slant wrote that " the band 's songs are catchy at heart , enjoyable in a trifling but substantial way , until they 're smeared with layer after layer of smarm , nullifying any chance of their music being consumed as a simple , empty pleasure . " Cataldo also expressed displeasure with Lil Wayne 's performance as well as production from Pharrell Williams , which he deemed a " promising concept [ ... ] quickly discarded " , summarizing that , " Folie à Deux seems to prove , if nothing else , that Fall Out Boy is good at masking their best qualities and pushing forward their most annoying ones . "
= = Tours and performances = =
The day before Folie à Deux arrived in stores ( December 15 ) , Fall Out Boy had planned on staging an impromptu concert in New York City 's Washington Square Park . However , the band did not obtain a permit to do so . Taking inspiration from Bob Dylan and similar folk singers from the 1960s , the group wanted to do something free and spontaneous as a gift to fans . The band and its management argued with the NYPD about allowing the show to go on . In the end , they were told that picking up any instruments would earn them a trip to jail , so the band instead led the audience in a sing @-@ along . Stump sang while Wentz and Trohman played air guitar and Hurley drummed on his knees . Stump later commented in an interview that " Those cops back there — and I have no problem with the cops , trust me — but those cops were like the Grinch . They just took all the presents . "
On January 20 , 2009 , Fall Out Boy performed at the ' Be the Change ' Youth Ball , which celebrated the inauguration of President Barack Obama . The group was invited to perform by Washington , D.C. mayor Adrian Fenty , who was also a fan of the band . At the ball , the band jokingly dedicated a performance of " Thnks fr th Mmrs " to former president George W. Bush . Upon meeting Obama , Wentz remarked " It 's mind @-@ blowing . It 's one of those things where it 's such an amazing experience — just being in his presence is amazing . "
To promote the album , Fall Out Boy embarked on the Believers Never Die Tour Part Deux , which included dates in the United States and Canada . The name of the tour was based on the band 's 2004 Believers Never Die Tour . In keeping with the political themes of Folie à Deux , the tour featured symbolic commentary on the current state of corporate America . The group began the sets with a " corporate retreat " in which the group performed in dress suits with policemen in riot gear playing drums by the side of the stage . Afterwards , the band would change to casual attire for the rest of the set . Wentz noted that the purpose of the formal dress was to demonstrate " how the rich rob the poor " , and encouraged fans to direct attention to poverty @-@ stricken nations such as Sri Lanka and the Democratic Republic of the Congo .
The supporting acts on the tour were Cobra Starship , All Time Low , Metro Station and Hey Monday . For five dates on the tour , Fall Out Boy brought along rapper 50 Cent . Wentz explained , " We 've been fans of [ him ] since we heard ' Wanksta ' in 8 Mile . We 've wanted to do something with him for awhile [ sic ] , and having him out on the tour is gonna take the show to a whole new level . It 's exciting to bring two different genres together and give the fans a new experience " . The rapper had similar feelings about the situation : " This will be a major moment in music history . Joining forces with Fall Out Boy , one of the most dynamic rock bands in the industry , will be an exciting and historic event for rock and hip @-@ hop . " Due to the conflicting fan opinion regarding the album , concertgoers would " boo the band for performing numbers from the record in concert " , leaving Stump to describe touring in support of Folie as like " being the last act at the vaudeville show : We were rotten vegetable targets in Clandestine hoods . " " Some of us were miserable onstage , " said Trohman . " Others were just drunk . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Pete Wentz , all music composed by Fall Out Boy .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= USAir Flight 405 =
USAir Flight 405 was a regularly scheduled domestic passenger flight between LaGuardia Airport in Queens , New York City , New York , and Cleveland , Ohio . On March 22 , 1992 , a USAir Fokker F28 , registration N485US , flying the route , crashed in poor weather in a partially inverted position in Flushing Bay , shortly after liftoff from LaGuardia . The undercarriage lifted off from the runway ; however , the airplane failed to gain lift , flying only several meters above the ground . The aircraft then veered off the runway and hit multiple obstructions before coming to rest in Flushing Bay , just beyond end of the runway . Of the 51 people on board , 27 were killed in the accident , including the captain and one of the cabin crew members .
A similar accident had happened 3 years before in 1989 , when Air Ontario Flight 1363 crashed shortly after takeoff at Dryden Regional Airport after ice had accumulated on the wings and airframe . Out of 69 passengers and crew , 24 were killed .
The subsequent investigation revealed that due to pilot error , inadequate deicing procedures at LaGuardia , and several lengthy delays , a large amount of ice had accumulated on the wings and airframe . This ice disrupted airflow over the jet , increasing drag and reducing lift , which prevented the jet from lifting off the runway.The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) concluded that the flight crew were unaware of the amount of ice that had built up after the jet was delayed by heavy ground traffic taxiing to the runway . The report also listed the fact that the aircraft had begun its takeoff rotation too early at a lower speed than was standard as a contributing factor to the accident .
Investigators also found that the deicing procedures at LaGuardia were substandard . While the jet encountered a delay of up to 35 minutes , they found that the deicing fluid that was being used at the airport , and by the majority of commercial airlines across the United States , was effective for only fifteen minutes . The accident led to a number of studies into the effect that ice has on aircraft , and several recommendations into prevention techniques .
= = Flight history = =
The jet involved in the accident was a Fokker F28 Series 4000 airplane manufactured in the Netherlands . A two @-@ engine , medium @-@ range jet , the Fokker F28 is designed for transporting up to 95 passengers . The particular jet involved in the accident was registered in the United States as N485US . It was first delivered to Piedmont Airlines in August 1986 , and was acquired by USAir — now named American Airlines — three years later in August 1989 when the two airlines merged . N485US had amassed a total of 12 @,@ 462 flying hours at the time of the accident .
Captain Wallace J. Majure II , 44 , who was fully qualified to pilot the F28 and four other commercial aircraft , had accumulated approximately 9 @,@ 820 total flying hours , of which 2 @,@ 200 hours were in the F28 . Majure was initially hired as an F28 first officer by Piedmont Airlines in 1985 . He was later reassigned to serve as a first officer and then a captain on a Boeing 737 , but finally returned to an F28 captain because of company cutbacks . The New York Times reported that :
Majure was a man who yearned to please his passengers , and if he made them happy then he also made his airline happy . He had often spoken to friends about how important it was for him to get travelers to their destinations on time and how proud he was of USAir 's on @-@ time record . All the same , he was also portrayed as a by @-@ the @-@ book , cautious pilot .
First Officer John Rachuba , 30 , was hired by Piedmont in 1989 . At the time of the accident , company records indicate that he had accumulated approximately 4 @,@ 507 flying hours , of which 29 hours were in the F28 . Rachuba held a flight engineer certificate with ratings for turbojet @-@ powered aircraft and an expired instructor certificate issued on August 16 , 1987 . He also held a Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) license for non @-@ federal control towers . Previously , he had served as a flight engineer on Boeing 737s and Boeing 727s .
The two flight attendants were Debra Andrews Taylor and Janice King . Janice King , who was seated in the aft jumpseat , died in the crash .
= = Accident = =
= = = Poor weather , deicing , taxiing delays = = =
The aircraft took off from Jacksonville International Airport , Florida , several hours before the accident , although the departure from Jacksonville was delayed by poor weather over New York and the removal of the baggage of a passenger who decided not to board the jet . The instrument approach landing was uneventful and the jet was not significantly delayed while in the air waiting to land , however congestion on the taxiways at LaGuardia delayed the arrival of the aircraft at the gate .
One hour and six minutes behind schedule , the jet arrived at Gate B1 , where the pilot advised a ground mechanic that his airplane was " good to go . " The flight crew then disembarked the jet to use facilities in the terminal . The poor weather did not improve as the jet was deiced with Type I fluid , a heated 50 / 50 water / glycol mixture . Following the completion of this process , one of the two deicing trucks delayed the pushback of the jet when it experienced mechanical problems . The vehicle was immobilised for 20 minutes in such a position that it prevented the aircraft from taxiing to the runway following the flight crew 's return .
After the deicing truck was repaired , the pilot requested a second deicing , though the flight crew did not perform a walkaround of their airplane , and USAir procedures did not require them to do so . Following the second deicing , LaGuardia ground control granted Flight 405 permission to taxi to Runway 13 . The flight crew completed the pre @-@ flight checklist during the taxi .
Engine anti @-@ ice was turned on for the two engines during taxi . The captain announced to passengers that the flaps would remain up during taxi , and they should not be worried seeing them in the retracted position . He placed an empty coffee cup on the flap handle as a reminder of the position of the flaps , a procedure used by many flight crews . The captain told the first officer they would use standard USAir contaminated runway procedures that included the use of 18 degrees flaps , and also decided that they would take off with a reduced V1 speed of 110 knots .
Weather reports for LaGuardia showed that on the night of the accident , all taxiways were coated with a thin covering of snow . Runway 13 was also covered with a thin layer of wet snow , although it had been plowed , treated with urea and it had been sanded .
The first officer described the snowfall as " not heavy , no large flakes . " He told authorities that snow was sliding off the jet and the nose of the airplane was coated in a watery layer . He used a light positioned on the wing of his jet to check for signs of ice several times before they attempted to take off . Neither he or the pilot saw any evidence of contamination on the wing or on the black strip and therefore decided against a third deicing . He told investigators that he checked the wings " maybe 10 times , but at least 3 . " He said that he did not consider the snowfall heavy , and he did not recall any wind blowing the snow . The first officer stated that as they taxied , they looked back at the wings several times . Near the time of the takeoff , he said " looks good to me , black strip is clear . "
While taxiing , the flight discussed deicing procedures . The first officer suggested to the pilot that the aircraft ahead of them in the queue " might keep our wings clear for us . " The pilot replied that " it can cause us to re @-@ freeze too ... I don 't want to be very close to him . " Later , the first officer remarked " look at all that stuff . What is that ? " to which the pilot replied " sand I guess , urea sand . "
The pilot of a jet taxiing behind Flight 405 , Northwest Airlines Flight 517 , a Boeing 757 , stated that he had a good view of the top of Flight 405 's wing , and that there was just enough snow on the fuselage to " fuzzy " the USAir printing but that the wings appeared to be clear . He believed that the snow had " all but stopped " and was more concerned about the amount of vehicular traffic , such as sweepers and ploughs , than he was about the snowfall . The second officer of Trump Shuttle Flight 1541 , which had landed around the time Flight 405 was taxiing , said their Boeing 727 had " picked up a lot of snow quickly during my post @-@ landing walkaround , but by the finish it seemed to be more rain . " He described Flight 405 as a " fairly clean airplane . " He said that he could not comment on clear ice , but that the wings and fuselage were clear of snow .
The jet , already several hours behind schedule , then suffered further delays taxiing to the runway . The weather had created heavy ground traffic at LaGuardia , and it was reported that there were queues of aircraft waiting for permission for takeoff . Investigators estimated that the plane took between 25 and 45 minutes to taxi from the gate to the runway .
= = = Crash = = =
Following permission for takeoff from controllers , the flight crew initiated the takeoff procedure and the first officer made a callout of 80 knots , and , several seconds later , a V1 callout , followed shortly after by a VR callout . Approximately 2 @.@ 2 seconds after the VR callout , the nose gear left the ground . The final report read that " the first officer described the takeoff as normal through the rotation . He stated that no problem was evident with vibration , rate of acceleration , ambient noise , [ or ] directional control " . However , The New York Times reported that " several passengers sensed that [ the airplane ] was not going fast enough . "
The first officer said it was " just like we lost lift . " As the captain attempted to level the wings , the crew used right rudder to manoeuvre the aircraft back toward the ground and avoid the water below . The accident report found that " the first officer said that they seemed to agree that the airplane was not going to fly and that their control inputs were in unison . " Rachuba and Majure continued to try to hold the nose up to impact in a flat attitude , although Rachuba later stated that there were no " heavy control inputs . " The final report further noted that " first officer stated that he did not touch the power levers . " The first officer later told investigators that the flight crew 's primary focus was to find a safe place to land .
Just under five seconds after the undercarriage left the ground , the plane 's left wing scraped against the asphalt for 110 feet and the stick shaker activated . The crew received six stall warnings , before the jet began banking to the left , then to the right , and then to the left again , still only several meters above the ground . The aircraft struck two visual approach slope indicator posts , touched down again for approximately 100 feet , before lifting off again and striking an ILS beacon and a water pump house .
The left wing then separated from the body of the airplane , before the fuselage impacted with the edge of Flushing Bay and came to rest in a partially inverted position . Parts of the fuselage and cockpit were submerged in water . Confusion , disorientation , or entrapment most likely caused the drowning of passengers who otherwise sustained only minor injuries and injuries that were not life @-@ threatening . The final report read :
Prior to impact , passengers did not assume the brace position . When the airplane came to rest , many of the passengers in the forward portion of the cabin were upside down , others , who were upright were submerged in water over their heads . Some passengers tried to move from their seats while their seatbelts were still buckled , and other passengers had difficulty locating and releasing their seatbelt buckles because of disorientation . Following the accident , passengers reported fires in the forward left and aft portions of the airplane , including many small fires on the water . Passengers stated that they escaped through large holes in the cabin . The lead flight attendant and first officer escaped through a hole in the cabin floor near the flight attendant ’ s position . Several passengers reported assisting others out of the cabin and into the knee @-@ deep water . Many of them walked in the water to the dike , climbed up the wall and over an embankment , and slid down a steep hill to the runway . Others were assisted out of the water by ground personnel .
= = = Rescue attempts , medical operation = = =
The tower cab coordinator on duty at the time of the accident stated that he saw a fireball emanating from the crash site following the accident . Upon seeing the flames , he sounded an alarm , alerting the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police , who responded . An investigation revealed that there were technical issues with an emergency telephone at LaGuardia , however it was found that these issues did not hinder the emergency response .
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department initially sent four vehicles . Personnel in these vehicles reported that snow and fog hampered their visibility while heading to the crash site , and they could not see the destroyed aircraft . However , one member of the fire crew observed people standing on top of a dike near the crash site . Police divers also entered the water following the crash , although they found no @-@ one alive inside the jet or in the water . The fire @-@ fighters continued spraying the fire , and the incident commander estimated that they had the fire under control ten minutes after their arrival at the scene . The New York Times reported that :
The accident sent thick black smoke billowing above the airport as more than 200 emergency workers ... had to contend not only with blustery snow but the powerful icy current in Flushing Bay ... the tense drama of the rescue continued into the early hours , with fire @-@ fighters and police officers in water up to their shoulders and helicopters shining spotlights on the wreckage and an ice @-@ covered mound of earth at the end of the runway so slick the rescue workers needed metal ladders to walk across it .
The NTSB report on the accident noted , but did not criticise , the medical operation at the scene . It described how paramedics attended to those who were conscious with life @-@ threatening injuries , but did not make any attempts to resuscitate victims who appeared drowned or lacked vital signs because they believed that they could not be revived because they had succumbed to the cold salt water . It was estimated by the authorities who attended the scene of the crash that 15 ambulances responded to the accident site , all of which were used to transport the injured to hospitals , and that 40 additional ambulances were available near the site of the crash , but were not needed .
The report described the emergency response as " effective and contributed to the survivability of the airplane 's occupants . However , the response by the emergency medical services personnel was inadequately coordinated , and the ambulance response times to the hospitals were excessive . " The final report read :
... a basic principle of triage is to treat victims having the most life @-@ threatening injuries first with available medical resources and to utilize limited medical personnel in a manner that will provide maximum effectiveness . However , the Safety Board is also aware that in recent years a number of victims of cold water drowning have been successfully resuscitated . They survived after periods of underwater , including sea water , as long as one hour or more . In view of these facts , the Safety Board believes that all emergency response organizations should review their emergency plans to include contingencies for applying cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) techniques as soon as a sufficient number of trained personnel arrive to perform CPR , even during mass casualty / triage incidents , regardless of whether vital signs are present , especially if cold @-@ water immersion / near drowning is involved and where traumatic injuries do not indicate death .
= = Investigation = =
The NTSB sent a team to the crash site to investigate the accident . They concluded that , unknown to the crew , ice had collected on the wings , which disrupted airflow and reduced lift.The inquiry lasted just under one year .
= = = Buildup of ice = = =
The investigators suggested multiple reasons why the jet was unable to gain lift , but the accident report states there was no evidence to suggest corrosion on the wings . The airplane 's flight control systems was also examined and revealed no failure prior to impact . The report reads that " the evidence did not support improper wing configuration , airframe or system defects , or deployment of the speed brakes as reasons for the loss of aerodynamic efficiency . " The investigators also stated that the takeoff roll of the jet was not abnormal . The board came to the conclusion that ice had built up on the wings , and this had contributed largely to the accident .
When attempting to find out why ice was present on the wings of the jet , the board determined that the airplane had been properly cleared of ice and snow during the two deicing procedures at the gate . However , approximately 35 minutes elapsed between the second time that the aircraft was deiced and the initiation of takeoff during which the airplane was exposed to continuing precipitation in below freezing temperatures . The NTSB were unable to determine how much ice had built up on the wings following the second deicing , but considered it to be highly likely that " some contamination occurred in the 35 minutes following the second deicing and that this accumulation led to this accident . "
" The Safety Board views the evidence as conclusive that the primary factor in this accident was the reduced performance of the wing due to ice contamination . Therefore , the Safety Board evaluated the extent to which the decisions of , and procedures used by the flight crew could have contributed to the accident , " read the final report . Although , when the cockpit was examined , the engine anti @-@ ice switch was found in the ' OFF ' position , further investigations found that even slight pressure could move the switch , and the NTSB ruled this out as a contributing factor in the crash . Following the accident , USAir sent out a maintenance directive ordering engine anti @-@ ice switches to be changed on F28s so they would lock into a selected position .
Investigators found that a flaw in the design of the F28 's wings made them extremely vulnerable to ice buildup . Because of the angle of the wings , even a very small amount of ice could have devastating effects . When the NTSB , in collaboration with Fokker , investigated the effect ice can have on an aircraft , they found that ice particles as small as 1 @-@ 2mm of a density of one particle per square centimeter can cause a loss of lift of over 20 % . A document written by Fokker before the accident detailed the effect of ice on the wing of an F28 warned that an " uncontrollable roll " would begin even with a small amount of ice on the wings .
= = = Errors by the flight crew = = =
The report found that the flight crew were aware that the poor weather was likely to cause ice buildup , however neither of them took any action to check the condition of the wing leading edge and upper surface . The aircraft was evaluated by ground crew and was deiced . After the mechanical failure of the deicing truck , the investigators reported that , as the captain requested another deice , there was an indication he was :
... concerned about the continuing exposure to precipitation , and the request was prudent and in accordance with USAir guidance . Following the second deicing , the flight crew was most likely satisfied that the airplane was free of adhering contamination . The flight crew was not aware of the exact delay that they would encounter before takeoff and their decision to leave the gate was reasonable . After taxiing , when it became evident that they would be delayed for a prolonged period , conversations between the crew showed that they were aware of and probably concerned about the risk of reaccumulating frozen contamination on the wing .
They also found that USAir guidance and flight crew training was sufficient and should have alerted the flight crew to the risk of attempting a takeoff while they were unaware of the condition of the wing . USAir guidance to flight crews specifically stated that :
... it is the captain 's responsibility to exercise caution prior to takeoff . If the elapsed time since deicing exceeds 20 minutes , careful examination of the surfaces should be conducted to detect the extent of accumulation [ of ice ] and to assure that the takeoff can be made safely and in compliance with existing [ regulations ] .
The final report read :
The Safety Board believes that the flight crew of Flight 405 should have taken more positive steps to assure a contamination @-@ free wing , such as entering the cabin to look at the wing from a closer range . Although the Safety Board acknowledges that the detection of minimal amounts of contamination , sufficient to cause aerodynamic performance problems , is difficult and may not be possible without a tactile inspection , an observation from the cabin would have improved the chance of seeing some contamination and might have prompted the flight crew to return to the gate . The Safety Board believes that the flight crew ’ s failure to take such precautions and the decision to attempt takeoff while unsure of wing cleanliness led to this accident and is a cause of it .
In a television interview , one of the NTSB investigators suggested that " the captain was faced with quite a problem . If he wanted to be deiced a third time , he would have had to get out of the line [ of jets waiting to take off ] and taxi all the way back to the parking area and meet up with a deicing truck again . That would have put him very , very late and it may have even caused the cancellation of the flight . "
The NTSB carried out tests to discover why the first officer was unable to see the ice buildup on the wing of the jet . When the sliding window of the cockpit was fully open , the first officer would have been able to see the outer eighty percent of the wing , including the black strip used to contrast the white surface of the wing so the flight crew can search for a build up of ice . When the sliding window was shut , as it was in the accident , it would be difficult to make out any details of the wing , and the black strip would have been distorted by the glass . They also found that the ice light made little difference to how much the first officer would have been able to see .
The investigators also requested that Fokker conduct a study of the effects of ice contamination and pilot technique on the F28 aircraft . The NTSB evaluated the data from the tests and found that the pilot initiated the rotation five knots earlier at 119 knots instead of the proper rotation speed of 124 knots . The data from Fokker was correlated with the cockpit voice recording and confirmed that the first officer called a rotation speed of 113 knots but the captain did not rotate until 119 knots . It was never established why the rotation was called and initiated earlier than was standard .
= = = Deicing procedures at LaGuardia = = =
Investigators also focused on deicing practices at LaGuardia . They found that the airport was using only Type I deicing fluid , not Type II . Type I fluids are used for the actual deicing of the jet , while Type II fluids are used for preventing buildup of ice . At the time of the accident , LaGuardia had prohibited the use of Type II deicing fluid because tests suggested that if it fell onto runways it reduced friction . Investigators noted the change had been made because of LaGuardia 's shorter runways and the fact that if an aircraft left the vicinity of the runway , it would come to rest in the cold water surrounding Runway 13 . The accident report , however , criticised the fact that the majority of the airplane operators in the United States relied only upon Type I fluids for protection , and they do not use Type II . The board stated that tests have shown that both Type I and Type II fluids do flow off the wings of a treated airplane in significant amounts during the initial takeoff ground run . The NTSB stated :
There are a number of views on the potential uses of Type I and II fluids . The use of Type I fluid raises concern because its holdover time is shorter than the holdover time for Type II fluid under certain conditions . Both fluids are under scrutiny for their environmental impacts , and it is uncertain if Type II fluid diminishes the runway coefficient of friction since the fluid rolls off the airplane during the takeoff roll . Also , the use of either type fluid may result in a temporary degradation in the airplane 's aerodynamic performance , a reduced stall margin , and an increase in drag .
= = = Safety card errors = = =
While it was not named as a cause of the accident , investigators also found that the passenger safety briefing cards in the airplane showed two types of galley service doors . However , only one door is installed on a particular F28 model at any one time . The examination also showed that the safety card did not show how to operate either of the two types of galley service doors in the emergency mode if the normal opening mode failed . However , the final report stated that this " did not contribute to the fatalities in the accident . "
= = = Conclusion = = =
The final report , published by the NTSB , cited the probable cause of the accident to be :
... the failure of the airline industry and the Federal Aviation Administration to provide flight crews with procedures , requirements , and criteria compatible with departure delays in conditions conducive to airframe icing and the decision by the flight crew to take off without positive assurance that the airplane 's wings were free of ice accumulation after 35 minutes of exposure to precipitation following de @-@ icing . The ice contamination on the wings resulted in an aerodynamic stall and loss of control after lift @-@ off . Contributing to the cause of the accident were the inappropriate procedures used by , and inadequate coordination between , the flight crew that led to a takeoff rotation at a lower than prescribed air speed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = NTSB recommendations = = =
The NTSB made several recommendations to the FAA , including requiring that " flight crew members and appropriate ground personnel responsible for the inspection of transport @-@ category airplanes for wing contamination receive specific periodic training that will illustrate what contamination looks like and feels like on a wing and the amount of contamination that is detectable under different light conditions " . They also ordered " airlines to establish a way to inform fight crews of the type of [ deicing ] fluid and mixture used , the current moisture accumulation rate , and the available holdover time . ”
With regard to the obstructions that the airplane collided with during the accident sequence , the NTSB ordered the modification or replacement of “ all pump houses adjacent to Runway 13 / 31 so that they are not obstructions to airplanes ” . They also ordered a study on the “ feasibility of building a frangible ILS antenna array for LaGuardia Airport ” Further , they ordered a review of Fokker F28 @-@ 4000 passenger safety briefing cards " to ensure that they clearly and accurately depict the operation of the two types of forward cabin doors in both their normal and emergency modes and that they describe clearly and accurately how to remove the overwing emergency exit and cover . "
= = = Dryden report allegations = = =
The crash was featured on National Geographic Channel in an episode of the television program Mayday ( Air Crash Investigation / Air Emergency ) entitled Cold Case , where the accident was compared with Air Ontario Flight 1363 , which crashed in Dryden , Ontario , after the crew did not deice their jet . The program opened by saying that Canadian investigators were " stunned " to hear of the accident , as it mirrored the Air Ontario flight which had occurred three years earlier .
The report on the crash in Dryden criticised approaches to deicing . It made several points , including recommending the use of Type II deicing fluid rather than Type I , deicing trucks near the runway rather than at the gate , and that the crew should inspect their wings not only from the cockpit , but also the cabin . The report concluded that competitive pressures caused by commercial deregulation cut into safety standards and that many of the industry ’ s sloppy practices and questionable procedures were placing pilots in difficult situations .
The Honourable Virgil P. Moshansky , who investigated the crash in Dryden and wrote the report , appeared in the documentary , alleging that if the recommendations in his report had been followed , the USAir accident could have been prevented . Moshansky told the documentary that his report " probably sat on somebody 's [ at the FAA ] desk . " He said " when I first heard about it I thought , my God , it 's Dryden all over again ... certainly if they had followed the recommendations in my report , the F28 crash at LaGuardia could have been averted . "
Another investigator into the Air Ontario accident told the documentary that " after all of this work [ investigating the Dryden crash ] , after all of the efforts , to see it happen again was extremely frustrating . " The documentary focused largely on these allegations , while also reconstructing the Air Ontario flight and the USAir flight . However , it was reported that the FAA refuted Moshansky 's allegations , and they claim that they never received his report .
= = = International Conference on Airplane Ground Deicing = = =
Following the crash of Flight 405 and the Air Ontario accident in Dryden , the FAA began to research methods of improving deicing practices at airports to minimise the number of accidents caused by a buildup of ice .
Described by the FAA as a “ sharply focused effort ” , experts convened on May 28 and 29 , 1992 , in Reston , Virginia for the International Conference on Ground Deicing . At the conference , industry methods were discussed and agreed upon for actions that should be taken in the long term and short term . A report on the conference by the FAA read :
A better understanding of airplane ground deicing and anti @-@ icing issues is a crucial prerequisite to the implementation of feasible and effective safety improvements . To achieve this goal , the FAA sponsored a conference at which the international aviation community could exchange thoughts and offer recommendation on a variety of issues concerning safe winter operations . [ At the conference ] more than 750 participants discussed the problems posed by aircraft deicing and examined possible solutions .
It was reported that discussions over different types of deicing fluid were discussed , along with different deicing equipment and techniques . They also found that the pilot in command was the ultimate authority for take off decisions , but that all operators had to provide proper training and criteria for the pilot in command to base a proper decision on .
The conference concluded with an amendment to FAA regulations which air carriers operated under . The new regulations stated that airlines should put in place FAA @-@ approved ground deicing or anti @-@ icing procedures anytime weather conditions of ice , snow or frost prevailed . The new rules went into effect on November 1 , 1992 .
= = = Developments in deicing = = =
In the years that followed the accident , airlines started using Type IV deicing fluid , which is more effective than both Type I and Type II fluids . Type IV fluids stick to aircraft for up to two hours . Chicago O 'Hare International Airport was the first to introduce deicing facilities at the runway , something which has now become commonplace .
Aircraft themselves now have more sophisticated deicing systems that can be used on the ground and in the air . Many modern civil fixed wing transport aircraft , for example the Boeing 737 , use anti @-@ ice systems on the leading edge of wings , engine inlets and air data probes using warm air . This is bled from engines and is ducted into a cavity beneath the surface to be anti @-@ iced . The warm air heats the surface up to a few degrees above freezing , preventing ice from forming . The system may operate autonomously , switching on and off as the aircraft enters and leaves icing conditions .
Ground deicing technologies are also developing , and a newer technology is infrared deicing . This is the transmission of energy by means of electromagnetic waves or rays . Infrared is invisible and travels in straight lines from the heat source to surfaces and objects without significantly heating the space ( air ) it passes through . When infrared waves strike an object , they release their energy as heat . This heat is either absorbed or reflected by the cooler surface . Infrared energy is continually exchanged between " hot " and " cold " surfaces until all surfaces have reached the same temperature ( equilibrium ) . The colder the surfaces , the more effective the infrared transfer from the emitter . This heat transfer mechanism is substantially faster than conventional heat transfer modes used by conventional deicing ( convection and conduction ) due to the cooling effect of the air on the deicing fluid spray .
Aircraft deicing vehicles have also improved since the accident , usually consisting of a large tanker truck , containing the concentrated de @-@ icing fluid , with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature . The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane , allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible ; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de @-@ icing vehicle . Airport runways are also deiced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms . These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway , and allow de @-@ icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass , reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable .
= = Notable passengers = =
Richard Lawson - film and television actor ( survived accident )
= = = Similar accidents = = =
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210 — crashed shortly after takeoff in 2004 after the jet collected a layer of frost overnight and was not deiced .
Air Florida Flight 90 — crashed in 1982 after ice built up on the airframe of the jet because of pilot error .
American Eagle Flight 4184 — crashed after flying into unforeseen icing conditions on October 31 , 1994 .
Arrow Air Flight 1285 — crashed attempting to take off from Gander , Newfoundland with contaminated wings in 1985 .
Colgan Air Flight 3407 crashed near Buffalo , NY due to icing conditions on February 12 , 2009 .
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= No. 76 Wing RAAF =
No. 76 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during World War II . Initially based in Far North Queensland , its headquarters transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory , in September 1944 to take control of three PBY Catalina units : Nos. 20 , 42 , and 43 Squadrons . The prime task of these squadrons was minelaying in the South West Pacific theatre , and they conducted these operations as far afield as Java , Borneo , the Philippines , and China . As well as minelaying , No. 76 Wing 's Catalinas flew bombing , patrol , and transport missions , and dropped millions of propaganda leaflets in the closing months of the war . The wing headquarters disbanded in November 1945 .
= = History = =
No. 76 Wing headquarters was established at Townsville , Queensland , on 3 January 1944 , and moved to Cairns mid @-@ month . Led by Wing Commander Reginald Burrage , it transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory , in September to coordinate and control minelaying operations in the North @-@ Western Area by Nos. 20 , 42 , and 43 Squadrons . Each of the squadrons was equipped with PBY Catalina flying boats , nicknamed " Black Cats " ; No. 20 had been based in Cairns with No. 76 Wing headquarters , No. 42 had just been formed at Darwin in August , while No. 43 had been operating out of Darwin since March . Minelaying missions carried out by the RAAF over the past year had been credited with successfully disrupting enemy shipping for a much smaller outlay of operating hours than conventional bombing , and were thus considered profitable enough to dedicate a wing with three squadrons to furthering the work . Although the Catalinas were relatively slow and susceptible to enemy fighter attack , their loss rate was no more than one per 95 sorties . In addition to its flying squadrons , the wing controlled No. 2 Flying Boat Maintenance Unit , No. 11 Air Sea Rescue Flight , and No. 3 Mobile Torpedo Unit . All units were located in Darwin except No. 42 Squadron , which was based at Melville Bay .
The Catalina squadrons were expected to carry out a total of 100 missions per month from Darwin . In their first three weeks of operation from 13 September 1944 they accomplished 98 , mining targets in Celebes , Java , and Surabaya . In October , they were able to use the recently liberated island of Morotai as a forward base for operations against Balikpapan and Tarakan . On 14 December , No. 43 Squadron , augmented by Catalinas from No. 11 Squadron based at Rathmines , New South Wales , mined Manila Bay to keep Japanese shipping " bottled up " , thus supporting the Allied landing at Mindoro taking place the next day . Flying from Leyte , the 24 Catalinas successfully dropped 60 mines in the heavily defended target area for the loss of one of their number , and returned to base at the limit of their fuel reserves .
In the early part of 1945 , monsoonal weather in Darwin reduced the number of missions flown by No. 76 Wing . On the night of 5 / 6 April , three Catalinas kept watch on the Japanese cruiser Isuzu , which was subsequently struck by Allied bombers and sunk by submarines . During the month , the Catalinas mined Hong Kong harbour , as well as targets on the coast of mainland China , flying up to sixteen hours per mission . On 26 May , they undertook the RAAF 's most northerly operation during the Pacific War , against Wenchow . The same month , Group Captain Stuart Campbell , former leader of No. 42 Squadron , took over command of the wing . In May – June , reinforced by a detachment from No. 11 Squadron , No. 76 Wing flew mining and bombing missions in support of the forthcoming Operation Oboe Six , the Battle of North Borneo , and Oboe Two , the Battle of Balikpapan . Before Oboe Six , while some of the Catalinas concentrated on mining the approaches to Surabaya harbour , others bombed airfields in Java and Celebes in concert with RAAF B @-@ 24 Liberators . The Catalinas and Liberators combined again in the lead @-@ up to Oboe Two to raid any Japanese airfields that could threaten Balikpapan , in some cases bombing the same target around the clock , the Catalinas by night and Liberators by day .
With the Allies ' decision to confine RAAF minelaying operations to areas south of China from June onwards , the number of worthwhile targets for the Catalinas was reduced . Sorties for the month were down to 58 , a number of which were carried out from Labuan against Banka Strait . The wing 's last minelaying missions of the war took place in July , again in the Banka Strait . In the final months before the Japanese surrender , the Catalinas also delivered propaganda leaflets around the Dutch East Indies and South China Sea , dropping over a million in June alone . No. 76 Wing and its squadrons remained at Darwin in the immediate aftermath of the war , conducting routine patrols , transporting supplies and medicine to prisoners @-@ of @-@ war in the South West Pacific , and assisting in the repatriation of Australian personnel . In November 1945 , under a reorganisation of RAAF units at Darwin , the wing headquarters was given orders to disband . It became non @-@ operational on 16 November and was officially dissolved five days later . No. 42 Squadron disbanded the same month , while Nos. 20 and 43 Squadrons transferred to Rathmines , where they disbanded in 1946 .
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= Electric Mud =
Electric Mud is the fifth studio album by Muddy Waters , with Rotary Connection serving as his backing band . Released in 1968 , it imagines Muddy Waters as a psychedelic musician . Producer Marshall Chess suggested that Muddy Waters record experimental , psychedelic blues tracks with members of Rotary Connection in an attempt to revive the blues singer 's career .
The album peaked at # 127 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart . It was controversial for its fusion of electric blues with psychedelic elements , but was influential on psychedelic rock bands of the era .
= = Production = =
In 1967 , Marshall Chess formed Cadet Concept Records as a subsidiary of Chess Records . The label 's first release was the self @-@ titled debut album of the psychedelic band Rotary Connection , whose members Chess described as " the hottest , most avant garde rock guys in Chicago " . As a result of the album 's success , Chess felt that he could revive the career of bluesmen Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf by recording two albums of experimental , psychedelic blues with members of Rotary Connection as the backing band for the singers , producing the albums Electric Mud and The Howlin ' Wolf Album . Chess hoped the new albums would sell well among fans of psychedelic rock bands influenced by Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf . According to Muddy Waters , " Quite naturally , I like a good @-@ selling record . I was looking at it because I played for so many of these so @-@ called hippies that I thought probably I could reach them . "
In place of Muddy Waters ' regular musicians were Gene Barge , Pete Cosey , Roland Faulkner , Morris Jennings , Louis Satterfield , Charles Stepney and Phil Upchurch . Cosey , Upchurch and Jennings joked about calling the group " The Electric Niggers " . Marshall Chess liked the suggestion , but Leonard Chess refused to allow the name .
The album incorporates use of wah @-@ wah pedal and fuzzbox . Marshall Chess augmented the rhythm of Muddy Waters ' live band with the use of electric organ and saxophone . Blues purists criticized the album 's psychedelic sound . According to Marshall Chess , " It was never an attempt to make Muddy Waters a psychedelic artist ; it was a concept album like David Bowie being Ziggy Stardust . " Muddy Waters said of the album 's sound , " That guitar sounds just like a cat — meow — and the drums have a loping , busy beat . "
" I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " incorporates free jazz influences , with Gene Barge performing a concert harp . Muddy Waters performs the vocals of " Let 's Spend the Night Together " , a cover of The Rolling Stones ' 1967 single , in gospel @-@ soul style with heavy influence from Cream 's Sunshine of Your Love .
According to Buddy Guy , " [ Muddy Waters couldn 't ] feel this psychedelic stuff at all ... and if the feeling is gone , that 's it . You can 't get too busy behind a singer . You 've got to let him sing it . " Muddy Waters ' previous albums replicated the sound of his live performances . Working with a studio band rather than his own was problematic for Muddy Waters , who could not perform material from the album live . He stated " What the hell do you have a record for if you can 't play the first time it 's out ? I 'm so sick of that ... If you 've got to have big amplifiers and wah @-@ wahs and equipment to make you guitar say different things , well , hell , you can 't play no blues . "
The title of the album did not refer to the use of electric guitar , as Muddy Waters had played the instrument since he first signed to Chess Records . The use of the term " electric " is used in a psychedelic context .
= = Release = =
The Electric Mud album cover artwork was eclectic and reflected McKinley Morganfield 's fashion preferences during 1968 . The front cover of the original 33 RPM vinyl commercial release during 1968 in the USA featured two graphic versions ; a white background with black text , and a second , less known black background with white text . The back cover and inner gate fold artwork were identical in both versions , as was the small booklet of photos accompanying the release . Viewing of various Electric Mud album cover graphics can be found by searching Google 's Images metasearch capabilities .
On November 19 , 1996 , the album was reissued on compact disc by Chess Records . On November 22 , 2011 , Electric Mud and After the Rain were combined on a single compact disc by BGO Records .
= = Reception = =
Electric Mud sold 150 @,@ 000 copies within the first six weeks of release . Peaking at # 127 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart , it was Muddy Waters ' first album to hit on the Billboard and Cash Box charts . In a Rolling Stone feature , Pete Welding wrote , " ' Electric Mud ' does great disservice to one of the blues ' most important innovators , and prostitutes the contemporary styles to which his pioneering efforts have led . " Although American critics panned the album , it was better received in England . According to Marshall Chess , " It was the biggest Muddy Waters record we ever had at Chess , and it dropped instantly . The English accepted it ; they are more eccentric . "
= = Legacy = =
Muddy Waters recorded After the Rain the following year , incorporating elements of the sound of Electric Mud . According to Cosey , " I 'll never forget , as soon as I walked into the studio for the follow @-@ up and Muddy saw me , he threw his arms around me , said ' Hey , how you doing , boy , play some of that stuff you played on that last album . ' " Following strong criticism of the album , Muddy Waters claimed that he disliked the album and its sound , and that he did not consider the album to be blues . He stated , " Every time I go into Chess , [ they ] put some un @-@ blues players with me [ ... ] If you change my sound , then you gonna change the whole man . " In the biography The Mojo Man , Muddy Waters stated " That Electric Mud record was dogshit . But when it came out , it started selling like wild , but then they started sending them back . They said , ' This can 't be Muddy Waters with all this shit going on , all this wha @-@ wha and fuzztone . ' "
According to Robert Gordon in Can 't Be Satisfied : The Life and Times of Muddy Waters , the valet of Jimi Hendrix later told Pete Cosey that Hendrix would listen to " Herbert Harper 's Free Press News " for inspiration before performing . Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones cited Electric Mud as the inspiration for the riff of " Black Dog " . Allmusic reviewer Richie Unterberger panned the album as being " crass " .
In Lost in the Grooves : Scram 's Capricious Guide to the Music You Missed , Gene Sculatti wrote that " The rhythm seems to anticipate hip @-@ hop by three decades . " Chuck D stated that he had been introduced to Electric Mud by a member of Public Enemy , which sparked an interest in Muddy Waters ' earlier work , and in roots @-@ oriented blues . The documentary series The Blues , produced by Martin Scorsese , depicts the recording band for Electric Mud performing with Chuck D and members of The Roots . Cypress Hill samples " Tom Cat " , from this album , on the interlude " Ultraviolet Dreams " , from their self @-@ titled debut album , as does Natas on their song " See You In Hell " from the album N of tha World . The rock / funk @-@ oriented arrangement of " Mannish Boy " present on this album is sampled and featured prominently on the Gorillaz B @-@ side " Left Hand Suzuki Method " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Muddy Waters – vocal
Gene Barge – tenor saxophone , producer
Phil Upchurch – guitars
Roland Faulkner – guitars
Pete Cosey – guitars
Charles Stepney – organ , arranger , producer
Louis Satterfield – bass
Morris Jennings – drums
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Stu Black – engineer
Marshall Chess – producer
Meire Murakami – design
Bill Sharpe – cover design
Abner Spector – mixing
Vartan – art direction
= = Chart positions = =
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= Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū =
Sōryū ( 蒼龍 , Sōryū , meaning " Blue ( or Green ) Dragon " ) was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the mid @-@ 1930s . A sister ship , Hiryū , was intended to follow Sōryū , but Hiryū 's design was heavily modified and she is often considered to be a separate class . Sōryū 's aircraft were employed in operations during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in the late 1930s and supported the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in mid @-@ 1940 . During the first months of the Pacific War , she took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Battle of Wake Island , and supported the conquest of the Dutch East Indies . In February 1942 , her aircraft bombed Darwin , Australia , and she continued on to assist in the Dutch East Indies campaign . In April , Sōryū 's aircraft helped sink two British heavy cruisers and several merchant ships during the Indian Ocean raid .
After a brief refit , Sōryū and three other carriers of the 1st Air Fleet ( Kidō Butai ) participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After bombarding American forces on Midway Atoll , the carriers were attacked by aircraft from the island and the carriers Enterprise , Hornet , and Yorktown . Dive bombers from Yorktown crippled Sōryū and set her afire . Japanese destroyers rescued the survivors but the ship could not be salvaged and was ordered to be scuttled so as to allow her attendant destroyers to be released for further operations . She sank with the loss of 711 officers and enlisted men of the 1 @,@ 103 aboard . The loss of Sōryū and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies ' ultimate victory in the Pacific .
= = Design = =
Sōryū was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the Imperial Japanese Navy 's 1931 – 32 Supplementary Program ( the other being her near @-@ sister Hiryū ) . In contrast to some earlier Japanese carriers , such as Akagi and Kaga , which were conversions of battlecruiser and battleship hulls respectively , Sōryū was designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and incorporated lessons learned from the light carrier Ryūjō .
The ship had a length of 227 @.@ 5 meters ( 746 ft 5 in ) overall , a beam of 21 @.@ 3 meters ( 69 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 6 meters ( 24 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 15 @,@ 900 long tons ) at standard load and 19 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 800 long tons ) at normal load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 100 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Machinery = = =
Sōryū was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 113 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by eight Kampon water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines and boilers were the same as those used in the Mogami @-@ class cruisers . The ship 's power and slim , cruiser @-@ type hull , with a length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 10 : 1 , gave her a speed of 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) and made her the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning . Sōryū carried 3 @,@ 710 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 650 long tons ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 7 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 350 km ; 8 @,@ 920 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked together to the ship 's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downwards .
= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =
The carrier 's 216 @.@ 9 @-@ meter ( 711 ft 7 in ) flight deck was 26 meters ( 85 ft 4 in ) wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends , supported by pairs of pillars . Sōryū 's island was built on a starboard @-@ side extension that protruded beyond the side of the hull so that it did not encroach on the width of the flight deck . Nine transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck and could stop a 6 @,@ 000 kg ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) aircraft . The flight deck was only 12 @.@ 8 meters ( 42 ft 0 in ) above the waterline and the ship 's designers kept this distance low by reducing the height of the hangars . The upper hangar was 171 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 metres ( 562 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft 1 in ) ; the lower was 142 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 metres ( 467 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 3 meters ( 14 ft 1 in ) . Together they had an approximate total area of 5 @,@ 736 square metres ( 61 @,@ 742 sq ft ) . This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar .
Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators , the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard . The forward platform measured 16 by 11 @.@ 5 meters ( 52 ft 6 in × 37 ft 9 in ) , the middle one 11 @.@ 5 by 12 meters ( 37 ft 9 in × 39 ft 4 in ) , and the rear 11 @.@ 8 by 10 meters ( 38 ft 9 in × 32 ft 10 in ) . They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) . Sōryū had an aviation gasoline capacity of 570 @,@ 000 liters ( 130 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 150 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) for her planned aircraft capacity of sixty @-@ three plus nine spares .
= = = Armament = = =
Sōryū 's primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , three on either side of the carrier 's hull . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) , and a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at an elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns , one for each side of the ship , although the starboard director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns .
The ship 's light AA armament consisted of fourteen twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 AA guns . Three of these were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and a ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by five Type 95 directors , two on each side and one in the bow .
= = = Armor = = =
To save weight , Sōryū was minimally armored ; her waterline belt of 41 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) of Ducol steel only protected the machinery spaces and the magazines . Comparable figures for Hiryu were 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) over the machinery spaces and the aviation gasoline storage tanks increasing to 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) over the magazines . Sōryū 's waterline belt was backed by an internal anti @-@ splinter bulkhead . The ship 's deck was only 25 mm thick over the machinery spaces and 55 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick over the magazines and aviation gasoline storage tanks .
= = Construction and service = =
Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for aircraft carriers , Sōryū was named " Blue ( or Green ) Dragon " . The ship was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 20 November 1934 , launched on 21 December 1935 and commissioned on 29 January 1937 . She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division after commissioning . Her air group was initially intended to consist of eighteen Mitsubishi A5M ( " Claude " ) monoplane fighters , twenty @-@ seven Aichi D1A2 ( " Susie " ) Type 96 dive bombers , and twelve Yokosuka B4Y ( " Jean " ) Type 96 torpedo bombers , but the A5Ms were in short supply and Nakajima A4N1 biplanes were issued instead . On 25 April 1938 , nine A4Ns , eighteen D1A2s , and nine B4Ys transferred to Nanking to support forces advancing up the Yangtze River . The air group advanced with the successful Japanese offensive , despite the commitment by the Chinese of 150 aircraft of the Soviet Volunteer Group ; it was transferred to Wuhu in early June and then to Anqing . Little is known of its operations there , but its primary role during this time was air defense . One fighter pilot of the group was killed after he shot down a Chinese aircraft . Leaving a few fighters and their pilots behind to serve as the nucleus of a new fighter unit , the air group returned to Sōryū on 10 July . The ship supported operations over Canton in September , but her aircraft saw no aerial combat . She returned home in December and spent most of the next year and a half training .
In September – October 1940 , the ship was based at Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina . In February 1941 , Sōryū moved to Taiwan to reinforce the blockade of southern China . Two months later , the 2nd Carrier Division was assigned to the First Air Fleet , or Kido Butai , on 10 April . Sōryū 's air group was detached in mid @-@ July and transferred to Hainan Island to support the occupation of southern Indochina . Sōryū returned to Japan on 7 August and became flagship of the 2nd Division . She was relieved of that role on 22 September as she began a short refit that was completed on 24 October . The ship arrived at Kagoshima two days later and she resumed her former role as flagship of the Division .
= = = Pearl Harbor and subsequent operations = = =
In November 1941 the IJN 's Combined Fleet , under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , prepared to participate in Japan 's initiation of war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the US Navy 's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . On 22 November , Sōryū , commanded by Captain Ryusaku Yanagimoto , and the rest of the Kido Butai under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo , including six fleet carriers from the First , Second , and Fifth Carrier Divisions , assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island . The fleet departed Etorofu on 26 November and followed a course across the north @-@ central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes . At this time Sōryū embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , and 18 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . From a position 230 nautical miles ( 430 km ; 260 mi ) north of Oahu , Sōryū and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 8 December 1941 ( Japan time ) .
In the first wave , eight of Sōryū 's B5Ns were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island , but none were in Pearl Harbor that day ; six B5Ns attacked the ships that were present , torpedoing the target ship Utah , causing her to capsize , and the elderly light cruiser Raleigh , damaging her . Two of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target , ships berthed alongside " 1010 Pier " , where the fleet flagship was usually moored . That battleship was in drydock and her position was occupied by the light cruiser Helena and the minelayer Oglala . One torpedo passed underneath Oglala and struck Helena in one of her engine rooms ; the other pilot rejected these targets and attacked the battleship California . Her other ten B5Ns were tasked to drop 800 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ( " Battleship Row " ) and may have scored one or two hits on them . Her eight A6M Zeros strafed parked aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa , claiming twenty @-@ seven aircraft destroyed in addition to five aircraft shot down .
Sōryū 's second wave consisted of nine A6M Zeros and seventeen D3As . The former attacked Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay , losing one Zero to American anti @-@ aircraft guns . On the return trip , the Zero pilots claimed to have shot down two American aircraft while losing two of their own . The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor , but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship . Two of them were shot down during the attack .
While returning to Japan , Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , commander of the First Air Fleet , ordered that Sōryū and Hiryū be detached on 16 December to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island . The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on 21 December and launched twenty @-@ nine D3As and two B5Ns , escorted by eighteen Zeros , to attack ground targets . They encountered no aerial opposition and launched thirty @-@ five B5Ns and six A6M Zeros the following day . They were intercepted by the two surviving Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF @-@ 211 . The Wildcats shot down two B5Ns before they were shot down themselves by the Zeros . The garrison surrendered the next day after Japanese troops were landed .
The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December . They were assigned to the Southern Force on 8 January 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies . The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon , attacking Allied positions on the island on 23 January with fifty @-@ four aircraft . Four days later the carriers detached eighteen Zeros and nine D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo . On 30 January they destroyed two aircraft on the ground and shot down a Qantas Short Empire flying boat flying to Surabaya to pick up refugees .
Sōryū and Hiryū arrived at Palau on 28 January and waited for the arrival of the carriers Kaga and Akagi . All four carriers departed Palau on 15 February and launched air strikes against Darwin , Australia , four days later . Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns , eighteen D3As , and nine Zeros to the attack while flying Combat Air Patrols ( CAP ) over the carriers . Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities , sinking or setting on fire eight ships and causing three others to be beached lest they sink . The Zeros destroyed a single Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat ; one D3A was lost . The Japanese aircraft spotted a ship on the return trip but had expended all their ordnance and had to be rearmed and refueled before they could attack the vessel . Several hours later , nine of Sōryū 's D3As located and bombed an American supply ship of 3 @,@ 200 gross register tons ( GRT ) , Don Isidro , hitting her five times but failing to sink her . Sōryū and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on 21 February to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java . On 1 March 1942 , the ship 's D3As damaged the destroyer USS Edsall badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers . Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker USS Pecos . The four carriers launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft against Tjilatjep on 5 March , sinking five small ships , damaging another nine badly enough that they had to be scuttled , and set the town on fire . Two days later they attacked Christmas Island before returning to Staring Bay on 11 March to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid . This raid was intended to secure newly conquered Burma , Malaya , and the Dutch East Indies against Allied attack by destroying base facilities and forces in the eastern Indian Ocean .
= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =
On 26 March 1942 , the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay ; they were spotted by a Catalina about 350 nautical miles ( 650 km ; 400 mi ) southeast of Ceylon on the morning of 4 April . Nagumo closed to within 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) of Colombo before launching an airstrike the next morning . Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns and nine Zeros to the force . The pilots of the latter aircraft claimed to have shot down a single Fairey Fulmar of 806 Naval Air Squadron , plus seven other fighters while losing one of their own . The D3As and B5Ns inflicted some damage to the port facilities , but a day 's warning had allowed most of the shipping in the harbor to be evacuated . Later that morning the British heavy cruisers Cornwall and Dorsetshire were spotted and Sōryū launched eighteen D3As . They were the first to attack and claimed to have made fourteen hits on the two ships , sinking both in combination with the dive bombers from the other carriers .
On 9 April , Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns , escorted by nine Zeros , to the attack on Trincomalee . Her B5Ns were the first to bomb the port and her fighters did not encounter any British fighters . Meanwhile , a floatplane from the battleship Haruna spotted the small aircraft carrier Hermes , escorted by the Australian destroyer Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Sōryū contributed eighteen dive bombers , but they arrived too late and instead found three other ships further north . They sank the oil tanker British Sergeant and the Norwegian cargo ship Norviken before they were attacked by eight Fulmars of 803 and 806 Naval Air Squadrons . The Royal Navy pilots claimed three D3As shot down for the loss of a pair of Fulmars ; the Japanese actually lost four D3As with another five damaged . While this was going on , Akagi narrowly escaped damage when nine British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) . Sōryū had six Zeros aloft , along with fourteen more from the other carriers , and they collectively accounted for five of the British bombers for the loss of one of Hiryū 's Zeros . After launching the D3As that sank Hermes and the other ships , the First Air Fleet reversed course and headed southeast for the Malacca Strait before recovering their aircraft ; they then proceeded to Japan .
On 19 April , while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan , Akagi , Sōryū , and Hiryū were sent in pursuit of the American carriers Hornet and Enterprise , which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo . They found only empty ocean , for the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii . The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April . Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months , Sōryū , along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions , was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet 's next major operation , scheduled to begin one month hence . While at Hashirajima , Sōryū 's air group was based ashore at nearby Kasanohara , near Kagoshima , and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units .
= = = Midway = = =
Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands , Lae @-@ Salamaua , and the Doolittle raids , Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat . He decided to invade and occupy Midway Island , an action that he was sure would draw out the American carriers . The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation MI .
On 25 May 1942 , Sōryū set out with the Combined Fleet 's carrier striking force in the company of Kaga , Akagi , and Hiryū , which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions , for the attack on Midway Island . Her aircraft complement consisted of eighteen Zeros , sixteen D3As , eighteen B5Ns , and two prototypes of the new Yokosuka D4Y dive bomber . Also aboard were three A6M Zeros of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as a portion of the aerial garrison for Midway .
With the fleet positioned 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) northwest of Midway at dawn ( 04 : 45 local time ) on 4 June 1942 , Sōryū 's part in the 108 @-@ plane combined air raid was a strike on the airfield on Eastern Island with eighteen torpedo bombers escorted by nine Zeros . The air group suffered heavily during the attack ; a single B5N was shot down en route to the island , another was shot down by AA fire , two were forced to ditch near destroyers on the trip back and four were damaged beyond repair . The Japanese did not know that the US Navy had discovered their MI plan by breaking their cipher , and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers , positioned northeast of Midway .
The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of eleven assigned to the initial combat air patrol ( CAP ) over the four carriers . By 07 : 00 the carrier had six fighters with the CAP that helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07 : 10 . At this time , Nagumo 's carriers were attacked by six US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers from Torpedo Squadron 8 ( VT @-@ 8 ) that had been temporarily detached from the Hornet to Midway , and four United States Army Air Corps ( USAAC ) Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders , all carrying torpedoes . The Avengers went after Hiryū while the Marauders attacked Akagi . The thirty CAP Zeros in the air at this time , including the six from Sōryū , immediately attacked the American airplanes , shooting down five of the Avengers and two of the B @-@ 26s . The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes , but all missed . Sōryū launched three more Zeros to reinforce the CAP , at 07 : 10 .
At 07 : 15 Admiral Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on Kaga and Akagi rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself . This process was limited by the number of ordnance carts ( used to handle the bombs and torpedoes ) and ordnance elevators , preventing torpedoes from being stowed belowdeck until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine , assembled , and mounted on the aircraft . The process normally took about an hour and a half ; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck , and to warm up and launch the strike group . Around 07 : 40 Nagumo reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted . Depleted of ammunition , the first six of Sōryū 's CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07 : 30 .
At 07 : 55 , the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of sixteen Douglas SBD Dauntless bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron ( VMSB @-@ 241 ) under Major Lofton R. Henderson . Sōryū 's three CAP fighters were among the nine still aloft that attacked Henderson 's planes , shooting down six of them as they executed a fruitless glide @-@ bombing attack on Hiryū . At roughly the same time , a dozen USAAC Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses attacked the Japanese carriers , bombing from 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) . The high altitude of the B @-@ 17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land and successfully maneuver their ships out of the impact area . Four B @-@ 17s attacked Sōryū , but they all missed .
The CAP defeated the next American air strike from Midway , shooting down three of the eleven Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB @-@ 241 , which attacked the battleship Haruna unsuccessfully , starting at around 08 : 30 . Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage , they kept the Japanese carrier forces off @-@ balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news , received at 08 : 20 , of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast . Around 08 : 30 Sōryū launched one of her D4Ys on a mission to confirm the location of the American carriers .
Sōryū began recovering her Midway strike force at around 08 : 40 and finished shortly by 09 : 10 . The landed aircraft were quickly struck below , while the carriers ' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces . The preparations were interrupted at 09 : 18 when the first American carrier aircraft to attack were sighted . These consisted of fifteen Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT @-@ 8 , led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from the Hornet . The three airborne CAP Zeros were landing aboard at 09 : 30 when the Americans unsuccessfully attempted a torpedo attack on Soryū , but three of the morning 's escort fighters were still airborne and joined the eighteen CAP fighters in destroying Waldron 's planes . All of the American planes were shot down , leaving George H. Gay , Jr . — the only surviving aviator — treading water .
Shortly afterwards , fourteen Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 ( VT @-@ 6 ) from the Enterprise , led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey , attacked . Lindsey 's aircraft tried to sandwich Kaga , but the CAP , reinforced by three more Zeros launched by Sōryū at 09 : 45 , shot down all but four of the Devastators , and Kaga dodged the torpedoes . Sōryū launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10 : 00 and another three at 10 : 15 after Torpedo Squadron 3 ( VT @-@ 3 ) from Yorktown was spotted . A Wildcat escorting VT @-@ 3 shot down one of her Zeros .
While VT @-@ 3 was still attacking Hiryū , American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives . It was at this time , around 10 : 20 , that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully , the " Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail " . At 10 : 25 , Sōryū was attacked by thirteen Dauntlesses from Bombing Squadron 2 ( VB @-@ 2 ) from the Yorktown . The carrier received three direct hits from 1000 lb ( 454 kg ) bombs : one penetrated to the lower hangar deck amidships , and the other two exploded in the upper hangar deck fore and aft . The hangars contained armed and fueled aircraft preparing for the upcoming strike , resulting in secondary explosions and rupturing the steam pipes in the boiler rooms . Within a very short time the fires on the ship were out of control . At 10 : 40 she stopped and her crew was ordered to abandon ship five minutes later . The destroyers Isokaze and Hamakaze rescued the survivors . Sōryū was still afloat and showed no signs of beginning to sink by early evening , so Isokaze was ordered to scuttle her with torpedoes so as to allow the destroyers to be used for possible operations that night . The destroyer reported at 19 : 15 that Sōryū had sunk at position 30 ° 38 ′ N 179 ° 13 ′ W. Losses were 711 crew of her complement of 1 @,@ 103 , including Captain Yanagimoto , who chose to remain on board . This was the highest mortality percentage of all the Japanese carriers lost at Midway , due largely to the devastation in both hangar decks .
The loss of Sōryū and the three other IJN carriers at Midway , comprising two @-@ thirds of Japan 's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet , was a crucial strategic defeat and contributed significantly to the ultimate Allied victory . In an effort to conceal the defeat , the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy 's registry of ships , awaiting a " suitable opportunity " before finally being struck from the registry on 10 August 1942 .
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= All Saints ' Church , Shuart =
All Saints ' Church , Shuart / ˈʃoʊɑːt / , in the north @-@ west of the Isle of Thanet , Kent , in the south @-@ east of England , was established in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period as a chapel of ease for the parish of St Mary 's Church , Reculver , which was centred on the north @-@ eastern corner of mainland Kent , adjacent to the island . The Isle of Thanet was then separated from the mainland by the sea , which formed a strait known as the Wantsum Channel . The last church on the site was demolished by the early 17th century , and there is nothing remaining above ground to show that a church once stood there .
The area of the Isle of Thanet where All Saints ' Church stood had been settled since the Bronze Age , and land in the west of the Isle of Thanet was given to Reculver in the 7th century . All Saints ' Church remained a chapel of ease for the parish of Reculver until the early 14th century , when the parish was broken up to form separate parishes for Herne and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade . The area served by All Saints ' was merged with that of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , which became the centre of a new parish with All Saints ' as its chapel . The churches of All Saints and St Nicholas continued to have a junior relationship with the parish of Reculver , making annual payments to the church there .
All Saints ' originally consisted of a nave and chancel , to which a sanctuary was added in the first building phase . The church was extended on three occasions between the 10th and 14th centuries – a period of population growth – to include an aisled nave , a western tower and a northern chapel ; its windows featured stained glass . The church was abandoned in the 15th century , presumably because the parish could no longer support two churches . It was demolished , and virtually all of its masonry removed , some of which may have been used in improvements to the church of St Nicholas . The settlement of Shuart remained as an area of local administration into the 17th century , but it is now regarded as a deserted medieval village . There were no visible remains of All Saints ' Church by 1723 , although land there remained as glebe belonging to the parish of St Nicholas . The site of All Saints ' Church was excavated by archaeologists between 1978 and 1979 . The main structure had been robbed of its materials leaving only the foundations , from which the archaeologists were able to interpret the history of the building 's construction and its form . Among the foundations were discovered numerous stone carvings , floor tiles , remnants of stained glass , and several disturbed graves .
= = Origin = =
The place @-@ name " Shuart " is from the Anglo @-@ Saxon language and means a skirted , or cut @-@ off , piece of land . The earliest evidence of human settlement at Shuart dates to the Bronze Age ; a rectangular Bronze Age enclosure lies a little to the north of the site of All Saints ' Church , and a collection of objects from that period , known as the " Shuart Hoard " , was found south @-@ west of the site in the 1980s . Occupation continued through the Iron Age and Roman period . Structures , pottery and glass dating to these times have been found nearby , as well as human burials and cremations .
The site 's history in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period begins with the division of the Isle of Thanet into eastern and western parts during the 7th century . The division is attributed in medieval sources to the route taken by a tame female deer that was set free to run across the island by Æbbe , founder and first abbess of the double monastery at Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet , thereby marking out its endowment . The route was circuitous , beginning on the north side of the island at Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea and ending on the south side at Sheriff 's Court , halfway between Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet and Monkton , which are about 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 3 km ) apart . While land to the east of this route was given to Æbbe for her monastery , which was in existence by 678 , land to the west , described broadly as Westanea , or " the western part of the island " , was given to the monastery at Reculver by King Hlothhere of Kent in 679 . This division of the island is apparent in Domesday Book , which was compiled in 1086 , and remained an important feature in the early 15th century , when it was included prominently in a map of the island drawn up by Thomas Elmham . According to Edward Hasted the division was still marked in 1800 by " a bank , or lynch , which goes quite across the island , and is commonly called St. Mildred 's lynch . "
The monastery at Reculver had been established in 669 , and developed as the centre of a " large estate , a manor and a parish " . By the early 9th century it had become " extremely wealthy " , but it then came under the control of the archbishops of Canterbury . By the 10th century the church and its estate appear to have fallen into royal hands , since King Eadred of England gave them in 949 to Christ Church , Canterbury , now known as Canterbury Cathedral . The Anglo @-@ Saxon charter recording the gift shows that the Reculver estate still included land in the west of the Isle of Thanet at that time . Two slightly earlier charters give a more complicated picture : in 943 , King Edmund I of England gave land at St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade to a layman , and in the next year he gave the same layman land at Monkton , by means of a charter recording that land to the west and north of Monkton – evidently at Sarre – was nonetheless still regarded as belonging to Reculver , rather than to either the archbishop or the king . However , while King Edmund I 's mother Eadgifu gave lands in Kent , including Monkton , to Christ Church in 961 , all of the documents recording these transactions entered the Christ Church archive ; and , if the land that Christ Church acquired on the Isle of Thanet in the 10th century was the same as the " Liberty " shown on Thomas Elmham 's map from the early 15th century , then the site of All Saints ' Church , Shuart , must have been included . Neither Shuart nor St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade are mentioned by name in Domesday Book ; but they may have been included in the entry for Reculver , which was then recorded as a hundred in its own right , and was held entirely by the archbishop of Canterbury , but for a portion held from him by a tenant . An analysis of the archbishop 's holdings in Domesday Book concludes that All Saints ' was among them .
= = Church and community = =
A church dedicated to All Saints was established at Shuart some time between 679 and the 10th century . Although the status of the church at Reculver as mother church for the area dates from the 7th century , and may have led to the establishment of a church at Shuart then , this chapel might equally have been a development in response to acquisition of land in the area by Christ Church , Canterbury , in the mid @-@ 900s . Examination of the building 's archaeological remains has failed to provide a more precise date , but a church stood at Shuart for about 100 years or more before the establishment of a nearby church at St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , since the earliest church there was " almost certainly built in the late 11th century " .
= = = First church = = =
The original church of All Saints was a rectangular building aligned on an east @-@ west axis , measuring 52 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 m ) by 15 @.@ 75 feet ( 5 m ) . It consisted of a western nave and an eastern chancel , with a sanctuary added to the eastern end of the chancel in the first phase of building . The chancel was about 16 @.@ 4 feet ( 5 m ) long , and the nave was small , taking up only about 9 @.@ 2 feet ( 3 m ) of the building 's overall length . They were connected by a recessed passageway about 9 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 m ) long but only about 8 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 m ) across at its narrowest , the foundations for which suggest a heavy structure , perhaps including a vaulted ceiling . The size of the community this church was originally built to serve is unknown , although Domesday Book records the presence of 90 villeins and 25 bordars in the manor of Reculver in 1086 , which included land on the Isle of Thanet , but consisted mainly of land in mainland Kent . Those numbers can be multiplied four or five times to account for dependents , since they only represent adult male heads of households ; Domesday Book does not say where in the manor they lived .
= = = Expansion = = =
A second phase of building was undertaken between the 10th and 11th centuries , in which the church was enlarged . The west wall was demolished , allowing the nave to be extended to the west by 16 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 m ) , and the passageway between it and the chancel was opened out and replaced with a lighter chancel arch . A third phase followed in the 12th century , when the nave was rebuilt as a much larger structure with north and south aisles , each lined by four columns , and measuring about 30 feet ( 9 m ) wide by 42 feet ( 13 m ) long . A tower about 16 @.@ 2 feet ( 5 m ) square was added to the western end of the church either at this time or in a fourth phase of building carried out in the 13th century . This fourth phase involved the installation of new windows featuring stained glass , especially at the eastern end of the nave , comparable to the grisaille glass still in the south transept of York Minster that dates from about 1240 . A chapel was also added to the north side of the church , measuring about 12 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 m ) wide by 29 @.@ 4 feet ( 9 m ) long , with an altar at its eastern end , and paved with tiles about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) square . Flemish floor tiles were also installed in the church , probably in the 15th century .
The expansion of the church coincided with a period of growth in the population of Reculver parish as a whole , which approximately doubled from that of 1086 to more than 1 @,@ 000 people by the late 13th century . The first record explicitly to mention All Saints ' dates from 1284 , when the community it served complained to the archbishop of Canterbury that the vicar of Reculver had failed to provide a chaplain to celebrate daily mass . In 1296 the archbishop settled a dispute concerning a duty to pay for repairs to the church , specifying that this was owed by owners of property on and around part of " North Street " . In 1310 Archbishop Robert Winchelsey of Canterbury established St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade as a parish , with All Saints ' Church as its chapel , served by a vicar and an assistant priest . According to the document by which that was done , the parish of Reculver had served more than 1 @,@ 000 parishioners in the time of Winchelsey 's predecessor , and this population was " continually increasing " , to the extent that a single vicar for the whole parish was inadequate . While Thanet was then still an island separated from the rest of Kent by the Wantsum Channel , the new arrangement was also prompted by the inconvenience posed by the distance between these chapels on the Isle of Thanet and their mother church at Reculver . However , the document specified that the vicar of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' had to pay £ 3.3s.4d ( £ 3 @.@ 17 ) annually to the vicar of Reculver " as a sign of subjection " . The vicar also had to go to Reculver " in procession " with his assistant priest and his parishioners every year on Whit Monday – the eighth day after Easter – as well as being present at Reculver for the Nativity of the Virgin Mary , the patron saint of Reculver , on 8 September . The visits to Reculver continued in the mid @-@ 16th century , when they were recorded by John Leland , and the parish of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade was still making annual payments to Reculver in the 19th century . Archbishop Winchelsey 's instructions also set out relative values for the parishes of Reculver and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' , in allocating dues for taxes known as " clerical tenths " . Reculver was liable for 12s.1d ( 60.5p ) , compared to St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' 11s.4d ( 57p ) . The first vicar of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' was named by Archbishop Winchelsey as Andrew de Grantesete .
= = = Decline = = =
Thomas Elmham 's map of the Isle of Thanet , drawn in the early 15th century , shows the church with its tower , but a map of 1596 , which shows churches " as they actually appeared " , shows a church without a tower . Examination of the church 's foundations indicates that it was probably a ruin by the middle of the 15th century and was demolished , but was replaced by a smaller structure , without a tower , up to 20 years later . It may be that material from All Saints ' Church was used in the construction of a new clerestory for the nave of St Nicholas ' church in the late 15th century , and the medieval baptismal font now in Reculver 's parish church of St Mary the Virgin at Hillborough probably came from All Saints ' . By 1630 there was no church : in that year , the vicar and churchwardens of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade reported the existence of glebe of 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 ha ) called " Allhallows close , in part of which antiently stood the chapel of All Saints , or Alhallows " ; and , in 1723 , antiquarian John Lewis wrote that the church was " now so entirely demolished , with all the fences around it , that there are no marks of either of them . "
The decline of All Saints ' Church and the community of Shuart may have begun with the Black Death of 1348 – 9 . Further , this decline coincides with the closing of the adjacent Wantsum Channel . This channel had been a preferred route for sea @-@ borne trade between England and continental Europe in medieval times , probably providing " a large part of the early prosperity of Kent " , besides supporting a local industry collecting salt , but it was progressively blocked by silt . While tax records of the 15th century show that the inhabitants of Shuart had then included men of the Cinque Port of Dover , shipping through the Wantsum Channel had ceased by about the end of the 15th century , and the northern section adjacent to Shuart was merely a creek by the middle of the 16th century . The abandonment of the church presumably arose through the cost of keeping two churches – All Saints and St Nicholas – in what had become a " remote , rural parish " . Shuart continued to be represented in tax records in the 17th century : in 1624 it was assessed as a " vill " at the rate of £ 4.6s.4d ( £ 4 @.@ 32 ) for the archaic taxes known as " fifteenths and tenths " – this rate had been fixed in 1334 , and may be compared with the rate for St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade of £ 10.7s ( £ 10 @.@ 35 ) – and Shuart appears as a borgh , or tithing , in records of the Hearth Tax for 1673 . However , the parish as a whole was in decline . In 1563 the parish of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade was the second smallest on the Isle of Thanet by number of households , having only 33 , and by 1800 there were " not ... near so many " . By 1723 the settlement of Shuart was a matter of historical record only ; John Lewis wrote then that " [ it ] seems as if anciently a Vill or Town belonged to [ the chapel of All Saints ] " , and the only building recorded by Lewis was a " good farm house " . The farmhouse was built in the late 17th century and still stands , but otherwise today Shuart is considered a deserted medieval village .
= = Excavation = =
The site of All Saints ' Church , Shuart , was recorded on Ordnance Survey maps in the 19th century , and was confirmed in the mid @-@ 20th century through aerial photography by Kenneth St Joseph . On the north side of a road between Shuart Farm and Nether Hale Farm , the site is on farmland now owned by St John 's College , Cambridge , and was excavated with the college 's permission by the Thanet Archaeological Unit between 1978 and 1979 .
The only surviving part of the main structure was its foundations of rammed chalk , which nonetheless allowed a construction history to be developed , but various elements of the structure were also found . These included mortar flooring , glazed floor tiles , green sandstone , Caen stone , Quarr stone from the Isle of Wight and stained glass . Among stone fragments were numerous carvings , including " two small delicately carved pieces of foliage which are certainly twelfth @-@ century work " . Fragments of mortar showing the imprint of barnacles were found among the rubble in the foundation trenches , indicating that some of the stone used in the structure had been fetched from the shoreline . A number of graves were also discovered , one of which had been covered by an unmarked stone , but they had been robbed and filled with rubble containing fragments of human bone . Two of the graves had been dug between the demolition of the church and the construction of a smaller , short @-@ lived replacement in the 15th century . While virtually all of the building 's structure had been robbed , presumably for use elsewhere , much of what remained had been destroyed by ploughing .
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= Typhoon Chataan =
Typhoon Chataan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Gloria , was the deadliest natural disaster in the history of Chuuk , a state in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . The typhoon formed on June 28 , 2002 , near the FSM , and for several days it meandered while producing heavy rainfall across the region . On Chuuk , the highest 24 @-@ hour precipitation total was 506 mm ( 19 @.@ 9 in ) , which was greater than the average monthly total . The rain produced floods up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) deep , causing landslides across the island that killed 47 people . There was also one death on nearby Pohnpei , and damage in the FSM totaled over $ 100 million .
After affecting the FSM , Chataan began a northwest track as an intensifying typhoon . Its eye passed just north of Guam on July 4 , though the eyewall moved across the island and dropped heavy rainfall . Totals were highest in southern Guam , peaking at 536 mm ( 21 @.@ 1 in ) . Flooding and landslides from the storm severely damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 994 houses . Damage on the island totaled $ 60 @.@ 5 million , and there were 23 injuries . The typhoon also affected Rota in the Northern Marianas Islands with gusty winds and light rainfall . Typhoon Chataan attained its peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on July 8 . It weakened while turning to the north , and after diminishing to a tropical storm Chataan struck eastern Japan on July 10 . High rainfall , peaking at 509 mm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) , flooded 10 @,@ 270 houses . Damage in Japan totaled about $ 500 million .
The name Chataan means " rainy day " in the Chamorro language , which is spoken on Guam . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) named the storm Gloria while the typhoon was in the vicinity of the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 27 , 2002 , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance southwest of Pohnpei . The system rapidly organized that day , and at 2000 UTC the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert . Early on June 28 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression near the Mortlock Islands in the Federated States of Micronesia ; around the same time , the JTWC also initiated storm advisories . Early on June 29 , the JTWC upgraded the system to Tropical Storm 08W , and shortly thereafter the JMA named the system Tropical Storm Chataan . After moving northwestward , the storm turned to the east , resuming a northwest track on June 30 due to a subtropical ridge to the north . The track was erratic because the storm had not yet separated from the monsoon trough . By June 30 , Chataan had steadily strengthened to severe tropical storm status , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) .
Only July 1 , the system 's circulation became broad , with most of the convection located west of the center . The next day , Chataan briefly weakened to an intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , although it began strengthening steadily on July 3 , when its center passed very near Weno in Chuck State in the FSM . At 1800 UTC that night , the JTWC upgraded Chataan to a typhoon , and about 24 hours later the JMA followed suit while the storm was approaching Guam from the southeast . At about 2130 UTC on July 4 , the eye of Chataan moved across northern Guam in about two hours , although the center of the eye passed north of the island .
After affecting Guam , Chataan continued toward the northwest and gradually intensified . At 0000 UTC on July 8 , the typhoon reached its peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) while located near the Japanese island of Okinotorishima . The JTWC assessed that Chataan had reached its peak intensity of 240 km / h ( 150 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) about six hours earlier ; on that basis , the agency classified the system as a super typhoon . On July 8 , Chataan turned toward the north around the subtropical ridge while maintaining its peak winds for about 18 hours . On July 9 the typhoon turned to the northeast , and late that day it weakened to a severe tropical storm . At around 1530 UTC on July 10 , Chataan made landfall on the Bōsō Peninsula in Honshu with winds of about 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . The storm briefly moved offshore before making a second landfall on eastern Hokkaido at 1200 UTC on July 11 ; this marked the first occasion of a July landfall on the island in 28 years . A few hours later , Chataan became an extratropical cyclone in the Sea of Okhotsk , where the remnants stalled before dissipating on July 13 near Sakhalin .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Federated States of Micronesia = = =
While Chataan was in its formative stages and still tied to the monsoon trough , it produced a large area of heavy rainfall and strong winds that affected Pohnpei and Chuuk in the FSM . The storm passed very near Chuuk with wind gusts of 82 km / h ( 51 mph ) . In the day before Chataan affected the island , it dropped torrential rainfall due to its elongated structure and slow movement . Persistent winds from the larger monsoon trough generated high surf and tides of 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft ) above normal across the region . The most significant effects were from the rainfall , peaking at 954 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) at the Chuuk Weather Service Office over 13 days . The highest 24 @-@ hour total was 506 mm ( 19 @.@ 9 in ) on Weno Island , of which 361 mm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) fell in 12 hours ; this was greater than the average monthly rainfall total for the station .
High winds downed power lines on Chuuk , while surf destroyed seawalls and buildings along the coast . The rains causes severe flooding across the island that reached 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in some locations , triggering at least 30 mudslides that killed 47 people . This represented the deadliest natural disaster in the island 's recorded history . The landslides reached a depth of 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) , which destroyed several homes made of tin and concrete . Many people were buried by the landslides or washed into the ocean . Saltwater flooding contaminated the groundwater and destroyed much of the island 's crops . Chataan damaged roads and bridges , and high winds downed power lines , which cut communications between islands . Across Chuuk , the storm destroyed about 1 @,@ 000 homes and left about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 100 people were injured .
In nearby Pohnpei state , Chataan produced 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) winds in Nukuoro . The winds destroyed a house and a weather station . Rainfall on the atoll reached 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) . High winds , surf , and rain also affected Sapwuafik . Rough seas killed a person on Pohnpei . Crop damage in the country totaled $ 3 million , and overall property damage was estimated at $ 100 million , mostly on Chuuk .
= = = Guam = = =
Before Chataan affected Guam , officials canceled U.S. Independence Day festivities , and residents purchased storm supplies . Although the center of the eye did not strike Guam , the eyewall affected the entire island with strong winds and heavy rainfall . The highest sustained winds were estimated at 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , with gusts to 167 km / h ( 104 mph ) at Andersen Air Force Base . Gusts were slightly higher at Apra Harbor , peaking at 170 km / h ( 106 mph ) , and gusts may have reached as high as 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) . Similar to its effects on Chuuk , Chataan dropped heavy rainfall on Guam , peaking at 536 mm ( 21 @.@ 1 in ) on Mount Almagosa ; the same station reported 311 mm ( 12 @.@ 2 in ) in about three hours . The Weather Forecast Office on the island reported 265 mm ( 10 @.@ 4 in ) in a 24 hour period . The rains were less than 250 mm ( 10 in ) in northern Guam , and were highest in the mountainous southern region where the eye crossed . While moving across the island , Chataan produced a significant storm surge that peaked at about 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) in Umatac .
High winds caused damage across Guam , mostly to roofs and to poorly built or wooden structures . A total of 1 @,@ 996 houses were severely damaged or destroyed . Better constructed homes fared well during the storm , and there was little window damage . The winds also downed power lines , leaving an island @-@ wide power outage . John F. Kennedy High School sustained damage to its football field and library . The most significant effects were from the heavy rainfall , resulting in landslides in some areas and causing rivers to flow at above @-@ normal rates ; 14 stations reported either record flow rates or peak crests , including an island @-@ wide peak crest of 8 @.@ 55 m ( 28 @.@ 06 ft ) at the mouth of the Tolaeyuus River . Two water gauges were destroyed during the storm . Swollen rivers damaged roads , washed away trees , and caused erosion . The storm flooding contaminated Fena Lake , which provides water to the military base , for a few days . In addition , 34 of the island 's 110 water wells failed due to the storm . Flooding also destroyed a building and damaged the runway at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport , and damaged a bridge near Inarajan . A few palm trees fell due to the soil being loosened , either from heavy rains or high waves . Some of the downed trees struck cars , but the winds were not strong enough to overturn any vehicles . In the higher elevations of Guam , some areas experienced heavy crop damage due to strong winds ; however , crop damage in general was less than expected , estimated at around $ 500 @,@ 000 . In Apra Harbor , high seas washed ashore or sank five boats , and a Navy barge spilled 397 @,@ 000 litres ( 105 @,@ 000 gallons ) of oil . Overall , Chataan caused about $ 60 million in property damage on Guam , and there were 23 injuries , none of them serious .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
North of Guam , Chataan affected Rota with 74 km / h ( 46 mph ) sustained winds and gusts to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) at the island 's airport . Rainfall was much less than elsewhere in the typhoon 's path , and a 24 hour total of 38 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 52 in ) was reported at Rota 's airport . The storm inflicted heavy damage to crops and fisheries , and 60 % of farmers reported a total loss . Chataan also damaged roads on the island , many due to fallen trees . Nine huts were destroyed , and damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 million .
Energy from the typhoon enhanced monsoonal moisture over the Philippines , in conjunction with Tropical Storm Nakri . The two storms contributed to heavy rainfall that triggered floods and landslides , which closed roads and highways . High waves killed three people after a boat overturned . The storm destroyed 566 houses and damaged another 2 @,@ 363 . A total of 31 @,@ 813 people evacuated to 184 government @-@ opened shelters . Officials canceled classes during the system ; several schools were used as temporary shelters . Damage totaled over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( ₱ 64 million pesos ) , and the floods killed 58 people .
The last location Chataan affected was Japan . The typhoon forced the cancellation of 316 flights and 150 train trips . The expressway between Shizuoka and Tokyo was closed . At least 396 schools were closed in the country , and a baseball game between the Yokohama DeNA BayStars and the Yakult Swallows was canceled due to the inclement weather . Toyota temporarily closed most of its factories in the country . Heavy rainfall , peaking at 509 mm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) in Gifu Prefecture , fell across Japan . The rains flooded 10 @,@ 270 houses in the country , resulting in evacuation orders for about 145 @,@ 000 people . The floods damaged roads in 338 locations , and at least 10 bridges were destroyed . About 15 @,@ 000 evacuees were in Ogaki after a river exceeded its banks . High rainfall caused hundreds of landslides , two of which resulted in a death . Floods killed at least three people . Winds from the typhoon peaked at 97 km / h ( 60 mph ) at Hachijō @-@ jima . High winds in Sakai , Osaka damaged 20 houses . In Tokyo , the storm produced light winds and rains , despite passing within 102 km ( 63 mi ) . Chataan destroyed 21 homes and damaged 239 others to some degree . During its passage , the typhoon destroyed 258 @.@ 6 km2 ( 99 @.@ 8 sq mi ) of crops . The typhoon killed six people , left one person missing , and injured 30 others . Overall damage in Japan totaled about $ 500 million ( ¥ 59 billion 2002 JPY ) . During the storm , Yahoo ! Japan received a record 359 million views , mostly due to people checking the website 's weather section .
= = Aftermath = =
After Chataan affected Chuuk state , the island 's residents were in need of food , clothes and medicine . Only a few crops were not destroyed by the storm ; much of the breadfruit was stripped from the trees , and fruit not destroyed by the storm were damaged by parasites . In the days after the storm , the local Red Cross deployed about 100 volunteers to search for victims buried by landslides . However , rescue operations were hampered by persistent flooding after the storm . Initially the death toll was unknown , and it was feared that hundreds of people had been killed . Six people who were seriously injured on Chuuk were flown to The Queen 's Medical Center in Hawaii for treatment ; they were initially scheduled to fly to Guam Memorial Hospital , but the facility was full . About 2 @,@ 000 residents affected by the storm evacuated to government @-@ run shelters . The Red Cross shipped various relief supplies , including raincoats and water , to the affected areas . By July 4 , power systems were restored and the airport reopened . Although there was enough food in the immediate aftermath , the destruction of crops and cattle posed a long @-@ term food shortage .
On July 3 while Chataan was passing the region , the governor of Chuuk declared a state of emergency , requesting international assistance . On July 9 , the government of Japan sent $ 87 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 10 million ) worth of supplies to Micronesia , including 1 @,@ 000 blankets and 10 electric generators . Two days later , United States President George W. Bush declared the island as a disaster area . This was six days after FSM President Leo Falcam sent the disaster declaration to the US president , although Falcam had improperly filed the paperwork . Because the FSM is in a Compact of Free Association and not a U.S. state , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) could not provide immediate assistance . During the delay , a group of doctors from Guam flew to Chuuk to provide medical assistance . On July 11 , the government of Israel sent $ 5 @,@ 000 worth of medicine to the FSM . The next day , the Caritas charity in Australia sent $ 20 @,@ 000 worth of water and food . Residents from elsewhere in the FSM sent clothes and food . The Australian government sent $ 10 @,@ 000 to replenish emergency supplies , and the International Red Cross released about $ 20 @,@ 000 for immediate relief . The government of China sent $ 30 @,@ 000 worth of aid . On July 30 , FEMA announced that residents and business owners in Chuuk could apply for individual assistance , including money for housing , repairing damage , and low @-@ interest loans . The declaration would not apply to outer islands in Chuuk , which did not sustain significant damage ; this is because FEMA only had funds to restore areas to how they were before the storm . Ultimately , FEMA provided 93 @,@ 000 l ( 25 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water , 1 @,@ 300 blankets , 45 @,@ 360 km ( 100 @,@ 000 lbs ) of rice , 11 @,@ 328 meals ready to eat , and various other supplies . In total , the agency allocated $ 10 @.@ 6 million , mostly in the form of individual assistance that provided money for purchasing lost supplies . FEMA ultimately sent just under $ 5 million to Chuuk after Chataan , as well as subsequent typhoons Pongsona and Lupit ; however , about $ 445 @,@ 000 of the funding was believed to have been misspent due to discrepancies discovered in an audit in 2006 .
In the days after the storm , thousands of people on Guam evacuated to the 15 government shelters set up in schools across the island ; the total reached 3 @,@ 947 people on July 10 . The governor of Guam declared a state of emergency after the storm , and on July 6 President Bush declared the island a major disaster area ; this allocated federal funding to assist in removing debris and other emergency services . A week later , the declaration was extended to include individual assistance for anyone who experienced damage from the storm . The Fena Lake reservoir experienced excess silt deposit after excessive rainfall from Chataan , which prevented water distribution from the facility ; on July 19 – fifteen days after the typhoon 's landfall – water production resumed . Before the facility reopened , the Guam Waterworks Authority distributed water to the island at differing times of the day to ration the limited supply . However , by a month after the storm , residents were still required to boil water as a precaution . About five days after Chataan struck Guam , Typhoon Halong affected the island and caused further power outages . Some areas on the island remained without power for over a week , due to electric workers restoring the main transmission lines before fixing individual lines . By July 19 , 23 % of those who lost power still were without electricity , mostly in outlying areas . By that date , trash collection was restored , and government @-@ opened shelters were closed . Later in July , flooding washed debris from Chataan and clogged two rivers . The oil spill in Apra Harbor was cleaned at three of seven affected locations by August 19 . In the months after the storm , tourism decreased further after a decline that began after the September 11 attacks . Ultimately , FEMA provided $ 73 million in assistance to the territory , including $ 10 million in housing checks to 5 @,@ 947 people and $ 6 @.@ 5 million worth of food stamps for 79 @,@ 814 people . The agency provided $ 10 million for debris removal and rebuilding public buildings . In December 2002 , Typhoon Pongsona struck Guam and caused additional flooding and damage . On August 7 , President George W. Bush also declared Rota to be a disaster area , which provided funding for debris removal .
= = = Retirement = = =
Because of the storm 's death toll and damage , the name Chataan became retired and was replaced with Matmo in 2004 . Countries in the World Meteorological Organization can request tropical cyclone names to be retired if a storm caused unusually heavy damage . With PAGASA , they retired the name Gloria and was replaced with Glenda in 2005 ; the agency sought to be apolitical after Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo won a disputed presidential election in 2004 .
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= Time ( xkcd ) =
" Time " is the 1,190th strip of Randall Munroe 's webcomic xkcd . Beginning with a single frame published at midnight on March 25 , 2013 , the image was updated every 30 minutes until March 30 , 2013 , where it was updated periodically every hour for 118 days ( 123 days in total ) , ending on July 26 with a total of 3 @,@ 099 unique images . Each image represented a single frame in a larger story , essentially making the comic a video with an extremely low frame rate .
Referred to by Glen Tickle of Geekosystem as Munroe 's " magnum opus " , " Time " attracted significant attention and was well received online , and several projects , wikis and web communities were built about it . In 2014 , it won the Hugo Award in the Best Graphic Story category .
= = Plot = =
" Time " begins with two stick figures , a woman and a man , building a sand castle complex on a beach . The woman notes that the sea ( visible on the right side of the frame ) is rising . After construction is completed , and after temporarily stopping the sea from eroding the castle away , the two decide to go on a journey to discover the cause behind the rising sea level . As they leave , the frames slowly fade to white , with the beginning of the destruction of the construction shown .
The two journey out , finding a river that they were unaware of ; the couple follow the river and make observations as they go . While resting under a tree , the man finds the remains of a campsite , discovering that the area they were in has been inhabited . Later , they find another campsite and massive , oddly shaped trees with markings on one . They find a decrepit boat they could use to cross the river , but continue up into the mountains . While climbing a small hill , the man sees a snake and tumbles down on the woman . Further on , they hear chirping in a tree , and pause briefly to observe a bird and its chick in a nest . While resting at a miniature river , the woman discovers that they are on the cliff of a large waterfall . After contemplating it , they decide to discover what the mountains are like .
They climb up and eventually reach a small abandoned house . While there , the man is attacked by a big cat , which the woman strikes away with a piece of wood . The man is unscathed , but the woman sustains a wound to her leg which they wrap with a flag brought from when they were creating the sand castle . Deciding that traveling in search of people towards the top of the mountain , where they see a structure , would be a better medical option than heading back home , they continue towards the mountaintops . As night falls , they rest in the wild . The man takes the first guard shift , and the stars in the night sky time lapse behind him . He wakes the woman to take his turn to sleep . When he eventually wakes up , the two characters press on with the intention of turning back if they do not find people .
They find a small structure , and from its top the woman spots people . As they leave the structure , they think upon their sand castle , wondering its fate . The screen flashes to a scene of a lone bucket floating on a body of water , then flashes back . After a bit more traveling , the characters make contact with three androgynous people wearing headgear . The woman attempts to communicate , but the native language of the people is incomprehensible . She shows them her wound , and they treat it with a paste . The group then beckon the man and woman to follow them into town . After receiving water , the man and woman sleep . The following morning , the man communicates with one of the locals by drawing pictures in the dirt . The local informs that the sea level is , in fact , rising , and that the two characters should follow and see someone to talk to . They rest while on the way , where the man and woman look over a map from one of the locals . They continue to a city , and a castle behind it . They are led to the natives ' leader , who , speaking the language of the protagonists poorly , explains the reason for the sea rising . She reveals that her people had erected a berm to keep what she calls " the planet 's mightiest river " at bay , which is presently days away from breaking through and flooding the man and woman 's home . She explains that the journey back to reach their home to warn the others living there would take too long and that they have no choice but to remain with the mountain people . Ignoring her , the man and woman flee and run back home , taking some of the mountain people 's provisions on the way out and guiding themselves with maps that the woman had stolen .
Upon returning home , the two characters attempt to coordinate an escape with their fellow people . A girl appears in a boat she constructed from wood used in the sand castle from the beginning of the story ; this causes the tribe to abandon their original plans and instead attempt to float up the river . After expanding the boat , the group loads onto it and sets sail . Soon they join the remaining members of their tribe , who had been in their own smaller boat . After a night of drifting , while the others are still asleep , the man and woman spot land . When they reach it , the story ends with the man and woman , last to depart , going into the new wilderness to explore it , with the boat seen bobbing in the water . The final five frames of the comic , in which the boat is bobbing on the water , are currently rotating in an undetermined pattern for the comic on the xkcd website .
= = Conception and development = =
Munroe described his reasons for creating " Time " in an interview with Rolling Stone , where he stated that he came up with the idea as he was pondering the space between animation and a daily comic , wanting to do something " in between " . In an interview with Computer Sweden , Munroe stated that he had never seen anyone attempt such a project before and that he " wanted to see if it would work . " Munroe noted that , in some cases , " things become more interesting if they are difficult to access , " such as in books that deliberately make the story more complicated . He hoped that , as people slowly got into it , the world and language would excite readers on a deeper level . According to Munroe , nothing like " Time " had been done before because it is difficult to reach people once every hour without a tool such as the Internet .
Following the ending of his story , comic creator Randall Munroe explained many of the story 's details and furthered its context in an article on Wired . He noted that " Time " is set 11 @,@ 000 years in the future , in a future civilization with humanity 's present civilization long extinct . It takes place in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea , which has largely evaporated following tectonic activity shutting it off from the Atlantic Ocean . This is modeled after a similar occurrence of this incident approximately 5 million years ago — the Messinian salinity crisis . The eventual flooding crisis at the end of the story is a supposed recurrence of the Zanclean flood . Munroe reportedly researched the plants and wildlife of the region and added them into the comic , offering hints as to the story 's location . According to Munroe , " I got suggestions from botanists and herpetologists , and I had a file with details on every species the characters encountered or talked about , like dwarf palms , juniper trees , horned vipers , and sand boas " .
In the scene where the male and female sleep in shifts , a time lapse of stars in the night sky occupies the background . This was done with the help of astronomy software to render the night sky of the characters ' location , in their specific time , accounting for projected precession of the equinoxes and stellar motion over the next 11 @,@ 000 years . The starfield lacks the star Antares , as Munroe consulted with astronomer Phil Plait , who told him that the star may go supernova before the date in which " Time " is set .
= = = Language = = =
The language ( and the script it is written in ) that Munroe gave the characters native to the mountains was created with the help of a linguist , and has as of yet not been deciphered , although the meaning of some of the words and symbols has been deduced . Munroe has not given the language a name , but fans dubbed it " Beanish " , a name that was later picked up by the media . Munroe has opened the possibility of using the language in a future comic .
= = Publishing = =
The frames of " Time " were originally updated every 30 minutes ; however , after frame 240 , the updates became hourly . After frame 2440 , five frames appeared in very quick succession , showing a meteor shooting through the sky , but the updates then returned to hourly . The technical details about the comic 's publishing were described on an independent website as follows :
Inside the page is a script and it uses simple Ajax to download a new image every so often . The script is minified and so not easy to follow , but there are a number of programmers taking the time to figure it out . The request redirects server side to a new image and it is difficult or impossible to get at the future images ( they might not have been created yet ) but if you know the links you can get the previous images . This has resulted in a number of sites putting the frames together to produce either an animated gif or a pseudo video that downloads each frame in turn .
= = Reception = =
" Time " was received well online , with Cory Doctorow of Boing Boing saying it was " coming along nicely " during publishing with an " astounding backstory " upon its conclusion . Wired 's Laura Hudson called the journey " epic " , and Glen Tickle of Geekosystem referred to the comic as Munroe 's " magnum opus " . Tasha Robinson from The A.V. Club said of the comic , " This is slow @-@ paced entertainment for a fast @-@ paced world , but it 's also the kind of nifty experiment that keeps people coming back to XKCD , which at its best isn 't a strip comic so much as an idea factory and a shared experience . " " Time " also got mentions from The Verge writer Jeff Blagdon and Washington Post blogger Andrea Peterson . On April 19 , 2014 , the comic was announced as a nominee for a Hugo Award in the Best Graphic Story category , and won the award in August 2014 . Doctorow accepted the award on behalf of Munroe , dressing as Munroe had drawn him in an earlier strip , " 1337 : Part 5 " .
The comic garnered " obsessive " attention from viewers on xkcd 's forum , with a discussion thread that exceeds 2 @,@ 000 pages and 90 @,@ 000 posts . Fans created a wiki specific to " Time " , and a glossary of invented terms to describe the comic .
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= Railway stations in Cromer =
The fishing port and holiday resort of Cromer in the English county of Norfolk has had a rail service since 1877 . It was served by three railway stations for many years , and is now served by two . Cromer Beach station , which opened in 1887 , was renamed Cromer following the closure of the other early stations .
Cromer High , on the outskirts of the town , was opened in 1877 as the terminus of the Great Eastern Railway main line from London . It was followed in 1887 by Cromer Beach station , on the rural Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway ( M & GNJR ) . Cromer Links Halt railway station , on the little @-@ used and now closed Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway line to North Walsham via Overstrand and Mundesley , was opened in 1923 .
Following a reduction in traffic caused by Cromer 's decline in popularity as a holiday destination after World War II , and the closure of many Norfolk railway lines in the 1950s , a decision was made to concentrate all passenger traffic into a single station . Although Cromer High had far better facilities , it was inconveniently situated on the edge of the town . Therefore , all passenger services were diverted into Cromer Beach ( renamed Cromer ) and the other stations closed . Following growth of the town as a commuter town to Norwich , a new station called Roughton Road opened in 1985 , near the site of the former Cromer High .
= = Cromer railway station = =
Because the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway ( M & GNJR ) line approached Cromer from the west , following the coastal clifftops , it avoided the steep escarpment which had prevented the earlier line from Norwich running all the way into the town . Consequently , it became possible to build a far more conveniently located station , near to the town centre and the beach . The station opened as Cromer Beach on 16 June 1887 and was renamed Cromer on 20 October 1969 , following the closure of Cromer High station in 1954 .
= = = Buildings = = =
To cater to the heavy leisure traffic at the end of the 19th century , Cromer Beach had a large station building in a half @-@ timbered style , and a large goods yard . The station originally included a bar , which was closed in 1966 . Following the introduction of conductor @-@ guard working , the ticket facilities were no longer needed and the building fell into disuse ; it was renovated and reopened as a public house in 1998 . A large supermarket was built on the site of the goods yards in 1991 .
Cromer is one of only two former M & GNJR stations to remain operational on Network Rail , the other being the neighbouring West Runton .
= = = Services = = =
The station is currently served only by local services operated by ' Abellio Greater Anglia ' on the Bittern Line from Norwich to Sheringham .
There is generally an hourly service to Sheringham ( 8 minutes ) and to Norwich ( 55 minutes ) , with more frequent services during the morning and evening peak travel times . On Sundays , trains run every two hours to Sheringham and Norwich . In 1997 a single daily through train to and from London Liverpool Street to Sheringham via Cromer was introduced ; it was not heavily used and the service was consequently discontinued . All of these services are run by diesel multiple units Class 153 , 156 or occasionally 170 .
Because of its historical position as the terminus of the line from Melton Constable and Sheringham to the west , trains running via Cromer reverse direction on leaving the station .
The following services currently call at Cromer :
= = Former stations = =
= = = Cromer High railway station = = =
Cromer High railway station was the first station opened in Cromer , situated to the south on the outskirts of the town on a steep escarpment . Built initially by the short @-@ lived East Norfolk Railway , the station ( along with the line ) was incorporated into the Great Eastern Railway , who had operated the services from the beginning . It served as the terminus of Great Eastern Railway services from London and Norwich . Initially named Cromer on opening , it was renamed Cromer High on 27 September 1948 .
The station opened on 26 March 1877 . Because of steep gradients near the town , the station was built in open fields some distance from the town itself . The station resembled in design Chingford railway station , opened in 1878 , another GER branch line terminus .
= = = = Closure = = = =
On 23 July 1906 a connection was opened between the line to Cromer High and the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway line between Melton Constable and Cromer Beach stations , allowing through trains from Norwich to run to Cromer Beach . As Cromer Beach was far more conveniently sited in the centre of the town , passenger numbers using Cromer High dropped substantially , although it remained in heavy usage as a freight depot . On 20 September 1954 passenger services ceased at Cromer High , with all traffic diverted to Cromer Beach ( renamed " Cromer " in 1969 ) . The station remained open as a freight terminus until 7 March 1960 , but was then closed completely and the station demolished . Despite the loss of passenger revenue , the bar attached to the station did not close until 1957 . Part of the station site has been redeveloped for housing , but much remains undeveloped ; although derelict and overgrown , the former station approach road is also still present . North Norfolk Council is considering converting the station into a site for the use of Travellers .
Cromer High station was situated a short distance away from the Cromer Tunnel , Norfolk 's only standard gauge railway tunnel , connecting the Sheringham and Mundesley lines . Although disused since services ceased in 1953 , the tunnel remains intact .
= = = Cromer Links Halt railway station = = =
Cromer Links Halt ( located at TG232409 ) was a railway station on the outskirts of Cromer . It was on the now disused Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway line between Roughton Road Junction and Overstrand station . It opened on 9 July 1923 , only to close thirty years later on 7 April 1953 .
= = = = History = = = =
Opened as part of an attempt to encourage holiday traffic on the line , the halt primarily served golfers at the nearby Royal Cromer Golf Club . The station facilities were very basic , consisting of no more than a single wooden platform , which cost £ 170 to build , two wooden benches and running in board together with the obligatory oil lamps . No shelter was provided for passengers and the platform was constructed of sleepers and supported by wooden trestles .
The halt was approached from the road by a path leading up the embankment on which the railway ran . To the west , a bridge carried the line over Northrepps Road from where it proceeded on another embankment before reaching Cromer Tunnel which was built by the Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway to take the line under the Great Eastern 's Cromer High to Norwich route . Although only 61 yards long , the tunnel is notable as being one of only two standard gauge tunnels anywhere in Norfolk , the other being Barsham Tunnel on the Wells @-@ on @-@ Sea branch . However , as Barsham Tunnel was opened out before 1912 , Cromer Tunnel is actually the only tunnel .
The line was served in general by around half a dozen trains each way between North Walsham , Mundesley and Cromer Beach . However , with no direct service to Norwich - the nearest city - the halt was little @-@ used , and closed in 1953 as part of a package of early rationalisation measures undertaken by British Railways after nationalisation , which also involved the closure of the line from Roughton Road Junction to Mundesley . The coastal line , although highly picturesque , carried little traffic and its closure made sound economic sense to British Railways .
= = = = Present day = = = =
Due to its wooden construction , virtually no trace of Cromer Links Halt has survived other than the gate to the approach path up the embankment , the rotting remains of which were said to be entangled in the undergrowth at the site of the station .
= = Roughton Road railway station = =
Roughton Road was opened on 20 May 1985 , to serve the new housing developments in the area . It is on the southern edge of Cromer , near the junction for the disused Cromer Tunnel leading to the former Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway line , about 200 yards ( 183 m ) from the site of the former Cromer High station .
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= Cyclone Kamisy =
Cyclone Kamisy was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect northern Madagascar since 1911 . A tropical disturbance formed near Diego Garcia on April 3 , 1984 and subsequently moved westward , intensifying into a moderate tropical storm two days later . Given the name Kamisy , the storm gradually intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by April 9 . Kamisy reached winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) before making landfall in extreme northern Madagascar near Diego Suarez . It weakened upon entering the Mozambique Channel , but briefly re @-@ intensified on April 10 . That day while passing near Mayotte , the cyclone turned to the southeast , striking Madagascar again near Majunga . Kamisy quickly crossed the country . After emerging into the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Madagascar , the system reintensified into a moderate tropical storm before dissipating on April 16 .
In northern Madagascar , Kamisy produced wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , which destroyed 80 % of the city of Diego Suarez . About 39 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the area , and there were five deaths . In western Madagascar , the cyclone dropped 232 @.@ 2 mm ( 9 @.@ 14 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours in Majunga , which damaged rice fields in the region after causing widespread river flooding . Additionally , the storm destroyed about 80 % of Majunga . Throughout the country , Kamisy caused $ 250 million in damage and 68 deaths , with 215 people injured and 100 @,@ 000 left homeless . Fifteen people were killed and 30 others were injured in Mahajanga . Following the storm , emergency food and medical supplies were rushed into the nation . In addition to the impact to Madagascar , one death and severe damage was reported in the Comoros Islands , where all of the banana crop was destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Kamisy originated from an area of convection that formed in early April . On April 3 , the system was assigned a Dvorak rating of T2.0 and was respectively upgraded into a moderate tropical storm by the Météo @-@ France office on Reunion ( MFR ) . However , the storm was not classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) until that evening . The storm initially tracked west @-@ southwest , but after briefly weakening into a tropical depression , Kamisy began to turn west . On April 5 , the storm was upgraded into a moderate tropical storm for the second time ; the JTWC followed suit and upgraded Kamisy into a tropical storm several hours later while located about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) west of Diego Garcia .
Kamisy steadily intensified and on April 6 , the JTWC reported that it attained hurricane @-@ force winds despite MFR estimating winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Early on April 7 , however , Kamisy was upgraded into a severe tropical storm as it had earned a rating of T4.0 on the Dvorak scale . Thereafter , the storm began to undergo rapid deepening . Later that day , the JTWC announced that Kamisy attained winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) , equivalent to a mid @-@ level Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . Meanwhile , MFR upgraded the system into cyclone intensity . After briefly leveling off in intensity , the storm attained peak intensity of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) later that day . Early on April 8 , the JTWC estimated that it reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Around this time , Kamisy was assigned a T6.0 rating via the Dvorak technique .
After maintaining peak intensity for less than a day , it weakened slightly . On April 9 , the storm brushed the northern Madagascar coast as a severe tropical storm , though the JTWC suggested that Kamsiy was considerably stronger . However , the afternoon to storm emerged into the extreme northern Mozambique Channel , where it passed near Mayotte , with little change in strength . After sharply turning south @-@ southwest , Kamisy briefly regained tropical cyclone intensity , but resumed weakening as it approached the coast . While still a moderate tropical storm , it made landfall along the north @-@ central part of the nation on April 12 , near Tamative . At the time of landfall , the JTWC noted that Kamisy was a minimal hurricane . The storm quickly weakened overland and was a tropical depression by the time it had emerged into the Indian Ocean . Shortly thereafter , the storm restrengthened into a moderate tropical storm , but this trend was short @-@ lived . The JTWC downgraded Kamisy into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on April 14 . The agency issued the last warning on the system the following day , even though MFR kept tracking the system until the morning hours of April 16 . At this time , Kamisy was located about 500 mi ( 805 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Madagascar .
= = Impact = =
= = = Madagascar = = =
Throughout Madagascar , a total of 68 casualties were reported and 100 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damage totaled to more than $ 250 million ( 1984 USD ) . Kamisy was considered the worst system to strike Madagascar since 1911 . According to Relief Web , 7 @,@ 000 buildings were at least partially destroyed , including 1 @,@ 020 schools and 450 hospitals . Approximately 215 people were injured due to the storm . Overall , Kamisy was the strongest storm to hit the nation between 1980 and 1993 .
In Diego Suarez , the storm caused significant damage , especially in residential areas . Warehouses , schools , and other public buildings suffered extensive damage . Throughout the city , 80 % of the buildings were damaged and the town was 85 % destroyed . Electrical and water supplies were cut in Diego Suarez . Nearby , in Befaria , a leprosarium , which housed 200 patients and their families , was damaged . The small village of Mangaoka was forced to move inland 100 m ( 330 ft ) . In Tamatave , a daily peak rainfall total of 294 mm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) was measured , and 711 mm ( 28 @.@ 0 in ) fell in a six @-@ day period . Due to the rainfall , 70 % of the town 's population moved to high ground . In Antsiranana , 30 @,@ 000 of the 40 @,@ 000 inhabitants were left homeless and were left with little food or water . Throughout northern Madagascar , about 39 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the area ; there were five deaths .
After making its second landfall , 80 % of the port of Mahajanga was destroyed , where 42 @,@ 120 people were reportedly homeless . Many neighborhoods of the town , whose population was 45 @,@ 000 , were completed washed away . Many rice fields in the region were destroyed due to widespread river flooding . In Mahajanga alone , 15 people were killed while 30 others were majorly hurt . Several schools throughout the city were destroyed . Winds greater than 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) were reported in Mahanjanga as well . Elsewhere , the town of Movoya was also mostly destroyed .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
After making its first landfall , the storm struck Mayotte , in the Comoros island group , where severe damage was recorded . One death was also reported . Dozens of others were severely hurt . Around 25 @,@ 000 people were displaced . All of the banana and rice crop were destroyed by the storm in both Comoros and Seychelles .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , emergency food and medical supplies were rushed into the nation . Due to Madagascar 's small budget , it did not have the resources to repair all the damage alone . Two French rescue mission , including one from Reunion , provided victims with food and medical assistance to Madagascar and Mayotte . Furthermore , the Malagasy Red Cross launched an appeal for blankets , clothes , tents , and medicine . The United States provided $ 25 @,@ 000 in cash and $ 15 @,@ 000 worth of other items . Moreover , Italy donated $ 41 @,@ 500 to Madagascar . Netherlands provided $ 65 @,@ 000 worth of supplies while the nations ' the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies decided to send a disaster team to the devastated area . The United Kingdom provided $ 74 @,@ 000 is cash ; France provided 2 @.@ 2 short tons ( 2 @.@ 0 t ) of medicine , 500 short tons ( 450 t ) , and 4 tents . The government asked for 60 @,@ 000 short tons ( 54 @,@ 000 t ) of rice , 5 @,@ 000 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) of flour , 200 short tons ( 180 t ) of edible oil , and 20 short tons ( 18 t ) of milk and canned food . Aside from food items , they also asked for 20 @,@ 000 short tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) of cement and 50 @,@ 000 packages of iron sheets . Additionally , the head of Minister of State , Foreign and Commonwealth Office intended to focus on the reconstruction of bridges and roads . A private consulting company was later hired to conduct a post @-@ storm assessment ; a training program was subsequently launched , which had a budget of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . The training program lasted until the 1985 – 86 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , when Cyclone Honorinina devastated the nation .
Sailors from the US Navy 's warship USS Hector , were diverted to assist in the relief effort in Diego @-@ Suarez , between April 23 and May 1 , 1984 . The warship was the first American naval vessel to visit the port after Madagascar ’ s Government banned the superpowers including France and the United States from using it during the 1970s and were awarded two Humanitarian Service Medals . Amongst other assistance provided they restored the roof and power to the ports hospital and repaired the leprosarium at Befaria , near Diego @-@ Suarez . Two French naval vessels also supplied brought food , medicine and other emergency supplies to help with the aftermath of the cyclone .
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= Agaricus bernardii =
Agaricus bernardii , commonly called the salt @-@ loving mushroom , is an agaric fungus in the family Agaricaceae . A short , squat mushroom , the thick stem is usually less than the diameter of the cap , which ranges from 5 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) . Found in Asia , Europe , North America , and New Zealand , it is a salt @-@ tolerant species that grows in salt marshes , dunes , and coastal grassland . The fungus produces fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) with convex to flattened caps up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , atop thick stems up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . The cap surface is whitish to buff , and can develop scales or warts in age . Gills are initially pink before turning brown when the spores mature . The flesh turns reddish when it is cut or bruised . The mushroom somewhat resembles Agaricus bitorquis but it differs from that species by the reddish @-@ brown staining of cap and stem tissue , the nature of the ring on the stem , as well as its briny odor . An edible mushroom , it is stronger in flavor but similar to the store @-@ bought button mushrooms , Agaricus bisporus .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by French mycologist Lucien Quélet as Psalliota bernardi in 1879 , based on collections made in La Rochelle , a seaport on the Bay of Biscay ( France ) . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Agaricus in 1887 . Synonyms include Psalliota bernardii , Pratella bernardii , Fungus bernardii , and Agaricus campestris subsp. bernardii .
The infrageneric ( below genus @-@ level ) classification of A. bernardii is not known with certainty . In his 1978 proposed classification , Paul Heinemann placed it in the subsection Bitorques of the section Agaricus . Although the species has some similarities with species in the section Duploannulatae based on the structure of its veil and its tendencies towards rufescence ( developing a red coloration ) , molecular analysis shows that it does not belong in this section . An earlier ( 1999 ) analysis suggested that it is closely related to the " Agaricus clade " , which contains A. subperonatus , A. devoniensis , A. bisporus , A. spissicaulis , A. bitorquis , and A. impudicus . In 1986 , Henri Romagnesi placed it in section Chitonioides ; Solomon Wasser demoted this to a subsection of Duploannulatae in 1995 , and later provided molecular support for his decision . In addition to A. bernardii , species in Wasser 's concept of subsection Chitonioides include A. rollanii , A. bernardiiformis , A. gennadii , A. pequinii , and A. nevoi .
The species was named after the original collector , G. Bernard . Agaricus bernardii is commonly known as the salt @-@ loving mushroom .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies of Agaricus bernardii have caps that range in shape from convex to flattened , and reach a diameter of 5 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap surface is dry and smooth , with a white or buff color that can develop brownish spots in maturity . In age , the surface often forms scales or warts . The flesh is thick , firm , and stains reddish @-@ orange or reddish @-@ brown when cut , although this reaction can be slow to develop . Its odor ranges from mild to briny to pungent . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , and packed close together . Initially grayish @-@ pink to pinkish , they turn reddish @-@ brown and then chocolate brown as the spores mature . The stem is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , firm , and measures 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . A thick , white , rubbery partial veil covers the gills of the immature mushroom , and eventually remains as a ring on the middle of the stem .
Although the mushrooms sometimes have an odor that is briny or pungent ( " though not inappropriate " ) , they are edible and good . David Arora compares its taste to that of the closely related Agaricus bitorquis , " but a little chewier and sometimes with a slightly salty or briny taste . "
Agaricus bernardii mushrooms produce a dark brown spore print . The spores are smooth , broadly elliptical , and have dimensions of 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and club @-@ shaped , measuring 14 – 25 by 4 – 7 μm ; the sterigmata are 4 – 5 μm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are broadly club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 17 – 30 by 4 – 8 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Agaricus bitorquis , also edible , has a similar appearance , but can be distinguished by its double ring , and the lack of a fishy or briny odor . Additionally , A. bitorquis does not stain reddish when cut , and usually does not have a scaly or warty cap . The Hungarian species A. bernardiiformis , named for its similarity to A. bernardii , is distinguished from the latter by its smaller spores ( 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 2 μm ) and its club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia that measure 17 – 35 by 7 – 9 @.@ 5 μm . MycoBank , however , considers the two species to be conspecific .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Agaricus bernardii is a saprobic species . Its mushrooms fruit singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . They grow in sandy soils , lawns , and in habitats with a high salt concentration , like along ocean coasts and salt marshes . Once primarily a maritime species , the fungus has spread inland to roadside verges where salt has been applied to de @-@ ice the roads . Fruit bodies sometimes form underground . Mushrooms can also grow in fairy rings , especially when in grasslands or pastures . A Czech study determined that the mushrooms will strongly bioaccumulate silver from contaminated soil . Although the average concentration of silver in the soil is typically less than 1 milligram per kilogram of soil , it can be significantly elevated near industrial sites such as mines and smelters . The concentration of silver in the caps — which reached levels of up to 544 mg per kg of mushroom tissue ( dry weight ) — was about twice that of the stems .
The species is found in Asia , Europe , North America ( including Mexico ) and New Zealand .
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= Abraham Goldfaden =
Abraham Goldfaden Yiddish : אַבֿרהם גאָלדפֿאַדען ; ( born Avrum Goldnfoden ; the Romanian spelling Avram Goldfaden is common ; 24 July 1840 in Starokostiantyniv – 9 January 1908 in New York City ) was a Russian @-@ born Jewish poet , playwright , stage director and actor in the languages Yiddish and Hebrew , author of some 40 plays . Goldfaden is considered the father of the Jewish modern theatre .
In 1876 he founded in Romania what is generally credited as the world 's first professional Yiddish @-@ language theater troupe . He was also responsible for the first Hebrew @-@ language play performed in the United States . The Avram Goldfaden Festival of Iaşi , Romania , is named and held in his honour .
Jacob Sternberg called him " the Prince Charming who woke up the lethargic Romanian Jewish culture . " Israil Bercovici wrote of his works : " we find points in common with what we now call ' total theater ' . In many of his plays he alternates prose and verse , pantomime and dance , moments of acrobatics and some of jonglerie , and even of spiritualism ... "
= = Early life = =
Goldfaden was born in Starokonstantinov ( Russia ; present day Ukraine ) . His birthdate is sometimes given as July 12 , following the " Old Style " calendar in use at that time in the Russian Empire . He attended a Jewish religious school ( a cheder ) , but his middle @-@ class family was strongly associated with the Haskalah , the " Jewish Enlightenment , " and his father , a watchmaker , arranged that he receive private lessons in German and Russian . As a child , he is said to have appreciated and imitated the performances of wedding jesters and Brody singers to the degree that he acquired the nickname Avromele Badkhen , " Abie the Jester . " In 1857 he began studies at the government @-@ run rabbinical school at Zhytomyr , from which he emerged in 1866 as a teacher and a poet ( with some experience in amateur theater ) , but he never led a congregation .
Goldfaden 's first published poem was called " Progress " ; his New York Times obituary described it as " a plea for Zionism years before that movement developed . " In 1865 he published his first book of poetry , Tzitzim u @-@ Ferahim ( in Hebrew ) ; The Jewish Encyclopedia ( 1901 – 1906 ) says that " Goldfaden 's Hebrew poetry ... possesses considerable merit , but it has been eclipsed by his Yiddish poetry , which , for strength of expression and for depth of true Jewish feeling , remains unrivaled . " The first book of verse in Yiddish was published in 1866 , and in 1867 he took a job teaching in Simferopol . A year later , he moved on to Odessa ( in Ukraine ) , where he lived initially in his uncle 's house , where a cousin who was a good pianist helped him set some of his poems to music .
In Odessa , Goldfaden renewed his acquaintance with fellow Yiddish @-@ language writer Yitzkhok Yoel Linetzky , whom he knew from Zhytomyr and met Hebrew @-@ language poet Eliahu Mordechai Werbel ( whose daughter Paulina would become Goldfaden 's wife ) and published poems in the newspaper Kol @-@ Mevaser . He also wrote his first two plays , Die Tzwei Sheines ( The Two Neighbors ) and Die Murneh Sosfeh ( Aunt Susie ) , included with some verses in a modestly successful 1869 book Die Yidene ( The Jewish Woman ) , which went through three editions in three years . At this time , he and Paulina were living mainly on his meagre teacher 's salary of 18 rubles a year , supplemented by giving private lessons and taking a job as a cashier in a hat shop .
In 1875 , Goldfaden headed for Munich , intending to study medicine . This did not work out , and he headed for Lvov / Lemberg in Galicia , where he again met up with Linetsky , now editor of a weekly paper , Isrulik or Der Alter Yisrulik ( which was well reputed , but was soon shut by the government ) . A year later , he moved on to Chernivtsi in Bukovina , where he edited the Yiddish @-@ language daily Dos Bukoviner Israelitishe Folksblatt . The limits of the economic sense of this enterprise can be gauged from his inability to pay a registration fee of 3000 ducats . He tried unsuccessfully to operate the paper under a different name , but soon moved on to Iaşi on the invitation of Isaac Librescu ( 1850 – 1930 ) , a young wealthy communitary activist interested in theatre .
= = Iaşi = =
Arriving in Iaşi ( Jassy ) in 1876 , Goldfaden was fortunate to be better known as a good poet — many of whose poems had been set to music and had become popular songs — than as a less @-@ than @-@ successful businessman . Nevertheless , when he sought funds from Isaac Librescu for another newspaper , Librescu was uninterested in that proposition . Librescu 's wife remarked that Yiddish @-@ language journalism was just a way to starve ; she suggested that there would be a lot more of a market for Yiddish @-@ language theater . Librescu offered Goldfaden 100 francs for a public recital of his songs in the garden of Shimen Mark , Grădina Pomul Verde ( " the Green Fruit @-@ Tree Garden " ) .
Instead of a simple recital , Goldfaden expanded the program into something of a vaudeville performance ; either this or an indoor performance he and his fellow performers gave later that year in Botoşani is generally counted as the first professional Yiddish theatre performance . However , in the circumstances , the designation of a single performance as " the first " may be nominal : Goldfaden 's first actor , Israel Grodner , was already singing Goldfaden 's songs ( and others ) in the salons of Iaşi ; also , in 1873 , Grodner sang in a concert in Odessa ( songs by Goldfaden , among others ) that apparently included significant improvised material between songs , although no actual script .
Although Goldfaden , by his own account , was familiar at this time with " practically all of Russian literature , " had plenty of exposure to Russian and Polish theater , and had even seen an African American tragedian , Ira Aldrich , performing Shakespeare , the performance at Grădina Pomul Verde was only a bit more of a play than Grodner had participated in three years earlier . The songs were strung together with a bit of character and plot and a good bit of improvisation . The performance by Goldfaden , Grodner , Sokher Goldstein , and possibly as many as three other men went over well . The first performance was either Di bobe mitn einikl ( Grandmother and Granddaughter ) or Dos bintl holts ( The Bundle of sticks ) ; sources disagree . ( Some reports suggest that Goldfaden himself was a poor singer , or even a non @-@ singer and poor actor ; according to Bercovici , these reports stem from Goldfaden 's own self @-@ disparaging remarks or from his countenance as an old man in New York , but contemporary reports show him to have been a decent , though not earth @-@ shattering , actor and singer . )
After that time , Goldfaden continued miscellaneous newspaper work , but the stage became his main focus .
As it happens , the famous Romanian poet Mihai Eminescu , then journalist , saw one of their Pomul Verde performances later that summer . He records in his review that the company had six players . ( A 1905 typographical error would turn this to a much @-@ cited sixteen , suggesting a grander beginning for Yiddish theater . ) He was impressed by the quality of the singing and acting , but found the pieces " without much dramatic interest . " [ Bercovici , 1998 , 58 ] His generally positive comments would seem to deserve to be taken seriously : Eminescu was known generally as " virulently antisemitic . " Eminescu appears to have seen four of Goldfaden 's early plays : a satiric musical revue Di velt a gan @-@ edn ( The World and Paradise ) , Der farlibter maskil un der oyfgeklerter hosid ( a dialogue between " an infatuated philosopher " and " an enlightened Hasid " ) , another musical revue Der shver mitn eidem ( Father @-@ in @-@ law and Son @-@ in @-@ Law ) , and a comedy Fishl der balegole un zayn knecht Sider ( Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider ) .
= = Searching for a theater = =
As the season for outdoor performances was coming to a close , Goldfaden tried and failed to rent an appropriate theater in Iaşi . A theater owner named Reicher , presumably Jewish himself , told him that " a troupe of Jewish singers " would be " too dirty . " Goldfaden , Grodner , and Goldstein headed first to Botoşani , where they lived in a garret and Goldfaden continued to churn out songs and plays . An initial successful performance of Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) in an indoor theater ( " with loges ! " as Goldfaden wrote ) was followed by days of rain so torrential that no one would come out to the theater ; they pawned some possessions and left for Galaţi , which was to prove a bit more auspicious , with a successful three @-@ week run .
In Galaţi they acquired their first serious set designer , a housepainter known as Reb Moishe Bas . He had no formal artistic training , but he proved to be good at the job , and joined the troupe , as did Sara Segal , their first actress . She was not yet out of her teens . After seeing her perform in their Galaţi premiere , her mother objected to her unmarried daughter cavorting on a stage like that . Goldstein – who , unlike Goldfaden and Grodner , was single – promptly married her and she remained with the troupe . ( Besides being known as Sara Segal and Sofia Goldstein , she became best known as Sofia Karp , after a second marriage to actor Max Karp . )
After the successful run in Galaţi came a less successful attempt in Brăila , but by now the company had honed its act and it was time to go to the capital , Bucharest .
= = Bucharest = =
As in Iaşi , Goldfaden arrived in Bucharest with his reputation already established . He and his players performed first in the early spring at the salon Lazăr Cafegiu on Calea Văcăreşti ( Văcăreşti Avenue , in the heart of the ghetto ) , then , once the weather turned warm , at the Jigniţa garden , a pleasant tree @-@ shaded beer garden on Str . Negru Vodă that up until then had drawn only a neighborhood crowd . He filled out his cast from the great pool of Jewish vocal talent : synagogue cantors . He also recruited two eminently respectable classically trained prima donnas , the sisters Margaretta and Annetta Schwartz .
Among the cantors in his casts that year were Lazăr Zuckermann ( also known as Laiser Zuckerman ; as a song @-@ and @-@ dance man , he would eventually follow Goldfaden to New York and have a long stage career ) , Moishe Zilberman ( also known as Silberman ) , and Simhe Dinman , as well as the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Zigmund Mogulescu ( Sigmund Mogulesko ) , who soon became a stage star . Orphaned by his teen years , Mogulescu had already made his way in the world as a singer – not only as a soloist in the Great Synagogue of Bucharest but also as a performer in cafes , at parties , with a visiting French operetta company , and even in a church choir . Before his voice changed , he had sung with Zuckerman , Dinman , and Moses Wald in the " Israelite Chorus , " performing at important ceremonies in the Jewish community . Mogulescu 's audition for Goldfaden was a scene from Vlăduţu Mamei ( Mama 's Boy ) , which formed the basis later that year for Goldfaden 's light comedy Shemdrik , oder Die Komishe Chaseneh ( Shmendrik or The Comical Wedding ) , starring Mogulescu as the almost painfully clueless and hapless young man ( a role later famously played in New York and elsewhere by actress Molly Picon ) .
This recruiting of cantors was not without controversy : Cantor Cuper ( also known as Kupfer ) , the head cantor of the Great Synagogue , considered it " impious " that cantors should perform in a secular setting , to crowds where both sexes mingled freely , keeping people up late so that they might not be on time for morning prayers .
While one may argue over which performance " started " Yiddish theater , by the end of that summer in Bucharest Yiddish theater was an established fact . The influx of Jewish merchants and middlemen to the city at the start of the Russo @-@ Turkish War had greatly expanded the audience ; among these new arrivals were Israel Rosenberg and Jacob Spivakovsky , the highly cultured scion of a wealthy Russian Jewish family , both of whom actually joined Goldfaden 's troupe , but soon left to found the first Yiddish theater troupe in Imperial Russia .
Goldfaden was churning out a repertoire – new songs , new plays , and translations of plays from Romanian , French , and other languages ( in the first two years , he wrote 22 plays , and would eventually write about 40 ) – and while he was not always able to retain the players in his company once they became stars in their own right , he continued for many years to recruit first @-@ rate talent , and his company became a de facto training ground for Yiddish theater . By the end of the year , others were writing Yiddish plays as well , such as Moses Horowitz with Der tiranisher bankir ( The Tyrannical Banker ) , or Grodner with Curve un ganev ( Prostitute and Thief ) , and Yiddish theater had become big theater , with elaborate sets , duelling choruses , and extras to fill out crowd scenes .
Goldfaden was helped by Ion Ghica , then head of the Romanian National Theater to legally establish a " dramatic society " to handle administrative matters . From those papers , we know that the troupe at the Jigniţa included Moris Teich , Michel Liechman ( Glückman ) , Lazăr Zuckermann , Margareta Schwartz , Sofia Palandi , Aba Goldstein , and Clara Goldstein . We also know from similar papers that when Grodner and Mogulescu walked out on Goldfaden to start their own company , it included ( besides themselves ) Israel Rosenberg , Jacob Spivakovsky , P. Şapira , M. Banderevsky , Anetta Grodner , and Rosa Friedman .
Ion Ghica was a valuable ally for Yiddish theater in Bucharest . On several occasions he expressed his favorable view of the quality of acting , and even more of the technical aspects of the Yiddish theater . In 1881 , he obtained for the National Theater the costumes that had been used for a Yiddish pageant on the coronation of King Solomon , which had been timed in tribute to the actual coronation of Carol I of Romania .
= = Turning serious = =
While light comedy and satire might have established Yiddish theater as a commercially successful medium , it was Goldfaden 's higher aspirations for it that eventually earned him recognition as " the Yiddish Shakespeare . " As a man broadly read in several languages , he was acutely aware that there was no Eastern European Jewish tradition of dramatic literature – that his audience was used to seeking just " a good glass of Odobeşti and a song . " Years later , he would paraphrase the typical Yiddish theatergoer of the time as saying to him : " We don 't go to the theater to make our head swim with sad things . We have enough troubles at home ... We go to the theater to cheer ourselves up . We pay up a coin and hope to be distracted , we want to laugh from the heart . "
Goldfaden wrote that this attitude put him " pure and simply at war with the public . " His stage was not to be merely " a masquerade " ; he continued : " No , brothers . If I have arrived at having a stage , I want it to be a school for you . In youth you didn 't have time to learn and cultivate yourself ... Laugh heartily if I amuse you with my jokes , while I , watching you , feel my heart crying . Then , brothers , I 'll give you a drama , a tragedy drawn from life , and you , too , shall cry – while my heart shall be glad . " Nonetheless , his " war with the public " was based on understanding that public . He would also write , " I wrote Di kishefmakhern ( The Witch ) in Romania , where the populace – Jews as much as Romanians – believe strongly in witches . " Local superstitions and concerns always made good subject matter , and , as Bercovici remarks , however strong his inspirational and didactic intent , his historical pieces were always connected to contemporary concerns .
Even in the first couple of years of his company , Goldfaden did not shy away from serious themes : his rained @-@ out vaudeville in Botoşani had been Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) , playing with the theme of the press gangs working the streets of that town to conscript young men into the army . Before the end of 1876 , Goldfaden had already translated Desolate Island by August von Kotzebue ; thus , a play by a German aristocrat and Russian spy became the first non @-@ comic play performed professionally in Yiddish . After his initial burst of mostly vaudevilles and light comedies ( although Shmendrik and The Two Kuni @-@ Lemls were reasonably sophisticated plays ) , Goldfaden would go on to write many serious Yiddish @-@ language plays on Jewish themes , perhaps the most famous being Shulamith , also from 1880 . Goldfaden himself suggested that this increasingly serious turn became possible because he had educated his audience . Nahma Sandrow suggests that it may have had equally as much to do with the arrival in Romania , at the time of the Russo @-@ Turkish War , of Russian Jews who had been exposed to more sophisticated Russian language theater . Goldfaden 's strong turn toward almost uniformly serious subject matter roughly coincided with bringing his troupe to Odessa .
Goldfaden was both a theoretician and a practitioner of theater . That he was in no small measure a theoretician – for example , he was interested almost from the start in having set design seriously support the themes of his plays – relates to a key property of Yiddish theater at the time of its birth : in general , writes Bercovici , theory ran ahead of practice . Much of the Jewish community , Goldfaden included , were already familiar with contemporary theater in other languages . The initial itinerary of Goldfaden 's company – Iaşi , Botoşani , Galaţi , Brăila , Bucharest – could as easily have been the itinerary of a Romanian @-@ language troupe . Yiddish theater may have been seen from the outset as an expression of a Jewish national character , but the theatrical values of Goldfaden 's company were in many ways those of a good Romanian theater of the time . Also , Yiddish was a German dialect which became a well @-@ known language even among non @-@ Jews in Moldavia ( and Transylvania ) , an important language of commerce ; the fact that one of the first to write about Yiddish theater was Romania 's national poet , Mihai Eminescu , is testimony that interest in Yiddish theater went beyond the Jewish community .
Almost from the first , Yiddish theater drew a level of theater criticism comparable to any other European theater of its time . For example , Bercovici cites a " brochure " by one G. Abramski , published in 1877 , that described and gave critiques of all of Goldfaden 's plays of that year . Abramski speculated that the present day might be for Yiddish theater a moment comparable to the Elizabethan era for English theater . He discussed what a Yiddish theater ought to be , noted its many sources ( ranging from Purim plays to circus pantomime ) , and praised its incorporation of strong female roles . He also criticized where he saw weaknesses , noting how unconvincingly a male actor played the mother in Shmendrik , or remarking of the play Di shtume kale ( The Mute Bride ) — a work that Goldfaden apparently wrote to accommodate a pretty , young actress who in the performance was too nervous to deliver her lines — that the only evidence of Goldfaden 's authorship was his name .
= = Russia = =
Goldfaden 's father wrote him to solicit the troupe to come to Odessa in Ukraine , which was then part of Imperial Russia . The timing was opportune : the end of the war meant that much of his best audience were now in Odessa rather than Bucharest ; Rosenberg had already quit Goldfaden 's troupe and was performing the Goldfadenian repertoire in Odessa .
With a loan from Librescu , Goldfaden headed east with a group of 42 people , including performers , musicians , and their families . After the end of the Russo @-@ Turkish War he and his troupe travelled extensively through Imperial Russia , notably to Kharkov ( also in Ukraine ) , Moscow , and Saint Petersburg . Jacob Adler later described him at this time as " a bon vivant , " " a cavalier , " " as difficult to approach as an emperor . " He continued to turn out plays at a prolific pace , now mostly serious pieces such as Doctor Almasada , oder Die Yiden in Palermo ( Doctor Almasada , or The Jews of Palermo ) , Shulamith , and Bar Kokhba , the last being a rather dark operetta about Bar Kokhba 's revolt , written after the pogroms in Russia following the 1881 assassination of Czar Alexander II .
As it happens , a Frenchman named Victor Tissot happened to be in Berdichev when Goldfaden 's company was there . He saw two plays – Di Rekruten , first premiered in Botoşani , and the later Di Shvebleh ( Matches ) , a play of intrigue . Tissot 's account of what he saw gives an interesting picture of the theaters and audiences Goldfaden 's troupe encountered outside of the big cities . " Berdichev , " he begins , " has not one cafe , not one restaurant . Berdichev , which is a boring and sad city , nonetheless has a theatrical hall , a big building made of rough boards , where theater troupes passing through now and then put on a play . " Although there was a proper stage with a curtain , the cheap seats were bare benches , the more expensive ones were benches covered in red percale . Although there were many full beards , " there were no long caftans , no skullcaps . " Some of the audience were quite poor , but these were assimilated Jews , basically secular . The audience also included Russian officers with their wives or girlfriends .
In Russia , Goldfaden and his troupe drew large audiences and were generally popular with progressive Jewish intellectuals , but slowly ran afoul of both the Czarist government and conservative elements in the Jewish community . Goldfaden was calling for change in the Jewish world :
Wake up my people
From your sleep , wake up
And believe no more in foolishness .
A call like this might be a bit ambiguous , but it was unsettling to those who were on the side of the status quo . Yiddish theater was banned in Russia starting September 14 , 1883 , as part of the anti @-@ Jewish reaction following the assassination of Czar Alexander II . Goldfaden and his troupe were left adrift in Saint Petersburg . They headed various directions , some to England , some to New York City , some to Poland , some to Romania .
= = The prophet adrift = =
While Yiddish theater continued successfully in various places , Goldfaden was not on the best terms at this time with Mogulescu . They had quarrelled ( and settled ) several times over rights to plays , and Mogulescu and his partner Moishe " Maurice " Finkel now dominated Yiddish theater in Romania , with about ten lesser companies competing as well . Mogulescu was a towering figure in Bucharest theater at this point , lauded on a level comparable to the actors of the National Theater , performing at times in Romanian as well as Yiddish , drawing an audience that went well beyond the Jewish community .
Goldfaden seems , in Bercovici 's words , to have lost " his theatrical elan " in this period . He briefly put together a theater company in 1886 in Warsaw , with no notable success . In 1887 he went to New York ( as did Mogulescu , independently ) . After extensive negotiations and great anticipation in the Yiddish @-@ language press in New York ( " Goldfaden in America , " read the headline in the January 11 , 1888 edition of the New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung ) , he briefly took on the job of director of Mogulescu 's new " Rumanian Opera House " ; they parted ways again after the failure of their first play , whose production values were apparently not up to New York standards . Goldfaden attempted ( unsuccessfully ) to found a theater school , then headed in 1889 for Paris , rather low on funds . There he wrote some poetry , worked on a play that he didn 't finish at that time , and put together a theater company that never got to the point of putting on a play ( because the cashier made off with all of their funds [ Adler , 1999 , 262 commentary ] ) . In October 1889 he scraped together the money to get to Lvov , where his reputation as a poet again came to his rescue .
= = Lvov = =
Lvov was not exactly a dramatist 's dream . Leon Dreykurs described audiences bringing meals into the theater , rustling paper , treating the theater like a beer garden . He also quotes Jacob Schatzky : " All in all , the Galician milieu was not favorable to Yiddish theater . The intellectuals were assimilated , but the masses were fanatically religious and they viewed Jewish ' comedians ' with disdain . "
Nonetheless , Iacob Ber Ghimpel , who owned a Yiddish theater there , was glad to have a figure of Goldfaden 's stature . Goldfaden completed the play he 'd started in Paris , Rabi Yoselman , oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas ( " Rabbi Yoselman , or The Alsatian Decree " ) , in five acts and 23 scenes , based on the life of Josel of Rosheim . At this time he also wrote an operetta Rothschild and a semi @-@ autobiographical play called Mashiach Tzeiten ( Messiah Times ) that gave a less @-@ than @-@ optimistic view of America .
Kalman Juvelier , an actor in Ber Ghimpel 's company , credited Goldfaden with greatly strengthening the caliber of performance in Lvov during his brief time there , reporting that Goldfaden worked with every actor on understanding his or her character , so as to ensure that the play was more than just a series of songs and effects , and was respected by all .
= = Bucharest = =
Buoyed by his success in Lvov , he returned to Bucharest in 1892 , as director of the Jigniţa theater . His new company again included Lazăr Zuckermann ; other players were Marcu ( Mordechai ) Segalescu , and later Iacob Kalich , Carol Schramek , Malvina Treitler @-@ Löbel and her father H. Goldenbers . Among his notable plays from this period were Dos zenteh Gebot , oder Lo tachmod ( The Tenth Commandment , or Thou Shalt Not Covet ) , Judas Maccabaeus , and Judith and Holfernes and a translation of Johann Strauss 's Gypsy Baron .
However , it was not a propitious time to return to Romania . Yiddish theater had become a business there , with slickly written advertisements , coordinated performances in multiple cities using the same publicity materials , and cutthroat competition : on one occasion in 1895 , a young man named Bernfeld attended multiple performances of Goldfaden 's Story of Isaac , memorized it all ( including the songs ) , and took the whole package to Kalman Juvilier , who put on an unauthorized production in Iaşi . Such outright theft was possible because once Ion Ghica headed off on a diplomatic career , the National Theater , which was supposed to adjudicate issues like unauthorized performances of plays , was no longer paying much attention to Yiddish theater . ( Juvilier and Goldfaden finally reached an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement . )
Cutthroat competition was nothing to what was to follow . The 1890s were a tough time for the Romanian economy , and a rising tide of anti @-@ Semitism made it an even tougher time for the Jews . One quarter of the Jewish population emigrated , with intellectuals particularly likely to leave , and those intellectuals who remained were more interested in politics than in theater : this was a period of social ferment , with Jewish socialists in Iaşi starting Der Veker ( The Awakener ) .
Goldfaden left Romania in 1896 ; soon Juvilier 's was the only active Yiddish theater troupe in the country , and foreign troupes had almost entirely ceased coming to the country . Although Lateiner , Horowitz , and Shumer kept writing , and occasionally managed to put on a play , it was not a good time for Yiddish theater – or any theater – in Romania , and would only become worse as the economy continued to decline .
Goldfaden wandered Europe as a poet and journalist . His plays continued to be performed in Europe and America , but rarely , if ever , did anyone send him royalties . His health deteriorated – a 1903 letter refers to asthma and spitting up blood – and he was running out of money . In 1903 , he wrote Jacob Dinesohn from Paris , authorizing him to sell his remaining possessions in Romania , clothes and all . This gave him the money to head once more to New York in 1904 .
= = New York City = =
In America , he again tried his hand at journalism , but a brief stint as editor of the New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung resulted only in getting the paper suspended and landing himself a rather large fine . On March 31 , 1905 , he recited poetry at a benefit performance at Cooper Union to raise a pension for Yiddish poet Eliakum Zunser , even worse off than himself because he had found himself unable to write since coming to America in 1889 . Shortly afterwards , he met a group of young people who had a Hebrew language association at the Dr. Herzl Zion Club , and wrote a Hebrew @-@ language play David ba @-@ Milchama ( David in the War ) , which they performed in March 1906 , the first Hebrew @-@ language play to be performed in America . Repeat performances in March 1907 and April 1908 drew successively larger crowds .
He also wrote the spoken portions of Ben Ami , loosely based on George Eliot 's Daniel Deronda . After Goldfaden 's former bit player Jacob Adler — by now the owner of a prominent New York Yiddish theater — optioned and ignored it , even accusing Goldfaden of being " senile , " it premiered successfully at rival Boris Thomashefsky 's People 's Theater December 25 , 1907 , with music by H. Friedzel and lyrics by Mogulescu , who was by this time an international star .
Goldfaden died in New York City in 1908 . An estimated 75 @,@ 000 turned out for his funeral , joining the procession from the People 's Theater on Bowery to Washington Cemetery in Brooklyn . The number of mourners is given as 30 @,@ 000 in the entry for Goldfaden ( " Goldfadn , Avrom " ) , in the Cambridge Guide to Theatre ( Cambridge University Press , 1995 , p . 432 ) , signed by Nahma Sandrow . The New York Times , calling him " both a poet and a prophet , " noted that " there was more evidence of genuine sympathy with and admiration for the man and his work than is likely to be manifested at the funeral of any poet now writing in the English language in this country . "
In November 2009 , Goldfaden was the subject of postage stamps issued jointly by Israel and Romania .
= = Zionism = =
Goldfaden had an on @-@ again off @-@ again relationship with Zionism . Some of his earliest poetry was Zionist avant la lettre and one of his last plays was written in Hebrew ; several of his plays were implicitly or explicitly Zionist ( Shulamith set in Jerusalem , Mashiach Tzeiten ? ! ending with its protagonists abandoning New York for Palestine ) ; he served as a delegate from Paris to the World Zionist Congress in 1900 . Still , he spent most of his life ( and set slightly more than half of his plays ) in the Pale of Settlement and in the adjoining Jewish areas in Romania , and when he left it was never to go to Palestine , but to cities such as New York , London or Paris . This might be understandable when the number of his potential Jewish spectators in Palestine in his time was very small .
= = Works = =
= = = Plays = = =
Sources disagree about the dates ( and even the names ) of some of Goldfaden 's plays . The titles here represent YIVO Yiddish > English transliteration , though other variants exist .
Di Mumeh Soseh ( Aunt Susie ) wr . 1869
Di Tzvey Sheynes ( The Two Neighbours ) wr . 1869 ( possibly the same as Di Sheynes 1877
Polyeh Shikor ( Polyeh , the Drunkard ) 1871
Anonimeh Komedyeh ( Anonymous Comedy ) 1876
Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) 1876 , 1877
Dos Bintl Holtz ( The Bundle of Sticks ) 1876
Fishl der balegole un zayn knecht Sider ( Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider ) 1876
Di Velt a Gan @-@ Edn ( The World and Paradise ) 1876
Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgeklerter Hosid ( The Infatuated Philosopher and the Enlightened Hasid ) 1876
Der Shver mitn eydem ( Father @-@ in @-@ Law and Son @-@ in @-@ Law ) 1876
Di Bobeh mit dem Eynikel ( The Grandmother and the Granddaughter ) 1876 , 1879
The Desolate Isle , Yiddish translation of a play by August von Kotzebue , 1876
Di Intrigeh oder Dvosye di pliotkemahern ( The Intrigue or Dvoisie Intrigued ) 1876 , 1877
A Gloz Vaser ( A Glass of Water ) 1877
Hotye @-@ mir un Zaytye @-@ mir ( Leftovers ) 1877
Shmendrik , oder Di komishe Chaseneh ( Schmendrik or The Comical Wedding ) 1877 , 1879
Shuster un Shnayder ( Shoemaker and Tailor ) 1877
Di Kaprizneh Kaleh , oder Kaptsnzon un Hungerman ( The Capricious Bride or Pauper @-@ son and Hunger @-@ man ) 1877 presumably the same play as Di kaprizneh Kaleh @-@ Moyd ( The Capricious Bridemaid ) 1887
Yontl Shnayder ( Yontl the Tailor ) 1877
Vos tut men ? ( What Did He Do ? ) 1877
Di Shtumeh Kaleh ( The Mute Bride ) 1877 , 1887
Di Tsvey Toybe ( The Two Deaf Men ) 1877
Der Gekoyfter Shlof ( The Purchased Sleep ) 1877
Di Sheynes ( The Neighbors ) 1877
Yukel un Yekel ( Yukel and Yekel ) 1877
Der Katar ( Catarrh ) 1877
Iks @-@ Miks @-@ Driks , 1877
Di Mumeh Sose ( Aunty Susie ) 1877
Brayndele Kozak ( Breindele Cossack ) , 1877
Der Podriatshik ( The Purveyor ) , 1877
Di Alte Moyd ( The Old Maid ) 1877
Di Tsvey fardulte ( The Two Scatter @-@ Brains ) 1877
Di Shvebeleh ( Matches ) 1877
Fir Portselayene Teler ( Four Porcelain Plates ) 1877
Der Shpigl ( The Mirror ) 1877
Toib , Shtum un Blind ( Deaf , Dumb and Blind ) 1878
Der Ligner , oder Todres Bloz ( The Liar , or , Todres , Blow ) ( or Todres the Trombonist ) 1878
Ni @-@ be @-@ ni @-@ me @-@ ni @-@ cucurigu ( Not Me , Not You , Not Cock @-@ a @-@ Doodle @-@ Doo or Neither This , Nor That , nor Kukerikoo ; Lulla Rosenfeld also gives the alternate title The Struggle of Culture with Fanaticism ) 1878
Der Heker un der Bleher @-@ yung ( The Butcher and the Tinker ) 1878
Di Kishufmacherin ( The Sorceress , also known as The Witch of Botoşani ) 1878 , 1887
Soufflé , 1878
Doy Intriganten ( Two Intriguers ) 1878
Di tsvey Kuni @-@ lemels ( The Fanatic , or The Two Kuni @-@ Lemls ) 1880
Tchiyat Hametim ( The Winter of Death ) 1881
Shulamith ( Shulamith or The Daughter of Jerusalem ) wr . 1880 , 1881
Dos Zenteh Gebot , oder Lo Tachmod ( The Tenth Commandment , or Thou Shalt Not Covet ) 1882 , 1887
Der Sambatyen ( Sambation ) 1882
Doktor Almasada , oder Di Yiden in Palermo ( Doctor Almasada , or The Jews of Palermo also known as Doctor Almasado , Doctor Almaraso , Doctor Almasaro ) 1880 , 1883
Bar Kokhba , 1883 , 1885
Akeydos Yitschok ( The Sacrifice of Isaac ) , 1891
Dos Finfteh Gebot , oder Kibed Ov ( The Fifth Commandment , or Honor Thy Father ) , 1892
Rabi Yoselman , oder Di Gzerot fun Alsas ( Rabbi Yoselman , or The Alsatian Decree ) 1877 , 1892
Judas Maccabeus , 1892
Judith and Holofernes , 1892
Mashiach Tzeiten ? ! ( The Messianic Era ? ! ) 1891 1893
Yiddish translation of Johann Strauss 's Gypsy Baron 1894
Sdom Veamora ( Sodom and Gomorrah ) 1895
Di Katastrofe fun Brayla ( The Catastrophe in Brăila ) 1895
Meylits Yoysher ( The Messenger of Justice ) 1897
David ba @-@ Milchama ( David in the War ) 1906 , in Hebrew
Ben Ami ( Son of My People ) 1907 , 1908
= = = Songs and poetry = = =
Goldfaden wrote hundreds of songs and poems . Among his most famous are :
" Der Malekh " ( " The Angel " )
" Royzhinkes mit mandlen " ( Raisins and Almonds )
" Shabes , Yontev , un Rosh Khoydesh " ( " Sabbath , Festival , and New Moon " )
" Tsu Dayn Geburtstag ! " ( " To Your Birthday ! " )
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= Ununpentium =
Ununpentium ( element symbol : Uup ) is the temporary name of a superheavy element that was first synthesized in 2003 by a joint team of Russian and American scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia . With the atomic number 115 in the periodic table the synthetic element is also known as element 115 , or eka @-@ bismuth . In December 2015 , it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP . In June 2016 , the IUPAC suggested the element to be named moscovium / mɒsˈkoʊviəm / ( element symbol : Mc ) , a name to be formally accepted by the end of 2016 .
Ununpentium is an extremely radioactive element ; its most stable known isotope , ununpentium @-@ 289 , has a half @-@ life of only 220 milliseconds . In the periodic table , it is a p @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 15 as the heaviest pnictogen , although it has not been confirmed to behave as a heavier homologue of the pnictogen bismuth . Ununpentium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues , nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic , antimony , and bismuth , although it should also show several major differences from them . About 100 atoms of ununpentium have been observed to date , all of which have been shown to have mass numbers from 287 to 290 .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The first synthesis of ununpentium succeeded in August 2003 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia , by a joint team of Russian and American scientists . Headed by Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian , the team included American scientists of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . The researchers on February 2 , 2004 , in Physical Review C that they bombarded americium @-@ 243 with calcium @-@ 48 ions to produce four atoms of ununpentium . These atoms decayed by emission of alpha @-@ particles to ununtrium in approximately 100 milliseconds .
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 288
115Uup + 3 1
0n → 284
113Uut + α
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 287
115Uup + 4 1
0n → 283
113Uut + α
The Dubna – Livermore collaboration strengthened their claim for the discoveries of ununpentium and ununtrium by conducting chemical experiments on the final decay product 268Db . None of the nuclides in this decay chain were previously known , so existing experimental data was not available to support their claim . In June 2004 , and December 2005 , the presence of a dubnium isotope was confirmed by extracting the final decay products , measuring spontaneous fission ( SF ) activities and using chemical identification techniques to confirm that they behave like a group 5 element ( as dubnium is known to be in group 5 of the periodic table ) . Both the half @-@ life and decay mode were confirmed for the proposed 268Db , lending support to the assignment of the parent nucleus to ununpentium . However , in 2011 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) did not recognize the two elements as having been discovered , because current theory could not distinguish the chemical properties of group 4 and group 5 elements with sufficient confidence . Furthermore , the decay properties of all the nuclei in the decay chain of ununpentium had not been previously characterized before the Dubna experiments , a situation which the JWP generally considers " troublesome , but not necessarily exclusive " .
= = = Road to confirmation = = =
Two heavier isotopes of ununpentium , 289Uup and 290Uup , were discovered in 2009 – 2010 as daughters of the ununseptium isotopes 293Uus and 294Uus . The JINR also has future plans to study lighter isotopes of element 115 by replacing the americium @-@ 243 target with the lighter isotope americium @-@ 241 .
In 2011 , the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) evaluated the 2004 and 2007 Dubna experiments , and concluded that they did not meet the criteria for discovery . Another evaluation of more recent experiments took place within the next few years , and a claim to the discovery of ununpentium was again put forward by Dubna . In August 2013 , a team of researchers at Lund University and at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Darmstadt , Germany announced they had repeated the 2004 experiment , confirming Dubna 's findings . Further confirmation was published by the team at Berkeley in 2015 .
In December 2015 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party recognized the element 's discovery and assigned the priority to the Dubna @-@ Berkeley collaboration , giving them the right to suggest a permanent name for it .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , ununpentium is sometimes known as eka @-@ bismuth . In 1979 IUPAC recommended that the placeholder systematic element name ununpentium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uup ) be used until the discovery of the element is confirmed and a name is decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations are mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who call it " element 115 " , with the symbol of ( 115 ) or even simply 115 .
On 30 December 2015 , discovery of the element was recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) . According to IUPAC recommendations , the discoverer ( s ) of a new element has the right to suggest a name . A suggested name was langevinium , after Paul Langevin . Later , the Dubna team mentioned the name moscovium several times as one among many possibilities , referring to the Moscow Oblast where Dubna is located .
In June 2016 , IUPAC endorsed the latter proposal to be formally accepted by the end of the year .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = =
Ununpentium is expected to be in the middle of an island of stability centered on copernicium ( element 112 ) and flerovium ( element 114 ) : the reasons for the presence of this island , however , are still not well understood . Due to the expected high fission barriers , any nucleus within this island of stability exclusively decays by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and beta decay . Although the known isotopes of ununpentium do not actually have enough neutrons to be on the island of stability , they can be seen to approach the island as in general , the heavier isotopes are the longer @-@ lived ones .
The isotope 291Uup is especially interesting as it has only one neutron more than the heaviest known ununpentium isotope , 290Uup . It could plausibly be synthesized as the daughter of ununseptium @-@ 295 , which in turn could be made from the reaction 249Bk ( 48Ca , 2n ) 295Uus . Calculations show that it may have a significant electron capture or positron emission decay mode in addition to alpha decaying and also have a relatively long half @-@ life of several seconds . This would produce 291Fl , 291Uut , and finally 291Cn which is expected to be in the middle of the island of stability and have a half @-@ life of about 1200 years , affording the most likely hope of reaching the middle of the island using current technology . Possible drawbacks are that the cross section of the production reaction of 295Uus is expected to be low and the decay properties of superheavy nuclei this close to the line of beta stability are largely unexplored .
Other possibilities to synthesize nuclei on the island of stability include quasifission ( partial fusion followed by fission ) of a massive nucleus . Such nuclei tend to fission , expelling doubly magic or nearly doubly magic fragments such as calcium @-@ 40 , tin @-@ 132 , lead @-@ 208 , or bismuth @-@ 209 . Recently it has been shown that the multi @-@ nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei ( such as uranium and curium ) might be used to synthesize the neutron @-@ rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability , although formation of the lighter elements nobelium or seaborgium is more favored . One last possibility to synthesize isotopes near the island is to use controlled nuclear explosions to create a neutron flux high enough to bypass the gaps of instability at 258 – 260Fm and at mass number 275 ( atomic numbers 104 to 108 ) , mimicking the r @-@ process in which the actinides were first produced in nature and the gap of instability around radon bypassed . Some such isotopes ( especially 291Cn and 293Cn ) may even have been synthesized in nature , but would have decayed away far too quickly ( with half @-@ lives of only thousands of years ) and be produced in far too small quantities ( about 10 − 12 the abundance of lead ) to be detectable as primordial nuclides today outside cosmic rays .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
In the periodic table , ununpentium is a member of group 15 , the pnictogens , below nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic , antimony , and bismuth . Every previous pnictogen has five electrons in its valence shell , forming a valence electron configuration of ns2np3 . In ununpentium 's case , the trend should be continued and the valence electron configuration is predicted to be 7s27p3 ; therefore , ununpentium will behave similarly to its lighter congeners in many respects . However , notable differences are likely to arise ; a largely contributing effect is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction — the mutual interaction between the electrons ' motion and spin . It is especially strong for the superheavy elements , because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms , at velocities comparable to the speed of light . In relation to ununpentium atoms , it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels ( stabilizing the corresponding electrons ) , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect , and the effect " tearing " the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting . Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 ⁄ 2 and 3 ⁄ 2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p2
1 / 27p1
3 / 2 . These effects cause ununpentium 's chemistry to be somewhat different from that of its lighter congeners .
The valence electrons of ununpentium fall into three subshells : 7s ( two electrons ) , 7p1 / 2 ( two electrons ) , and 7p3 / 2 ( one electron ) . The first two of these are relativistically stabilized and hence behave as inert pairs , while the last is relativistically destabilized and can easily participate in chemistry . ( The 6d electrons are not destabilized enough to participate chemically , although this may still be possible in the two previous elements ununtrium and flerovium . ) Thus , the + 1 oxidation state should be favored , like Tl + , and consistent with this the first ionization potential of ununpentium should be around 5 @.@ 58 eV , continuing the trend towards lower ionization potentials down the pnictogens . Ununpentium and ununtrium both have one electron outside a quasi @-@ closed shell configuration that can be delocalized in the metallic state : thus they should have similar melting and boiling points ( both melting around 400 ° C and boiling around 1100 ° C ) due to the strength of their metallic bonds being similar . Additionally , the predicted ionization potential , ionic radius ( 1 @.@ 5 Å for Uup + ; 1 @.@ 0 Å for Uup3 + ) , and polarizability of Uup + are expected to be more similar to Tl + than its true congener Bi3 + . Ununpentium should be a dense metal due to its high atomic weight , with a density around 13 @.@ 5 g / cm3 . The electron of the hydrogen @-@ like ununpentium atom ( oxidized so that it only has one electron , Uup114 + ) is expected to move so fast that it has a mass 1 @.@ 82 times that of a stationary electron , due to relativistic effects . For comparison , the figures for hydrogen @-@ like bismuth and antimony are expected to be 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 077 respectively .
= = = Chemical = = =
Ununpentium is predicted to be the third member of the 7p series of chemical elements and the heaviest member of group 15 ( VA ) in the Periodic Table , below bismuth . In this group , each member is known to portray the group oxidation state of + 5 but with differing stability . For nitrogen , the + 5 state is mostly a formal explanation of molecules like N2O5 : it is very difficult to have five covalent bonds to nitrogen due to the inability of the small nitrogen atom to accommodate five ligands . The + 5 state is well represented for the essentially non @-@ relativistic typical pnictogens phosphorus , arsenic , and antimony . However , for bismuth it becomes rare due to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s orbitals known as the inert pair effect , so that the 6s electrons are reluctant to bond chemically . It is expected that ununpentium will have an inert pair effect for both the 7s and the 7p1 / 2 electrons , as the binding energy of the lone 7p3 / 2 electron is noticeably lower than that of the 7p1 / 2 electrons . Nitrogen ( I ) and bismuth ( I ) are known but rare and ununpentium ( I ) is likely to show some unique properties , probably behaving more like thallium ( I ) than bismuth ( I ) . Because of spin @-@ orbit coupling , flerovium may display closed @-@ shell or noble gas @-@ like properties ; if this is the case , ununpentium will likely be typically monovalent as a result , since the cation Uup + will have the same electron configuration as flerovium , perhaps giving ununpentium some alkali metal character . However , the Uup3 + cation would behave like its true lighter homolog Bi3 + . The 7s electrons are too stabilized to be able to contribute chemically and hence the + 5 state should be impossible and ununpentium may be considered to have only three valence electrons . Ununpentium would be quite a reactive metal , with an oxidation potential of about 1 @.@ 5 V.
The chemistry of ununpentium in aqueous solution should essentially be that of the Uup + and Uup3 + ions . The former should be easily hydrolyzed and not be easily complexed with halides , cyanide , and ammonia . Ununpentium ( I ) hydroxide ( UupOH ) , carbonate ( Uup2CO3 ) , oxalate ( Uup2C2O4 ) , and fluoride ( UupF ) should be soluble in water ; the sulfide ( Uup2S ) should be insoluble ; and the chloride ( UupCl ) , bromide ( UupBr ) , iodide ( UupI ) , and thiocyanate ( UupSCN ) should be only slightly soluble , so that adding excess hydrochloric acid would not noticeably affect the solubility of ununpentium ( I ) chloride . Uup3 + should be about as stable as Tl3 + and hence should also be an important part of ununpentium chemistry , although its closest homolog among the elements should be its lighter congener Bi3 + . Ununpentium ( III ) fluoride ( UupF3 ) and thiozonide ( UupS3 ) should be insoluble in water , similar to the corresponding bismuth compounds , while ununpentium ( III ) chloride ( UupCl3 ) , bromide ( UupBr3 ) , and iodide ( UupI3 ) should be readily soluble and easily hydrolyzed to form oxyhalides such as UupOCl and UupOBr , again analogous to bismuth . Both ununpentium ( I ) and ununpentium ( III ) should be common oxidation states and their relative stability should depend greatly on what they are complexed with and the likelihood of hydrolysis .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of ununpentium has yet to have been established . In 2011 , experiments were conducted to create ununtrium , flerovium , and ununpentium isotopes in the reactions between calcium @-@ 48 projectiles and targets of americium @-@ 243 and plutonium @-@ 244 . However , the targets included lead and bismuth impurities and hence some isotopes of bismuth and polonium were generated in nucleon transfer reactions . This , while an unforeseen complication , could give information that would help in the future chemical investigation of the heavier homologs of bismuth and polonium , which are respectively ununpentium and livermorium . The produced nuclides bismuth @-@ 213 and polonium @-@ 212m were transported as the hydrides 213BiH3 and 212mPoH2 at 850 ° C through a quartz wool filter unit held with tantalum , showing that these hydrides were surprisingly thermally stable , although their heavier congeners UupH3 and LvH2 would be expected to be less thermally stable from simple extrapolation of periodic trends in the p @-@ block . Further calculations on the stability and electronic structure of BiH3 , UupH3 , PoH2 , and LvH2 are needed before chemical investigations take place . However , ununpentium and livermorium are expected to be volatile enough as pure elements for them to be chemically investigated in the near future . The chief barrier to their chemical investigation at present is the lack of known isotopes of these elements which are long @-@ lived enough .
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= Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour =
Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour , known in Japan as Mario Golf : Family Tour ( マリオゴルフ ファミリーツアー , Mario Gorufu Famirī Tsuā ) , is a 2003 sports game developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo GameCube . It is the sequel to the 1999 Nintendo 64 title Mario Golf , and is the second game in the Mario Golf series . It was released in North America on July 28 , 2003 , in Japan on September 5 , 2003 , and in the PAL region on June 18 , 2004 .
Toadstool Tour is a golf game featuring characters and elements from the Mario series . There are 16 playable characters in total , each with a set of golfing statistics defining their style of play . The game 's main mode involves the player competing in tournaments to obtain new features , although there are alternative modes consisting of training session and variations to the golf format . This includes " Ring Attack " , requiring the player to hit the ball through rings of varying sizes while remaining on or under par . Players can transfer characters between Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and Mario Golf : Advance Tour using the Nintendo GameCube Game Boy Advance Cable .
Toadstool Tour received a positive reception from the media , gaining an aggregate score of 82 % from Game Rankings . In general , reviewers praised the game 's visuals , sound , and variety of courses , although a perceived lack of advancement from its predecessor was criticised . The game became part of the Player 's Choice label in 2004 .
= = Gameplay = =
Toadstool Tour is a golf game incorporating characters , enemies , and themes from the Mario series . As a typical golf game , the player 's objective is to hit the ball into the hole using as few strokes as possible . Prior to the swing , the player chooses a club , a general direction and range for the ball to travel . During the swing , the player determines power by timing a button press for a marker to stop at the desired point on a power meter . At this point , the player can choose to influence the direction of the ball by applying spin . Players can alternate between auto and manual shots , with the latter providing the player with more control , albeit at a higher risk of a poor shot . Many of these gameplay aspects , such as spin , are affected by the 16 characters ' individual statistics . These relate to features such as control of the ball and the general height of the character 's shot , which determines how much the character 's play is affected by the wind . At varying stages in the " Character match " mode , characters have a chance to be upgraded into " Star characters " , which grants statistical enhancements . To achieve this , the player must defeat a computer @-@ designated artificial intelligence ( AI ) opponent with a character of their choice , awarding the AI character with the upgrade for use later by the player . The opportunities are only available once an envelope appears beside a character portrait in the selection screen .
There are seven courses in the game , with the later versions featuring more complex terrain and exotic features . The more advanced courses offer a higher frequency of difficult terrain and elevation , as in bunkers , which limit the accuracy and range of shots . There are also hazards such as lava pits and thwomps , which will incur a one @-@ shot penalty if landed on . Each course takes its name from a particular Mario feature , such as " Peach 's Castle Grounds " , which is themed in particular on the Mushroom Kingdom . This course includes themed hazards such as chain chomps in bunkers , as well as warp pipes to change the location of the ball .
Toadstool Tour contains several gameplay modes and variants of golf , as well as the traditional stroke and match play . The player can choose to play the " Doubles " option in several modes , which allows two players to play alternate strokes as a team . " Coin attack " entails collecting several coins scattered on the course , while " Ring attack " requires the player to direct the ball through rings of varying locations , angles , and diameter while keeping on or under par . Some side games incorporate personal training for the player , such as the side games , which develops approaching , putting , shots , and birdie skills ( see types of shot ) . The main mode is " Tournament mode " , which involves the player competing against artificial intelligence opponents on each course to win trophies . The game features interactivity with the Game Boy Advance . Players can transfer characters between Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and Mario Golf : Advance Tour .
= = Development = =
Toadstool Tour was developed by Camelot Software Planning , the same team responsible for the game 's predecessor , Mario Golf . During an interview with two Camelot developers , Hiroyuki and Shugo Takahashi , it was revealed that the game was developed simultaneously with the GameCube Mario Tennis title , Mario Power Tennis . According to the brothers , ideas and technology used for the development of Toadstool Tour was also used for Power Tennis . The game was displayed as a playable demonstration in the E3 convention of 2003 . Toadstool Tour became part of the Player 's Choice label in 2004 , which offers a reduced price to games that have sold more than one million copies . The music in Toadstool Tour was composed by Motoi Sakuraba , who has scored several other Mario Golf titles .
= = Reception = =
Toadstool Tour received a positive reaction from critics , although it was criticised for being too similar to its predecessor . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented that " Mario Golf hasn 't really grown much since its time on the N64 " , despite enjoying the game 's course design and " sense of fun " . Both GameSpot and IGN praised the game 's courses , although the later stages were preferred to the more basic initial courses . Electronic Gaming Monthly lauded the game 's physics evidenced by the use of wind , weather , and surface conditions . The game was often likened to the Tiger Woods PGA Tour games , which served as a criticism when Eurogamer noted the absence of events and player progression in the game 's single @-@ player mode . This point was shared by Jennifer Tsao of EGM , who wanted " a more compelling single @-@ player mode " that would offer a " golf pro who coaches me based on my swings " .
The game 's controls were generally well received , despite specific issues such as difficulties executing very short putts due to the game 's power meter . The accessibility of the controls in particular were lauded , although Camelot 's choice not to use the analogue swing present in many golf games was a common complaint . This specifically was compared to the analogue system present in Tiger Woods games , prompting Matt Casamassina to comment " going from Tiger Woods back to the mechanics of Mario Golf feels like going from car to horse " . The variety of modes available in Toadstool Tour was rated as " amazing " by GameSpot , who proceeded to commend the clarification provided by the game 's manual booklet and in @-@ game tutorial . Eurogamer also noted this by offering praise to " Ring attack " , but conversely rated " Coin attack " as " a bit shallow " . The game 's multiplayer offerings were highly regarded by most reviewers .
Many reviewers criticised Toadstool Tour 's use of camera , especially when the ball 's presented route would ignore obstacles . GameSpot otherwise welcomed the game 's visuals , however , arguing that the recurring Mario characters " never looked better " . IGN also lauded the graphics present in the full motion video and the rest of the game , as well as Toadstool Tour 's audio . Matt Casamassina acknowledged the characters ' voiced taunts , saying " the muttering , complaining Waluigi , never fails to bring a smile to our faces " .
Alex Trickett of BBC Sport gave it 85 % and stated , " If you like pure simulation stick with world number one Tiger Woods , but if you are ready for a wackier round of golf , let your favourite Italian plumber come to the fore . " Likewise , Marc Saltzman of The Cincinnati Enquirer gave it four stars out of five and stated that , " One of the game 's greatest assets is its intuitive control scheme . Novice and seasoned players will be able to pick up and play with little trouble . There are customizable options for manual or automatic swing modes . " However , the only negative review came from Alex Porter of Maxim , who gave it a score of four out of ten , saying , " Golfing game standards like club selection , power meter , and control of backspins and topspins satisfy , but the sometimes @-@ clunky controls and confusing camera perspectives will leave you teed @-@ off . "
Toadstool Tour sold 1 @.@ 03 million units in North America as of December 27 , 2007 .
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= Greenville Bridge =
The Greenville Bridge is a cable @-@ stayed bridge over the Mississippi River carrying US 82 and US 278 between Refuge , Mississippi and Shives , Arkansas . When it opened in 2010 , it was the fourth longest cable @-@ stayed bridge in North America .
The Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge , the first bridge to connect the two towns , had become functionally obsolete . Its narrow road had only two lanes with no shoulders . Because of its location near a sharp bend in the Mississippi River , the bridge had become a hazard to river traffic ; barges and towboats frequently collided with it . In 1994 , a study concluded that a new bridge was needed and the old one should be torn down . Construction was begun in 2001 and the new bridge opened in 2010 . In 2011 , the process of removing the old bridge began .
= = Description = =
Opened in 2010 , the Greenville Bridge carries US 82 / 278 over the Mississippi River between Refuge , Mississippi and Shives , Arkansas . It is located 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) down river from the original bridge , built in 1940 . Designed by HNTB , it is a four @-@ lane cable @-@ stayed bridge with more than 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of bridge deck straddled by two concrete towers 425 feet ( 130 m ) feet high and anchored by concrete piers planted 120 feet ( 37 m ) below the riverbed . It has four fans of strand steel cable connected to the top of the towers which support the deck .
Each of the bridge 's four lanes is 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide . The outside shoulders are 12 feet ( 4 m ) feet wide and the inside shoulder width is 8 feet ( 2 m ) . The bridge has a main span of 1 @,@ 378 feet ( 420 m ) . At the time of its opening , it was the fourth longest cable @-@ stayed bridge in North America .
Both the old and new bridges are geographically mostly in Arkansas , as the state lines were determined prior to the shift west of the Mississippi River .
= = History = =
The first Greenville Bridge was built by the company now known as HNTB and opened to much fanfare in 1940 as the " pathway to progress " for the Mississippi Delta . It was a through @-@ truss design and had a span of 840 feet ( 260 m ) . Until 1943 , this was the longest bridge for vehicles on the Mississippi River . Over time , the bridge supported increasing volumes of highway traffic and vehicles hitting the bridge . In the 1950s , an Air Force plane crashed into the bridge . Though the bridge remained structurally sound , it was becoming functionally obsolete . It had only two narrow highway lanes and no shoulders . An accident or the crossing of very large vehicles such as a large combine could force the bridge to close .
With river traffic increasing , damage from barge collisions increased . By 1972 , the Greenville Bridge was hit more times by barges than any other bridge on the Mississippi . The bridge was located close to a sharp bend in the Mississippi ; towboats and barges had difficulty making the sharp turn and regaining their course in time to avoid a collision with the bridge . Over the years , many have not been able to make the turn quickly and have hit it . The bridge had become a danger to river traffic .
A 1994 engineering study by the Mississippi Department of Transportation explored alternatives to upgrading the crossing of US 82 and issued a report that explored a four @-@ lane crossing at Greenville . It concluded the best of several alternatives it identified was to build a new bridge 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) downriver from the old one , and to remove the old bridge . Additional studies evaluated the type of bridge to build , and by 1995 the cable @-@ stayed bridge was chosen as the best design to fit the river and soil conditions , as well as providing sufficient clearance for river navigation . Engineering plans were completed in 1999 .
= = Construction = =
HNTB , of Kansas City , Missouri , was the designer and consulting engineer for both the new bridge as well as the original Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge . The federal government provided $ 110 million to begin building the main part of the bridge consisting long spans supported by cables . The main superstructure construction began in December 2001 . Massman Construction Company in a joint venture with Traylor Brothers , Inc. received the contract to construct two large piers in the river ; these were built using both floating caissons and open caisson construction . The construction on the last main span section of the bridge was finished in April 2006 .
Building the approaches , including shorter spans of approach bridge work and structural support systems for the bridge , was the responsibility of each state . For both states , the approach bridges are constructed of a series of three span units , each unit 120 feet ( 37 m ) long . Construction of Arkansas ' 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) mile approach of highway and bridge , costing $ 66 million , began in March 2006 ; Mississippi began its 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) approach in April , 2006 , costing almost $ 86 million . Hill Brothers Construction and Jensen Construction , in a joint venture with the Rasmussen Group , were awarded the contract for the eastern approach of US 82 in Greenville to the Mississippi River crossing . Hills Brothers Construction was awarded a $ 85 @.@ 9 million contract to work on the road deck of the Mississippi approach to the bridge , the concrete footings , and the substructure and superstructure of that portion . Austin Bridge and Road was awarded a $ 65 million contract to build Arkansas 's 4 @,@ 657 feet ( 1 @,@ 419 m ) of approach bridge and 3 @,@ 225 feet ( 983 m ) of connecting roadway which was completed in August 2009 . The remaining contract , to apply a latex surface to the bridge , add stripes , tie US 82 into the approaches , and dismantle the Humphreys Bridge , was awarded in January 2010 .
It took sixteen years from the initial developing stage begun in 1994 , until the Greenville Bridge opened to traffic on August 4 , 2010 . The entire cost of the bridge totaled $ 336 million . In 2011 , the massive process of removing the old bridge by cutting into small sections to be recycled was begun , and is expected to be completed by September 2012 . At times , the river has been closed to traffic to aid the demolition . The job is dangerous and at least two workers have died .
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= Roman – Persian Wars =
The Roman – Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco @-@ Roman world and two successive Iranian empires : the Parthian and the Sassanid . Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 92 BC ; wars began under the late Republic , and continued through the Roman and Sassanid empires . They were ended by the Arab Muslim conquests , which defeated both the Sassanid and Byzantine East Roman empires shortly after the end of the last war between them .
Although warfare between the Romans and the Parthians / Sassanids lasted for seven centuries , the frontier remained largely stable . A game of tug of war ensued : towns , fortifications , and provinces were continually sacked , captured , destroyed , and traded . Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders , and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin . Both sides did make conquests beyond the border , but in time the balance was almost always restored . The line of stalemate shifted in the 2nd century AD : it had run along the northern Euphrates ; the new line ran east , or later northeast , across Mesopotamia to the northern Tigris . There were also several substantial shifts further north , in Armenia and the Caucasus .
The expense of resources during the Roman – Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires . The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Caliphate , whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman – Persian war . Benefiting from their weakened condition , the Arab Muslim armies swiftly conquered the entire Sassanid Empire , and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of the territories of the Levant , the Caucasus , Egypt , and the rest of North Africa . Over the following centuries , some of the Eastern Roman Empire came under Muslim rule . As it stands , this was the longest conflict in human history , lasting approximately 721 years .
= = Historical background = =
According to James Howard @-@ Johnston , " from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD , the rival players [ in the East ] were grand polities with imperial pretensions , which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides " . The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the Seleucid Empire . During the 3rd century BC , the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern Iran . Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids , in the 2nd century BC they broke away , and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers , and through the course of the 3rd and early 1st century BC , they had conquered Persia , Mesopotamia , and Armenia . Ruled by the Arsacid dynasty , the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories , and established several eponymous branches in the Caucasus , namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia , the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania . Meanwhile , the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in Anatolia in the early 2nd century BC , after defeating Antiochus III the Great at Thermopylae and Magnesia . Finally , in 64 BC Pompey conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria , extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the Euphrates , where it met the territory of the Parthians .
= = Roman – Parthian Wars = =
= = = Roman Republic vs. Parthia = = =
Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I and was revived by Mithridates II , who negotiated unsuccessfully with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for a Roman – Parthian alliance ( c . 105 BC ) . When Lucullus invaded Southern Armenia and led an attack against Tigranes in 69 BC , he corresponded with Phraates III to dissuade him from intervening . Although the Parthians remained neutral , Lucullus considered attacking them . In 66 – 65 BC , Pompey reached agreement with Phraates , and Roman – Parthian troops invaded Armenia , but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary . Finally , Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia , except for the western district of Osroene , which became a Roman dependency .
The Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results ; he and his son Publius were killed at the Battle of Carrhae by the Parthians under General Surena ; this was the worst Roman defeat since the Battle of Cannae . The Parthians raided Syria the following year , and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC , but their army was caught in an ambush near Antigonea by the Romans , and they were driven back .
The Parthians largely remained neutral during Caesar 's civil war , fought between forces supporting Julius Caesar and forces supporting Pompey and the traditional faction of the Roman Senate . However , they maintained relations with Pompey , and after his defeat and death , a force under Pacorus I assisted the Pompeian general Q. Caecilius Bassus , who was besieged at Apamea Valley by Caesarian forces . With the civil war over , Julius Caesar prepared a campaign against Parthia , but his assassination averted the war . The Parthians supported Brutus and Cassius during the ensuing Liberators ' civil war and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . After the Liberators ' defeat , the Parthians invaded Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman Quintus Labienus , a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius . They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into Judaea , overthrowing the Roman client Hyrcanus II and installing his nephew Antigonus . For a moment , the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands . However , the conclusion of the second Roman civil war soon revived Roman strength in Asia . Mark Antony had sent Ventidius to oppose Labienus , who had invaded Anatolia . Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces , and , although reinforced by the Parthians , was defeated , taken prisoner , and killed . After suffering a further defeat near the Syrian Gates , the Parthians withdrew from Syria . They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius , and Pacorus was killed . In Judaea , Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by Herod in 37 BC . With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored , Mark Antony led a huge army into Atropatene , but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out , while his Armenian allies deserted . Failing to make progress against Parthian positions , the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties . Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the Median king against Octavian and the Parthians . Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw , and the whole region came under Parthian control .
= = = Roman Empire vs. Parthia = = =
With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war , Octavian and Phraataces worked out a compromise in 1 AD . According to the agreement , Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a de facto Roman protectorate there . Nonetheless , Roman – Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades . The decision of the Parthian King Artabanus III to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD , which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia . War erupted in 58 AD , after the Parthian King Vologases I forcibly installed his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne . Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a Cappadocian prince , triggering an inconclusive war . This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor .
A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD , during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia . The Emperor Trajan invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces . He captured the Parthian capital , Ctesiphon , before sailing downriver to the Persian Gulf . However , uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories , while a major Jewish revolt broke out in Roman territory , severely stretching Roman military resources . Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions , and the Roman garrisons at Seleucia , Nisibis and Edessa were expelled by the local inhabitants . Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia , but having installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates on the throne as a client ruler , he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria . Trajan died in 117 , before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces .
Trajan 's Parthian War initiated a " shift of emphasis in the ' grand strategy of the Roman empire ' " , but his successor , Hadrian , decided that it was in Rome 's interest to re @-@ establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control . Hadrian returned to the status quo ante , and surrendered the territories of Armenia , Mesopotamia , and Adiabene to their previous rulers and client @-@ kings .
War over Armenia broke out again in 161 , when Vologases IV defeated the Romans there , captured Edessa and ravaged Syria . In 163 a Roman counter @-@ attack under Statius Priscus defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne . The following year Avidius Cassius invaded Mesopotamia , winning battles at Dura @-@ Europos and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165 . An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time , possibly of smallpox , spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal ; this was the origin of the Antonine Plague that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire . In 195 – 197 , a Roman offensive under the Emperor Septimius Severus led to Rome 's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around Nisibis , Singara and the 2nd sacking of Ctesiphon . A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor Caracalla , who sacked Arbela in 216 . After his assassination , his successor , Macrinus , was defeated by the Parthians near Nisibis . In exchange for peace , he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla .
= = Roman – Sassanid Wars = =
= = = Early Roman – Sassanid conflicts = = =
Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and Ardashir I 's foundation of the Sassanid Empire . Ardashir raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the Achaemenid Empire . After fruitless negotiations , Alexander Severus set out against Ardashir in 232 and finally repulsed him . In 238 – 240 , towards the end of his reign , Ardashir attacked again , taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia , including Carrhae and Nisibis .
The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir 's successor Shapur I , who invaded Mesopotamia . His forces were defeated at a battle near Resaena in 243 and the Romans regained Carrhae and Nisibis . Encouraged by these victories , Roman Emperor Gordian III advanced down the Euphrates but was repelled near Ctesiphon at the Battle of Misiche in 244 . Gordian III was then killed , and successor Emperor Phillip the Arab hastily negotiated a peace settlement . With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short @-@ term emperors , Shapur I soon resumed his attacks . He conquered Armenia and killed its king , defeated the Romans at the Battle of Barbalissos in 253 , and sacked Antioch . Between 258 and 260 , Shapur captured Emperor Valerian after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa . He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there ; attacks from Odaenathus of Palmyra forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory , surrendering Armenia and Antioch .
The Emperor Carus launched a successful invasion of Persia in 283 , sacking the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon for the third time . The Romans probably would have extended their conquests had Carus not died in December of that year .
After a brief peace early in Diocletian 's reign , the Persians renewed hostilities when they invaded Armenia and defeated the Romans outside Carrhae in either 296 or 297 . However , Galerius crushed the Persians in the Battle of Satala in 298 , capturing the treasury and the royal harem , an utter disgrace for the Persian monarch . The resulting peace settlement gave the Romans control of the area between the Tigris and the Greater Zab . This was the most decisive Roman victory for many decades ; all the territories that had been lost , all the debatable lands , and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands .
The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid @-@ 330s , when Shapur II began a series of offensives against the Romans . Despite a string of victories in battle , his campaigns achieved little lasting effect : three Persian sieges of Nisibis were repulsed , and while Shapur succeeded in taking Amida and Singara , both cities were soon regained by the Romans . Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia 's northern frontier , he launched a new campaign in 359 and again captured Amida . This provoked a major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor Julian , who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon . Julian won the Battle of Ctesiphon but was unable to take the Persian capital and retreated along the Tigris . Harried by the Persians , Julian was killed in a skirmish . With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates , Julian 's successor Jovian made peace , agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sassanid territory . The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris , as well as Nisibis and Singara , and Shapur soon conquered Armenia . In 384 or 387 , a definitive peace treaty was signed by Shapur III and Theodosius I dividing Armenia between the two states . Meanwhile , the northern territories of the Roman Empire were invaded by Germanic , Alanic , and Hunnic peoples , while Persia 's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the Hephthalites . With both empires preoccupied by these threats , a largely peaceful period followed , interrupted only by two brief wars , the first in 421 – 422 and the second in 440 .
= = Byzantine – Sassanid Wars = =
= = = Anastasian War = = =
War broke out when the Persian King Kavadh I attempted to gain financial support by force from the Byzantine Roman Emperor Anastasius I. In 502 AD , he quickly captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis and besieged Amida . The siege of the fortress @-@ city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected ; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten . In 503 , the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian @-@ held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results . Finally in 504 , the Romans gained control through the renewed investment of Amida , which led to the fall of the city . That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus . Although the two powers negotiated , it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to . In 505 , Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara . At the same time , the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa , Batnae and Amida . Although no further large @-@ scale conflict took place during Anastasius ' reign , tensions continued , especially while work proceeded at Dara . This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades earlier . Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections , and the walls were completed by 507 – 508 .
= = = Iberian War = = =
In 524 – 525 AD , Kavadh proposed that Justin I adopt his son , Khosrau , but the negotiations soon broke down . Tensions between the two powers erupted into conflict when Caucasian Iberia under Gourgen defected to the Romans in 524 – 525 . Overt Roman – Persian fighting had broken out in the Transcaucasus region and upper Mesopotamia by 526 – 527 . The early years of war favored the Persians : by 527 , the Iberian revolt had been crushed , a Roman offensive against Nisibis and Thebetha in that year was unsuccessful , and forces trying to fortify Thannuris and Melabasa were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks . Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes , the new Roman emperor , Justinian I , reorganized the eastern armies .
In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at Dara , while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at Satala . Belisarius was defeated by Persian and Lakhmid forces at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 . In the same year the Romans gained some forts in Armenia , while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica . Immediately after the failure at Callinicum the Persians and Romans negotiated without success . The two sides re @-@ opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the Eternal Peace in September 532 , which lasted less than eight years . Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories , and the Romans agreed to make a one @-@ time payment of 110 centenaria ( 11 @,@ 000 lb of gold ) . Iberia remained in Persian hands , and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land .
= = = Justinian vs. Khosrau I = = =
The Persians broke the " Treaty of Eternal Peace " in 540 AD , probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire , which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East . Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria , extorting large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia , and systematically looting other cities including Antioch , whose population was deported to Persian territory . Belisarius , recalled from the campaigns in the West to deal with the Persian threat , waged an inconclusive campaign against Nisibis in 541 . Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia in 542 when he attempted to capture Sergiopolis . He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius , sacking the city of Callinicum en route . Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed , and Persian forces were defeated at Dara . In 543 , the Romans launched an offensive against Dvin but were defeated by a small Persian force at Anglon . Khosrau besieged Edessa in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders . In the wake of the Persian retreat , Roman envoys proceeded to Ctesiphon for negotiations . A five @-@ year truce was agreed to in 545 , secured by Roman payments to the Persians .
Early in 548 , King Gubazes of Lazica , having found Persian protection oppressive , asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate . The emperor seized the chance , and in 548 – 549 combined Roman and Lazic forces won a series of victories against Persian armies , although they failed to take the key garrison of Petra . The city was finally subjugated in 551 , but in the same year a Persian offensive led by Mihr @-@ Mihroe occupied eastern Lazica . The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2 @,@ 000 lb of gold each year . In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years , with neither side able to make any major gains . Khosrau , who now had to deal with the White Huns , renewed the truce in 557 , this time without excluding Lazica ; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty . Finally , in 562 , the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau put together the Fifty @-@ Year Peace Treaty . The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30 @,@ 000 nomismata ( solidi ) . Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade .
= = = War for the Caucasus = = =
War broke out again when Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sassanid rule in 571 AD , following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies in Yemen and the Syrian desert , and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the Turks against Persia . Justin II brought Armenia under his protection , while Roman troops under Justin 's cousin Marcian raided Arzanene and invaded Persian Mesopotamia , where they defeated local forces . Marcian 's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria , the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara . At a cost of 45 @,@ 000 solidi , a one @-@ year truce in Mesopotamia ( eventually extended to five years ) was arranged , but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued . In 575 , Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace . He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia , but after a clash near Melitene the Persian army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack .
The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general Justinian invaded deep into Persian territory and raided Atropatene . Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative after Tamkhusro won a victory in Armenia , where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants . In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory . The Roman general Maurice retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia , capturing the stronghold of Aphumon , and sacking Singara . Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor Hormizd IV ( r . 578 @-@ 590 ) preferred to continue the war .
In 580 , Hormizd IV abolished the Caucasian Iberian monarchy , and turned Iberia into a Persian province ruled by a marzpan ( governor ) . During the 580s , the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides . In 582 , Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro , who was killed , but the Roman general did not follow up his victory ; he had to hurry to Constantinople to pursue his imperial ambitions . Another Roman victory at Solachon in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate .
The Persians captured Martyropolis through treachery in 589 , but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general Bahram Chobin , having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV , raised a rebellion . Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son Khosrau II , but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory , while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI . With support from Maurice , Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram , and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans restored Khosrau II to power . In exchange for their help , Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans .
= = = Climax = = =
In 602 the Roman army campaigning in the Balkans mutinied under the leadership of Phocas , who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family . Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war . In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success . They were aided by Khosrau 's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice 's son , and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses . In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara . Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe , he won another victory in 604 , while Dara fell after a nine @-@ month siege . Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege , one after another . At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus .
Heraclius deposed Phocas in 610 after sailing to Constantinople from Carthage . Around the same time , the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia , occupying Caesarea . Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612 , Heraclius launched a major counter @-@ offensive in Syria in 613 . He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt and to devastate Anatolia . Meanwhile , the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction .
During these years , Heraclius strove to rebuild his army , slashing non @-@ military expenditures , devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate , with the backing of Patriarch Sergius , to raise the necessary funds to continue the war . In 622 , Heraclius left Constantinople , entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son . He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and , after conducting exercises to revive their morale , he launched a new counter @-@ offensive , which took on the character of a holy war . In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian @-@ allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz . Following a lull in 623 , while he negotiated a truce with the Avars , Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at Ganzak in Atropatene . In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz , Shahin and Shahraplakan in Armenia , and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz 's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets . Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz , together with the Avars and Slavs , the three unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople in 626 , while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius ' brother Theodore .
Meanwhile , Heraclius formed an alliance with the Turks , who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to ravage their territories in the Caucasus . Late in 627 , Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia , where , despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him , he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris , he sacked Khosrau 's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal . Discredited by this series of disasters , Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II , who at once sued for peace , agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories . Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629 .
= = Aftermath = =
The devastating impact of this last war , added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict , left both empires crippled . When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne , Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war . The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline , heavy taxation from Khosrau II 's campaigns , religious unrest , and the increasing power of the provincial landholders . The Roman Empire was also severely affected , with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs . Additionally , Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions ; the Empire 's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus , Syria , Mesopotamia , Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation .
Neither empire was given any chance to recover , as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs ( newly united by Islam ) , which , according to Howard @-@ Johnston , " can only be likened to a human tsunami " . According to George Liska , the " unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine – Persian conflict opened the way for Islam " . The Sassanid Empire rapidly fell to the Arab Muslim armies and was completely destroyed . During the Byzantine – Arab Wars , the exhausted Roman Empire 's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of Syria , Armenia , Egypt and North Africa were also lost , reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy . These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks , marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural , medieval form of society . However , unlike Persia , the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault , holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in 674 – 678 and 717 – 718 . The Roman Empire also lost its territories in Crete and southern Italy to the Arabs in later conflicts , though these too were ultimately recovered .
= = Strategies and military tactics = =
When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC , it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the Aegean and the Mediterranean . However , the Romans repulsed the great invasion of Syria and Anatolia by Pacorus and Labienus , and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system , which , according to George Rawlinson , was adapted for national defense but ill @-@ suited for conquest . The Romans , on the other hand , were continually modifying and evolving their " grand strategy " from Trajan 's time onwards , and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians . Like the Sassanids in the late 3rd and 4th centuries , the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of Mesopotamia against the Romans . However , the Iranian plateau never fell , as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia , and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks .
From the 4th century AD onwards , the Persian Sassanids grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor . They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sassanid times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere . Everett Wheeler argues that " the Sassanids , administratively more centralized than the Parthians , formally organized defense of their territory , although they lacked a standing army until Khosrau I " . In general , the Romans regarded the Sassanids as a more serious threat than the Parthians , while the Sassanids regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence .
Militarily , the Sassanids continued the Parthians ' heavy dependence on the combination of light @-@ horse archers and cataphracts , the heavy armored cavalry provided by the aristocracy . They added a contingent of war elephants obtained from the Indus Valley , but their infantry quality was inferior to that of the Romans . The Persian heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot @-@ soldiers , including those led by Crassus in 53 BC , Mark Antony in 36 BC , and Valerian in 260 AD . The need to counter this threat led to the introduction of cataphractarii into the Roman army ; as a result , heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars . The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in siege warfare and had developed a range of siege machines . On the other hand , the Parthians were inept at besieging ; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics that destroyed Antony 's siege train in 36 BC . The situation changed with the rise of the Sassanids , when Rome encountered an enemy equally skilled in siegecraft , who made use of artillery , machines captured from the Romans , embankments , and siege towers .
Towards the end of the 1st century AD , Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through a line of fortifications , the limes system , which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by Diocletian . Like the Romans , the Sassanids constructed defensive walls opposite the territory of their opponents . According to R. N. Frye , it was under Shapur II that the Persian system was extended , probably in imitation of Diocletian 's construction of the limes of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire . The Roman border units were known as limitanei , and they faced the Lakhmids in Iraq , who frequently aided the Persians in their contests with the Romans . Shapur intended a permanent defense force against other Arabs of the desert , especially those allied with Rome . Shapur also built a line of fortifications in the west on the model of the Roman system of limes , which impressed the Sassanids .
By the beginning of Sassanid rule , a number of buffer states existed between the empires . These were absorbed by the central state over time , and by the 7th century the last buffer state , the Arab Lakhmids of Al @-@ Hirah , was annexed to the Sassanid Empire . Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman – Sassanid relations , but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized defense system run by the central government and based on the limes and the fortified frontier cities , such as Dara . Recent studies and assessments comparing the Sassanids and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sassanid siegecraft , military engineering , and organization , as well as ability to build defensive works .
= = Assessments = =
The Roman – Persian Wars have been characterized as " futile " and too " depressing and tedious to contemplate " . Prophetically , Cassius Dio noted their " never @-@ ending cycle of armed confrontations " and observed that " it is shown by the facts themselves that [ Severus ' ] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us . For it yields very little and uses up vast sums ; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves , we are always , one might say , fighting the battles of those peoples . " In the long series of wars between the two powers , the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant . Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable , although Nisibis , Singara , Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time , and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other . As Frye states :
One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War .
Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways . The Roman quest for world domination was accompanied by a sense of mission and pride in Western civilization and by ambitions to become a guarantor of peace and order . Roman sources reveal long @-@ standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers ' customs , religious structures , languages , and forms of government . John F. Haldon underscores that " although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier , yet there was always a religious @-@ ideological element present " . From the time of Constantine on , Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of Christians of Persia . This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sassanid Iran and often led to Roman – Persian tensions or even military confrontations . A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict , when what had begun in 611 – 612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest , was the pre @-@ eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strongly religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda ; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God , and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia .
= = Historiography = =
The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered . The Parthians followed the Achaemenid tradition and favored oral historiography , which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished . The main sources of this period are thus Roman ( Tacitus , Marius Maximus , and Justin ) and Greek historians ( Herodian , Cassius Dio and Plutarch ) . The 13th book of the Sibylline Oracles narrates the effects of the Roman – Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra . With the end of Herodian 's record , all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost , until the narratives of Lactantius and Eusebius at the beginning of the 4th century , both from a Christian perspective .
The principal sources for the early Sassanid period are not contemporary . Among them the most important are the Greeks Agathias and Malalas , the Persians Tabari and Ferdowsi , the Armenian Agathangelos , and the Syriac Chronicles of Edessa and Arbela , most of whom depended on late Sassanid sources , especially Khwaday @-@ Namag . The Augustan History is neither contemporary nor reliable , but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus . The trilingual ( Greek , Parthian , and Middle Persian ) inscriptions of Shapur are primary sources . These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however , and by the end of the 4th century AD , even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sassanids .
For the period between 353 and 378 , there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus . For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century , the works of Sozomenus , Zosimus , Priscus , and Zonaras are especially valuable . The single most important source for Justinian 's Persian wars up to 553 is Procopius . His continuators Agathias and Menander Protector offer many important details as well . Theophylact Simocatta is the main source for the reign of Maurice , while Theophanes , Chronicon Paschale and the poems of George of Pisidia are useful sources for the last Roman – Persian war . In addition to Byzantine sources , two Armenian historians , Sebeos and Movses , contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius ' war and are regarded by Howard @-@ Johnston as " the most important of extant non @-@ Muslim sources " .
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= 2000 – 01 S.L. Benfica season =
The 2000 – 01 season was Sport Lisboa e Benfica 's 97th season in existence , and the club 's 67th consecutive season in the Primeira Liga . It ran from 1 July 2000 to 30 June 2001 . Benfica competed domestically in the Primeira Liga and the Taça de Portugal . The club also participated in the UEFA Cup , by virtue of finishing third in that tournament the previous season .
The season is the worst in Benfica history since the start of the Primeira Liga during 1934 – 35 . The club switched managers two times . Jupp Heynckes was replaced by José Mourinho in September . Toni , who previously guided the club to a league title , took the reins in December . In the transfer market , young players like Marchena and Fernando Meira were brought in , and mixed with the experience of 31 year @-@ old , Pierre van Hooijdonk , who arrived to replace Nuno Gomes , were meant to improve the team competitiveness . However , the biggest event of the pre @-@ season was the release of João Pinto , the longest @-@ serving player on the club , and the incumbent captain . This decision was poorly received by the fans , who criticized Heynckes and the president for the move . Both would leave the club in the following months . In the league campaign , the team lacked balance year @-@ round and only briefly entered the league race , spending all but three weeks out the top three . Even the successful partnership of Pierre van Hooijdonk and João Tomás , with 36 goals between them , did not prevent the club from finishing in sixth place , 23 points behind winner Boavista . Consequently , Benfica missed out on UEFA competitions for the first time in 51 years ( since the 1959 – 60 season ) .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Preparations for a new Benfica season started in late @-@ May 2000 . Manager Jupp Heynckes remained for a second year , with more control this time in building up the squad . His choices caused immediate controversy , the biggest being the release of Benfica veteran João Pinto . Pinto was the incumbent team captain and the longest @-@ serving player , who had been at Benfica since the 1992 – 93 season . José Manuel Delgado of Record predicted a difficult season for the German manager : " ... he will have less tolerance from the fans than that offered to Artur Jorge ( three match days ) , or Manuel José ( four match days ) ... " He forwent internationals like Paulo Bento and Amaral , but indulged on Marchena , Meira and Van Hooijdonk . The last was intended to replace Nuno Gomes , who moved to Fiorentina after a successful run at Euro 2000 . All of this spending happened in spite of club @-@ wide financial difficulties , from missed salaries for Michael Thomas , to the basketball section of the club going months without pay .
The pre @-@ season started on 7 July , with a schedule of 8 games . It included a match celebrating the 50th anniversary of Olympique Lyon , and the Carlsberg Belfast Challenge against Linfield and Liverpool . Benfica ended the pre @-@ season on 11 August , with a draw against Aston Villa .
= = = August – October = = =
Benfica started their 2000 – 01 Primeira Liga campaign on the road in a Clássico match against FC Porto , on 19 August 2000 . João Marcelino stated that Porto " ... had some luck in the way they obtained their first goal ( shot from Alenichev deflected off Calado and betrayed Enke ) ... " , allowing them to manage the lead until the end . Benfica 's first home game was against Beira @-@ Mar on 27 August . At ten minutes into the second half of that game , Maniche 's goal put Benfica up 3 – 0 , setting them up for victory .
September began for Benfica with a visit to Leiria . It was a hard @-@ fought match , in which referee José Leirós gave out twelve bookings . They narrowly escaped defeat when Chano scored in stoppage time . Benfica started their European season on 14 September in Sweden , with a 1 – 2 loss to host Halmstads . Benfica won their second home game of the season , on 18 September , against Estrela da Amadora , thanks to two goals scored by Van Hooijdonk in consecutive minutes near the end of regulation time . In the post @-@ match interview , following weeks of fan pressure , club manager Heynckes lost his calm and proclaimed : " I can 't take this club anymore . If they want me gone , I 'll leave tomorrow . " He was immediately let go , and replaced with 37 @-@ year @-@ old José Mourinho . Former player Mozer joined him as assistant . It was Mourinho 's first time as manager , having previously worked only as an interpreter for Bobby Robson and Louis van Gaal . His first game as manager was on the road against Boavista , in which his team lost 0 – 1 to a goal from ex @-@ Benfica player Duda . The second leg of the UEFA Cup was a home game played on 28 September at the Estádio da Luz . It ended in a 2 – 2 draw and they were eliminated from the tournament – a result reminiscent of their 1997 – 98 season .
Benfica started October with a home game against Braga . The visitors took the lead in the first half , but João Tomás and Van Hooijdonk responded with a goal each , reversing the score in the second half . However , Braga went on to equalize with a last @-@ minute goal , costing Benfica two points . On 15 October , Benfica won its third league game of the season by defeating Belenenses one – nil behind Marchena 's goal . The team played Paços de Ferreira on the 21st , dropping two points in a 0 – 0 draw . Benfica played their last game of the month against Campomaiorense on the 29th , winning with a double from João Tomás , scored within a space of ten minutes from each other . They finished the month in seventh place on the league table , nine points behind leader Porto .
= = = November – February = = =
Benfica faced Marítimo in an away game at the beginning of November . They lost 0 – 3 , to a hat @-@ trick from Lagorio . Without a single road game victory , the team dropped to tenth in the league 's standings . They hosted Farense in the second week of November and won 2 – 1 . Van Hooijdonk and João Tomás scored a goal each , within a 4 @-@ minute interval just before the final whistle , to give their team the three points . On 18 November , Benfica played Vitória de Guimarães on the road . They took the lead near the end of the first half , with a goal from Chano . The second half saw three additional goals , all by João Tomás . It was their first win as visitors , and they climbed to sixth place in the standings . Benfica played their last game of the month , on the 26th , at the Taça de Portugal against Campomaiorense . This fourth round match was won thanks to a late goal by Sabry .
Benfica started December with a Derby de Lisboa game against Sporting . They won 3 – 0 , with a first half goal by Van Hooijdonk and two goals in a five @-@ minute span from João Tomás . Following the win , Mourinho requested a contract extension as a demonstration of faith in the work he had put in along with his assistant : " Me [ Mourinho ] and Mozer thought that the only way to end speculation and the constant threat of being sacked in the event of a bad result ... was renewing our contracts for another season . " Their proposal was not met . They parted ways with the club through an announcement in a press conference : " He [ President Vilarinho ] thought it was better not to accept our request . We understood that decision showed a lack of trust in our work , and that we should offer our resignation ... " Benfica immediately appointed Toni – a long @-@ time favourite of the President – as the new manager . On 10 December , Benfica played Alverca away from home . They opened the score sheet with a goal from João Tomás close to half @-@ time , but Mantorras equalized . Later , Milinkovic put the Ribatejo side in the lead , resulting in the fourth loss in seven matches in away games for Benfica . In the last match of the year 2000 , Benfica met a struggling Gil Vicente , who were at the bottom of the Primeira Liga standings . Unable to unlock the 0 – 0 draw , the club suffered their eighth winless league game of the season .
Early in January , Benfica played away from home , at Louletano , in a fifth round match of the Taça de Portugal . They won 3 – 1 and progressed to the next knock @-@ out stage , where they would face Porto . Benfica resumed their league campaign on the 7th , visiting Salgueiros . They won their second away game , after Van Hooijdonk scored with nine minutes remaining on the clock . They went on to win their third match in a row on 13 January , with a 5 – 1 home @-@ game win against Desportivo Aves . Benfica took an early lead with a Van Hooijdonk goal in the 15th minute , and added two more in the first half , one by Carlitos and another from an own goal . The Dutch striker added two more goals to his tally in the second half . On 17 January , Benfica received Porto for the first of three consecutive games against them . The first game was part of the Taça de Portugal and ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Maniche scored the lone Benfica goal before Maric equalized for Porto . A rematch was held to settle the tie . Four days later , on Sunday , Benfica hosted Porto for a Portuguese league match . They defeated the visitors 2 – 1 , after a goal from Van Hooijdonk in the 81st minute . This win allowed the club to climb to fourth in the league 's standings – their best position all year . The last of three games saw Benfica succumb to a four @-@ nil loss in the rematch for the Portuguese Cup . Manuel Queiroz wrote : " ... A thrashing that did not transpire what really happened in the field , because Fernando Santos ' team – in the best performance of the season – completely demolished a Benfica that never entered the game ... " Benfica 's last game of the month was played on the road on the 29th , against the Aveiro side , Beira @-@ Mar. The match ended with a 3 – 1 win for Benfica , after another double for Van Hooijdonk . João Tomás also got on the score sheet .
On 4 February , the team beat União de Leiria at home by 3 goals to 2 . Benfica took the lead with a goal from João Tomás . Roger and Van Hooijdonk increased their lead by two goals , until Nuno Valente settled the final score . With this win , Benfica climbed to second place the league , now only five points behind leader Boavista . On the 16th , Benfica played Estrela da Amadora away from home . The game ended with a 2 – 1 victory for Benfica . Along with Boavista 's loss in Braga , this further reduced Benfica 's separation from the league leader . Benfica played their last match of February on the 25th against Boavista . Benfica had an opportunity to take the top place in the league table with a victory in that game , but they were unsuccessful at breaking the 0 – 0 draw . Van Hooijdonk had the best chance in the 78th minute , but his attempt struck the goalpost .
= = = March – May = = =
Benfica began March with an away game in Braga . They lost 3 – 1 in their first league loss since December . They dropped to fourth place in the standings . On the following Saturday , Benfica visited Belenenses and lost for a second time in a row . A week later , Benfica received Paços de Ferreira at home . The match ended with a 3 – 2 win for the visitors and Benfica dropped to fifth place . They were now eleven points behind leader Boavista . In the last game of March , Benfica faced Campomaiorense on the road . With a 1 – 1 draw , the team avoided losing all of their matches in March . However , their need to get points was aggravated , especially if they wanted to qualify for the European competitions .
In April , Benfica opened at home against Marítimo , with a squad composed mainly of reserve players . A 3 – 0 win helped get closer to both Braga and Sporting in the standings . On 13 April , Benfica visited Faro . The match ended in a 2 – 2 draw despite a Benfica having a first @-@ half lead . Nine days later , Benfica played Vitória de Guimarães at home . A sole goal from Sabry in the 31st minute was enough to secure the team 's second win in April . Closing out the month , Benfica travelled to Alvalade for the second Derby de Lisboa of the season . The game ended in a 3 – 0 loss for Benfica . This was the Lions ' best result against Benfica since the 1986 – 87 season .
On 4 May , Benfica played Alverca at home , where they lost 0 – 2 , and in the writing of João Querido Manhã for Record , the fans " burst into protests at the end , after they lost patience with the errors , passivity and lack of talent of the whole team . " . On 13 May , Benfica went to Adelino Ribeiro Novo to face Gil Vicente . The game ended in a 3 – 0 defeat – their tenth loss within the league , matching their previous record in the 1996 – 97 season . As a result , the club was overtaken by Belenenses in the league table . A week later , Benfica played host to Salgueiros in Da Luz . A final score of 1 – 1 saved Benfica from a record fourth straight loss , and gave the Porto @-@ based side their first point all season against a top 7 team . Benfica played the last game of the season against Desportivo de Aves on the road . At one point in the game , the team was losing three @-@ nil , but managed to equalize and finish with a four @-@ all draw . Toni stated that " Everyone did not do their best to avoid that a historic club slipped into a position that is not accustomed . " Benfica finished in a record @-@ breaking sixth place after the 34 @-@ game season with a tally of 15 wins , 9 draws and 10 losses that , together , summed up to 54 points . They were ninth @-@ lowest league @-@ wide in goals conceded – 44 in all . On the plus side , they were fifth best in the league at goal @-@ scoring , with a total of 54 goals . Van Hooijdonk was the second most productive player in the Primeira Liga with 19 goals .
= = Results = =
Win Draw Loss Postponed
= = = Overall record = = =
= = = Primeira Liga = = =
= = = = League table = = = =
Source : ForaDeJogo
Rules for classification : 1st points , 2nd head @-@ to @-@ head , 3rd goals average ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : FootballPortugal.netGround : A |
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D |
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W |
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = = = Matches = = = =
= = = Taça de Portugal = = =
= = = UEFA Cup = = =
= = = = First round = = = =
= = = Friendlies = = =
= = Player statistics = =
The squad for the season consisted of the players listed in the tables below , as well as staff members Heynckes ( manager ) , Mourinho ( manager ) , Toni ( manager ) and Mozer ( assistant coach ) .
Note 1 : Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Note 2 : Players with squad numbers marked ‡ joined the club during the 2000 – 01 season via transfer , with more details in the following section .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
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= Operation Ten @-@ Go =
Operation Ten @-@ Go ( 天號作戰 ( Kyūjitai ) or ja : 天号作戦 ( Shinjitai ) , Ten @-@ gō Sakusen ) was a Japanese naval operation plan in 1945 , consisting of four likely scenarios . Its first scenario , Operation Heaven One ( or Ten @-@ ichi @-@ gō天一号 ) became the last major Japanese naval operation in the Pacific Theater of World War II . The resulting engagement is also known as the Battle of the East China Sea .
In April 1945 , the Japanese battleship Yamato ( the heaviest battleship in the world ) , along with nine other Japanese warships , embarked from Japan on a deliberate suicide attack upon Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa . The Japanese force was attacked , stopped , and almost destroyed by United States carrier @-@ borne aircraft before reaching Okinawa . Yamato and five other Japanese warships were sunk .
The battle demonstrated U.S. air supremacy in the Pacific theater by this stage in the war and the vulnerability of surface ships without air cover to aerial attack . The battle also exhibited Japan 's willingness to sacrifice entire ships , even the pride of its fleet , in desperate kamikaze attacks aimed at slowing the Allied advance on the Japanese home islands . This extremism reportedly contributed to the US decision to employ nuclear weapons against the Japanese .
= = Background = =
By early 1945 , following the Solomon Islands campaign , the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the once formidable Imperial Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet was reduced to just a handful of operational warships and a few remaining aircraft and aircrew . Most of the remaining Japanese warships in the Combined Fleet were stationed at ports in Japan , with most of the large ships at Kure , Hiroshima .
As a final step before the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands , Allied forces invaded Okinawa on 1 April 1945 . In March , in briefing Emperor Hirohito on Japan 's response to the expected Okinawan invasion , Japanese military leaders explained that the Japanese Imperial Army was planning extensive air attacks , including the use of kamikaze . The emperor then reportedly asked , " But what about the Navy ? What are they doing to assist in defending Okinawa ? Have we no more ships ? " Now feeling pressured by the emperor to also mount some kind of attack , Japan 's Navy commanders conceived a kamikaze @-@ type mission for their remaining operational large ships , which included the battleship Yamato .
The resulting plan — drafted under the direction of the Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet , Admiral Toyoda Soemu — called for Yamato and her escorts to attack the U.S. fleet supporting the U.S. troops landing on the west of the island . Yamato and her escorts were to fight their way to Okinawa and then beach themselves between Higashi and Yomitan and fight as shore batteries until they were destroyed . Once destroyed , the ship 's surviving crewmembers were supposed to abandon the ships and fight U.S. forces on land . Very little , if any , air cover could be provided for the ships , which would render them almost helpless to concentrated attacks from US carrier @-@ based aircraft . In preparation for executing the plan , the assigned ships left Kure for Tokuyama , Yamaguchi , off Mitajiri , Japan , on 29 March . However , despite obeying orders to prepare for the mission , Vice @-@ Admiral Seiichi Itō — commander of the Ten @-@ Go force — still refused to actually order his ships to carry it out , believing the plan to be futile and wasteful .
Other commanders of the Imperial Japanese Navy also had very negative feelings about the operation , believing that it was a waste of human life and fuel . Captain Atsushi Ōi — who commanded escort fleets — was critical as fuel and resources were diverted from his operation . As he was told that the aim of this operation was " the tradition and the glory of Navy , " he shouted :
This war is of our nation and why should the honor of our " surface fleet " be more respected ? Who cares about their glory ? Damn fools !
( " Surface fleet " refers to capital ships , especially battleships that " should have won the war " . )
Vice Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka flew from Tokyo on 5 April to Tokuyama in a final attempt to convince the assembled commanders of the Combined Fleet — including Admiral Itō — to accept the plan . Upon first hearing of the proposed operation ( it had been kept secret from most of them ) , the Combined Fleet commanders and captains unanimously joined Admiral Itō in rejecting it for the same reasons that he had expressed . Admiral Kusaka then explained that the Navy 's attack would help divert U.S. aircraft away from the Army 's planned kamikaze attacks on the U.S. fleet at Okinawa . He also explained that Japan 's national leadership , including the emperor , were expecting the Navy to make their best effort to support the defense of Okinawa .
Upon hearing this , the Combined Fleet commanders relented and accepted the proposed plan . The ship 's crews were briefed on the nature of the mission and given the opportunity to stay behind if desired — none did . However , approximately 80 crew members who were new , sick , or infirm , were ordered off the ships . The ships ' crews now engaged in some last @-@ minute intense drills to prepare for the mission , mostly practicing damage @-@ control procedures . At midnight , the ships were fueled . Reportedly , in secret defiance of orders to provide the ships with only just enough fuel to reach Okinawa , the Tokuyama personnel actually gave Yamato and the other ships almost all of the remaining fuel in the port , although this probably still was not enough to allow the force to return to Japan from Okinawa .
= = Battle = =
At 16 : 00 on 6 April , Yamato , with Admiral Ito on board , the light cruiser Yahagi and eight destroyers departed Tokuyama to begin the mission . Two submarines — USS Threadfin and Hackleback — sighted the Japanese force as it proceeded south through Bungo Suido . Although they were unable to attack ( due to the ships ' speed ) , they did spend several hours shadowing the Japanese sortie and sending updates of its course to the U.S. fleet . The submarines ' messages , which were reportedly sent uncoded , were also picked up by radio operators on the Japanese ships .
At dawn on 7 April , the Japanese force passed the Ōsumi Peninsula into the open ocean heading south from Kyūshū toward Okinawa . They shifted into a defensive formation , with Yahagi leading Yamato and the eight destroyers deployed in a ring around the two larger ships , with each ship 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) from each other and proceeding at 20 kn ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) . One of the Japanese destroyers — Asashimo — developed engine trouble and turned back . U.S. reconnaissance aircraft began to shadow the main force of ships . At 10 : 00 , the Japanese force turned west to make it look like they were withdrawing , but at 11 : 30 , after being detected by two American PBM Mariner flying boats ( the Yamato fired a salvo with her 460 mm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) bow guns using special " beehive shells " ( 三式焼霰弾 ( san @-@ shiki shōsan dan ) but could not prevent the two planes from shadowing the Japanese force ) , they turned back towards Okinawa .
Upon receiving contact reports early on 7 April , U.S. 5th Fleet commander Admiral Raymond Spruance ordered Task Force 54 , which consisted mostly of modernized Standard battleships under the command of Admiral Morton Deyo ( which were engaged in shore bombardment ) , to intercept and destroy the Japanese sortie . Deyo moved to execute his orders , but Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher , who commanded Task Force 58 ( TF 58 ) , preempted Spruance and Deyo by launching a massive air strike from his carriers , without informing Spruance until after the launches were completed .
Around 10 : 00 on 7 April , Task Groups 58 @.@ 1 and 58 @.@ 3 ( TG 58 @.@ 1 and 58 @.@ 3 ) began launching almost 400 aircraft in several waves from eight carriers ( TG 58 @.@ 1 : USS Hornet , Bennington , Belleau Wood , San Jacinto ; TG 58 @.@ 3 USS Essex , Bunker Hill , Hancock and Bataan ) that were located just east of Okinawa . The aircraft consisted of F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighters , SB2C Helldiver dive bombers , and TBF Avenger torpedo bombers . After being informed of Mitscher 's launches , Spruance agreed that the airstrikes could go ahead as planned . As a contingency , Spruance ordered Admiral Deyo to assemble a force of six battleships ( USS Massachusetts , Indiana , New Jersey , South Dakota , Wisconsin , and Missouri ) , together with seven cruisers ( including the battlecruisers USS Alaska and Guam ) and 21 destroyers , and to prepare for a surface engagement with Yamato should the airstrikes prove unsuccessful .
Around 12 : 00 , the first American aircraft arrived over Yamato ; these were F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighters , which were under orders to deal with any Japanese aircraft that might appear to defend the ships below . None did .
Since it soon became obvious that the Japanese force had no air cover , the U.S. aircraft were able to set up for their attacks without fear of opposition from Japanese aircraft . U.S. bomber and torpedo aircraft arriving over the Yamato group — after their two @-@ hour flight from Okinawa — were thus able to circle the Japanese ship formation just out of anti @-@ aircraft range in order to methodically set up their attacks on the warships below . The first wave of U.S. carrier planes were spotted by a Japanese lookout on the bridge at 12 : 32 . Two minutes later , Yamato opened fire with her 460 mm main batteries . The Japanese ships stopped zigzagging and increased speed to 24 kn ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) , beginning evasive maneuvers , and opened fire with their anti @-@ aircraft guns . Yamato carried almost 150 anti @-@ aircraft guns , including her massive 460 mm guns which could fire special " Common Type 3 " anti @-@ aircraft shells , known to the Japanese as " Sanshiki " . The U.S. torpedo airplanes mainly attacked from the port side so that if the torpedoes mainly hit from that side , it would increase the likelihood of the target ship capsizing .
At 12 : 46 , a torpedo hit Yahagi directly in her engine room , killing the entire engineering room crew and bringing her to a complete stop . Yahagi was hit by at least six more torpedoes and 12 bombs by succeeding waves of air attacks . The Japanese destroyer Isokaze attempted to come to Yahagi 's aid but was attacked and heavily damaged , and sank sometime later . Yahagi capsized and sank at 14 : 05 .
During the first attack wave , despite intensive evasive maneuvers that caused most of the bombs and torpedoes aimed at her to miss , Yamato was hit by two armor @-@ piercing bombs and one torpedo . Her speed was not affected , but one of the bombs started a fire aft of the superstructure that was not extinguished . Also , during the first attack wave , Japanese destroyers Hamakaze and Suzutsuki were heavily damaged and taken out of the battle . Hamakaze sank later .
At 13 : 00 exact , Yamato changed course to 180 degrees heading south .
Between 13 : 20 and 14 : 15 , the second and third waves of U.S. aircraft attacked , heavily concentrating on Yamato . During this time , Yamato was hit by at least eight torpedoes and up to 15 bombs . The bombs did extensive damage to the topside of the ship , including knocking out power to the gun directors and forcing the anti @-@ aircraft guns to be individually and manually aimed and fired , greatly reducing their effectiveness . The torpedo hits — almost all on the port side — caused Yamato to list enough that capsizing was now an imminent danger . The water damage @-@ control station had been destroyed by a bomb hit making it impossible to counter @-@ flood the specially designed spaces within the ship 's hull to counteract hull damage . At 13 : 33 , in a desperate attempt to keep the ship from capsizing , Yamato 's damage control team counter @-@ flooded both starboard engine and boiler rooms . This mitigated the danger but also drowned the several hundred crewmen manning those stations , who were given no notice that their compartments were about to fill with water . The loss of the starboard engines — plus the weight of the water — caused Yamato to slow to about 10 kn ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . At that same moment , the Americans launched another 110 aircraft from Task Group 58 . Twenty Avengers made a new torpedo run from 60 degrees to port . Yamato started a sharp turn to port but three torpedoes ripped into her port side amidships , jamming her auxiliary rudder in position hard port .
With Yamato proceeding more slowly and therefore easier to target , U.S. torpedo aircraft concentrated on hitting her rudder and stern with torpedoes in order to affect her steering ability , which they succeeded in doing . At 14 : 02 , after being informed that the ship could no longer steer and was unavoidably sinking , Admiral Ito ordered the mission canceled , the crew to abandon ship , and for the remaining ships to begin rescuing survivors . Yamato communicated this message to the other surviving ships by signal flag because her radios had been destroyed .
At 14 : 05 , Yamato was stopped dead in the water and began to capsize . Admiral Ito and Captain Aruga refused to abandon her with the rest of the survivors . At 14 : 20 , Yamato capsized completely and began to sink ( 30 ° 22 ′ N 128 ° 04 ′ E ) . At 14 : 23 , she suddenly blew up with an explosion so large that it was reportedly heard and seen 200 km ( 110 nmi ; 120 mi ) away in Kagoshima and sent up a mushroom @-@ shaped cloud almost 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) into the air . Japanese survivor Yoshida Mitsuru said that her large explosion downed several U.S. planes observing her end . The explosion is believed to have occurred when the fires ignited by bomb hits reached the main magazines .
Attempting to make it back to port , Japanese destroyer Asashimo was bombed and sunk with all hands by U.S. aircraft . The Japanese destroyer Kasumi was also crippled by U.S. carrier aircraft attack during the battle and had to be scuttled by other , relatively undamaged Japanese destroyers . Suzutsuki — despite her bow being blown off — was able to make it to Sasebo , Japan , by steaming in reverse the entire way .
The remaining three less @-@ damaged Japanese destroyers ( Fuyutsuki , Yukikaze , and Hatsushimo ) were able to rescue 280 survivors from Yamato ( sources differ on the size of Yamato 's crew , giving it as between 2 @,@ 750 and 3 @,@ 300 men ) , plus 555 survivors from Yahagi ( out of a crew of 1 @,@ 000 ) and just over 800 survivors from Isokaze , Hamakaze , and Kasumi . Between 3 @,@ 700 and 4 @,@ 250 Japanese naval personnel perished in the battle . The ships took the survivors to Sasebo .
A total of 10 U.S. aircraft were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire from the Japanese ships ; some of the aircrews were rescued by seaplane or submarine . In total , the U.S. lost 12 men . Some of the Japanese survivors reported that U.S. fighter aircraft machine @-@ gunned Japanese survivors floating in the water . Japanese survivors also reported that U.S. aircraft temporarily halted their attacks on the Japanese destroyers during the time that the destroyers were busy picking up survivors from the water .
During the battle , the Japanese Army conducted an air attack on the U.S. naval fleet at Okinawa as promised , but they failed to sink any ships . Around 115 aircraft — many of them kamikaze — attacked the U.S. ships throughout the day of 7 April . Kamikaze aircraft hit Hancock , battleship USS Maryland , and destroyer USS Bennett , causing moderate damage to Hancock and Maryland and heavy damage to Bennett . About 100 of the Japanese aircraft were lost in the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
Ten @-@ Go was the last major Japanese naval operation of the war , and the remaining Japanese warships had little involvement in combat operations for the rest of the conflict . Suzutsuki was never repaired . Fuyuzuki was repaired but hit a U.S. air @-@ dropped mine at Moji , Japan , on 20 August 1945 , and was not subsequently repaired . Yukikaze survived the war almost undamaged . Hatsushimo hit a U.S. air @-@ dropped mine on 30 July 1945 , near Maizuru , Japan , and was the 129th , and last , Japanese destroyer sunk in the war .
Maryland was kept out of the war following the kamikaze attacks .
Okinawa was declared secure by Allied forces on 21 June 1945 , after an intense and costly battle . Japan surrendered in August 1945 , after being bombed twice with atomic weapons . The apparent willingness of Japan to sacrifice so many of its people using suicidal tactics such as Operation Ten @-@ Go and in the Battle of Okinawa reportedly was a factor in the American decision to employ atomic weapons against Japan .
The story of Operation Ten @-@ Go is revered to some degree in modern Japan as evidenced by appearances of the story in popular Japanese culture which usually portray the event as a brave , selfless , but futile , symbolic effort by the participating Japanese sailors to defend their homeland . One of the reasons the event may have such significance in Japanese culture is that the word Yamato was often used as a poetic name for Japan . Thus , the end of battleship Yamato could serve as a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire .
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= Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine =
Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine is a multi @-@ platform action @-@ adventure video game by LucasArts released in late 1999 . The first 3D installment in the series , its gameplay focuses on solving puzzles , fighting enemies , and various platforming sections . The story told is set between the events of Indiana Jones and the Iron Phoenix and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , and puts the eponymous protagonist , the adventurer Indiana Jones , against the Soviet Union . In a race for a mythological Babylonian power source , he joins forces with the Central Intelligence Agency and collects four pieces of the Infernal Machine , an ancient device that allegedly opens a portal to another dimension .
The title was designed , written , and directed by Hal Barwood who considered the Indiana Jones franchise a perfect fit for the action @-@ adventure genre . Initially developed for the Windows 95 and 98 operating systems , the game later received an enhanced Nintendo 64 port jointly developed with Factor 5 , as well as a 2D version for the Game Boy Color created by HotGen . Infernal Machine received generally favorable reviews , having been praised for its detailed storyline and sophisticated level designs , though widely criticized for its unwieldy control scheme .
= = Gameplay = =
Infernal Machine is an action @-@ adventure and , as such , features a hybrid of various gameplay mechanics . The player sees Indiana Jones from a third @-@ person perspective and controls him through 17 levels of a fully polygonal 3D world . A recurring element of Infernal Machine are platforming sections , for which a combination of running , jumping , climbing , and the use of the protagonist 's trademark bullwhip is required . Furthermore , several human , animal and supernatural enemies are encountered during the course of the game , which the player can fight off with numerous firearms , the aforementioned whip , and a machete . In addition to these obstacles , the game largely focuses on solving puzzles and discovering treasures . Some levels include vehicle @-@ themed portions such as rafting , jeep treks , and mine cart chases . The main objective of the game is to collect four machine parts in order to complete the titular Infernal Machine .
= = Plot = =
The story of the game is set in 1947 and depicts archaeologist and adventurer Indiana Jones returning to his digging career after his involvement in World War II . Sophia Hapgood , an old friend of Indiana and now a member of the Central Intelligence Agency , visits him at his dig site in the Canyonlands , and informs him that the Russians are excavating the ruins of Babylon . Led by Dr. Gennadi Volodnikov , a physicist interested in alternate dimensions , the Soviets ' supposed objective is to find a weapon more powerful than the atom bomb , giving them a decided advantage in the Cold War .
Sophia hires Indiana to investigate what exactly the Russians are searching for , and he travels to their dig site in the Kingdom of Iraq . There , he joins up with Sophia 's boss Simon Turner and finds out that Volodnikov is looking for the Babylonian god Marduk who lives on another plane called the Aetherium . Deep in the ruins of the Etemenanki , Indiana translates some ancient tablets with cuneiform writing explaining the true story behind the Tower of Babel : 2600 years ago , King Nebuchadnezzar II was inspired by Marduk to build a great engine , but the frightened Babylonians tore the tower housing it down , leading four of the god 's disciples to escape with some parts of this " Infernal Machine " .
Indiana embarks on a journey to find these machine parts before the Soviets do , and eventually retrieves all four of them from a monastery in the mountains of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic , an active volcano on Palawan in the Republic of the Philippines , an Olmec valley in United Mexican States , and a tomb near Meroë in the deserts of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Sudan . He is then confronted by Volodnikov and Turner who both demand him to hand over the parts as they think they would not be safe with the other side . Untrusting of his fellow Americans , but opting for the lesser evil , he gives the parts to Sophia and Turner . Volodnikov says that it was probably better this way , as Marduk would have his revenge on those who desecrated the machine .
Alarmed , Indiana travels back to the Room of the Tablets in Babylon , and finds a now @-@ opened gate leading even further into the ruins , to the core of the Infernal Machine . He catches up with Sophia and Turner , the latter of which intends to convince the other dimension to cooperate with the United States of America , and uses the machine parts to activate the engine . He then pushes the unwilling Sophia into a mystical cage as a means of sending her to the Aetherium as an ambassador . Indiana sees no other way but to kill him to reclaim all parts and rescue her . However , the activated machine goes awry , and Indiana and Sophia are sucked into a portal that leads to the other dimension . There , he defeats the malevolent Marduk and frees Sophia from her cage . Having escaped back to Babylon , the team is greeted by Volodnikov , who is curious to find out if they encountered God on the other side , which Indiana denies . In the ensuing conversation , the Soviet doctor turns out to be a lot less extremist than assumed , and the three wander off into the sunrise in search of a good bottle of vodka . A bonus level sees Indiana return to the Peruvian temple from the opening of the film Raiders of the Lost Ark , and has him find another golden idol in a secret room .
= = Development = =
Infernal Machine project leader , designer and writer Hal Barwood always thought of Indiana Jones as an action hero . Based on this notion , he decided for the game to be an action @-@ adventure , as he was particularly fond of the genre and its use of 3D worlds . Barwood also considered the Nazis to be overused as villains in the series and so instead set the title in the Cold War era with Russians as the antagonists . Originally , UFOs were planned to be used as a plot device , though George Lucas vetoed the idea , still reserving it for a then undeveloped fourth movie . In lieu thereof , Barwood became interested in ancient technology like the Antikythera mechanism , conceived the Infernal Machine as the MacGuffin , and placed it in the biblical Tower of Babel , which is believed to be identical with the Etemenanki , a temple dedicated to the god Marduk .
Developed for Windows 95 and 98 , the game uses a modified version of the Sith engine adapted for a third @-@ person view by lead programmer Paul LeFevre . Eventually , lighting , collision , rendering and tools underwent drastic rewrites to the point that the code was renamed the Jones engine . The levels were principally designed by Steven Chen , and later conceptualized with illustrations by lead artist William Tiller . Multiplayer support was planned at the beginning of the development , but ultimately dropped because it turned out to be too complex to adequately test . Instead , more emphasis was put on the design of the single @-@ player campaign with its puzzles and exploring aspect . The team implemented a hint system to lead players in the right direction . Additionally , the score system from previous Indiana Jones games , the Indy Quotient , makes a return . Apart from John Williams ' " Raiders March " , the soundtrack was newly composed by Clint Bajakian and consists of about 130 original pieces . Dubbed European language versions of the fully voice @-@ acted game were released by THQ in Germany , Ubi Soft in France , Electronic Arts in Spain and CTO in Italy .
An intended PlayStation version was canceled early after the game 's announcement . However , a team of eight Factor 5 employees teamed up with artists , level designers and a programmer from LucasArts to port Infernal Machine to the Nintendo 64 . Development of this version commenced in early March 1999 and was finished in October 2000 . Over the course of these 19 months , several improvements were made to the game , such as enhanced real @-@ time lighting , controls , camera and particle systems , as well as added lock @-@ on targeting and assigning items to three of the C buttons of the Nintendo 64 controller . Furthermore , the N64 version has some new musical pieces composed by Chris Hülsbeck , and employs sequenced music as opposed to the prerecorded audio from the PC original . The port was only released in North America and was exclusive to the Blockbuster chain of stores and the LucasArts Company Store . Electronic Arts planned to release it in Europe , but the title then saw a change of publisher to THQ . Originally scheduled for March 2001 , the PAL version became subject to continuous monthly delays and was eventually canceled in September . A 2D version of Infernal Machine with top @-@ down perspective gameplay was developed for the Game Boy Color by HotGen .
= = Reception = =
The PC version of Infernal Machine received generally favorable reviews with an average score of 73 @.@ 60 percent at GameRankings . Although some critics found it to be too similar to Tomb Raider , the game was noted for setting itself apart from the aforementioned series due to being based on the Indiana Jones franchise , and relying more heavily on puzzle @-@ solving . IGN commended the game for its intricate and intriguing storyline . Eurogamer shared the opinion and stated the plot to be " excellently woven " , enhancing the feel of " being part of a big blockbuster movie " . Computer and Video Games , Eurogamer , and IGN also praised Infernal Machine for its levels , calling them " excellently designed " and including " some of the most brilliant layouts [ ... ] seen in a game of this type " . While IGN thought the variety of puzzles provided was sufficient and applauded the inclusion of a hint system , GameSpot found many of the puzzles in the game to focus too heavily on platforming and went on to state that they become " quite repetitive - even predictable " after the first few levels . The most criticized aspect of the PC game across the majority of reviews , however , are the controls . Eurogamer described them as " infuriating at times " , mostly due to their faulty collision detection when performing certain actions . GameSpot thought the control system was too jerky , unresponsive , and unnecessarily slow because of delays between the moves .
The graphics , while low on polygons , were received well for its detailed textures and the diverse locations presented . Eurogamer called Infernal Machine " one of the best looking third person adventures " , and applauded the in @-@ engine cutscenes , claiming them to be " bordering on film quality at times " . GameSpot said the graphics were " not exactly cutting edge " , but " generally quite good " due to the " fairly smooth and convincing " animations . IGN praised the environments for having " a lot more personality than the Tomb Raider series " . Eurogamer called some of the locations " simply stunning " , and GameSpot found the levels to be " aesthetically well designed because of convincing architecture and wall decorations " . Furthermore , the soundtrack was stated by IGN to be " one of the best features of the game " , based on its adding to the dramatic impact along the way . They applauded the voice recording for being " crisp and clean " , though were disappointed with the sparsity of musical tracks and environmental sound effects . Allgame was impressed with the weapon effects and the foreign @-@ language voice overs for the Soviet soldiers , while Computer and Video Games considered the lack of Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones ' voice disappointing , though understandable given his high salary . Eurogamer found the comments of the playable character to become annoying after a while , but were impressed with the ambient sounds and music , claiming the latter to be " ace stuff " , " further enhancing the motion picture feeling of the game " .
Despite its enhancements , the Nintendo 64 version fared about as well with critics as the PC original , yielding 70 @.@ 99 percent at GameRankings and a Metacritic score of 75 out of 100 points . The control scheme of the port was well received by IGN for the addition of C button item management and Z @-@ targeting , both inspired by Ocarina of Time . Though they still considered the controls " slow " and " a little clunky " , they commended them for being " more intuitive , tighter , speedier , and all around more balanced " than those of the PC version . GameSpot did not share these sentiments and stated the adaption of the keyboard controls to the console controller to be " rather clunky and unintuitive " . IGN was impressed with the texture work and lighting , and found the title to be " one of the prettiest " on the Nintendo 64 , even more so by employing the Expansion Pak to achieve high @-@ resolution graphics . However , the graphics received criticism for its " wooden " character animations , occasional frame rate drops , and bugs such as pop @-@ ups and faulty texture placement . IGN remarked that the sound was superior to the PC version 's , while GameSpot thought it was about on par with the port 's above @-@ average graphics . Additionally , GameSpot criticized the Nintendo 64 version for the many bugs and lockups , a problem uncommon for console releases .
HotGen 's Game Boy Color version received an average score of 73 @.@ 80 percent at GameRankings . It was panned by GameSpot for its backtracking , missing puzzle hints , and lack of plot development , but lauded for its clean animations and sound effects . Allgame was disappointed with the instruction manual being mandatory to understand the game 's mostly non @-@ existent plot , and criticized the decision to make the player restart a level upon dying , as well as the password system , calling it " annoying " . Nintendo Power compared it to the N64 version saying it , " has almost as much depth as the recent N64 game and far fewer control problems . " But describing it more as a puzzle game . " You 'll find all the areas that were in the N64 game , but each location has been recreated with its own challenge on GBC . "
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= Robin Starveling =
Robin Starveling is a character in William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1596 ) , one of the Rude Mechanicals of Athens who plays the part of Moonshine in their performance of Pyramus and Thisbe . His part is often considered one of the more humorous in the play , as he uses a lantern in a failed attempt to portray Moonshine and is wittily derided by his audience . Scholars have argued that his amateur performance communicates many of the problems Shakespeare would have been familiar with in the theatre : heckling , lack of adequate props , and amateur acting abilities .
= = Role in the play = =
In A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Theseus , the Duke of Athens , is preparing to marry Hippolyta . Peter Quince decides to entertain her and hires a group of actors nicknamed the Rude Mechanicals to perform Pyramus and Thisbe , a love story . Robin is one of the Rude Mechanicals , the tailor , who gathers with his colleagues to prepare their production . Robin at first is told to play the part of Thisbe 's mother , but Peter Quince points out that a love story needs moonlight shining on the lovers to have any real effect on the audience . After Nick Bottom suggests looking in the almanac for a time when the Moon might shine on their performance , the players apparently decide that they will just have Robin act as Moonshine . Robin 's role as Moonshine in The Mechanical 's performance of Pyramus and Thisbe before Theseus ' court is often highlighted by scholars as among the funnier parts of the play . Although the court makes fun of all the players , Starveling is mocked the most by Hippolyta , who is very vocal in her opinion that his attempt to be moonshine is a ridiculous failure , although very humorous . He is also the only mechanical to be cut off in his monologue as opposed to being mocked afterwards , causing him to fluster and summarize his lines rather than giving them . This summary is usually played angrily or irritably , but has also been performed as the climax of Starveling 's potential stage fright . Starveling is the member of the group that seems to be afraid of just about anything . Starveling is the most ambiguous in taking sides in the power struggle between Bottom and Quince . While Snout affirms whatever Quince says and Flute always looks to Bottom for the final word on something ( Snug is too slow to be bothered ) , Starveling seems to try to agree completely with both , as impossible as it is to do so .
= = Context = =
" Starveling " is a word for a thin or poor person lacking food . " Robin " may have connections to two of Queen Elizabeth 's suitors , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , and Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex . Elizabeth 's pet name for both of these men was " Robin " , leading scholars to believe that Robin Starveling may be a satiric creation of Shakespeare 's in their honour ( or dishonour ) . Another suitor , Duke François ( " Francis " ) Hercule Alençon , may have similar connections with Francis Flute . It may also be a nod to the fact that tailors of the time were usually poor and skinny . Ironically in the 1935 Max Reinhardt film , he was played by the chubby , jovial Otis Harlan .
= = Analysis = =
Shakespeare constantly reflects on the problem of synecdoche in his plays , a rhetorical term meaning " the part representing the whole " . For example , in Henry V , Shakespeare 's has the Prologue beg forgiveness of the audience for attempting to portray an entire army with a few men , and for portraying so great a man as the King with a feeble actor . Shakespeare explores these same problems through Robin Starveling . The Mechanicals ' decision to use Robin as moonlight in place of actual moonlight delves into the problem of synecdoche , of trying to represent something greater than yourself . Robin 's standing there , attempting to be moonshine , does not make him so , even if he is holding a lantern to represent at least a part of the Moon . Similarly , Shakespeare seems to be arguing that no representation of anything in a play can really be completely real or truthful , no matter how hard its players may try . Rather than begging forgiveness of the viewer , he is exaggerating the problem for their entertainment .
The deriding reactions of the members of the upper class watching Robin and his colleagues ' performance would have been familiar to even the more professional actors in Shakespeare 's day . Some scholars have seen in Theseus ' words about the performance a note of sympathy and pleading the cause of the actor : " For never anything can be amiss / when simpleness and duty tender it ... "
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= Backlash ( 2003 ) =
Backlash ( 2003 ) was the fifth annual Backlash professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Castrol GTX , and took place on April 27 , 2003 , at the Worcester Centrum in Worcester , Massachusetts and starred talent from the promotion 's Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
The main event and featured match of the Raw brand was the encounter of Goldberg and The Rock , where Goldberg , in his first WWE Pay @-@ Per @-@ View , defeated Rock by pinfall , following a spear and a Jackhammer . The featured match on the undercard was a WWE Championship match from the SmackDown ! brand , between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar , where Lesnar defeated Cena by pinfall after an F @-@ 5 . The other predominant match on the undercard was a six @-@ man tag team match from the Raw brand , between the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. Triple H , Flair , and Jericho won the match by pinfall , after Triple H hit Nash with a sledgehammer . The predominant undercard match from the SmackDown ! brand was the encounter of The Big Show and Rey Mysterio , where Big Show pinned Mysterio after a chokeslam .
The event grossed US $ 450 @,@ 000 with 10 @,@ 000 ticket sales and had a 0 @.@ 67 buyrate . Following the event , Goldberg began a feud with Chris Jericho . At Bad Blood , Goldberg defeated Jericho via pinfall after a Jackhammer . Brock Lesnar began a storyline with The Big Show over the WWE Championship . At Judgment Day , Lesnar defeated The Big Show in a Stretcher match to retain the WWE Championship . Triple H engaged in a storyline with Kevin Nash over the World Heavyweight Championship . At Judgment Day , Nash defeated Triple H via disqualification ; due to WWE regulations , Triple H retained the championship .
= = Background = =
The main event at Backlash was the encounter of Goldberg and The Rock ; the main feud from the Raw brand heading into the event . The feud began on the March 31 , 2003 episode of Raw , where The Rock held a segment entitled The Rock Appreciation Night , a segment intended to promote his win against Steve Austin at WrestleMania XIX . During the segment , The Rock discussed the list of people he has beaten in his career including Steve Austin , wondering who would challenge him next into a match . Goldberg then made his WWE debut , as he came down to the ring and stated that he would be The Rock 's next challenge . After the confrontation , Goldberg speared The Rock . The following week on Raw , Goldberg and The Rock had another confrontation , where Goldberg provoked The Rock into answering his challenge , but The Rock refused . The Rock finally accepted Goldberg 's challenge on the April 14 , 2003 episode of Raw via satellite . The week before Backlash , the feud intensified as The Rock held another segment entitled The Rock Concert , where he mocked Goldberg with Gillberg , a wrestler whose gimmick was to parody Goldberg . Later into the segment , Goldberg appeared from the audience and entered the ring , only to have The Rock execute a Rock Bottom on him .
The predominant match at Backlash was a WWE Championship match between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar ; the main feud from the SmackDown ! brand heading into the event . Their feud began on February 13 on SmackDown ! , when Lesnar and Cena last fought , which ended with Lesnar almost ending Cena 's career by using the F @-@ 5 to propel his leg into a ring post . At WrestleMania XIX , Lesnar challenged for the WWE title held by then @-@ champion Kurt Angle . Toward the end of the match , Lesnar botched a shooting star press when he underestimated the distance , slamming his head into Angle 's side and ribcage . This stunned Lesnar and forced Angle to improvise the finish of the match . Lesnar then capitalized and regained the WWE title . On the April 3 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , then @-@ General Manager , Stephanie McMahon announced a WWE Championship tournament , where the winner would receive a WWE Championship match at Backlash against Lesnar . John Cena was involved in the tournament , where he defeated Chris Benoit in the finals on the April 17 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! to earn a WWE Championship match at Backlash . The week before Backlash , the feud intensified during a main event match involving Lesnar and A @-@ Train , where Cena interfered by breaking a pinfall attempt by Lesnar . After the match , Cena hit Lesnar with his trademark chain and the WWE Championship title belt .
The main match on the undercard from the Raw brand , was a Six @-@ man tag team match involving the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. The feud began on the March 31 , 2003 episode of Raw , in a backstage segment , where Booker T was being medically attended following his title match with Triple H at WrestleMania XIX , as Flair came into the scene to confront and taunt Booker T. Later that night , Jericho cut a promo , where he complained that he should have won his match against Michaels at WrestleMania XIX . After the promo , Booker T defeated Jericho via disqualification after Flair interfered in the match and attacked Booker T. Afterwards , Triple H came down to the ring , where he , Jericho , and Flair attacked Booker T simultaneously . The attack caused Michaels to come down to the ring to help Booker T to no avail , as Jericho locked Michaels in the Walls of Jericho and Triple H locked Booker T in an Indian deathlock . The following week on Raw , Nash entered the feud during a main event tag team match between the team of Triple H and Jericho facing Michaels and Booker T. After Booker T pinned Triple H to earn the victory for his team , Flair came into the ring and attacked Booker T , followed by Jericho attacking Michaels with a steel chair . The attack led to the return of Nash , who had been sidelined with an injury , who attacked Jericho and Flair . After the turn of events , Triple H prepared to hit Nash with a sledgehammer , only to retreat the ring soon afterwards . The week later , Nash said that he wanted Shawn and Hunter to be friends again , only for Triple H to tell him that they should side together , as Shawn turned on Nash at 1994 . Triple H and Flair fought against Booker T and the Hurricane and lost thanks to Shawn Michaels . Jericho then attacked Shawn and Nash came to the rescue , but accidentally hit Booker with the Sledgehammer . The feud intensified during the week before Backlash , during a main event World Heavyweight Championship match between Booker T , and the reigning champion , Triple H , with Michaels as the special guest referee . During the match , Michaels superkicked Triple H , resulting in Flair and Jericho coming into the ring and attacking Michaels and Booker T. Nash then came down to the ring , where he dispersed Jericho and Flair . He also helped Michaels and Triple H back to their feet , only to receive a low blow by Triple H.
The main match on the undercard from the SmackDown ! brand , was the encounter of The Big Show and Rey Mysterio . The feud began on the April 17 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , during a tag team match pitting Mysterio and Tajiri against The Big Show and A @-@ Train . The Big Show and A @-@ Train won the match via pinfall . After the match , however , Tajiri sprayed green mist into A @-@ Train 's face , while Mysterio delivered a 619 on The Big Show , which caused him to collapse onto the floor . After the match in a backstage segment , The Big Show appeared frustrated with Mysterio for being embarrassed by him . The feud escalated during the week before Backlash , during a match between The Big Show and Tajiri . After The Big Show performed a chokeslam on Tajiri , Mysterio came down to the ring and distracted The Big Show , which caused The Big Show to chase Mysterio at ringside , resulting in Tajiri winning the match via countout .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Scott Steiner defeated Rico in a match on Sunday Night Heat , which aired on TNN .
= = = Main card = = =
The first match of the event on the main card was a tag team match for the Tag Team Championship , between Los Guerreros ( Eddie and Chavo Guerrero ) and the reigning champions , Team Angle ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) . The match began as Team Angle gained early advantage over Los Guerreros , after they performed a leapfrog stun gun on Eddie . After the double team , Benjamin and Haas prevented Eddie from tagging Chavo into the match for a period of time , but Chavo was eventually tagged into the match , where he gained the advantage over Haas . While Chavo was the legal wrestler in the match , Eddie illegally entered the ring and hit a frog splash on Haas , only for an unsuccessful pin attempt by Chavo . After the pin attempt , Eddie and Benjamin fought onto ringside , where Benjamin tripped Chavo , who was in the ring about to perform a suplex on Haas . The situation caused Haas to land on Chavo into a pin cover . Benjamin held Chavo 's leg down , preventing him from kicking out . This allowed Team Angle to retain the Tag Team Championship .
The second match of the event was Sean O 'Haire ( with Roddy Piper ) versus Rikishi . O ' Haire gained the early advantage , as he clotheslined Rikishi down to the ring mat . Soon afterwards , Rikishi was able to retaliate , as he attacked O 'Haire in the ring corner , which led to a stink face attempt . The turn of events led to the attempted interference of Piper , who tried to hit Rikishi with a coconut . Rikishi , however , grabbed the coconut and broke it over Piper 's head . The distraction allowed O ' Haire to perform the Prophecy on Rikishi , into a pinfall .
The third match of the event was a Tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship between The Dudley Boyz ( Bubba Ray and D @-@ Von Dudley ) and the reigning champions , Kane and Rob Van Dam , with Chief Morley as the special guest referee . The match began with Kane and Van Dam in control of the match , after Kane performed a spinebuster on Bubba Ray . D @-@ Von , though , gained the advantage after delivering a sidewalk slam onto Van Dam . Later in the match , Kane regained control , which proceeded into a chokeslam attempt on Bubba Ray . Morley , however , gave Kane a low blow . Afterwards , Lance Storm attempted to interfere in the match on Kane and Van Dam 's behalf , to no avail , which proceeded with a 3 @-@ D from The Dudley Boyz onto Morley , thus knocking out the official of the match . The distraction by Morley and Storm allowed Kane to successfully deliver a chokeslam , followed by a Five @-@ Star Frog Splash onto Bubba , into a pinfall officiated by a new referee . Therefore , Kane and Van Dam retained the World Tag Team Championship .
The fourth match of the event was for the Women 's Championship , where Jazz , who was accompanied by Theodore Long , faced the reigning champion , Trish Stratus . As part of the storyline , Stratus came into the match with injured ribs and was advised not to wrestle by doctors , but was forced to wrestle by Raw General Manager , Eric Bischoff . Both women wrestled a back and forth match , until Stratus gained the advantage over Jazz by performing a Stratusfaction ( springboard bulldog ) on her . During the pin attempt , Long threw his shoe onto Stratus 's head , causing the pin to be broken . The ending of the match saw Stratus attempting to perform a springboard sunset flip on Jazz , only for Jazz to counter it by sitting on her while grabbing the middle rope for the pinfall to become the new Women 's Champion .
The fifth match of the night was The Big Show versus Rey Mysterio . Throughout the match , Mysterio used his quickness against The Big Show 's size advantage , including performing three 619s on The Big Show . During the third 619 , Mysterio attempted a West Coast Pop , yet , The Big Show was able to catch Mysterio in mid @-@ air , reversing the move into a chokeslam for the pinfall . After the match , Mysterio was placed on a stretcher by EMTs . The Big Show picked up the stretcher with Mysterio still on it and slammed it against the ring post , similar to swinging a baseball bat .
The sixth match was for the WWE Championship between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar . Lesnar gained the early advantage over Cena by performing a suplex and hitting Cena 's head on the commentators ' broadcast table . Cena , however , retaliated as he threw Lesnar into the steel ring steps , which caused him to bleed from the head . Lesnar then delivered a spinebuster onto Cena , regaining control of the match . After a spear from Lesnar which sent Cena into the ring corner , Cena attempted to push Lesnar into the referee to no avail . The distraction , however , allowed Cena to hit a low blow on Lesnar . Subsequently , Cena attempted to hit Lesnar with a steel chain , though , the referee confiscated the chain before he used it on Lesnar . The situation allowed Lesnar to perform the F @-@ 5 on Cena into pinfall to retain the WWE Championship .
The featured ( and final ) match on the main card , was a six @-@ man tag team match between the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing the team of Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. The team of Triple H took the early advantage , after Triple H illegally entered the ring and performed a Pedigree on Michaels . Michaels ' team , however , took control of the match when Nash was tagged in and attacked all three opposers . As Nash wrestled Jericho , Booker T performed the scissors kick on Flair , which proceeded into Nash and Triple H brawling at ringside , Jericho and Booker T brawling at ringside , and Flair and Michaels wrestling in the ring . As Flair and Michaels wrestled , Flair was able to lock in the figure @-@ four leg lock , while Jericho illegally entered the match and performed a Lionsault on Michaels , who was locked in the hold . Nash , who continued to brawl with Triple H at ringside , noticed the turn of events and entered the ring where he delivered a Jackknife Powerbomb on Jericho and threw Flair onto the referee . As the referee was knocked down , Triple H hit Nash with a sledgehammer and pinned him , earning the victory for himself , Flair , and Jericho .
= = = Main event = = =
The main event of the night was Goldberg versus The Rock . Early into the match , The Rock taunted Goldberg at ringside to avoid wrestling him . As The Rock returned into the ring , Goldberg performed the Rock Bottom , The Rock 's signature maneuver , on him , gaining the early advantage . Goldberg proceeded into hitting The Rock with a spear , but he dodged the spear , resulting in Goldberg hitting the steel ring post . The Rock took advantage over the situation , as he locked Goldberg in a sharpshooter . Goldberg broke the hold by grabbing the ring ropes and performed a successful spear on The Rock . The Rock , though , was able to perform a spinebuster , Rock Bottom , and People 's Elbow on Goldberg into an unsuccessful pinfall attempt . Afterwards , Goldberg delivered two spears and a Jackhammer into a pinfall .
= = Aftermath = =
After Backlash , The Rock left WWE to focus on his acting career , as he filmed Walking Tall , a film co @-@ produced by WWE Films , released later in 2003 . As The Rock left WWE , Goldberg began a feud against Chris Jericho on the April 28 , 2003 episode of Raw , during Jericho 's first episode of the Highlight Reel , an interview show , where Goldberg was the guest . During the segment , Jericho stated that no one wanted Goldberg in WWE , sparking a feud between the two wrestlers . Less than a month later , on the May 12 , 2003 episode of Raw , a mystery assailant attempted to run over Goldberg with a limousine . The following week on Raw , Co @-@ Raw General Manager Steve Austin interrogated several Raw superstars to find out who was the assailant . One of the interrogated was Lance Storm , who admitted that he was guilty . Austin then forced Storm into a match with Goldberg , who defeated Storm via pinfall . After the match , Goldberg forced Storm to admit that Jericho was the superstar who conspired Storm into running him over . On the May 26 , 2003 episode of Raw , Goldberg yet again was a guest on the Highlight Reel , where Jericho and Goldberg agreed to a match at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Goldberg defeated Jericho via pinfall , after a Jackhammer .
Brock Lesnar engaged in a feud against The Big Show over the WWE Championship . The feud began on the May 1 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , where Lesnar cut an in @-@ ring promo against Big Show , stating that he was a coward for defeating Rey Mysterio at Backlash . The Big Show later appeared on the stage , where he challenged Lesnar into a WWE Championship match . The following week on SmackDown ! , it was announced that The Big Show would face Lesnar for the WWE Championship at Judgment Day in a Stretcher match . Later that night , the feud escalated during a Handicap match between Chris Benoit and the team of The Big Show and A @-@ Train . Benoit lost via pinfall ; after the match , Benoit was double @-@ teamed by The Big Show and A @-@ Train . The double @-@ team caused Lesnar to come and assist Benoit to no avail , as The Big Show performed a chokeslam on Lesnar . At Judgment Day , Lesnar defeated The Big Show in the Stretcher match to retain the WWE Championship .
Brock Lesnar and John Cena would not have another match until Lesnar 's unexpected WWE return in 2012 on the episode of Raw the day after John Cena lost to The Rock at WrestleMania . Lesnar would start a feud with Cena culminating in an Extreme Rules match at its eponymous pay @-@ per @-@ view Extreme Rules . By this point , it was likely that no one had remembered Cena 's previous feud with Lesnar , as the WWE had seen multiple other matches between Lesnar and Cena in a time when Lesnar had been more dominant and more brutally aggressive than in his previous WWE run . Upon his return to the WWE , Lesnar had realigned himself with Paul Heyman and had established his character as " The Beast Incarnate " rather than the " Next Big Thing . " In 2014 , Cena and Lesnar had a rematch , this time for Cena 's WWE World Heavyweight Championship , a unification of the WWE and World Heavyweight championships at WWE 's Tables , Ladders , & Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view in 2013 . Lesnar had obliterated Cena with 16 German Suplexes and a pinfall to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship . He would retain his championship against Cena after a disqualification loss at the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view the next month and was not scheduled to reappear on television until January 2015 , the month in which he successfully defended the title in a triple threat match between Cena and Seth Rollins at that month 's Royal Rumble show . He would eventually lose the title to Rollins , who used his title contract opportunity at WrestleMania , challenging Lesnar to a match right then and there . Nonetheless , Lesnar has been once again on the road to the WWE Championship , occasionally having run @-@ ins with John Cena .
The aftermath of the six @-@ man tag team match from Backlash , was a feud over the World Heavyweight Championship between Kevin Nash and the reigning champion , Triple H. The feud began on the April 28 , 2003 episode of Raw , during a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship involving Triple H and Ric Flair facing the reigning champions , Kane and Rob Van Dam . As Triple H attempted a pinfall on Rob Van Dam , Nash came down to the ring and chased Triple H to the backstage area with a sledgehammer . Triple H then ran towards a limousine , where Nash smashed the windows with the sledgehammer and threw it into the limousine , as it drove off with Triple H. The following week on Raw , Co @-@ Raw General Managers , Austin and Eric Bischoff announced a World Heavyweight Championship match between Nash and Triple H at Judgment Day . At Judgment Day , Triple H was disqualified to retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Results = =
The tournament to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship match was held between April 1 and April 15 , 2003 . The tournament brackets were :
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= The Grove ( Maple Grove , Minnesota ) =
The Grove is a lifestyle center in Maple Grove , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . The shopping mall opened in August 2005 and consists of 538 @,@ 000 square feet ( 50 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , with an additional 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 56 @,@ 000 m2 ) of medical space . The center contains nearly 30 retail tenants and is anchored by Haskell 's Liquor , Home Depot , North Memorial Medical Center , Slumberland Furniture , and Super Target . The Grove also contains a medical campus , Maple Grove Hospital .
Since its opening in 2005 , the shopping center has dealt with constant vacancy rates , despite the urbanization of Maple Grove and its surrounding communities . Many of the center 's tenants are vacant , but vacancy rates have decreased over the years . The center was originally developed and managed by Ryan Companies US , Inc . , but was acquired by Hempel Properties in January 2016 for $ 19 @.@ 2 million . Currently , the center features national chains , including Chipotle Mexican Grill , Great Clips , and Subway .
= = History = =
During development in the early 2000s , the center took up nearly 200 acres of space previously used as farmland . Ryan Companies US , Inc. funded the project , which included the construction of a medical campus and several retail options . Upon completion in August 2005 , over 20 retail tenants had been constructed with the majority of them being vacant . Several national retailers announced interest in the center , including Super Target , which announced plans to close their other Maple Grove location . OfficeMax opened a location in 2007 , but closed in November 2014 after merging with Office Depot , Inc .. Following the closure , only 14 stores remained open at the center .
Throughout the years , several expansions of the property have taken place . Aldi , a discount supermarket , expressed interest in The Grove in 2011 , before purchasing a landsite in October of the same year . Ryan Companies funded a second expansion of the medical building in 2014 ; the new building , located on the south side of the property , contained 41 @,@ 810 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) of rentable medical space . Despite owning the center for nearly a decade , Ryan Companies sold The Grove among other shopping centers to Hempel Properties on January 5 , 2016 , in hopes of " rais [ ing ] the occupancy levels " for several properties .
= = Design = =
According to the center 's developer , the site was " designed to replicate a picturesque village center " , complete with a " walkable shopping lifestyle " and " clocktower " . The Grove 's infrastructure contains several pedestrian trails , parklands , and wetlands , mixed with retail and office space . The architecture of The Grove includes heavy use of windows , similar to that of other office buildings in the Maple Grove community .
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= Oxygen toxicity =
Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen ( O
2 ) at increased partial pressures . It is also known as oxygen toxicity syndrome , oxygen intoxication , and oxygen poisoning . Historically , the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect , and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect , after the researchers who pioneered its discovery and description in the late 19th century . Severe cases can result in cell damage and death , with effects most often seen in the central nervous system , lungs and eyes . Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers , those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen ( particularly premature babies ) , and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy .
The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia , an excess of oxygen in body tissues . The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure . Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure . Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure . Symptoms may include disorientation , breathing problems , and vision changes such as myopia . Prolonged exposure to above @-@ normal oxygen partial pressures , or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures , can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes , collapse of the alveoli in the lungs , retinal detachment , and seizures . Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels . Studies show that , in the long term , a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible .
Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher @-@ than @-@ normal partial pressures , including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases , hyperbaric medicine , neonatal care and human spaceflight . These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity , with pulmonary and ocular damage being mainly confined to the problems of managing premature infants .
In recent years , oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars . The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those suffering from problems such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars . Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100 % oxygen , and should have specific training in using such gases .
= = Classification = =
The effects of oxygen toxicity may be classified by the organs affected , producing three principal forms :
Central nervous system , characterised by convulsions followed by unconsciousness , occurring under hyperbaric conditions ;
Pulmonary ( lungs ) , characterised by difficulty in breathing and pain within the chest , occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods ;
Ocular ( retinopathic conditions ) , characterised by alterations to the eyes , occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods .
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity can cause seizures , brief periods of rigidity followed by convulsions and unconsciousness , and is of concern to divers who encounter greater than atmospheric pressures . Pulmonary oxygen toxicity results in damage to the lungs , causing pain and difficulty in breathing . Oxidative damage to the eye may lead to myopia or partial detachment of the retina . Pulmonary and ocular damage are most likely to occur when supplemental oxygen is administered as part of a treatment , particularly to newborn infants , but are also a concern during hyperbaric oxygen therapy .
Oxidative damage may occur in any cell in the body but the effects on the three most susceptible organs will be the primary concern . It may also be implicated in damage to red blood cells ( haemolysis ) , the liver , heart , endocrine glands ( adrenal glands , gonads , and thyroid ) , or kidneys , and general damage to cells .
In unusual circumstances , effects on other tissues may be observed : it is suspected that during spaceflight , high oxygen concentrations may contribute to bone damage . Hyperoxia can also indirectly cause carbon dioxide narcosis in patients with lung ailments such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or with central respiratory depression . Hyperventilation of atmospheric air at atmospheric pressures does not cause oxygen toxicity , because sea @-@ level air has a partial pressure of oxygen of 0 @.@ 21 bar ( 21 kPa ) whereas toxicity does not occur below 0 @.@ 3 bar ( 30 kPa ) .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Central nervous system = = =
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity manifests as symptoms such as visual changes ( especially tunnel vision ) , ringing in the ears ( tinnitus ) , nausea , twitching ( especially of the face ) , behavioural changes ( irritability , anxiety , confusion ) , and dizziness . This may be followed by a tonic – clonic seizure consisting of two phases : intense muscle contraction occurs for several seconds ( tonic phase ) ; followed by rapid spasms of alternate muscle relaxation and contraction producing convulsive jerking ( clonic phase ) . The seizure ends with a period of unconsciousness ( the postictal state ) . The onset of seizure depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas and exposure duration . However , exposure time before onset is unpredictable , as tests have shown a wide variation , both amongst individuals , and in the same individual from day to day . In addition , many external factors , such as underwater immersion , exposure to cold , and exercise will decrease the time to onset of central nervous system symptoms . Decrease of tolerance is closely linked to retention of carbon dioxide . Other factors , such as darkness and caffeine , increase tolerance in test animals , but these effects have not been proven in humans .
= = = Lungs = = =
Pulmonary toxicity symptoms result from an inflammation that starts in the airways leading to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs ( tracheobronchial tree ) . The symptoms appear in the upper chest region ( substernal and carinal regions ) . This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing . If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues , patients experience a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath ( dyspnoea ) . Physical findings related to pulmonary toxicity have included bubbling sounds heard through a stethoscope ( bubbling rales ) , fever , and increased blood flow to the lining of the nose ( hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa ) . X @-@ rays of the lungs show little change in the short term , but extended exposure leads to increasing diffuse shadowing throughout both lungs . Pulmonary function measurements are reduced , as noted by a reduction in the amount of air that the lungs can hold ( vital capacity ) and changes in expiratory function and lung elasticity . Tests in animals have indicated a variation in tolerance similar to that found in central nervous system toxicity , as well as significant variations between species . When the exposure to oxygen above 0 @.@ 5 bar ( 50 kPa ) is intermittent , it permits the lungs to recover and delays the onset of toxicity .
= = = Eyes = = =
In premature babies , signs of damage to the eye ( retinopathy of prematurity , or ROP ) are observed via an ophthalmoscope as a demarcation between the vascularised and non @-@ vascularised regions of an infant 's retina . The degree of this demarcation is used to designate four stages : ( I ) the demarcation is a line ; ( II ) the demarcation becomes a ridge ; ( III ) growth of new blood vessels occurs around the ridge ; ( IV ) the retina begins to detach from the inner wall of the eye ( choroid ) .
= = Causes = =
Oxygen toxicity is caused by exposure to oxygen at partial pressures greater than those to which the body is normally exposed . This occurs in three principal settings : underwater diving , hyperbaric oxygen therapy , and the provision of supplemental oxygen , particularly to premature infants . In each case , the risk factors are markedly different .
= = = Central nervous system toxicity = = =
Exposures , from minutes to a few hours , to partial pressures of oxygen above 1 @.@ 6 bars ( 160 kPa ) — about eight times normal atmospheric partial pressure — are usually associated with central nervous system oxygen toxicity and are most likely to occur among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy and divers . Since sea level atmospheric pressure is about 1 bar ( 100 kPa ) , central nervous system toxicity can only occur under hyperbaric conditions , where ambient pressure is above normal . Divers breathing air at depths beyond 60 m ( 200 ft ) face an increasing risk of an oxygen toxicity " hit " ( seizure ) . Divers breathing a gas mixture enriched with oxygen , such as nitrox , can similarly suffer a seizure at shallower depths , should they descend below the maximum operating depth allowed for the mixture .
= = = Lung toxicity = = =
The lungs and the remainder of the respiratory tract are exposed to the highest concentration of oxygen in the human body and are therefore the first organs to show toxicity . Pulmonary toxicity occurs only with exposure to partial pressures of oxygen greater than 0 @.@ 5 bar ( 50 kPa ) , corresponding to an oxygen fraction of 50 % at normal atmospheric pressure . The earliest signs of pulmonary toxicity begin with evidence of tracheobronchitis , or inflammation of the upper airways , after an asymptomatic period between 4 and 22 hours at greater than 95 % oxygen , with some studies suggesting symptoms usually begin after approximately 14 hours at this level of oxygen .
At partial pressures of oxygen of 2 to 3 bar ( 200 to 300 kPa ) — 100 % oxygen at 2 to 3 times atmospheric pressure — these symptoms may begin as early as 3 hours after exposure to oxygen . Experiments on rats breathing oxygen at pressures between 1 and 3 bars ( 100 and 300 kPa ) suggest that pulmonary manifestations of oxygen toxicity may not be the same for normobaric conditions as they are for hyperbaric conditions . Evidence of decline in lung function as measured by pulmonary function testing can occur as quickly as 24 hours of continuous exposure to 100 % oxygen , with evidence of diffuse alveolar damage and the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome usually occurring after 48 hours on 100 % oxygen . Breathing 100 % oxygen also eventually leads to collapse of the alveoli ( atelectasis ) , while — at the same partial pressure of oxygen — the presence of significant partial pressures of inert gases , typically nitrogen , will prevent this effect .
Preterm newborns are known to be at higher risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia with extended exposure to high concentrations of oxygen . Other groups at higher risk for oxygen toxicity are patients on mechanical ventilation with exposure to levels of oxygen greater than 50 % , and patients exposed to chemicals that increase risk for oxygen toxicity such the chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin . Therefore , current guidelines for patients on mechanical ventilation in intensive care recommends keeping oxygen concentration less than 60 % . Likewise , divers who undergo treatment of decompression sickness are at increased risk of oxygen toxicity as treatment entails exposure to long periods of oxygen breathing under hyperbaric conditions , in addition to any oxygen exposure during the dive .
= = = Eye toxicity = = =
Prolonged exposure to high inspired fractions of oxygen causes damage to the retina . Damage to the developing eye of infants exposed to high oxygen fraction at normal pressure has a different mechanism and effect from the eye damage experienced by adult divers under hyperbaric conditions . Hyperoxia may be a contributing factor for the disorder called retrolental fibroplasia or retinopathy of prematurity ( ROP ) in infants . In preterm infants , the retina is often not fully vascularised . Retinopathy of prematurity occurs when the development of the retinal vasculature is arrested and then proceeds abnormally . Associated with the growth of these new vessels is fibrous tissue ( scar tissue ) that may contract to cause retinal detachment . Supplemental oxygen exposure , while a risk factor , is not the main risk factor for development of this disease . Restricting supplemental oxygen use does not necessarily reduce the rate of retinopathy of prematurity , and may raise the risk of hypoxia @-@ related systemic complications .
Hyperoxic myopia has occurred in closed circuit oxygen rebreather divers with prolonged exposures . It also occurs frequently in those undergoing repeated hyperbaric oxygen therapy . This is due to an increase in the refractive power of the lens , since axial length and keratometry readings do not reveal a corneal or length basis for a myopic shift . It is usually reversible with time .
= = Mechanism = =
The biochemical basis for the toxicity of oxygen is the partial reduction of oxygen by one or two electrons to form reactive oxygen species , which are natural by @-@ products of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signalling . One species produced by the body , the superoxide anion ( O
2 − ) , is possibly involved in iron acquisition . Higher than normal concentrations of oxygen lead to increased levels of reactive oxygen species . Oxygen is necessary for cell metabolism , and the blood supplies it to all parts of the body . When oxygen is breathed at high partial pressures , a hyperoxic condition will rapidly spread , with the most vascularised tissues being most vulnerable . During times of environmental stress , levels of reactive oxygen species can increase dramatically , which can damage cell structures and produce oxidative stress .
While all the reaction mechanisms of these species within the body are not yet fully understood , one of the most reactive products of oxidative stress is the hydroxyl radical ( · OH ) , which can initiate a damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation in the unsaturated lipids within cell membranes . High concentrations of oxygen also increase the formation of other free radicals , such as nitric oxide , peroxynitrite , and trioxidane , which harm DNA and other biomolecules . Although the body has many antioxidant systems such as glutathione that guard against oxidative stress , these systems are eventually overwhelmed at very high concentrations of free oxygen , and the rate of cell damage exceeds the capacity of the systems that prevent or repair it . Cell damage and cell death then result .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis of central nervous system oxygen toxicity in divers prior to seizure is difficult as the symptoms of visual disturbance , ear problems , dizziness , confusion and nausea can be due to many factors common to the underwater environment such as narcosis , congestion and coldness . However , these symptoms may be helpful in diagnosing the first stages of oxygen toxicity in patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy . In either case , unless there is a prior history of epilepsy or tests indicate hypoglycaemia , a seizure occurring in the setting of breathing oxygen at partial pressures greater than 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) suggests a diagnosis of oxygen toxicity .
Diagnosis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in newborn infants with breathing difficulties is difficult in the first few weeks . However , if the infant 's breathing does not improve during this time , blood tests and x @-@ rays may be used to confirm bronchopulmonary dysplasia . In addition , an echocardiogram can help to eliminate other possible causes such as congenital heart defects or pulmonary arterial hypertension .
The diagnosis of retinopathy of prematurity in infants is typically suggested by the clinical setting . Prematurity , low birth weight and a history of oxygen exposure are the principal indicators , while no hereditary factors have been shown to yield a pattern .
= = Prevention = =
The prevention of oxygen toxicity depends entirely on the setting . Both underwater and in space , proper precautions can eliminate the most pernicious effects . Premature infants commonly require supplemental oxygen to treat complications of preterm birth . In this case prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and retinopathy of prematurity must be carried out without compromising a supply of oxygen adequate to preserve the infant 's life .
= = = Underwater = = =
Oxygen toxicity is a catastrophic hazard in diving , because a seizure results in near certain death by drowning . The seizure may occur suddenly and with no warning symptoms . The effects are sudden convulsions and unconsciousness , during which victims can lose their regulator and drown . One of the advantages of a full @-@ face diving mask is prevention of regulator loss in the event of a seizure . As there is an increased risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity on deep dives , long dives and dives where oxygen @-@ rich breathing gases are used , divers are taught to calculate a maximum operating depth for oxygen @-@ rich breathing gases , and cylinders containing such mixtures must be clearly marked with that depth .
In some diver training courses for these types of diving , divers are taught to plan and monitor what is called the oxygen clock of their dives . This is a notional alarm clock , which ticks more quickly at increased oxygen pressure and is set to activate at the maximum single exposure limit recommended in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Diving Manual . For the following partial pressures of oxygen the limits are : 45 minutes at 1 @.@ 6 bar ( 160 kPa ) , 120 minutes at 1 @.@ 5 bar ( 150 kPa ) , 150 minutes at 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) , 180 minutes at 1 @.@ 3 bar ( 130 kPa ) and 210 minutes at 1 @.@ 2 bar ( 120 kPa ) , but it is impossible to predict with any reliability whether or when toxicity symptoms will occur . Many nitrox @-@ capable dive computers calculate an oxygen loading and can track it across multiple dives . The aim is to avoid activating the alarm by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas or by reducing the time spent breathing gas of greater oxygen partial pressure . As the partial pressure of oxygen increases with the fraction of oxygen in the breathing gas and the depth of the dive , the diver obtains more time on the oxygen clock by diving at a shallower depth , by breathing a less oxygen @-@ rich gas , or by shortening the duration of exposure to oxygen @-@ rich gases .
Diving below 56 m ( 184 ft ) on air would expose a diver to increasing danger of oxygen toxicity as the partial pressure of oxygen exceeds 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) , so a gas mixture must be used which contains less than 21 % oxygen ( a hypoxic mixture ) . Increasing the proportion of nitrogen is not viable , since it would produce a strongly narcotic mixture . However , helium is not narcotic , and a usable mixture may be blended either by completely replacing nitrogen with helium ( the resulting mix is called heliox ) , or by replacing part of the nitrogen with helium , producing a trimix .
Pulmonary oxygen toxicity is an entirely avoidable event while diving . The limited duration and naturally intermittent nature of most diving makes this a relatively rare ( and even then , reversible ) complication for divers . Established guidelines enable divers to calculate when they are at risk of pulmonary toxicity .
= = = Hyperbaric setting = = =
The presence of a fever or a history of seizure is a relative contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen treatment . The schedules used for treatment of decompression illness allow for periods of breathing air rather than 100 % oxygen ( oxygen breaks ) to reduce the chance of seizure or lung damage . The U.S. Navy uses treatment tables based on periods alternating between 100 % oxygen and air . For example , USN table 6 requires 75 minutes ( three periods of 20 minutes oxygen / 5 minutes air ) at an ambient pressure of 2 @.@ 8 standard atmospheres ( 280 kPa ) , equivalent to a depth of 18 metres ( 60 ft ) . This is followed by a slow reduction in pressure to 1 @.@ 9 atm ( 190 kPa ) over 30 minutes on oxygen . The patient then remains at that pressure for a further 150 minutes , consisting of two periods of 15 minutes air / 60 minutes oxygen , before the pressure is reduced to atmospheric over 30 minutes on oxygen .
Vitamin E and selenium were proposed and later rejected as a potential method of protection against pulmonary oxygen toxicity . There is however some experimental evidence in rats that vitamin E and selenium aid in preventing in vivo lipid peroxidation and free radical damage , and therefore prevent retinal changes following repetitive hyperbaric oxygen exposures .
= = = Normobaric setting = = =
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is reversible in the early stages by use of break periods on lower pressures of oxygen , but it may eventually result in irreversible lung injury if allowed to progress to severe damage . One or two days of exposure without oxygen breaks are needed to cause such damage .
Retinopathy of prematurity is largely preventable by screening . Current guidelines require that all babies of less than 32 weeks gestational age or having a birth weight less than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) should be screened for retinopathy of prematurity at least every two weeks . The National Cooperative Study in 1954 showed a causal link between supplemental oxygen and retinopathy of prematurity , but subsequent curtailment of supplemental oxygen caused an increase in infant mortality . To balance the risks of hypoxia and retinopathy of prematurity , modern protocols now require monitoring of blood oxygen levels in premature infants receiving oxygen .
= = = Hypobaric setting = = =
In low @-@ pressure environments oxygen toxicity may be avoided since the toxicity is caused by high partial pressure of oxygen , not merely by high oxygen fraction . This is illustrated by modern pure oxygen use in spacesuits , which must operate at low pressure ( also historically , very high percentage oxygen and lower than normal atmospheric pressure was used in early spacecraft , for example , the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft ) . In such applications as extra @-@ vehicular activity , high @-@ fraction oxygen is non @-@ toxic , even at breathing mixture fractions approaching 100 % , because the oxygen partial pressure is not allowed to chronically exceed 0 @.@ 3 bar ( 4 @.@ 4 psi ) .
= = Management = =
During hyperbaric oxygen therapy , the patient will usually breathe 100 % oxygen from a mask while inside a hyperbaric chamber pressurised with air to about 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) . Seizures during the therapy are managed by removing the mask from the patient , thereby dropping the partial pressure of oxygen inspired below 0 @.@ 6 bar ( 60 kPa ) .
A seizure underwater requires that the diver be brought to the surface as soon as practicable . Although for many years the recommendation has been not to raise the diver during the seizure itself , owing to the danger of arterial gas embolism ( AGE ) , there is some evidence that the glottis does not fully obstruct the airway . This has led to the current recommendation by the Diving Committee of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society that a diver should be raised during the seizure 's clonic ( convulsive ) phase if the regulator is not in the diver 's mouth – as the danger of drowning is then greater than that of AGE – but the ascent should be delayed until the end of the clonic phase otherwise . Rescuers ensure that their own safety is not compromised during the convulsive phase . They then ensure that where the victim 's air supply is established it is maintained , and carry out a controlled buoyant lift . Lifting an unconscious body is taught by most diver training agencies . Upon reaching the surface , emergency services are always contacted as there is a possibility of further complications requiring medical attention . The U.S. Navy has procedures for completing the decompression stops where a recompression chamber is not immediately available .
The occurrence of symptoms of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or acute respiratory distress syndrome is treated by lowering the fraction of oxygen administered , along with a reduction in the periods of exposure and an increase in the break periods where normal air is supplied . Where supplemental oxygen is required for treatment of another disease ( particularly in infants ) , a ventilator may be needed to ensure that the lung tissue remains inflated . Reductions in pressure and exposure will be made progressively , and medications such as bronchodilators and pulmonary surfactants may be used .
Retinopathy of prematurity may regress spontaneously , but should the disease progress beyond a threshold ( defined as five contiguous or eight cumulative hours of stage 3 retinopathy of prematurity ) , both cryosurgery and laser surgery have been shown to reduce the risk of blindness as an outcome . Where the disease has progressed further , techniques such as scleral buckling and vitrectomy surgery may assist in re @-@ attaching the retina .
= = Prognosis = =
Although the convulsions caused by central nervous system oxygen toxicity may lead to incidental injury to the victim , it remained uncertain for many years whether damage to the nervous system following the seizure could occur and several studies searched for evidence of such damage . An overview of these studies by Bitterman in 2004 concluded that following removal of breathing gas containing high fractions of oxygen , no long @-@ term neurological damage from the seizure remains .
The majority of infants who have survived following an incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia will eventually recover near @-@ normal lung function , since lungs continue to grow during the first 5 – 7 years and the damage caused by bronchopulmonary dysplasia is to some extent reversible ( even in adults ) . However , they are likely be more susceptible to respiratory infections for the rest of their lives and the severity of later infections is often greater than that in their peers .
Retinopathy of prematurity ( ROP ) in infants frequently regresses without intervention and eyesight may be normal in later years . Where the disease has progressed to the stages requiring surgery , the outcomes are generally good for the treatment of stage 3 ROP , but are much worse for the later stages . Although surgery is usually successful in restoring the anatomy of the eye , damage to the nervous system by the progression of the disease leads to comparatively poorer results in restoring vision . The presence of other complicating diseases also reduces the likelihood of a favourable outcome .
= = Epidemiology = =
The incidence of central nervous system toxicity among divers has decreased since the Second World War , as protocols have developed to limit exposure and partial pressure of oxygen inspired . In 1947 , Donald recommended limiting the depth allowed for breathing pure oxygen to 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) , which equates to an oxygen partial pressure of 1 @.@ 8 bar ( 180 kPa ) . Over time this limit has been reduced , until today a limit of 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) during a recreational dive and 1 @.@ 6 bar ( 160 kPa ) during shallow decompression stops is generally recommended . Oxygen toxicity has now become a rare occurrence other than when caused by equipment malfunction and human error . Historically , the U.S. Navy has refined its Navy Diving Manual Tables to reduce oxygen toxicity incidents . Between 1995 and 1999 , reports showed 405 surface @-@ supported dives using the helium – oxygen tables ; of these , oxygen toxicity symptoms were observed on 6 dives ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) . As a result , the U.S. Navy in 2000 modified the schedules and conducted field tests of 150 dives , none of which produced symptoms of oxygen toxicity . Revised tables were published in 2001 .
The variability in tolerance and other variable factors such as workload have resulted in the U.S. Navy abandoning screening for oxygen tolerance . Of the 6 @,@ 250 oxygen @-@ tolerance tests performed between 1976 and 1997 , only 6 episodes of oxygen toxicity were observed ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) .
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy is rare , and is influenced by a number of a factors : individual sensitivity and treatment protocol ; and probably therapy indication and equipment used . A study by Welslau in 1996 reported 16 incidents out of a population of 107 @,@ 264 patients ( 0 @.@ 015 % ) , while Hampson and Atik in 2003 found a rate of 0 @.@ 03 % . Yildiz , Ay and Qyrdedi , in a summary of 36 @,@ 500 patient treatments between 1996 and 2003 , reported only 3 oxygen toxicity incidents , giving a rate of 0 @.@ 008 % . A later review of over 80 @,@ 000 patient treatments revealed an even lower rate : 0 @.@ 0024 % . The reduction in incidence may be partly due to use of a mask ( rather than a hood ) to deliver oxygen .
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is among the most common complications of prematurely born infants and its incidence has grown as the survival of extremely premature infants has increased . Nevertheless , the severity has decreased as better management of supplemental oxygen has resulted in the disease now being related mainly to factors other than hyperoxia .
In 1997 a summary of studies of neonatal intensive care units in industrialised countries showed that up to 60 % of low birth weight babies developed retinopathy of prematurity , which rose to 72 % in extremely low birth weight babies , defined as less than 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) at birth . However , severe outcomes are much less frequent : for very low birth weight babies — those less than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) at birth — the incidence of blindness was found to be no more than 8 % .
= = History = =
Central nervous system toxicity was first described by Paul Bert in 1878 . He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects , arachnids , myriapods , molluscs , earthworms , fungi , germinating seeds , birds , and other animals . Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the " Paul Bert effect " .
Pulmonary oxygen toxicity was first described by J. Lorrain Smith in 1899 when he noted central nervous system toxicity and discovered in experiments in mice and birds that 0 @.@ 43 bar ( 43 kPa ) had no effect but 0 @.@ 75 bar ( 75 kPa ) of oxygen was a pulmonary irritant . Pulmonary toxicity may be referred to as the " Lorrain Smith effect " . The first recorded human exposure was undertaken in 1910 by Bornstein when two men breathed oxygen at 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) for 30 minutes while he went on to 48 minutes with no symptoms . In 1912 , Bornstein developed cramps in his hands and legs while breathing oxygen at 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) for 51 minutes . Smith then went on to show that intermittent exposure to a breathing gas with less oxygen permitted the lungs to recover and delayed the onset of pulmonary toxicity .
Albert R. Behnke et al. in 1935 were the first to observe visual field contraction ( tunnel vision ) on dives between 1 @.@ 0 bar ( 100 kPa ) and 4 @.@ 1 bar ( 410 kPa ) . During World War II , Donald and Yarbrough et al. performed over 2 @,@ 000 experiments on oxygen toxicity to support the initial use of closed circuit oxygen rebreathers . Naval divers in the early years of oxygen rebreather diving developed a mythology about a monster called " Oxygen Pete " , who lurked in the bottom of the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit " wet pot " ( a water @-@ filled hyperbaric chamber ) to catch unwary divers . They called having an oxygen toxicity attack " getting a Pete " .
In the decade following World War II , Lambertsen et al. made further discoveries on the effects of breathing oxygen under pressure and methods of prevention . Their work on intermittent exposures for extension of oxygen tolerance and on a model for prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity based on pulmonary function are key documents in the development of standard operating procedures when breathing increased pressures of oxygen . Lambertsen 's work showing the effect of carbon dioxide in decreasing time to onset of central nervous system symptoms has influenced work from current exposure guidelines to future breathing apparatus design .
Retinopathy of prematurity was not observed before World War II , but with the availability of supplemental oxygen in the decade following , it rapidly became one of the principal causes of infant blindness in developed countries . By 1960 the use of oxygen had become identified as a risk factor and its administration restricted . The resulting fall in retinopathy of prematurity was accompanied by a rise in infant mortality and hypoxia @-@ related complications . Since then , more sophisticated monitoring and diagnosis have established protocols for oxygen use which aim to balance between hypoxic conditions and problems of retinopathy of prematurity .
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia was first described by Northway in 1967 , who outlined the conditions that would lead to the diagnosis . This was later expanded by Bancalari and in 1988 by Shennan , who suggested the need for supplemental oxygen at 36 weeks could predict long @-@ term outcomes . Nevertheless , Palta et al. in 1998 concluded that radiographic evidence was the most accurate predictor of long @-@ term effects .
Bitterman et al. in 1986 and 1995 showed that darkness and caffeine would delay the onset of changes to brain electrical activity in rats . In the years since , research on central nervous system toxicity has centred on methods of prevention and safe extension of tolerance . Sensitivity to central nervous system oxygen toxicity has been shown to be affected by factors such as circadian rhythm , drugs , age , and gender . In 1988 , Hamilton et al. wrote procedures for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to establish oxygen exposure limits for habitat operations . Even today , models for the prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity do not explain all the results of exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen .
= = Society and culture = =
Recreational scuba divers commonly breathe nitrox containing up to 40 % oxygen , while technical divers use pure oxygen or nitrox containing up to 80 % oxygen . Divers who breathe oxygen fractions greater than of air ( 21 % ) need to be trained in the dangers of oxygen toxicity and how to prevent them . In order to buy nitrox , a diver has to show evidence of such qualification .
Since the late 1990s the recreational use of oxygen has been promoted by oxygen bars , where customers breathe oxygen through a nasal cannula . Claims have been made that this reduces stress , increases energy , and lessens the effects of hangovers and headaches , despite the lack of any scientific evidence to support them . There are also devices on sale that offer " oxygen massage " and " oxygen detoxification " with claims of removing body toxins and reducing body fat . The American Lung Association has stated " there is no evidence that oxygen at the low flow levels used in bars can be dangerous to a normal person 's health " , but the U.S. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research cautions that people with heart or lung disease need their supplementary oxygen carefully regulated and should not use oxygen bars .
Victorian society had a fascination for the rapidly expanding field of science . In " Dr. Ox 's Experiment " , a short story written by Jules Verne in 1872 , the eponymous doctor uses electrolysis of water to separate oxygen and hydrogen . He then pumps the pure oxygen throughout the town of Quiquendone , causing the normally tranquil inhabitants and their animals to become aggressive and plants to grow rapidly . An explosion of the hydrogen and oxygen in Dr Ox 's factory brings his experiment to an end . Verne summarised his story by explaining that the effects of oxygen described in the tale were his own invention . There is also a brief episode of oxygen intoxication in his " From the Earth to the Moon " .
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= William Garnett Braithwaite =
Brigadier General William Garnett Braithwaite , CB , CMG , DSO ( 21 October 1870 – 15 October 1937 ) was a British Army officer who participated in the Boer War and the First World War .
Born in England in 1870 , he joined the British Army in 1891 . He served with the Royal Welsh Fusiliers during the Boer War , during which he received the Distinguished Service Order . After the war he was an instructor at the Royal Military College . In 1911 , he went to New Zealand on secondment to help with the training and administration of the New Zealand Military Forces . Following the outbreak of the First World War , he served as a staff officer in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force . He commanded the New Zealand Division 's 2nd Infantry Brigade for nearly two years on the Western Front and on occasion was acting commander of the division . In December 1917 , he was medically evacuated to England . After a period of rest , he returned to military duty with the British Army , and ended the war in command of the 16th Infantry Brigade . He retired from the army in 1925 and died in 1937 at the age of 66 .
= = Early life = =
Braithwaite was born in Kendal , Westmorland , England on 21 October 1870 . After completing his schooling at Marlborough College , he attended the Royal Military College at Sandhurst before joining the British Army in 1891 .
= = Military career = =
Braithwaite was commissioned in the Royal Welsh Fusiliers as a second lieutenant 23 May 1891 . He was promoted to lieutenant on 16 May 1894 , and to captain on 19 July 1899 . From late 1899 to 1902 , Braithwaite fought in the Boer War . As well as being appointed to the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , he was mentioned in despatches three times for his service in South Africa . At the closing of the war he returned to the United Kingdom in March 1902 , and was appointed adjutant of the 3rd ( Volunteer ) Battalion of his regiment . He was later assigned to the Royal Military College for a period of time as an instructor .
In 1911 , now a major , he was seconded to the New Zealand Military Forces under the command of the then Major General Alexander Godley . Braithwaite was appointed General Staff Officer for the Auckland Military District and later promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel , Godley 's Chief of General Staff . At the time , Godley was restructuring the New Zealand Military Forces and creating a Territorial Force to replace the inadequate Volunteer Force . Braithwaite assisted in the establishment of the Territorial Force and was responsible for staff organisation and training . His initial three @-@ year appointment was to expire in July 1914 but earlier that year was extended a further 12 months following a request from the New Zealand government .
= = = First World War = = =
Braithwaite volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . He left for the Middle East as the staff officer responsible for the operational planning of the NZEF . His wife , Gwendolen , whom he married in 1901 , and the couple 's three children also left New Zealand but to live in England .
= = = = Gallipoli Campaign = = = =
Following a period of training with the NZEF in Egypt , Braithwaite served as a staff officer in Godley 's headquarters . Godley was not only commander of the NZEF but also the New Zealand and Australian Division during the Gallipoli Campaign which commenced in April 1915 . Braithwaite fulfilled his duties well and was twice mentioned in despatches for his work during the August offensive . He took ill the next month and required evacuation for medical treatment . He returned to duty in October and the following month took over temporary command of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade when its nominal commander , Brigadier General Francis Johnston , went on sick leave . After the withdrawal of the Allied forces from Gallipoli , Braithwaite returned with the surviving elements of the NZEF to Egypt . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George for his work during the Gallipoli Campaign .
In December 1915 Braithwaite was promoted temporary brigadier general ( his temporary rank of lieutenant colonel was made substantive at the same time ) and took command of the newly formed New Zealand ( Rifle ) Brigade . The brigade consisted of only two battalions at this stage but would be brought up to strength with the arrival of its 3rd and 4th Battalions in March 1916 . During this time Braithwaite oversaw the training of his new command . However , within a few months , he was appointed commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade , one of the three brigades of the newly formed New Zealand Division .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
The New Zealand Division moved to the Western Front in April 1916 . Braithwaite had a brief period in command of the division while its commander , Major General Andrew Russell , was on leave . During the division 's first major engagement , the Somme Offensive , Braithwaite led his brigade in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette in which it incurred over 700 casualties during the capture of its key objective , the Switch Line . A few days later he planned and directed a successful nighttime attempt by the strongest battalion of his brigade to seize the neighbouring high ground at what was known as Goose Alley . After the battle , Russell assessed Braithwaite as the best performed of his brigade commanders .
In June 1917 , Braithwaite was promoted to colonel , although he remained a temporary brigadier general . His brigade had a central role in the Battle of Messines and was able to achieve its objectives with minimal casualties . However , heavy losses were incurred by his brigade later in the year during the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October . After his initial attack faltered and came to a halt , Braithwaite protested orders from Russell later that day to resume the attack , 2nd Infantry Brigade having suffered heavy casualties for the gain of little ground . When it became apparent to Russell that flanking units had not achieved their objectives , the orders were cancelled .
Braithwaite had a further period in command of the division while Russell was on sick leave in late October and in early December led his brigade in attacks on Polderhoek Chateau . The brigade suffered heavy losses and the attack was regarded as a failure . At this stage of the war , Braithwaite was one of the longest serving brigade commanders of the NZEF . Worn down by stresses of command , his health was so poor it forced his evacuation to England .
Following a period of convalescence , Braithwaite , rather than rejoining the New Zealand Division , resumed service in the British Army with his parent unit , the Royal Welsh Fusiliers . A popular commander amongst the New Zealanders , rumours circulated in the division that his return to the British Army was due to his refusal to continue with the 12 October 1917 attack at Passchendaele . Braithwaite returned to the front in February 1918 as a staff officer in a British Corps and was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in June 1918 . In October 1918 , he was placed in command of the 16th Infantry Brigade when its previous commander , Brigadier General Henry Walker , was wounded in an artillery barrage , and led it through to the armistice . During the course of the First World War he had been mentioned in despatches six times .
= = Later life = =
Braithwaite remained in the British Army after the war and commanded a brigade in the British Army of the Rhine . While stationed in Germany , he wrote a foreword for one of the regimental histories of the NZEF . He relinquished his temporary rank of brigadier general in 1920 , and reverted to his substantive rank of colonel to take up a brigade command in the Territorial Force . He eventually retired from the British Army in November 1925 , with the honorary rank of brigadier general . He died in Camberley , Surrey , on 15 October 1937 , survived by his wife and children . Braithwaite Street in the Wellington suburb of Karori is named for him .
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= Charles May ( Canadian politician ) =
Charles May ( June 30 , 1858 – March 1 , 1932 ) was Canadian contractor and politician . He served on the Edmonton City Council and later as Mayor of Edmonton from 1905 to 1906 .
A native of what would become the province of Ontario , May moved to Manitoba soon after completing education in his hometown . In Manitoba , he would take to briefly farming , before entering into the construction industry , which he would establish prominence in . After doing work for the railway , he would move to Winnipeg where he would join a contracting firm and become involved in the construction of many buildings . After moving west and living briefly in Carberry , Manitoba , May came to Edmonton in 1902 .
In Edmonton he would rise to be one of the city 's most prominent contractors , constructing many of the city 's landmark buildings , as well as houses for its prominent residents . Long interested in municipal affairs , he entered civic politics with his election to the Edmonton Town Council in 1903 . After an aldermanic term that saw the inclusion of Alberta as a province in Canada , in 1905 he was elected as mayor of the newly incorporated city ; during his term he would oversee many improvements and advances to the city . Retiring after one term in office and returning to his contracting firm , he would eventually leave Edmonton in 1922 for Vancouver where he would live for 10 years leading up to his death in 1932 . An active community man , May also founded and oversaw many local organizations . A Liberal in politics , he is remembered as a progressive mayor whose policies helped the accelerate development of city of Edmonton .
= = Early life and career = =
May was born in Wellington County , Canada West in 1858 , to John and Helen ( née Esson ) May . Both of his parents were immigrants who had come to Canada early in their lives , his father originally from County Londonderry , Ireland , was a veteran of the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion , and his mother a native of Aberdeenshire , Scotland . Charles attended and completed public schooling in Wellington County , and around 1871 the May family relocated to Paisley , Ontario . Upon the death of his father shortly thereafter , May was tasked with the responsibilities of heading and providing for his family , along with a brother , Thomas .
In 1880 , after the closing of his father 's estate and sale his father 's property , he moved west to homestead and farm at Manitoba , in the Little Saskatchewan district , near Minnedosa . A few years later , he had come to the realization that farming was not an efficient means of business for him ; his farm had been situated in an area that was so far removed from a town that travel to deliver his products had been cumbersome . He then gained employment as a carpenter and builder with the Manitoba and North Western Railway , where he was tasked with building rail bridges and stations . He would later move to Winnipeg where he continued working in his field . He would join the contracting firm of Murray & McDermot , serving as foreman on various projects , including the building of the Manitoba Hotel . After some 13 years , he went to Carberry , Manitoba where he continued contracting , this time also entering the furniture business . In 1902 , he would also be involved in the construction of the Union Bank building there .
= = Career in Edmonton = =
Later in 1902 , May once again moved , this time further west to the town of Edmonton , in the North @-@ West Territory . Upon his arrival there , he would purchase several lots of land on which he would construct a series of cottages , houses and terraces that he would later sell . In Edmonton , he would establish himself as a prominent contractor , building many notable early buildings of the town , and later city . He partnered with Charles W. Sharpe and established the May @-@ Sharpe Construction company . With his firm , buildings he was involved in constructing included the town 's first Canadian Northern Railway station , a post office , the Bank of Montreal , Merchants ' Bank and Bank of Commerce buildings , the Hudson 's Bay Company store , the first provincial penitentiary building , and the residences of city notables Richard Secord , Frank Oliver and Edward Ainslie Braithwaite . He was also involved in the construction of the Clover Bar railway bridge , for which he set the concrete piers and foundation , as well as the Land Titles Building in Regina , Saskatchewan . From 1909 to 1912 , May would also construct the still @-@ standing LeMarchand mansion , atop the North Saskatchewan River Valley as well as assist in the construction of McDougall United Church . The LeMarchand mansion construction however would bankrupt him and force him to move to a cottage on Koney Island on Cooking Lake , beside the present day Edmonton / Cooking Lake Water Aerodrome in Strathcona County , until his debts were settled . In 1921 , he did work at Fort Smith , Northwest Territories , as superintendent of the Windsor Transportation Company .
= = = Civic politics = = =
Keenly interested in the well @-@ being of citizens and affairs related to the development of the growing town , he was nominated for and eventually elected to Edmonton Town Council as an alderman in 1903 , finishing first of nine candidates , with 421 votes . His term was to last two years , but was truncated by a year by Edmonton 's incorporation as a city , which meant that the entire city council was elected afresh in the 1904 election . In that election he was again elected to a two @-@ year term , finishing first of seventeen candidates , but this time resigned one year into his term in order to run for mayor in the 1905 election . May 's time on council included the time in which Alberta was incorporated as a province ; as an alderman he voiced his support for a lavish celebration to be in Edmonton , which was to be the capital city of the new province . While sitting on council , he also voted against a proposed bylaw that would have permitted suffrage for women in civic elections ; he had initially voted in favour of the law , but had later reconsidered and reversed his vote , effectively killing the bill . The vote previously had been in favour of the bill , by a margin of one vote .
As the popular choice leading into the election , he handily defeated fellow councillor Arthur Cushing by a count of 627 votes to 355 , and thus became mayor of Edmonton . He served in this capacity for one term of one year , but did not seek re @-@ election in 1906 and retired from political life thereafter . It was during May 's term as mayor in which the municipal foundations of Edmonton were set ; he oversaw the purchase of the road maintenance equipment , the city 's first telephone system as well as the upgrade of the street car system to steel rails and posts , purchase of land for municipal use , paving of roads , and negotiations for the establishment of a manufacturing plant in the city . He also travelled to Toronto to lobby for a new union railway station in Edmonton to be constructed for use by the Grand Trunk , Canadian Northern and Canadian Pacific Railways . It was also during May 's term which the Alberta Legislature Building would first open its doors , which he would participate in its opening ceremonies . In 1911 , he would be named a returning officer for Edmonton , in charge of overseeing the Canadian federal election , 1911 .
= = Personal life = =
May was active with the Masonic Order , the Presbyterian Church , and the Liberal Party of Alberta . He also was a member of the Edmonton Exhibition Association , Old Timers ' Association as well as a director and manager with the Alberta Lumber Company , founder and president of the Edmonton Kennel Club , and one of the founders of a local contractors ' association . In 1906 , May was involved in the planning of the first provincial fair in Alberta . May married Ann Galbraith at Saugeen , Ontario in 1882 ; they would have two children and remain married until she died suddenly in 1897 . He remarried in 1901 , to Margaret Henderson with whom he had three additional children . One son , Norman was killed in an accident while working on the Grand Trunk Railway in Wolf Creek , Alberta .
Charles May was also the uncle of famed aviator and flying ace Wop May , the latter being a son of his brother , Alexander Esson May . Alexander May was a former mayor of Carberry , Manitoba , postmaster of Edmonton , as well as an unsuccessful Liberal Candidate in the Canadian federal election , 1917 , in the riding of Edmonton East .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
He moved to Vancouver , British Columbia in 1922 , and following a long period of illness , he died of stomach cancer there on March 1 , 1932 , aged 73 . He was survived by his wife , a daughter and four sons . Margeret May later died in 1949 . Regarded as a progressive and energetic mayor , upon his death , the Edmonton Bulletin noted regarding his mayoral term that " his progressive and constructive policies did much to advance the progress of Edmonton " . The 1912 publication , History of the province of Alberta , praised May 's stern and ambitious personality , stating that " in the most adverse circumstances [ he ] endured with fortitude " .
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= Pike Place Fish Market =
The Pike Place Fish Market , founded in 1930 , is an open air fish market located in Seattle , Washington 's Pike Place Market , at the corner of Pike Street and Pike Place . It is known for their tradition of fishmongers throwing fish that customers have purchased , before they are wrapped . After nearing bankruptcy in 1986 , the fish market owner and employees decided to become " world famous " , changing their way of doing business by introducing their flying fish , games , and customer performances . Four years later , they were featured repeatedly in the national media and television shows . The store is now a popular tourist destination in Seattle , attracting up to 10 @,@ 000 daily visitors , and is often billed as world @-@ famous .
= = History = =
The Pike Place Fish Market was purchased in 1965 by John Yokoyama , a former employee of the fish market , who bought the store to make enough money on an owner 's salary to afford the car payments on his new Buick Riviera . Initially , Pike Place Fish Market was unknown outside of the Seattle area , but Yokoyama and his staff decided to change that in a meeting with a business coach in 1986 . Prior to the meeting , the Pike Place Fish Market was near to bankruptcy , and the consultant , Jim Bergquist , was helping them to conceive of ways to save the business . A fish market employee at the meeting suggested that they not only save the business , but make it " world famous " , with the ideas for the business ' flying and thrown fish , games with customers , and staff attitudes of always enjoying their work , so that customers would as well . In an interview , Yokoyama stated , " We took a stand that we were going to become world famous . We just said it and it became so . "
Four years later , in 1990 , Ted Turner 's Goodwill Games were held in Seattle . News crews at the Pike Place Market discovered the fish market and its performances with customers , and they filmed them . Soon afterwards , the fish market appeared on Good Morning America , leading to the business and its employees being filmed by various film crews , and being featured in numerous magazines . Now , during the summer tourist season , the fishmongers will perform now in front of as many as 10 @,@ 000 visitors daily . The success of the business has been cited to its human resources and employee attitudes . The employees of the fish market will often speak to businesses , civic groups , and schools on ways to be successful , and has led to their being featured in motivational books .
A popular feature at the Pike Place Fish Market is the monkfish , which sometimes , thanks to a hidden line , is made to " snap " at customers . In 1991 , CNN named the Pike Place Fish Market as one of the three most fun places to work in America .
= = Flying fish = =
The Pike Place Fish Market is best known for their habit of hurling customers ' orders across the shopping area . A typical routine will involve a customer ordering a fish , with their fishmongers in orange rubber overalls and boots calling out the order , which is loudly shouted back by all the other staff , at which point the original fishmonger will throw the customer 's fish behind the counter for wrapping . Initially , the shouted repeating of the ordered fish began as a prank on one employee , but was enjoyed by customers , so it became a tradition . While working , the staff continually yell to each other and chant in unison while they throw ordered fish . At times , the fish market staff will throw a foam fish into the crowd to scare bystanders , or select a customer from the crowds to participate in the fish toss . Above the areas in which they throw fish , the market hangs a sign that reads , " Caution : Low Flying Fish " .
= = Films , books and popular culture = =
In 1998 , the Pike Place Fish Market was the subject of a documentary film and accompanying book , FISH ! Philosophy . The Pike Place Fish Market has also been the setting for several best @-@ selling corporate training videos , the aforementioned FISH ! , and also FISH ! Sticks , which have been used by firms such as Enterprise Rent @-@ A @-@ Car , Sprint Nextel , Southwest Airlines , Sainsbury 's , Saturn , and Scottish and Southern Energy , for employee training . The Pike Place Fish Market has been featured in a variety of television shows and commercials . These include a Spike Lee Levis jeans commercial ; MTV 's The Real World ; NBC 's Frasier , and ABC 's Good Morning America . In films , they have appeared in Free Willy . Reference to the Pike Place Fish Market is also made by American hip hop duo Macklemore & Ryan Lewis in their 2015 single " Downtown " featuring Eric Nally , Melle Mel , Kool Moe Dee and Grandmaster Caz .
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= Great French Wine Blight =
The Great French Wine Blight was a severe blight of the mid @-@ 19th century that destroyed many of the vineyards in France and laid waste to the wine industry . It was caused by an aphid ( the actual genus of the aphid is still debated , although it is largely considered to have been a species of Daktulosphaira vitifoliae , commonly known as grape phylloxera ) that originated in North America and was carried across the Atlantic in the late 1850s . While France is considered to have been worst affected , the blight also did a great deal of damage to vineyards in other European countries .
How the Phylloxera aphid was introduced to Europe remains debated : American vines had been taken to Europe many times before , for reasons including experimentation and trials in grafting , without consideration of the possibility of the introduction of pestilence . While the Phylloxera was thought to have arrived around 1858 , it was first recorded in France in 1863 , near the former province of Languedoc . It is argued by some that the introduction of such pests as phylloxera was only a problem after the invention of steamships , which allowed a faster journey across the ocean , and consequently allowed durable pests , such as the Phylloxera , to survive .
Eventually , following Jules @-@ Émile Planchon 's discovery of the Phylloxera as the cause of the blight , and Charles Valentine Riley 's confirmation of Planchon 's theory , Leo Laliman and Gaston Bazille , two French wine growers , proposed that the European vines be grafted to the resistant American rootstock that were not susceptible to the Phylloxera . While many of the French wine growers disliked this idea , many found themselves with no other option . The method proved to be an effective remedy . The " Reconstitution " ( as it was termed ) of the many vineyards that had been lost was a slow process , but eventually the wine industry in France was able to return to relative normality .
= = Background = =
The aphid that was the central source of the damage in France was first noted following the growing of the European vine Vitis vinifera by French colonists in Florida , in the 16th century . These plantations were a failure , and later experiments with related species of vine also failed , although the reason for these failures appears to have been a mystery to the French colonists . It is known today that it was a species of North American grape phylloxera that caused these early vineyards to fail ; the venom injected by the Phylloxera causes a disease that is quickly fatal to the European varieties of vine . The aphids initially went unnoticed by the colonists , despite their great numbers , and the pressure to successfully start a vineyard in America at the time .
It became common knowledge among the settlers that their European vines , of the vinifera. variety , simply would not grow in American soil , and they resorted to growing native American plants , and established plantations of these native vines . Exceptions did exist ; vinifera plantations were well @-@ established in California before the aphids found their way there .
= = = Phylloxera = = =
There have been several theories proposed for why the phylloxera was ignored as the possible cause of the disease that resulted in the failure of so many vineyards , most of which involve the feeding behaviour of the insect , and the way it attacks the roots . The proboscis of the grape phylloxera has both a venom canal from which it injects its deadly venom and a feeding tube through which it takes in vine sap and nutrients . As the toxin from the venom corrodes the root structure of a vine , the sap pressure falls and , as a result , the Phylloxera quickly withdraws its feeding tube and searches for another source of food . Thus , anyone digging up a diseased and dying vine will not find Phylloxera clinging to the roots of the plant .
= = = Journey to Europe = = =
For a few centuries , Europeans had experimented with American vines and plants in their soil , and many varieties were imported from America without regulation , disregarding the possibility of pest transfer , and related problems . Jules @-@ Emile Planchon , a French biologist , who identified the Phylloxera in the 1860s , maintained that this transfer of American vines and plants into Europe greatly increased between roughly 1858 and 1862 , and this is how the Phylloxera was accidentally introduced to Europe around 1860 , although the aphid did not enter France until around 1863 . It is believed that the advent of steamships was a factor as well , as the ships were faster , and the Phylloxera were able to survive the quicker ocean voyage .
= = The blight = =
= = = Initial appearance = = =
The first known documented instance of an attack by the Phylloxera in France was in the village of Pujaut in the department of Gard of the former province of Languedoc , in 1863 . The wine makers there did not notice the aphids , just as the French colonists in America had not , but they noted the mysterious blight that was damaging their vines . The only description of the disease that was given by these wine growers was that it ' reminded them distressingly of " consumption " ' ( tuberculosis ) . The blight quickly spread throughout France , but it was several years before the cause of the disease was determined .
= = = Damage = = =
Over 40 % of French grape vines and vineyards were devastated over a 15 @-@ year period , from the late 1850s to the mid @-@ 1870s . The French economy was badly hit by the blight ; many businesses were lost , and wages in the wine industry were cut to less than half . There was also a noticeable trend of migration to , among other places , Algiers and America . The production of cheap raisins and sugar wines caused problems for the domestic industry that threatened to persist even after the blight itself . The damage to the French economy , is estimated to have been slightly over 10 billion Francs .
= = = Discovery = = =
Research into identifying the cause of the disease began in 1868 , when grape growers in Roquemaure , near Pujaut , asked the agricultural society in Montpellier for help . To investigate the disease , the society appointed a committee consisting of botanist Jules Émile Planchon , local grower Felix Sahut , and the society 's president , Gaston Bazille , among others . Sahut soon noticed that the roots of dying vines were infested with " lice " , which were sucking sap from the plants . The committee named the new insect Rhizaphis vastatrix . Planchon consulted French entomologists Victor Antoine Signoret and Jules Lichtenstein ( Planchon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) . Signoret suggested renaming the insect Phylloxera vastatrix , due to its similarity to Phylloxera quercus , which afflicted oak leaves . In 1869 , English entomologist John Obadiah Westwood suggested that an insect that had afflicted grape leaves in England circa 1863 was the same insect afflicting grape vines ' roots in France . Also in 1869 , Lichtenstein suggested that the French insect was an American " vine louse " that had been identified in 1855 by the American entomologist Asa Fitch , which he 'd named Pemphigus vitifoliae . However , there was a problem with these suggestions : French grape lice were known to infest only a vine 's roots , whereas American grape lice were known to infest only its leaves . The British @-@ born American entomologist Charles Valentine Riley had been following news of the outbreak in France . He sent Signoret specimens of American grape lice , which Signoret concluded — in 1870 , while besieged in Paris during the Franco @-@ Prussian War — were indeed identical to French grape lice . Meanwhile , Planchon and Lichtenstein had found vines with afflicted leaves ; lice that were transferred from those leaves to the roots of healthy vines attached themselves to the vines ' roots as other French grape lice did . Also in 1870 , Riley discovered that American grape lice wintered on American grape vines ' roots , which the insects damaged , albeit less than in the case of French vines . Using American grape vines and American grape lice , Riley also repeated Planchon and Lichtenstein 's experiment , with similar results . Thus the identity of the French and American grape lice was proved . Nevertheless , for another three years , a powerful majority in France argued that Phylloxera was not the cause of vine disease ; instead , vines that were already sickly became infested with Phylloxera . Thus , in their opinion , Phylloxera was merely a consequence of the " true " disease , which remained to be found . Regardless , Riley had discovered American grape varieties that were especially resistant to Phylloxera , and by 1871 , French farmers began to import them and graft French vines onto the American rootstock . ( Leo Laliman had suggested importing American vines as early as 1869 , but French farmers were reluctant to abandon their traditional varieties . Gaston Bazille then proposed grafting traditional French vines onto American rootstock . ) However , importation of American vines did not entirely solve the problem : some American grape varieties struggled in France 's chalky soils and succumbed to Phylloxera . By trial and error , American vines were found that could tolerate chalky soils . Meanwhile , entomologists worked to unravel the strange life cycle of Phylloxera , a project that was completed in 1874 .
= = = Solution = = =
Many growers resorted to their own methods in attempt to resolve the issue . Chemicals and pesticides were used to no avail . In desperation , some growers positioned toads under each vine , and others allowed their poultry to roam free in the hope they would eat the insects . None of these methods were successful .
After Charles Valentine Riley , Missouri 's state entymologist , confirmed Planchon 's theory , Leo Laliman and Gaston Bazille , two French wine growers , both suggested the possibility that if vinifera vines could be combined , by means of grafting , with the aphid @-@ resistant American vines , then the problem might be solved . Thomas Volney Munson was consulted and provided native Texan rootstocks for grafting . Because of Munson 's role , the French government in 1888 sent a delegation to Denison to confer on him the French Legion of Honor Chevalier du Mérite Agricole .
The method was tested , and proved a success . The process was colloquially termed " reconstitution " by French wine growers . The cure for the disease caused a great division in the wine industry : some , who became known as the " chemists " , rejected the grafting solution and persisted with the use of pesticides and chemicals . Those who became grafters were known as " Americanists " , or " wood merchants " . Following the demonstrated success of grafting in the 1870s and 1880s the immense task of " reconstituting " the majority of France 's vineyards began .
= = = = Prize = = = =
The French government had offered over 320 @,@ 000 Francs as a reward to whoever could discover a cure for the blight . Having reportedly been the first to suggest the possibility of using the resistant American rootstock , Leo Laliman tried to claim the money , but the French government refused to award it , with the rationale that he had not cured the blight , but rather stopped it from occurring . However , there may have been other reasons for the government denying Laliman the prize : he was mistrusted by several notable parties , and he was thought by many to have originally introduced the pest .
= = Present day = =
There is still no remedy , as such , for the Phylloxera , or the disease it brings with it , and it still poses a substantial threat to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock . In fact , there is only one European grape vine known to be resistant to the Phylloxera , the Assyrtiko vine , which grows on the volcanic Greek island of Santorini ; however there is speculation that the actual source of this resistance may arise from the volcanic ash in which the vines grow , and not from the vine itself .
The events of the Great Wine Blight , and the need for European @-@ American grafting has given rise to a debate that remains unresolved today : whether self @-@ rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted .
There still exist some vines which have been neither grafted nor destroyed by phylloxera , including some owned by Bollinger .
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= Hurricane Fabian =
Hurricane Fabian was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that hit Bermuda in early September during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . Fabian , the sixth named storm , fourth hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , developed from a tropical wave in the tropical Atlantic Ocean on August 25 . It moved west @-@ northwestward under the influence of the subtropical ridge to its north , and steadily strengthened in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear . The hurricane attained a peak intensity of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 1 , and it slowly weakened as it turned northward . On September 5 , Fabian made a direct hit on Bermuda with wind speeds of over 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . After passing the island , the hurricane turned to the northeast , and became extratropical on September 8 .
Fabian was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since Hurricane Arlene in 1963 . It was both the most damaging and the first hurricane to cause a death on the island since 1926 . The hurricane 's powerful winds resulted in moderate damage and destroyed roofs throughout the island . A strong storm surge associated with the hurricane killed four people crossing a causeway on Bermuda , temporarily closing the only link between two islands . The endangered Bermuda petrel , better known as the cahow , was threatened by the hurricane , which destroyed ten nests , although volunteer work transported the species to a safer location . Strong swells resulted in damage in northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic , and also caused four people to drown along the United States ' Atlantic coast . In all , Fabian caused around US $ 300 million in damage and eight deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa . Tracking westward , the wave developed convection over its center , and conducive conditions allowed it to develop further . The system passed through the Cape Verde islands later that day as convection steadily weakened . Early on August 27 , convection again increased and consolidated near the center , and later that day the wave developed into Tropical Depression Ten while located 420 miles ( 675 km ) west of the Cape Verde islands . Moving westward into an area of warm waters and low vertical shear , the depression steadily intensified , and was named Tropical Storm Fabian on August 28 as convection increased and banding features became more prominent .
Banding features and outflow continued to develop as a ring of convection formed around the center of Fabian , and on August 30 , the storm intensified into a hurricane while gradually slowing its motion to the west @-@ northwest . As banding features and outflow became better defined , an eye developed in the center of the deepest convection . Fabian quickly strengthened and attained major hurricane status late that day . Deep convection became very concentric around the 11 @.@ 5 mile ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) wide eye , and the hurricane reached winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) early on August 31 . At this time , the deepest convection near the eye degraded in appearance , and Fabian temporarily stopped its strengthening trend . Later that day , the eye became distinct again within a perfectly round area of deep convection . Outflow continued to expand in all directions , and Fabian intensified into a Category 4 hurricane late on August 31 . Thunderstorm activity near the eyewall became more intense , and the cloud tops in the eyewall became much cooler ; simultaneously , outflow away from the eye became much more symmetrical , both signs of an intensifying tropical cyclone . Fabian reached its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 1 while located 345 miles ( 555 km ) east of the northern Lesser Antilles .
After maintaining its peak intensity for 12 hours Fabian degraded due to internal fluctuations , and began to weaken . The hurricane turned to the northwest on September 2 in response to a weakness in the subtropical ridge , a break caused by a mid @-@ level circulation over the southwest Atlantic Ocean . After fading back to a Category 3 hurricane , Fabian re @-@ intensified on September 4 , and regained Category 4 status for a short time . The hurricane weakened again as it accelerated northward towards Bermuda , a motion due to an approaching mid @-@ level trough . As small pockets of dry air became entrained in the eyewall , Fabian weakened slightly , passing just 14 miles ( 23 km ) west of Bermuda on September 5 as a 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane . The eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island , resulting in a direct hit ; however , as the center did not move over the island , Fabian did not make landfall . After passing the island , the hurricane accelerated northeastward , and weakened to a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on September 7 . Steady weakening occurred as the hurricane moved into an area of increasing wind shear , drier air , and progressively cooler waters . On September 8 , while located 680 miles ( 1095 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland , Fabian transitioned into an extratropical storm , with no deep convection remaining near the center . The extratropical remnant turned to the north on September 9 , and on September 10 it merged with another extratropical storm while located between southern Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations = =
Several days prior to Fabian striking Bermuda , computer models forecast a ridge of high pressure forcing the hurricane to the west of the island by 200 miles ( 320 km ) . Not expected to be a direct threat , a meteorologist at the Bermuda Weather Service expected gusty winds and potentially heavy rainfall . Each successive advisory brought the hurricane steadily closer to Bermuda , and 35 hours before Fabian made its closest approach , the Bermuda Weather Service issued a hurricane watch for the island . When a track near Bermuda became more certain , a hurricane warning was issued for the island , approximately 29 hours before Fabian made a direct hit on the island .
The Bermuda Electric Light Company recommended Bermuda residents to buy hurricane supplies such as candles , batteries , and non @-@ perishable foods , to fill bathtubs and extra containers with water , and fill gasoline tanks for automobiles . In preparation , residents formed long lines at gas stations , banks , and supermarkets . All government offices and many businesses closed on the day prior to the hurricane hitting . All schools were closed , while all flights in and out of the island were canceled . Officials opened emergency shelters , and recommended 2 @,@ 000 low @-@ lying residents to evacuate ; a hotel on the south shore of the island was evacuated as well . Several cruise ships expected to remain on the island departed early to avoid the hurricane . Local insurance companies on Bermuda experienced a great increase in business , as residents renewed lapsed policies or signed up for new policies for homes or businesses , though marine policies were stopped several days before the hurricane struck . The arrival of Fabian forced the cancellation or delay of several sports events , including a cricket match , a football game , and a dinghy race .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , Fabian killed 8 people and caused US $ 300 million in damages , primarily in Bermuda .
= = = Caribbean = = =
The hurricane produced storm surge damage in Antigua and Barbuda , where some boats were lightly damaged . Strong swells and high tides produced large waves on the north coast of Puerto Rico , washing out beaches in various locations . Waves knocked out a 10 ft ( 3 m ) portion of a construction site in Ocean Park , resulting in US $ 30 thousand in damage . In the Dominican Republic , the hurricane produced waves of up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Due to the waves and gusty winds , boats were advised to stay at port . Several families had to be evacuated in Nagua when rough seas flooded their homes .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Hurricane Fabian produced a 10 @-@ minute average wind speed of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , while a peak wind gust of 164 mph ( 264 km / h ) occurred at Bermuda Harbour Radio . The strongest of the winds lasted approximately three to four hours , and while the eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island , winds decreased to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Large waves battered the southern portion of the island for several days , reaching heights of 25 to 35 feet ( 7 to 10 m ) at the worst of the hurricane , and upon passing the island , the hurricane produced a storm surge exceeding 11 feet ( 3 m ) in height . Due to its fast motion , rainfall totals rose to only 1 @.@ 82 inches ( 46 @.@ 2 mm ) . There were several unofficial reports of tornadoes as well . Strong rip currents from the hurricane persisted for several days prior to Fabian passing the island ; two swimmers were caught in the currents and relied on lifeguard assistance to return to shore . As a result , rip tide warnings were posted for the island .
Strong waves caused extensive damage to the coastline , especially on the southern portion of Bermuda . The strong waves broke a boat from its moorings at Spanish Point . Not wanting to lose the ship , the owner , accompanied with two people , tried to save the vessel . One fell overboard before climbing aboard the boat . The three ventured the vessel through tornadoes and 20 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) waves , which dropped several feet of water in the ship ; however , ultimately they safely arrived at Hamilton Harbour . Five charter boats capsized from the waves , while several others crashed against reefs . Strong waves collapsed a sea wall in Hamilton , causing traffic jams for one day until it was fixed .
The winds downed numerous power lines , causing 78 % of the island 's 32 @,@ 031 power customers to experience power outages . The strong winds damaged or destroyed the roofs of numerous buildings on Bermuda . One of the areas lightest hit was around a hotel outside of Hamilton , which experienced no power outages or blown out windows , while one of the harder hit areas was Warwick . There , one resident noted , " Too many homes have lost roofs to count " . One house was entirely destroyed on Rec View Hill , while an unconfirmed tornado destroyed much of the roof of a house in Devonshire . The hurricane destroyed a restaurant in Southampton and also damaged stands and roofs at sports facilities . Strong winds from the hurricane damaged several landmark buildings , including the House of Assembly and the City Hall , both in Hamilton , and the former military headquarters in St. George 's .
Bermuda International Airport sustained $ 15 million in damages , primarily to buildings and roadways which were washed away by the storm surge . The runway escaped major damage , however , and the airport re @-@ opened the following day for emergency relief flights . Confronting the damages in the storm 's aftermath , Airport General Manager James Howes was quoted by the news media as saying , " My heart sank when I first saw the Airport that morning . There was tons of debris everywhere and all the fire alarms and security alarms were going off . There was this din of bells and horns - it was like a war zone " . Commercial airline service was suspended for three days due to heavy damage to the Terminal Building , which was flooded with 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of seawater . The airport 's ILS and radar were also damaged .
The hurricane also affected the Bermuda Weather Service , as 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) waves destroyed recording equipment . The winds severely damaged the island 's major hotels , closing five for extended periods to repair damage . One hotel that remained open experienced damage to 25 % of its rooms . The strong winds uprooted hundreds of trees along the island 's golf courses , though little damage was reported at most courses . One course experienced significant damage at its club house , temporarily closing it .
The strong winds blew down hundreds of trees , caused severe damage to vegetation , and destroyed many of the island 's indigenous plants . The hurricane washed away large sections of the nesting island for the endangered Bermuda petrel and destroyed 10 of the 70 active nests . The endangered birds were not on the island , though local residents quickly gathered to restore their habitat . Strong waves resulted in severe coastal erosion , and at one beach , the lack of sand destroyed a natural cove . The Natural Arches , a set of eroded stones resembling an arch that was popular in photographs , was destroyed by the waves . The powerful winds knocked coconuts of off several trees and scattered them across the ground .
The storm surge from the hurricane stranded one vehicle with three police officers and another with a resident on the causeway between St. George 's Parish and St. David 's Island . After a fire truck failed in its attempt to rescue them , powerful waves washed the vehicles into Castle Harbour . The United States Coast Guard and Bermuda police divers mounted a full @-@ scale search for the missing people during the worst of the storm . The strong winds and emotional issues of searching for colleagues made the search difficult . Ultimately , the vehicles and one dead body were recovered , with the others remaining missing , presumably dead . Another vehicle was on the causeway as the two cars became stranded , though the driver was able to safely cross . High winds and surf tore off the causeway 's side walls and greatly damaged the structure , temporarily closing it to automobile traffic .
As most people were well @-@ prepared , these were the only four deaths on the island . In addition , nine people sought medical attention for minor injuries . Damage on Bermuda totaled to US $ 300 million , reportedly the worst to affect the area since 1926 .
= = = Atlantic coast = = =
Swells from the hurricane produced rip currents and heavy surf along the eastern North Carolina coastline . One man drowned near Cape Hatteras from the rip currents . Fabian produced moderate surfing conditions along the East Coast of the United States , primarily from Georgia to North Carolina . Three deaths were reported in the north Atlantic when a ship , The Pacific Attitude , sank south of Newfoundland in the Grand Banks due to strong waves of over 60 feet ( 20 m ) in height .
= = Aftermath = =
Blocked roads initially caused delays to crews from the Bermuda Electric Light Company ( BELCO ) , which were attempting to restore power to the island . Of high priority among the places to be restored were the hospital , as well as hotels to accommodate tourists who remained on the island through the storm . By the second day after the storm passed the island , power was restored to 11 @,@ 000 residents . Power on Bermuda was restored to all customers within three weeks of the hurricane , but the electricity supply distribution system was greatly weakened . This resulted in a rehabilitation plan implemented in October 2003 . Days after the hurricane passed , moisture from Tropical Storm Henri resulted in thunderstorms and heavy rainfall ; this hindered recovery efforts , but did not cause any reported damage . Lack of power caused interruptions to communications . While an emergency broadcast station was installed and tested prior the hurricane , the hurricane caused a problem to the system 's back @-@ up generator . The causeway in Bermuda remained closed for several days after the hurricane as road crews made temporary repairs . Upon being opened three days after the storm , traffic was limited to one lane of the original two . However , the causeway had to be closed in the event of rain , winds exceeding 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , and at night . The bridge was fully repaired by early November 2003 .
In the days after the storm , people provided assistance for each other , especially for the elderly . Three days after the storm , for example , a radio station DJ announced a name for an elderly person in need , and within minutes someone would call to provide for their needs . Residents cleared smaller roads from debris with chainsaws , which in turn helped the power companies to make repairs quickly . As a result of damage on their homes , dozens of people stayed in five shelters or undamaged hotels . Residents purchased large quantities of gasoline in the days after Fabian , some of whom bought over US $ 500 worth . Officials assured there was no shortage , but requested drivers to conserve gas . XL Capital Ltd. shipped 250 tarpaulins , 10 electric generators , and rope supply to the island . The UK government offered help to the island with two Royal Navy ships with supplies such as tents , dried foods , and blankets . Premier Alex Scott declined the offer , believing the island could withstand on its own . World Vision also offered assistance with blankets , tents , and other supplies , while two United States companies offered to send generators . Bermuda Electric Light received aid from the Caribbean Electric Organization , which sent over 20 electricians to repair power lines .
Initially , the time for the destroyed vegetation on Bermuda to regrow was estimated to take decades . To help , the South Carolina Maritime Heritage Foundation , with support from a Boy Scout troop and nearby nurseries , delivered 1 @,@ 000 boxwood plants to the island . Following the damage to the Bermuda petrel 's habitat , Bermuda 's Department of Conservation carried out a translocation program , which involved moving the habitat to Nonsuch Island . That island , a long @-@ standing nature preserve , was much higher and safer for the birds , and by two years after the hurricane the population numbers were higher than before the storm .
Shortly after the hurricane , the American home improvement franchise This Old House , unaware of the limited extent of damage , decided to do a hurricane repair story . Upon realising that there would be little to nothing available for the Ask This Old House to repair , it was decided instead to do a renovation of an 1805 home in St. George 's . It was only the second time that the franchise had worked outside of the United States .
A memorial to the four Bermudians whose lives were claimed by Hurricane Fabian was subsequently erected near the Causeway 's east end by the airport , where the 10th anniversary of their deaths was remembered by government officials in September 2013 . The onslaught of Hurricane Gonzalo in October 2014 prompted a catastrophe modeller to revisit Fabian 's destruction , concluding that had it struck in 2014 , it would have caused around $ 650 million in damage .
= = = Retirement = = =
Due to the damage and deaths on Bermuda , the name Fabian was retired in the spring of 2004 and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . As a result , the Bermuda Weather Service allowed residents to suggest a replacement name , with the only rule being the name had to be a male name beginning with the letter " F " , able to be easily pronounced , and not currently in use . The service received a list of over 30 names , including Forrest and Frodo , after the character in The Lord of the Rings . The Bermuda Weather Service sent three names to the World Meteorological Organization ; Fred , Ford , and Flynn . The World Meteorological Organization ultimately replaced Fabian with Fred to be on the list for the 2009 season . Fabian is one of only three tropical cyclones to have its name retired without making landfall anywhere , with the others being Klaus in 1990 and Erika in 2015 .
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= Mount Kenya =
Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya and the second @-@ highest in Africa , after Kilimanjaro . The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian ( 5 @,@ 199 metres ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) ) , Nelion ( 5 @,@ 188 metres ( 17 @,@ 021 ft ) ) and Point Lenana ( 4 @,@ 985 metres ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) ) . Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya , about 16 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the equator , around 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) north @-@ northeast of the capital Nairobi . Mount Kenya is the source of the name of the Republic of Kenya .
Mount Kenya is a stratovolcano created approximately 3 million years after the opening of the East African rift . Before glaciation , it was 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) high . It was covered by an ice cap for thousands of years . This has resulted in very eroded slopes and numerous valleys radiating from the centre . There are currently 11 small glaciers . The forested slopes are an important source of water for much of Kenya .
There are several vegetation bands from the base to the summit . The lower slopes are covered by different types of forest . Many alpine species are endemic to Mount Kenya , such as the giant lobelias and senecios and a local subspecies of rock hyrax . An area of 715 km2 ( 276 sq mi ) around the centre of the mountain was designated a National Park and listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 . The park receives over 16 @,@ 000 visitors per year .
= = Mount Kenya National Park = =
Mount Kenya National Park , established in 1949 , protects the region surrounding the mountain . Currently the national park is within the forest reserve which encircles it . In April 1978 the area was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve . The national park and the forest reserve , combined , became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 .
The Government of Kenya had four reasons for creating a national park on and around Mount Kenya . These were the importance of tourism for the local and national economies , preserve an area of great scenic beauty , conserve the biodiversity within the park and to preserve the water catchment for the surrounding area .
Kenya ’ s government has announced a project to discourage animals from straying into small holdings surrounding the Park and devastating crops . The project will see the Park enclosed by an electric fence with five electrified strands and is expected to be completed by 2014 . The fence will discharge an electric shock , but is not dangerous to humans or animals .
= = Local culture = =
The main ethnic groups living around Mount Kenya are Kikuyu , Ameru , Embu and Maasai . The first three are closely related . They all see the mountain as an important aspect of their cultures . All these cultures arrived in the Mount Kenya area in the last several hundred years .
= = = Kikuyu = = =
The Kikuyu live on the southern and western sides of the mountain . They are agriculturalists , and make use of the highly fertile volcanic soil on the lower slopes . They believe that God , Ngai or Mwene Nyaga , lived on Mount Kenya when he came down from the sky . They believe that the mountain is Ngai 's throne on earth . It is the place where Gĩkũyũ , the father of the tribe , used to meet with God . Thus according to the Kikuyu records , Gĩkũyũ is the first person on Earth to ascend the mountain . ' Mwene Nyaga ' in Kikuyu language can also translate as the " Owner of the crown " where ' Mwene ' translates to ' owner ' , and ' Nyaga ' to Crown . The snow ( in Kikuyu : Ira ) caps of the mountain symbolically represent a crown on God 's habitation and thus the crown @-@ nyaga reference . ' Nyaga ' can also translate to ' Ostrich ' . In this context , God is seen to be the owner of that very rare bird the Ostrich .
Kikuyu used to build their houses with the doors facing the mountain . The Kikuyu name for Mount Kenya is Kĩrĩ Nyaga ( Kirinyaga ) , which literally translates to that which has the Nyaga - crown and therefore the locally accepted connotation ' God 's Resting Place ' or ' Where God Lives ' , referring to Mwene Nyaga .
= = = Embu = = =
The Embu people live to the south @-@ east of Mount Kenya , and believe that the mountain is God 's home ( the Embu word for God is Ngai or Mwene Njeru ) . The mountain is sacred , and they build their houses with the doors facing towards it . The Embu people are closely related to the Ameru and Mbeere people . The Mbeere and Akamba are the settlers of the southeast side of the mountain .
= = = Ameru = = =
The Ameru occupy the east and north slopes of the mountain . They are generally agricultural and also keep livestock and occupy what is among the most fertile land in Kenya . The Meru God Murungu was from the skies . Their name for Mt . Kenya is Kirimara , which means ' mountain with white features ' . Mt . Kenya features a lot in the Ameru folklore and songs .
= = = Maasai = = =
The Maasai are semi @-@ nomadic people , who use the land to the north of the mountain to graze their cattle . They believe that their ancestors came down from the mountain at the beginning of time . The Maasai name for Mount Kenya is Ol Donyo Keri , which means ' mountain of stripes ' , referring to the dark shades as observed from the surrounding plains . At least one Maasai prayer refers to Mount Kenya :
God bless our children , let them be like the olive tree of Morintat , let them grow and expand , let them be like Ngong Hills like Mt . Kenya , like Mt . Kilimanjaro and multiply in number .
= = Geology = =
Mount Kenya is a stratovolcano that was active in the Plio @-@ Pleistocene . The original crater was probably over 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 700 ft ) high ; higher than Kilimanjaro . Since it became extinct there have been two major periods of glaciation , which are shown by two main rings of moraines below the glaciers . The lowest moraine is found at around 3 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) . Today the glaciers reach no lower than 4 @,@ 650 m ( 15 @,@ 260 ft ) . After studying the moraines , Gregory put forward the theory that at one time the whole summit of the mountain was covered with an ice cap , and it was this that eroded the peaks to how they are today .
The lower slopes of the mountain have never been glaciated . They are now mainly cultivated and forested . They are distinguished by steep @-@ sided V @-@ shaped valleys with many tributaries . Higher up the mountain , in the area that is now moorland , the valleys become U @-@ shaped and shallower with flatter bottoms . These were created by glaciation .
When Mount Kenya was active there was some satellite activity . The north @-@ eastern side of the mountain has many old volcanic plugs and craters . The largest of these , Ithanguni , even had its own ice cap when the main peaks were covered in ice . This can be seen by the smoothed summit of the peak . Circular hills with steep sides are also frequent in this area , which are probably the remains of small plugged vents . However , as the remaining mountain is roughly symmetrical , most of the activity must have occurred at the central plug .
The rocks that form Mount Kenya are mainly basalts , rhomb porphyrites , phonolites , kenytes and trachytes . Kenyte was first reported by Gregory in 1900 following his study of the geology of Mount Kenya .
The geology of the Mount Kenya area was first proposed to the Western Community by Joseph Thomson in 1883 . He saw the mountain from the nearby Laikipia Plateau and wrote that it was an extinct volcano with the plug exposed . However , as he had only seen the mountain from a distance his description was not widely believed in Europe , particularly after 1887 when Teleki and von Höhnel ascended the mountain and described what they considered to be the crater . In 1893 Gregory 's expedition reached the Lewis Glacier at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . He confirmed that the volcano was extinct and that there were glaciers present . The first thorough survey by Europeans was not undertaken until 1966 .
= = Peaks = =
The peaks of Mount Kenya are almost all from a volcanic origin . The majority of the peaks are located near the centre of the mountain . These peaks have an Alpine appearance due to their craggy nature . Typically of Alpine terrain , the highest peaks and gendarmes occur at the intersection of ridges . The central peaks only have a few mosses , lichens and small alpine plants growing in rock crevices . Further away from the central peaks , the volcanic plugs are covered in volcanic ash and soils . The vegetation growing on these peaks is typical for their vegetation band .
The highest peaks are Batian ( 5 @,@ 199 metres ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) ) , Nelion ( 5 @,@ 188 m ( 17 @,@ 021 ft ) ) and Pt Lenana ( 4 @,@ 985 m ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) ) . Batian and Nelion are within 250 m ( 270 yd ) of each other , separated by the Gate of the Mists gap ( 5 @,@ 144 metres ( 16 @,@ 877 ft ) ) . Coryndon Peak ( 4 @,@ 960 m ( 16 @,@ 273 ft ) ) is the next highest , but unlike the previous peaks it does not form a part of the central plug .
Other peaks around the central plug include Pt Piggot ( 4 @,@ 957 m ( 16 @,@ 263 ft ) ) , Pt Dutton ( 4 @,@ 885 m ( 16 @,@ 027 ft ) ) , Pt John ( 4 @,@ 883 m ( 16 @,@ 020 ft ) ) , Pt John Minor ( 4 @,@ 875 m ( 15 @,@ 994 ft ) ) , Krapf Rognon ( 4 @,@ 800 m ( 15 @,@ 748 ft ) ) , Pt Peter ( 4 @,@ 757 m ( 15 @,@ 607 ft ) ) , Pt Slade ( 4 @,@ 750 m ( 15 @,@ 584 ft ) ) and Midget Peak ( 4 @,@ 700 m ( 15 @,@ 420 ft ) ) . All of these have a steep pyramidal form .
Significant craggy outlying peaks include Terere ( 4 @,@ 714 m ( 15 @,@ 466 ft ) ) and Sendeyo ( 4 @,@ 704 m ( 15 @,@ 433 ft ) ) which form a pair of twin peaks to the north of the main plug . Together , they form a large parasitic plug . Other notable peaks include The Hat ( 4 @,@ 639 m ( 15 @,@ 220 ft ) ) , Delamere Peak , Macmillan Peak and Rotundu .
= = Glaciers = =
The glaciers on Mount Kenya are retreating rapidly . The Mountain Club of Kenya in Nairobi has photographs showing the mountain when it was first climbed in 1899 , and again more recently ; the retreat of the glaciers is very evident . Descriptions of ascents of several of the peaks advise on the use of crampons , but this is true only in some cases and at higher heights . Every year there is less new snow accumulating in winter than melting on summer , even on the Lewis Glacier ( the largest of them ) in winter , so there is no formation of new ice . It is predicted to be less than 30 years before there will no longer be ice on Mount Kenya . Glacial retreat and disappearance can be caused by change in temperature trends , or by change in precipitation trends .
The glacier names are ( clockwise from the north ) :
Northey , Krapf , Gregory , Lewis , Diamond , Darwin , Forel , Heim , Tyndall , Cesar , Josef .
The area of glaciers on the mountain was measured in the 1980s , and recorded as about 0 @.@ 7 km2 ( 0 @.@ 27 sq mi ) . This is far smaller than the first observations , made in the 1890s .
= = = Periglacial landforms = = =
Although Mount Kenya is on the equator the freezing nightly temperatures result in periglacial landforms . There is permafrost a few centimetres ( inches ) below the surface . Patterned ground is present at 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 155 ft ) to the west of Mugi Hill . These mounds grow because of the repeated freezing and thawing of the ground drawing in more water . There are blockfields present around 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) where the ground has cracked to form hexagons . Solifluction occurs when the night temperatures freeze the soil before it thaws again in the morning . This daily expansion and contraction of the soil prevents the establishment of vegetation .
= = Rivers = =
Mount Kenya is the main water catchment area for two large rivers in Kenya ; the Tana , the largest river in Kenya , and the Ewaso Ng 'iso North . The Mount Kenya ecosystem provides water directly for over 2 million people . The rivers on Mount Kenya have been named after the villages on the slopes of the mountain that they flow close to . The Thuchi River is the district boundary between Meru and Embu . Mount Kenya is a major water tower for the Tana river which in 1988 supplied 80 % of Kenya 's electricity using a series of seven hydroelectric powerstations and dams .
The density of streams is very high , especially on the lower slopes which have never been glaciated . The ice cap which used to cover the mountain during the Pliocene eroded large U @-@ shaped valleys which tend to only have one large stream . Where the original shape of the shield volcano is still preserved , there have been millions of years for streams to erode the hillside . This area is therefore characterised by frequent deep fluvial V @-@ shaped valleys . The gradual transition from glaciated to fluvial valley can be clearly observed .
Rivers which start on Mount Kenya are the tributaries of two large Kenyan rivers : the Tana and the Ewaso Ng 'iro rivers . A lot of Mount Kenyan rivers flow into the Sagana which itself is a tributary of the Tana , which it joins at the Masinga Reservoir . The rivers in the northern part of the mountain , such as the Burguret , Naru Moru , Nanyuki , Liki , Sirimon flow into the Ewaso Ng 'iro . The rivers to the south @-@ west , such as the Keringa and Nairobi flow into the Sagana and then into the Tana . The remaining rivers to the south and east , such as the Mutonga , Nithi , Thuchi and Nyamindi , flow directly into the Tana .
= = Natural history = =
Mount Kenya has several altitudinal ecological zones , between the savanna surrounding the mountain to the nival zone by the glaciers . Each zone has a dominant species of vegetation . Many of the species found higher up the mountain are endemic , either to Mount Kenya or East Africa .
There are also differences within the zones , depending on the side of the mountain and aspect of the slope . The south @-@ east is much wetter than the north , so species more dependent on moisture are able to grow . Some species , such as bamboo , are limited to certain aspects of the mountain because of the amount of moisture .
= = = Zones = = =
The climate of Mount Kenya changes considerably with altitude , forming belts of community types . Around the base of the mountain is fertile farmland . The tribes living around the mountain have cultivated this cool relatively moist area for centuries .
Mount Kenya is surrounded by forests . The vegetation in the forests depend on rainfall , and the species present differ greatly between the northern and southern slopes . As time has passed the trees on the edge of the forest have been logged and the farmland has encroached further up the fertile slopes of the mountain .
Above the forest is a belt of bamboo . This zone is almost continuous , but is restricted to small isolated bunches in the north because of low rainfall . The bamboo is natural , and does not require forest disturbance . Tracks are common through the bamboo . Bamboo suppresses other vegetation , so it is uncommon to find trees or other plants here .
Above the bamboo is the timberline forest . The trees here are often smaller than the trees in the forests lower down the mountain . The forest here is more intact , because it is less accessible and better protected .
When the trees can no longer grow the vegetation changes into heathland and chaparral , at around 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Heathland is found in the wetter areas , on the west side of Mount Kenya , and is dominated by giant heathers . Chaparral is found in the drier areas and grasses are more common. and bush fires still occur .
As the altitude increases the temperature fluctuations become extreme and the air becomes thinner and drier . This region is known as the Afro @-@ alpine zone . The environment here is isolated , with the only similar area nearby being the Aberdares , which are 80 km ( 50 mi ) away . Many of the species here are endemic , with adaptations to the cold and fluctuating temperatures . Typical plants here include giant groundsels ( senecios ) and giant lobelias .
The region where the glaciers have recently retreated from is nival zone . It is the area that plants have not yet been able to colonise .
= = = Flora = = =
The flora found on Mount Kenya varies with altitude , aspect and exposure . As the altitude increases , the plants have to be more specialised , with adaptations to strong sunlight with ultraviolet , lower mean temperatures and freezing night temperatures .
Plants in the Afro @-@ alpine zone have overcome these difficulties in several ways . One adaptation is known as the giant rosette , which is exhibited by giant senecio , giant lobelia and giant thistle ( Carduus ) , which use bud leaves to protect their buds from freezing . Giant rosette senecios form single @-@ aged stands that drive community structure over decades .
Many plant species in the Afro @-@ alpine zone of Mount Kenya are giant versions of lowland ( or temperate ) relatives . However , nearer the nival zone the plants decrease in size again .
= = = Fauna = = =
The majority of animals live lower down on the slopes of Mount Kenya . Here there is more vegetation and the climate is less extreme . Various species of monkeys , several antelopes , tree hyrax , porcupines and some larger animals such as elephant and buffalo all live in the forest . Predators found here include hyena and leopard , and occasionally lion .
There are fewer mammals found at high altitudes on Mount Kenya . The Mount Kenya hyrax and common duiker are able to live here , and are important to the ecosystem . Some smaller mammals , such as the groove @-@ toothed rat , can live here by burrowing into the giant senecios and using their thick stem of dead leaves as insulation . The Mount Kenya mole @-@ rat Tachyoryctes rex occurs at high altitudes , living in visible mounds . Leopards are resident in the alpine zone .
Other mammal species are only occasional visitors . Remains of elephants , monkeys and bongo have been found high in the alpine zone , and other sightings are remembered in names such as Simba Tarn ( simba means lion in Swahili ) .
Several bird species live in the Afro @-@ alpine zone , including sunbirds , alpine chats and starlings and the raptors , augur buzzard , lammergeier and Verreaux 's eagle , the latter of which specializes in hunting hyraxes . Birds are important in this ecosystem as pollinators .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Mount Kenya has played a critical role in the development of the mountain , influencing the topography and ecology amongst other factors . It has a typical equatorial mountain climate which Hedberg described as winter every night and summer every day . Mount Kenya is home to one of the Global Atmosphere Watch 's atmospheric monitoring stations .
= = = Seasons = = =
The year is divided into two distinct wet seasons and two distinct dry seasons which mirror the wet and dry seasons in the Kenyan lowlands . As Mount Kenya ranges in height from 1 @,@ 374 m ( 4 @,@ 508 ft ) to 5 @,@ 199 m ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) the climate varies considerably over the mountain and has different zones of influence . The lower , south eastern slopes are the wettest as the predominant weather system comes from the Indian ocean . This rainfall supports dense montane forest on these slopes . High on the mountain most of the precipitation falls as snow . Combined , these water sources feed 11 glaciers .
The current climate on Mount Kenya is wet , but drier than it has been in the past . The temperatures span a wide range , which diminishes with altitude . In the lower alpine zone temperature usually do not go below 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Snow and rain are common from March to December , but especially in the two wet seasons . The wet seasons combined account for 5 / 6 of the annual precipitation . The monsoon , which controls the wet and dry seasons , means that most of the year there are south @-@ easterly winds , but during January and February the dominant wind direction is north @-@ easterly .
Mount Kenya , like most locations in the tropics , has two wet seasons and two dry seasons as a result of the monsoon . From mid @-@ March to June the heavy rain season , known as the long rains , brings approximately half of the annual rainfall on the mountain . This is followed by the wetter of the two dry seasons which lasts until September . October to December are the short rains when the mountain receives approximately a third of its rainfall total . Finally from December to mid @-@ March is the drier dry season when the mountain experiences the least rain .
= = = Daily pattern = = =
During the dry season the mountain almost always follows the same daily weather pattern . Large daily temperature fluctuations occur which led Hedberg to exclaim winter every night and summer every day . There is variation in minimum and maximum temperatures day to day , but the standard deviation of the mean hourly pattern is small .
A typical day is clear and cool in the morning with low humidity . The mountain is in direct sunlight which causes the temperatures to rise quickly with the warmest temperatures occurring between 0900 and 1200 . This corresponds to a maximum in the pressure , usually around 10 am . Low on the mountain , between 2 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 874 ft ) and 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 795 ft ) , clouds begin to form over the western forest zone , due to moist air from Lake Victoria . The anabatic winds caused by warm rising air gradually bring these clouds to the summit region in the afternoon . Around 1500 there is a minimum in sunlight and a maximum in humidity causing the actual and perceived temperature to drop . At 1600 there is a minimum in the pressure . This daily cover of cloud protects the glaciers on the south @-@ west of the mountain which would otherwise get direct sun every day , enhancing their melt . The upwelling cloud eventually reaches the dry easterly air streams and dissipates , leading to a clear sky by 5 pm . There is another maximum of temperature associated with this .
Being an equatorial mountain the daylight hours are constant with twelve @-@ hour days . Sunrise is about 0530 with the sun setting at 1730 . Over the course of the year there is a one @-@ minute difference between the shortest and longest days . At night , the sky is usually clear with katabatic winds blowing down the valleys . Above the lower alpine zone there is usually frost every night .
= = History = =
= = = European sighting = = =
The first European to report seeing Mount Kenya was Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf , a German missionary , from Kitui in 1849 , a town 160 km ( 100 mi ) away from the mountain . The sighting was made on 3 December 1849 , a year after the discovery of Kilimanjaro .
Krapf was told by people of the Embu tribe that lived around the mountain that they did not ascend high enough on the mountain because of the intense cold and the white matter that rolled down the mountains with a loud noise . This led him to infer that glaciers existed on the mountain . It was Krapf who gave the mountain the name " Kenya " , but the derivation of this is not known with certainty ( see the various local names below , some of which are similar ) .
Krapf also noted that the rivers flowing from Mount Kenya , and other mountains in the area , were continuously flowing . This was very different from the other rivers in the area , which swelled up in the wet season and completely dried up after the rainy season had ended . As the streams flowed even in the driest seasons he concluded that there must be a source of water up on the mountain , in the form of glaciers . He believed the mountain to be the source of the White Nile .
In 1851 Krapf returned to Kitui . He travelled 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) closer to the mountain , but did not see it again . In 1877 Hildebrandt was in the Kitui area and heard stories about the mountain , but also did not see it . Since there were no confirmations to back up Krapf 's claim people began to be suspicious .
Eventually , in 1883 , Joseph Thomson passed close by the west side of the mountain and confirmed Krapf 's claim . He diverted his expedition and reached 1 @,@ 737 m ( 5 @,@ 700 ft ) up the slopes of the mountain but had to retreat because of trouble with local people . However , the first European exploration high onto the mountain was achieved in 1887 by Count Samuel Teleki . He managed to reach 4 @,@ 350 m ( 14 @,@ 270 ft ) on the south western slopes . On this expedition Teleki mistakenly believed he had found the crater of a volcano .
In 1892 , Teleki and von Höhnel returned to the eastern side , but were unable to get through the forest .
Finally , in 1893 , an expedition managed to ascend Mount Kenya as far as the glaciers . This expedition was traveling from the coast to Lake Baringo in the Rift Valley , and was led by Dr John W Gregory , a British geologist . They managed to ascend the mountain to around 4 @,@ 730 m ( 15 @,@ 520 ft ) , and spent several hours on the Lewis Glacier with their guide . On his return to Britain , Gregory published papers and a narrative account of his achievements .
George Kolb , a German physician , made expeditions in 1894 and 1896 and was the first to reach the moorlands on the east side of the mountain . More exploration occurred after 1899 when the Uganda Railway was completed as far as the future site of Nairobi .
= = = Mackinder 's expedition = = =
On 28 July 1899 , Sir Halford John Mackinder set out from the site of Nairobi on an expedition to Mount Kenya . The members of the expedition consisted of 6 Europeans , 66 Swahilis , 2 Maasai guides , and 96 Kikuyu . The Europeans were Campbell B. Hausberg , second in command and photographer ; Douglas Saunders , botanist ; C F Camburn , taxidermist ; Cesar Ollier , guide ; and Josef Brocherel , guide and porter . The expedition made it as far as the mountain , but encountered many difficulties on the way . The country they passed through was full of plague and famine . Many Kikuyu porters tried to desert with women from the villages , and others stole from the villages , which made the chiefs very hostile towards the expedition . When they reached the base camp on 18 August , they could not find any food , had two of their party killed by the local people , and eventually had to send Saunders to Naivasha to get help from Captain Gorges , the Government Officer there .
Mackinder pushed on up the mountain , and established a camp at 3 @,@ 142 m ( 10 @,@ 310 ft ) in the Höhnel Valley . He made his first attempt on the summit on 30 August with Ollier and Brocherel up the south east face , but they had to retreat when they were within 100 m ( 110 yd ) of the summit of Nelion due to nightfall .
On 5 September , Hausberg , Ollier , and Brocherel made a circuit of the main peaks looking for an easier route to the summit . They could not find one . On 11 September Ollier and Brocherel made an ascent of the Darwin Glacier , but were forced to retreat due to a blizzard .
When Saunders returned from Naivasha with the relief party , Mackinder had another attempt at the summit with Ollier and Brocherel . They traversed the Lewis Glacier and climbed the south east face of Nelion . They spent the night near the gendarme , and traversed the snowfield at the head of the Darwin Glacier at dawn before cutting steps up the Diamond Glacier . They reached the summit of Batian at noon on 13 September , and descended by the same route .
= = = 1900 – 1930 = = =
After the first ascent of Mount Kenya there were fewer expeditions there for a while . The majority of the exploration until after the First World War was by settlers in Kenya , who were not on scientific expeditions . A Church of Scotland mission was set up in Chogoria , and several Scottish missionaries ascended to the peaks , including Rev Dr. J. W. Arthur , G. Dennis and A. R. Barlow . There were other ascents , but none succeeded in summitting Batian or Nelion .
New approach routes were cleared through the forest , which made access to the peaks area far easier . In 1920 , Arthur and Sir Fowell Buxton tried to cut a route in from the south , and other routes came in from Nanyuki in the north , but the most commonly used was the route from the Chogoria mission in the east , built by Ernest Carr . Carr is also credited with building Urumandi and Top Huts .
On 6 January 1929 the first ascent of Nelion was made by Percy Wyn @-@ Harris and Eric Shipton . They climbed the Normal Route , then descended to the Gate of Mists before ascending Batian . On 8 January they reascended , this time with G. A. Sommerfelt , and in December Shipton made another ascent with R. E. G. Russell . They also made the first ascent of Point John . During this year the Mountain Club of East Africa was formed .
At the end of July 1930 , Shipton and Bill Tilman made the first traverse of the peaks . They ascended by the West Ridge of Batian , traversed the Gate of Mists to Nelion , and descended the Normal Route . During this trip , Shipton and Tilman made first ascents of several other peaks , including Point Peter , Point Dutton , Midget Peak , Point Pigott and either Terere or Sendeyo .
= = = 1931 to present day = = =
In the early 1930s there were several visits to the moorlands around Mount Kenya , with fewer as far as the peaks . Raymond Hook and Humphrey Slade ascended to map the mountain , and stocked several of the streams with trout . By 1938 there had been several more ascents of Nelion . In February , Miss C Carroll and Mtu Muthara became the first woman and African respectively to ascend Nelion , in an expedition with Noel Symington , author of The Night Climbers of Cambridge , and on 5 March Miss Una Cameron became the first woman to ascend Batian .
During the Second World War there was another drop in ascents of the mountain . The most remarkable ascent during this period was by three Italians who were being held in a British POW camp at the base of the mountain in Nanyuki . They escaped from camp to climb the mountain 's third peak , Point Lenana , before " escaping " back into camp . Felice Benuzzi , the team leader , retold his story in the book No Picnic on Mount Kenya ( 1946 ) .
In 1949 the Mountain Club of Kenya split from the Mountain Club of East Africa , and the area above 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 150 ft ) was designated a National Park . A road was built from Naro Moru to the moorlands , allowing easier access .
Many new routes were climbed on Batian and Nelion in the next three decades , and in October 1959 the Mountain Club of Kenya produced their first guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro . On Kenyan independence in 1963 , Kisoi Munyao raised the Kenyan flag at the top of the mountain . He died in 2007 and was given a heroic funeral attended by Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki . In the early 1970s the Mount Kenya National Park Mountain Rescue Team was formed , and by the end of the 1970s all major routes on the peaks had been climbed .
On 19 July 2003 , a South African registered aircraft , carrying 12 passengers and two crew , crashed into Mount Kenya at Point Lenana ; nobody survived . This was not the first aircraft lost on the mountain ; there is also the wreckage of at least one helicopter that crashed before 1972 .
In March 2012 a massive fire raged on Mount Kenya , devouring thousands of hectares of ancient forests and endangered wildlife .
= = Mountaineering = =
= = = Climbing routes = = =
Most of the peaks on Mount Kenya have been summited . The majority of these involve rock climbing as the easiest route , although some only require a scramble or a walk . The highest peak that can be ascended without climbing is Point Lenana , 4 @,@ 985 m ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) . The majority of the 15 @,@ 000 visitors to the national park each year climb this peak . In contrast , approximately 200 people summit Nelion and 50 summit Batian , the two highest peaks .
When ascended directly , Batian is usually climbed via the North Face Standard Route , UIAA grade IV + ( or 5 @.@ 6 + YDS ) . It was first ascended on 31 July 1944 by Firmin and Hicks . The route is usually climbed in two days . The Normal Route is the most climbed route up Nelion , and thence across to Batian . It was first climbed by Shipton and Wyn @-@ Harris on 6 January 1929 . It is possible to traverse between the two peaks , via the Gates of Mist , but this often involves spending a night in the Howell hut on top of Nelion . There is a bolted abseil descent route off Nelion .
Mount Kenya 's climbing seasons are a result of its location only 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the equator . During the northern summer the rock routes on the north side of the peak are in good summer condition , while at the same time the ice routes on the south side of the peak are prime shape . The situation is reversed during the southern summer . The two seasons are separated by several months of rainy season before and after , during which climbing conditions are generally unfavorable .
Mount Kenya is home to several good ice routes , the two most famous being the Diamond Couloir and the Ice Window route . Snow and ice levels on the mountain have been retreating at an accelerated rate in recent years , making these climbs increasingly difficult and dangerous . The Diamond Couloir , a steep ice couloir fed by the fusion of the upper Diamond Glacier and pioneered in 1975 by Yvon Chouinard and Michael Covington , was once climbable in summer or winter but now is virtually unclimbable in summer conditions and is seldom deemed in climbable condition even in winter . Last climbing reports describe the route very difficult , especially in the lower section . The route has changed into a modern ice climb with a very difficult 60m first pitch , starting with 8m of overhanging M7 dry tooling , followed by 50m of USA Grade V ice and by others 6 pitches of moderate climbing on good ice and finally one pitch of water ice USA Grade IV + ice at the headwall before getting to the Upper Diamond Glacier .
The satellite peaks around the mountain also provide good climbs . These can be climbed in Alpine style and vary in difficulty from a scramble to climbing at UIAA grade VI . They are useful for acclimatisation before climbing the higher peaks and as ascents in their own right .
= = = Walking routes = = =
There are eight walking routes up to the main peaks . Starting clockwise from the north these are the : Meru , Chogoria , Kamweti , Naro Moru , Burguret , Sirimon and Timau Routes . Of these Chogoria , Naro Moru and Sirimon are used most frequently and therefore have staffed gates . The other routes require special permission from the Kenya Wildlife Service to use .
The Chogoria route leads from Chogoria town up to the peaks circuit path . It heads through the forest to the south @-@ east of the mountain to the moorland , with views over areas such as Ithanguni and the Giant 's Billiards Table before following the Gorges Valley past the Temple and up to Simba Col below Point Lenana . The Mountain Club of Kenya claims that Ithanguni and the Giant 's Billiards Table offer some of the best hillwalking in Kenya .
The Naro Moru route is taken by many of the trekkers who try to reach Point Lenana . It can be ascended in only 3 days and has bunkhouses at each camp . The route starts at Naro Moru town to the west of the mountain and climbs towards Mackinder 's Camp before joining the Peak Circuit Path . The terrain is usually good , although one section is called the Vertical Bog .
The Sirimon route approaches Mount Kenya from the north @-@ west . The path splits on the moorlands , with the more frequently used fork following the Mackinder Valley and the quieter route traversing into the Liki North Valley . The paths rejoin at Shipton 's Cave just below Shipton 's Camp on the Peak Circuit Path .
The Peak Circuit Path is a path around the main peaks , with a distance of about 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) and height gain and loss of over 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It can be walked in one day , but more commonly takes two or three . It can also be used to join different ascent and descent routes . The route does not require technical climbing .
= = = Accommodation = = =
Accommodation on Mount Kenya ranges from very basic to luxurious . The more luxurious lodges are found on the lower slopes , in and around the forest . These lodges have hotel @-@ style accommodation , often with log fires and hot running water . Many offer guided walks and other activities such as fishing and birdwatching . The huts higher on the mountain are more basic . Most have several bunkrooms with beds , and also offer somewhere to rest , cook and eat . Some also have running water . A few huts are very basic bothies only offering a space to sleep that is sheltered from the weather . Beds in the huts can be reserved at the park gates . Camping is allowed anywhere in the National Park , but is most encouraged around the huts to limit environmental impact . It is possible for campers to use the communal spaces in the huts for no extra fee .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the name Kenya is not clear , but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu , Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga , Kirenyaa and Kiinyaa which mean " God 's resting place " in all three languages .
In the 19th Century , the German explorer , Ludwig Krapf , recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by some to be a corruption of the Kamba version . Others however say that this was on the contrary a very precise notation of the correct African pronunciation / ˈkɛnjə / . In any case , the name was for a long time pronounced by colonial @-@ heritage Europeans as / ˈkiːnjə / . The European pronunciation has been abandoned in modern times , in favor of the African version .
= = = Names of peaks = = =
The peaks of Mount Kenya have been given names from three different sources . Firstly , several Maasai chieftains have been commemorated , with names such as Batian , Nelion and Lenana . They commemorate Mbatian , a Maasai Laibon ( Medicine Man ) , Nelieng , his brother , and Lenana and Sendeyo , his sons . Terere is named after another Maasai headman .
The second type of names that were given to peaks are after European climbers and explorers . Some examples of this are Shipton , Sommerfelt , Tilman , Dutton and Arthur .
The remaining names are after well @-@ known Kenyan personalities , with the exception of John and Peter , which were named by the missionary Arthur after two disciples . There is a group of four peaks to the east of the main peaks named after European settlers ; Coryndon , Grigg , Delamere and McMillan .
= = Additional reading = =
Benuzzi , F. ( 1953 ) . No Picnic on Mount Kenya . Lyons Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59228 @-@ 724 @-@ 6 .
Best , Nicholas ( 2014 ) . Point Lenana . Thistle Publishing / Kindle Single .
de Watteville , Vivienne ( 1935 ) . Speak to the Earth . W W Norton and Co Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 39333 @-@ 556 @-@ 9 .
Fadiman J. ( 1993 ) . When We Began , There Were Witchmen An Oral History from Mount Kenya . University of California Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 08615 @-@ 9 . Retrieved 28 June 2011 .
Kenyatta , J. ( 1962 ) . Facing Mount Kenya . Vintage Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 70210 @-@ 0 .
Mahaney , W.C. ( 1990 ) . Ice on the Equator . Ellison Bay , Wisconsin , U.S.A : Wm Caxton Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 940473 @-@ 19 @-@ 4 . A full survey of the long glacial and periglacial reconstructive history of Mt . Kenya , its geological and environmental settings , sequences of paleosols ( ancient soils ) and their significance in understanding the multiplicity of glaciations .
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= Scotland in the Early Middle Ages =
Scotland in the early Middle Ages , between the end of Roman authority in southern and central Britain from around 400 and the rise of the kingdom of Alba in 900 , was divided into a series of kingdoms . Of these the four most important to emerge were the Picts , the Scots of Dál Riata , the Britons of Alt Clut and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia . After the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th century , Scandinavian rulers and colonies were established along parts of the coasts and in the islands . In the 9th century the Scots and Picts were combined under the House of Alpin to form a single kingdom which formed the basis of the kingdom of Scotland .
Scotland has an extensive coastline and large areas of difficult terrain and poor agricultural land . In this period more land became marginal due to climate change . This resulted in relatively light settlement , particularly in the interior and Highlands . Northern Britain lacked urban centres and settlements were based on farmsteads and around fortified positions such as brochs , with mixed @-@ farming largely based on self @-@ sufficiency . In this period , changes in settlement and colonisation meant that the Pictish and Brythonic languages began to be subsumed by Gaelic , English , and , at the end of the period , by Old Norse . Life expectancy was relatively low , leading to a young population , with a ruling aristocracy , freemen , and relatively large numbers of slaves . Kingship was multi @-@ layered , with different kings surrounded by their war bands that made up the most important elements of armed forces , who engaged in both low @-@ level raiding and occasional longer @-@ range , major campaigns .
One key event during the period was the expansion of Christianity from the margins of Scotland , becoming the religion of many inhabitants . Initially influenced by the Celtic tradition originating from what is now Ireland , by the end of the era it had become integrated into the organisational structures of the Catholic Church . This period produced some highly distinctive monumental and ornamental art , culminating in the development of the Insular art style , common across Britain and Ireland . The most impressive structures included nucleated hill forts and , after the introduction of Christianity , churches and monasteries . The period also saw the beginnings of Scottish literature in British , Old English , Gaelic and Latin languages .
= = History = =
By the time of Bede and Adomnán , in the late seventh century and early eighth century , four major circles of influence had emerged in northern Britain . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland . In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata with their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll , with close links with the island of Ireland , from which they brought with them the name Scots , originally a term used to describe the inhabitants of Ireland . In the south was the British ( Brythonic ) Kingdom of Alt Clut , descendants of the peoples of the Roman @-@ influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " . Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia ( later the northern part of Northumbria ) , in the south @-@ east , and who brought with them Old English .
= = = Picts = = =
The confederation of Pictish tribes that developed north of the Firth of Forth may have stretched up as far as Orkney . It probably developed out of the tribes of the Caledonii ( whose name continued to be used for at least part of the confederation ) , perhaps as a response to the pressure exerted by the presence of the Romans to the south . They first appear in Roman records at the end of the 3rd century as the picti ( the painted people : possibly a reference to their habit of tattooing their bodies ) when Roman forces campaigned against them . The first identifiable king of the Picts , who seems to have exerted a superior and wide @-@ ranging authority , was Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 – 84 ) . His power was based in the kingdom of Fidach , and his base was at the fort of Craig Phadrig , near modern Inverness . After his death , leadership seems to have shifted to the Fortriu , whose lands were centred on Strathearn and Menteith and who raided along the eastern coast into modern England . Christian missionaries from Iona appear to have begun the conversion of the Picts to Christianity from 563 .
In the 7th century , the Picts acquired Bridei map Beli ( 671 – 693 ) as a king , perhaps imposed by the kingdom of Alt Clut , where his father Beli I and then his brother Eugein I ruled . At this point the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Bernicia was expanding northwards and the Picts were probably tributary to them until , in 685 , Bridei defeated them at the Battle of Dunnichen in Angus , killing their king , Ecgfrith . In the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa ( 729 – 761 ) , the Picts appear to have reached the height of their influence , defeating the forces of Dál Riata ( and probably making them a tributary ) , invading Alt Clut and Northumbria , and making the first known peace treaties with the English . Succeeding Pictish kings may have been able to dominate Dál Riata , with Caustantín mac Fergusa ( 793 – 820 ) perhaps placing his son Domnall on the throne from 811 .
= = = Dál Riata = = =
The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was on the western coast of modern Scotland , with some territory on the northern coasts of Ireland . It probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd , now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute . In the late 6th and early 7th centuries , it encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland , and also County Antrim in Ireland . Dál Riata is commonly viewed as having been an Irish Gaelic colony in Scotland , although some archaeologists have recently argued against this . The inhabitants of Dál Riata are often referred to as Scots , from Latin scotti , a name used by Latin writers for the inhabitants of Ireland . Its original meaning is uncertain , but it later refers to Gaelic @-@ speakers , whether from Ireland or elsewhere .
In 563 , a mission from Ireland under St. Columba founded the monastery of Iona off the west coast of Scotland , and probably began the conversion of the region to Christianity . The kingdom reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin ( r . 574 – 608 ) , but its expansion was checked at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 by Æthelfrith of Northumbria . Serious defeats in Ireland and Scotland in the time of Domnall Brecc ( d . 642 ) ended Dál Riata 's golden age , and the kingdom became a client of Northumbria , then a subject to the Picts . There is disagreement over the fate of the kingdom from the late 8th century onwards . Some scholars argue that Dál Riata underwent a revival under king Áed Find ( 736 – 78 ) , before the arrival of the Vikings .
= = = Alt Clut = = =
Alt Clut ( named after the Brythonic name for Dumbarton Rock , the Medieval capital of the Strathclyde region ) may have had its origins with the Damnonii people of Ptolemy 's Geographia . Two kings are known from near contemporary sources in this early period . The first is Coroticus or Ceretic ( Ceredig ) , known as the recipient of a letter from Saint Patrick , and stated by a 7th @-@ century biographer to have been king of the Height of the Clyde , Dumbarton Rock , placing him in the second half of the 5th century . From Patrick 's letter it is clear that Ceretic was a Christian , and it is likely that the ruling class of the area were also Christians , at least in name . His descendant Rhydderch Hael is named in Adomnán 's Life of Saint Columba .
After 600 , information on the Britons of Alt Clut becomes more common in the sources . In 642 , led by Eugein son of Beli , they defeated the men of Dál Riata and killed Domnall Brecc , grandson of Áedán , at Strathcarron . The kingdom suffered a number of attacks from the Picts under Óengus , and later the Picts ' Northumbrian allies between 744 and 756 . They lost the region of Kyle in the south @-@ west of modern Scotland to Northumbria , and the last attack may have forced the king Dumnagual III to submit to his neighbours . After this , little is heard of Alt Clut or its kings until Alt Clut was burnt and probably destroyed in 780 , although by whom and what in what circumstances is not known , Historians have traditionally identified Alt Clut with the later Kingdom of Strathclyde , but J. E. Fraser points to the fact there is no contemporary evidence that the heartland of Alt Clut was in Clydesdale and the Kingdom of Strathclyde may have arisen after Alt Clut 's decline .
= = = Bernicia = = =
The Brythonic successor states of what is now the modern Anglo @-@ Scottish border region are referred to by Welsh scholars as part of Yr Hen Ogledd ( " The Old North " ) . This included the kingdoms of Bryneich , which may have had its capital at modern Bamburgh in Northumberland , and Gododdin , centred on Din Eidyn ( perhaps what is now Edinburgh ) and stretching across modern Lothian . Some " Angles " may have been employed as mercenaries along Hadrian 's Wall during the late Roman period . Others are thought to have migrated north ( by sea ) from Deira ( Old English : Derenrice or Dere ) in the early 6th century . At some point the Angles took control of Bryneich , which became the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Bernicia ( Old English : Beornice ) . The first Anglo @-@ Saxon king in the historical record is Ida , who is said to have obtained the throne around 547 . Around 600 , the Gododdin raised a force of about 300 men to assault the Anglo @-@ Saxon stronghold of Catraeth , perhaps Catterick , North Yorkshire . The battle , which ended disastrously for the Britons , was memorialised in the poem Y Gododdin .
Ida 's grandson , Æthelfrith , united Deira with his own kingdom , killing its king Æthelric to form Northumbria around 604 . Ætherlric 's son returned to rule both kingdoms after Æthelfrith had been defeated and killed by the East Anglians in 616 , presumably bringing with him the Christianity to which he had converted while in exile . After his defeat and death at the hands of the Welsh and Mercians at the Battle of Hatfield Chase on 12 October 633 , Northumbria again was divided into two kingdoms under pagan kings . Oswald ( r . 634 – 42 ) , ( another son of Æthelfrith ) defeated the Welsh and appears to have been recognised by both Bernicians and Deirans as king of a united Northumbria . He had converted to Christianity while in exile in Dál Riata and looked to Iona for missionaries , rather than to Canterbury . The island monastery of Lindisfarne was founded in 635 by the Irish monk Saint Aidan , who had been sent from Iona at the request of King Oswald . It became the seat of the Bishop of Lindisfarne , which stretched across Northumbria . In 638 Edinburgh was attacked by the English and at this point , or soon after , the Gododdin territories in Lothian and around Stirling came under the rule of Bernicia . After Oswald 's death fighting the Mercians , the two kingdoms were divided again , with Deira possibly having sub @-@ kings under Bernician authority , but from this point the English kings were Christian and after the Synod of Whitby in 664 , the Northumbrian kings accepted the primacy of Canterbury and Rome . In the late 7th century , the Northumbrians extended their influence north of the Forth , until they were defeated by the Picts at the Battle of Nechtansmere in 685 .
= = = Vikings and the Kingdom of Alba = = =
The balance between rival kingdoms was transformed in 793 when ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries like Iona and Lindisfarne , creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of North Britain . Orkney , Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen . The king of Fortriu , Eógan mac Óengusa , and the king of Dál Riata , Áed mac Boanta , were among the dead after a major defeat to the Vikings in 839 . A mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement into south @-@ west Scotland produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel , the Norse Irish , from which the region gets the modern name Galloway . Sometime in the 9th century , the beleaguered kingdom of Dál Riata lost the Hebrides to the Vikings , when Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles . These threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín ( Kenneth MacAlpin ) in the 840s , which brought to power the House of Alpin , who became the leaders of a combined Gaelic @-@ Pictish kingdom . In 867 the Vikings seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York ; three years later they stormed the Briton fortress of Dumbarton and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled .
The immediate descendants of Cináed were styled either as King of the Picts or King of Fortriu . They were ousted in 878 when Áed mac Cináeda was killed by Giric mac Dúngail , but returned again on Giric 's death in 889 . When Cínaed 's eventual successor Domnall mac Causantín died at Dunnottar in 900 , he was the first man to be recorded as rí Alban ( i.e. King of Alba ) . Such an apparent innovation in the Gaelic chronicles is occasionally taken to spell the birth of Scotland , but there is nothing extant from or about his reign that might confirm this . Known in Gaelic as " Alba " , in Latin as " Scotia " , and in English as " Scotland " , his kingdom was the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom would expand as the Viking influence waned , just as in the south the Kingdom of Wessex expanded to become the Kingdom of England .
= = Geography = =
= = = Physical geography = = =
Modern Scotland is half the size England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall : today about 700 cm ( 276 in ) per year in the east and over 1 @,@ 000 cm ( 394 in ) in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high level of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power . The early Middle Ages was a period of climate deterioration , with a drop in temperature and an increase in rainfall , resulting in more land becoming unproductive .
= = = Settlement = = =
Roman influence beyond Hadrian 's Wall does not appear to have had a major impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts continuing to be occupied through the early Medieval period . These often had defences of dry stone or timber laced walls , sometimes with a palisade . The large numbers of these forts has been taken to suggest peripatetic monarchies and aristocracies , moving around their domains to control and administer them . In the Northern and Western Isles the sites of Iron Age Brochs and wheel houses continued to be occupied , but were gradually replaced with less imposing cellular houses . There are a handful of major timber halls in the south , comparable to those excavated in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and dated to the 7th century . In the areas of Scandinavian settlement in the islands and along the coast a lack of timber meant that native materials had to be adopted for house building , often combining layers of stone with turf .
Place @-@ name evidence , particularly the use of the prefix " pit " , meaning land or a field , suggests that the heaviest areas of Pictish settlement were in modern Fife , Perthshire , Angus , Aberdeen and around the Moray Firth , although later Gaelic migration may have erased some Pictish names from the record . Early Gaelic settlement appears to have been in the regions of the western mainland of Scotland between Cowal and Ardnamurchan , and the adjacent islands , later extending up the West coast in the 8th century . There is place name and archaeological evidence of Anglian settlement in south @-@ east Scotland reaching into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the western islands , particularly the Hebrides and on the mainland in Caithness , stretching along fertile river valleys through Sutherland and into Ross . There was also extensive Viking settlement in Bernicia , the Northern part of Northumbria , which stretched into the modern Borders and Lowlands .
= = = Language = = =
This period saw dramatic changes in the geography of language . Modern linguists divide the Celtic languages into two major groups , the P @-@ Celtic , from which Welsh , Breton and Cornish derive and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which comes Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , English and later Norse in this period .
= = Economy = =
Lacking the urban centres created under the Romans in the rest of Britain , the economy of Scotland in the early Middle Ages was overwhelmingly agricultural . Without significant transport links and wider markets , most farms had to produce a self @-@ sufficient diet of meat , dairy products and cereals , supplemented by hunter @-@ gathering . Limited archaeological evidence indicates that throughout Northern Britain farming was based around a single homestead or a small cluster of three or four homes , each probably containing a nuclear family , with relationships likely to be common among neighbouring houses and settlements , reflecting the partition of land through inheritance . Farming became based around a system that distinguished between the infield around the settlement , where crops were grown every year and the outfield , further away and where crops were grown and then left fallow in different years , in a system that would continue until the 18th century . The evidence of bones indicates that cattle were by far the most important domesticated animal , followed by pigs , sheep and goats , while domesticated fowl were rare . Imported goods found in archaeological sites of the period include ceramics and glass , while many sites indicate iron and precious metal working .
= = Demography = =
There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early Medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland . It is likely that the 5th and 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced net population . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . This would have meant that there were a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed . This would have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop .
= = Society = =
The primary unit of social organisation in Germanic and Celtic Europe was the kin group . The mention of descent through the female line in the ruling families of the Picts in later sources and the recurrence of leaders clearly from outside of Pictish society , has led to the conclusion that their system of descent was matrilineal . However , this has been challenged by a number of historians who argue that the clear evidence of awareness of descent through the male line suggests that this more likely to indicate a bilateral system of descent , where descent was counted through both male and female lines .
Scattered evidence , including the records in Irish annals and the images of warriors like those depicted on the Pictish stone slabs at Aberlemno , Forfarshire and Hilton of Cadboll in Easter Ross , suggest that in Northern Britain , as in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , society was dominated by a military aristocracy , whose status was dependent in a large part on their ability and willingness to fight . Below the level of the aristocracy it is assumed that there were non @-@ noble freemen , working their own small farms or holding lands as free tenants . There are no surviving law codes from Scotland in this period , but codes in Ireland and Wales indicate that freemen had the right to bear arms , represent themselves in law and to receive compensation for murdered kinsmen .
Indications are that society in North Britain contained relatively large numbers of slaves , often taken in war and raids , or bought , as St. Patrick indicated the Picts were doing from the Britons in Southern Scotland . Slavery probably reached relatively far down in society , with most rural households containing some slaves . Because they were taken relatively young and were usually racially indistinguishable from their masters , many slaves would have been more integrated into their societies of capture than their societies of origin , in terms of both culture and language . Living and working beside their owners they in practice may have become members of a household without the inconvenience of the partible inheritance rights that divided estates . Where there is better evidence from England and elsewhere , it was common for such slaves who survived to middle age to gain their freedom , with such freedmen often remaining clients of the families of their former masters .
= = Kingship = =
In the early Medieval period , British kingship was not inherited in a direct line from previous kings , as would be the case in the late Middle Ages . There were instead a number of candidates for kingship , who usually needed to be a member of a particular dynasty and to claim descent from a particular ancestor . Kingship could be multi @-@ layered and very fluid . The Pictish kings of Fortriu were probably acting as overlords of other Pictish kings for much of this period and occasionally were able to assert an overlordship over non @-@ Pictish kings , but occasionally themselves had to acknowledge the overlordship of external rulers , both Anglian and British . Such relationships may have placed obligations to pay tribute or to supply armed forces . After a victory , sub @-@ kings may have received rewards in return for this service . Interaction with and intermarriage into the ruling families of subject kingdoms may have opened the way to absorption of such sub @-@ kingdoms and , although there might be later overturnings of these mergers , it is likely that a complex process by which kingship was gradually monopolised by a handful of the most powerful dynasties was taking place .
The primary role of the king was to act as a war leader , reflected in the very small number of minority or female reigning monarchs in the period . Kings organised the defence of their people 's lands , property and persons and negotiated with other kings to secure these things . If they failed to do so , the settlements might be raided , destroyed or annexed , and the populations killed or taken into slavery . Kings also engaged in the low level warfare of raiding and the more ambitious full @-@ scale warfare that led to conflicts of large armies and alliances , and which could be undertaken over relatively large distances , such as the expedition to Orkney by Dál Riata in 581 or the Northumbrian attack on Ireland in 684 .
Kingship had its ritual aspects . The kings of Dál Riata were inaugurated by putting their foot in a footprint carved in stone , signifying that they would follow in the footsteps of their predecessors . The kingship of the unified kingdom of Alba had Scone and its sacred stone at the heart of its coronation ceremony , which historians presume was inherited from Pictish practices . Iona , the early centre of Scottish Christianity , became the burial site of the early kings of Scotland until the eleventh century , when the House of Canmore adopted Dunfermline near Scone .
= = Warfare = =
At the most basic level , a king 's power rested on the existence of his bodyguard or war @-@ band . In the British language , this was called the teulu , as in teulu Dewr ( the " War @-@ band of Deira " ) . In Latin the word is either comitatus or tutores , or even familia ; tutores is the most common word in this period , and derives for the Latin verb tueor , meaning " defend , preserve from danger " . The war @-@ band functioned as an extension of the ruler 's legal person , and was the core of the larger armies that were mobilised from time to time for campaigns of significant size . In peace @-@ time , the war @-@ band 's activity was centred on the " Great Hall " . Here , in both Germanic and Celtic cultures , the feasting , drinking and other forms of male bonding that kept up the war @-@ band 's integrity would take place . In the epic poem Beowulf , the war @-@ band was said to sleep in the Great Hall after the lord had retired to his adjacent bedchamber . It is not likely that any war @-@ band in the period exceeded 120 – 150 men , as no hall structure having a capacity larger than this has been found by archaeologists in northern Britain . Pictish stones , like that at Aberlemno in Angus , show mounted and foot warriors with swords , spears , bows , helmets and shields . The large number of hill forts in Scotland may have made open battle less important than in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and the relatively high proportion of kings who are recorded as dying in fires or drowning suggest that sieges were a more important part of warfare in Northern Britain .
Sea power may also have been important . Irish annals record an attack by the Picts on Orkney in 682 , which must have necessitated a large naval force : they also lost 150 ships in a disaster in 729 . Ships were also vital in the amphibious warfare in the Highlands and Islands and from the seventh century the Senchus fer n @-@ Alban indicates that Dál Riata had a ship @-@ muster system that obliged groups of households to produce a total of 177 ships and 2 @,@ 478 men . The same source mentions the first recorded naval battle around the British Isles in 719 and eight naval expeditions between 568 and 733 . The only vessels to survive from this period are dugout canoes , but images from the period suggest that there may have been skin boats ( similar to the Irish currach ) and larger oared vessels . The Viking raids and invasions of the British Isles were based on superior seapower . The key to their success , was a graceful , long , narrow , light , wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed . This shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only 3 feet ( 1 m ) deep and permitted beach landings , while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages . Longships were also double @-@ ended , the symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around .
= = Religion = =
= = = Pre @-@ Christian religion = = =
Very little is known about religion in Scotland before the arrival of Christianity . The lack of native written sources among the Picts means that it can only be judged from parallels elsewhere , occasional surviving archaeological evidence and hostile accounts of later Christian writers . It is generally presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism . The names of more than two hundred Celtic deities have been noted , some of which , like Lugh , The Dagda and The Morrigan , come from later Irish mythology , whilst others , like Teutatis , Taranis and Cernunnos , come from evidence from Gaul . The Celtic pagans constructed temples and shrines to venerate these gods , something they did through votive offerings and performing sacrifices , possibly including human sacrifice . According to Greek and Roman accounts , in Gaul , Britain and Ireland , there was a priestly caste of " magico @-@ religious specialists " known as the druids , although very little is definitely known about them . Irish legends about the origin of the Picts and stories from the life of St. Ninian , associate the Picts with druids . The Picts are also associated with " demon " worship and one story concerning St Columba has him exorcising a demon from a well in Pictland , suggesting that the worship of well spirits was a feature of Pictish paganism . Roman mentions of the worship of the Goddess Minerva at wells and a Pictish stone associated with a well near Dunvegan Castle on Skye have been taken to support this case .
= = = Early Christianisation = = =
The roots of Christianity in Scotland can probably be found among the soldiers and ordinary Roman citizens in the vicinity of Hadrian 's Wall . The archaeology of the Roman period indicates that the northern parts of the Roman province of Britannia were among the most Christianised in the island . Chi @-@ Rho inscriptions and Christian grave @-@ slabs have been found on the wall from the 4th century , and from the same period the Mithraic shrines ( known as Mithraea ) which existed along Hadrian 's Wall were attacked and destroyed , presumably by Christians . After the departure of the Romans it is generally presumed that Christianity would have survived among the Bythonic enclaves such as Strathclyde , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced , with their gods Tiw , Woden , Thor and Frig , all of whom gave their names to days of the week , and Eostre , whose name was appropriated for the spring festival of Easter . While British Christians continued to practice inhumation without grave goods , the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons are visible in the archaeological record from their practice of cremation and burial in urns , accompanied by extensive grave goods , perhaps designed to accompany the dead to the afterlife . However , despite growing evidence of Anglian settlement in southern Scotland , only one such grave has been found , at Dalmeny in East Lothian .
The growth of Christianity in Scotland has been traditionally seen as dependent on Irish @-@ Scots " Celtic " missionaries and to a lesser extent those from Rome and England . Celtic Christianity had its origins in the conversion of Ireland from late Roman Britain associated with St. Patrick in the 5th century . In the 6th century , monks from Ireland were operating on the British mainland . St Ninian is the figure associated with a monastery founded at Whithorn in what is now Galloway , although it is generally accepted that Ninian may be a later construct . St Columba left Ireland and founded the monastery at Iona off the West Coast of Scotland in 563 and from there carried out missions to the Scots of Dál Riata and the Picts . It seems likely that both the Scots and Picts had already begun to convert to Christianity before this period . Saint Patrick referred in a letter to " apostate Picts " , suggesting that they had previously been Christian , while the poem Y Gododdin , set in the early 6th century does not remark on the Picts as pagans . Conversion of the Pictish élite seems likely to have run over a considerable period , beginning in the 5th century and not complete until the 7th .
Among the key indicators of Christianisation are long @-@ cist cemeteries that generally indicate Christian burials due to their East @-@ West orientation , although this correlation has been challenged by recent research . These burials are found between the end of the Roman era and the 7th century , after which point they become rarer . They are concentrated strongly in eastern Scotland south of the Tay , in Angus , the Mearns , Lothian and the Borders . It is generally accepted among scholars that place @-@ name element eccles- , from the Brythonic word for church , represents evidence of the British church of the Roman and immediate post @-@ Roman period , most of which are located in the south @-@ west , south and east . About a dozen inscribed stones of the 5th and 6th centuries , beginning with the so @-@ called Latinus stone of Whithorn , dating to c . 450 , indicate Christianity through their dedications and are spread across southern Scotland .
= = = Celtic Christianity = = =
Celtic Christianity differed in some in respects from that based on Rome , most importantly on the issues of how Easter was calculated and the method of tonsure , but there were also differences in the rites of ordination , baptism and in the liturgy . Celtic Christianity was heavily based on monasticism . Monasteries differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . Because much of the Celtic world lacked the urban centres of the Roman world , bishoprics were often attached to abbeys . In the 5th , 6th and 7th centuries , Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern @-@ day Scotland . Monks from Iona , under St. Aidan , then founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglian Northumbria . The part of southern Scotland dominated by the Anglians in this period had a Bishopric established at Abercorn in West Lothian , and it is presumed that it would have adopted the leadership of Rome after the Synod of Whitby in 663 , until the Battle of Dunnichen in 685 , when the Bishop and his followers were ejected . By this time the Roman system of calculating Easter and other reforms had already been adopted in much of Ireland . The Picts accepted the reforms of Rome under Nechtan mac Der @-@ Ilei around 710 . The followers of Celtic traditions retreated to Iona and then to Innishbofin and the Western isles remained an outpost of Celtic practice for some time . Celtic Christianity continued to influence religion in England and across Europe into the late Middle Ages as part of the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , spreading Christianity , monasteries , art and theological ideas across the continent .
= = = Viking paganism = = =
The Viking occupation of the islands and coastal regions of modern Scotland brought a return to pagan worship in those areas . Norse paganism had some of the same gods as had been worshipped by the Anglo @-@ Saxons before their conversion and is thought to have been focused around a series of cults , involving gods , ancestors and spirits , with calendric and life cycle rituals often involving forms of sacrifice . The paganism of the ruling Norse elite can be seen in goods found in 10th century graves in Shetland , Orkney and Caithness . There is no contemporary account of the conversion of the Vikings in Scotland to Christianity . Historians have traditionally pointed to a process of conversion to Christianity among Viking colonies in Britain dated to the late 10th century , for which later accounts indicate that Viking earls accepted Christianity . However , there is evidence that conversion had begun before this point . There are a large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles , which may indicate a " hermit 's " or " priest 's isle " from this period . Changes in patterns of grave goods and Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that the Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion . Later documentary evidence suggests that there was a Bishop operating in Orkney in the mid @-@ 9th century and more recently uncovered archaeological evidence , including explicitly Christian forms such as stone crosses , suggest that Christian practice may have survived the Viking take over in parts of Orkney and Shetland and that the process of conversion may have begun before Christianity was officially accepted by Viking leaders . The continuity of Scottish Christianity may also explain the relatively rapid way in which Norse settlers were later assimilated into the religion .
= = Art = =
From the 5th to the mid @-@ 9th centuries the art of the Picts is primarily known through stone sculpture , and a smaller number of pieces of metalwork , often of very high quality . After the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles , elements of Pictish art became incorporated into the style known as Insular art , which was common over Britain and Ireland and became highly influential in continental Europe and contributed to the development of Romanesque styles .
= = = Pictish stones = = =
About 250 Pictish stones survive and have been assigned by scholars to three classes . Class I stones are those thought to date to the period up to the 7th century and are the most numerous group . The stones are largely unshaped and include incised symbols of animals including fish and the Pictish beast , everyday objects such as mirrors , combs and tuning forks and abstract symbols defined by names including V @-@ rod , double disc and Z @-@ rod . They are found between from the Firth of Forth to Shetland . The greatest concentrations are in Sutherland , around modern Inverness and Aberdeen . Good examples include the Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) . Class II stones are carefully shaped slabs dating after the arrival of Christianity in the 8th and 9th centuries , with a cross on one face and a wide range of symbols on the reverse . In smaller numbers than Class I stones , they predominate in southern Pictland , in Perth , Angus and Fife . Good examples include Glamis 2 , which contains a finely executed Celtic cross on the main face with two opposing male figures , a centaur , cauldron , deer head and a triple disc symbol and Cossans , Angus , which shows a high @-@ prowed Pictish boat with oarsmen and a figure facing forward in the prow . Class III stones are thought to overlap chronologically with Class II stones . Most are elaborately shaped and incised cross @-@ slabs , some with figurative scenes , but lacking idiomatic Pictish symbols . They are widely distributed but predominate in the southern Pictish areas .
= = = Pictish metalwork = = =
Metalwork has found throughout Pictland ; the Picts appear to have had a considerable amount of silver available , probably from raiding further south , or the payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so . The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way . The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie 's Law in Fife , but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down . Over ten heavy silver chains , some over 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 2 ft ) long , have been found from this period ; the double @-@ linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular ring , with symbol decoration including enamel , which shows how these were probably used as " choker " necklaces . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure contains perhaps the best collection of Pictish forms .
= = = Irish @-@ Scots art = = =
The kingdom of Dál Riata has been seen as a cross @-@ roads between the artistic styles of the Picts and those of Ireland , with which the Scots settlers in what is now Argyll kept close contacts . This can be seen in representations found in excavations of the fortress of Dunadd , which combine Pictish and Irish elements . This included extensive evidence for the production of high status jewellery and moulds from the 7th century that indicate the production of pieces similar to the Hunterston brooch , found in Ayrshire , but with elements that suggest Irish origins . These and other finds , including a trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc and a stamped animal decoration ( or pressblech ) , perhaps from a bucket or drinking horn , indicate the ways in which Dál Riata was one of the locations where the Insular style was developed . In the 8th and 9th centuries the Pictish elite adopted true penannular brooches with lobed terminals from Ireland . Some older Irish pseudo @-@ penannular brooches were adapted to the Pictish style , for example the Breadalbane Brooch ( British Museum ) . The 8th century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish style .
= = = Insular art = = =
Insular art , or Hiberno @-@ Saxon art , is the name given to the common style produced in Scotland , Britain and Anglo @-@ Saxon England from the 7th century , with the combining of Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon forms . Surviving examples of Insular art are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts . Surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning , with no attempt to give an impression of depth , volume or recession . The best examples include the Book of Kells , Lindisfarne Gospels , Book of Durrow . Carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts , although historiated initials ( an Insular invention ) , canon tables and figurative miniatures , especially Evangelist portraits , are also common . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late 8th century . The influence of Insular art affected all subsequent European Medieval art , especially in the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts .
= = Architecture = =
For the period after the departure of the Romans there is evidence of a series of new forts , often smaller " nucleated " constructions compared with those from the Iron Age , sometimes utilising major geographical features , as at Edinburgh and Dunbarton . All the northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain , building materials , and politico @-@ military needs . The first identifiable king of the Picts , Bridei mac Maelchon had his base at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute . The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland from the sixth century , led to the construction of the first churches . These may originally have been wooden , like that excavated at Whithorn , but most of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry @-@ built churches , beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east .
Early chapels tended to have square @-@ ended converging walls , similar to Irish chapels of this period . Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the Highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings . Monasteries also differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . At Eileach an Naoimh in the Inner Hebrides there are huts , a chapel , refectory , guest house , barns and other buildings . Most of these were made of timber and wattle construction and probably thatched with heather and turves . They were later rebuilt in stone , with underground cells and circular " beehive " huts like those used in Ireland . Similar sites have been excavated on Bute , Orkney and Shetland . From the eighth century more sophisticated buildings emerged .
= = Literature = =
Much of the earliest Welsh literature was actually composed in or near the country now called Scotland , although only written down in Wales much later . These include The Gododdin , considered the earliest surviving verse from Scotland , which is attributed to the bard Aneirin , said to have been resident in Gododdin in the 6th century , and the Battle of Gwen Ystrad attributed to Taliesin , traditionally thought to be a bard at the court of Rheged in roughly the same period . There are also religious works in Gaelic including the Elegy for St Columba by Dallan Forgaill ( c . 597 ) and " In Praise of St Columba " by Beccan mac Luigdech of Rum ( c . 677 ) . In Latin they include a " Prayer for Protection " ( attributed to St Mugint ) ( c. mid @-@ 6th century ) and Altus Prosator ( " The High Creator " , attributed to St Columba ) ( c . 597 ) . In Old English there is The Dream of the Rood , from which lines are found on the Ruthwell Cross , making it the only surviving fragment of Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland .
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= Leod =
Leod ( Scottish Gaelic : Leòd ; Old Norse : Ljótr ) ( c . 1200 – 1280 ) is considered the eponymous ancestor and founder of Clan MacLeod and Clan MacLeod of Lewis . Almost nothing is known about him and he does not appear in any contemporary records . Tradition dating to the late 18th century made him a son of Olaf the Black who was King of Man ( r . 1225 – 1237 ) . Heraldic evidence , dating to the late 17th century , is considered to be the earliest evidence of descent from Olaf the Black . However , in recent years , this traditional lineage has been challenged and is no longer considered fact by historians .
According to Clan MacLeod tradition , Leod inherited some of his lands from a foster father , who was a sheriff of the Hebridean island of Skye ; other lands he inherited from his father @-@ in @-@ law , who was also a lord on Skye . MacLeod tradition also states that Leod was the father of four sons and two daughters . Two of these sons founded the two main branches of MacLeods ; branches which exist to this day — Tormod ( from whom the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan descend ) and Torquil ( from whom the MacLeods of Lewis descend ) . The traditional belief that Torquil was a son has also been challenged ; the current understanding is that he was a great @-@ grandson of Leod . In recent years , the DNA evidence of men bearing surnames equating to MacLeod has revealed that a certain proportion share a common ancestor — an ancestor considered to have been the clan 's founder .
= = Traditional ancestry = =
According to MacLeod tradition , Leod is the eponymous ancestor of the clan . However , little to nothing is known about this man ; he does not appear in any contemporary records . The earliest historical record of a MacLeod chief occurs almost a century after he is thought to have flourished — when the names of " Malcolme , son to Tormode M 'Cloyde " , and that of " Torkyll M 'Cloyd " , appear in a royal charter during the reign of David II , King of Scots ( r . 1329 – 1371 ) . Until quite recently , Leod has generally been considered to have been the son of Olaf the Black , King of Mann and the Isles ( r . 1225 – 1237 ) .
This traditional ancestry may be traced to the late 17th century when a chief adopted the designation of " McOlaus " and another was the first MacLeod to incorporate the royal Manx arms into MacLeod heraldry . In a document dating to 1630 , Iain Mòr MacLeod of Dunvegan ( chief 1626 – 1649 ) appears as " John McOlaus of Dunvegane " — McOlaus representing MacOlaf . This chief 's son , Iain Breac ( chief 1664 – 1693 ) , is the first MacLeod to have incorporated the Manx triskelion into his coat of arms . The triskelion was borne in the arms of the kings of Mann and the Isles as far back as the 13th century . The earliest known arms borne by the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan ( pictured top @-@ right ) are , however , quite different the royal Manx arms . These earliest MacLeod arms date to the mid 15th century ; recorded in a leading European armorial known as the Armorial de Berry . Accordingly , it has been suggested that these points show that 17th century belief of a descent from Olaf was not one of long standing .
There are various other points which cast serious doubt on Leod 's traditional ancestry . In 1265 , Magnus , King of Mann , the last king of this Manx dynasty died . Later in 1275 , Magnus 's illegitimate son , Godfrey died while leading a revolt . At least two women later came forward with claims for the kingdom — yet Leod and his sons did not . According to W.D.H. Sellar , it is hard to believe that a descendant of the royal line would not have put forward a claim . Another point put forward is that the MacLeods did not adopt the royal names of the 13th century Manx dynasty — names such as Godfrey ( Old Norse : Guðrøðr ; Gaelic : Gofraid ) , Ranald ( Old Norse Rögnvaldr ; Gaelic : Raghnall ) , Olaf ( Old Norse Óláfr ; Gaelic Amlaíb ) , and Harald ( Old Norse Haraldr ; Gaelic Aralt ) . Sellar illustrated his point by noting the royal names adopted by the descendants of Somerled ( d.1164 ) and his wife Ragnhild , daughter of Olaf the Red ( grandfather of Olaf the Black ) .
In the 17th century , George Mackenzie , 1st Earl of Cromartie wrote a history of the Mackenzies , which included a genealogy of the MacLeods of Lewis ( from whom he was also descended ) . Cromartie 's genealogy listed Leod as a son of Harald , son of Godred Donn . Later genealogies , however , made Leod a son of Olaf the Black — genealogies found in Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie 's Baronage of Scotland , of 1798 ; and the Bannatyne manuscript , which dates to about 1830 . In the Baronage of Scotland , Glenbervie stated that he had obtained information from the MacLeods of Dunvegan which was allegedly based upon information found within the mediaeval Chronicles of Mann and William Camden 's 17th century Britannia — however , neither of these two works make any mention of Leod at all . In 1977 , historian William Matheson rejected the traditional descent from Olaf the Black on the basis that it is unsupported by any facts whatsoever , and that it is also contradicted by earlier Gaelic @-@ language genealogies which may be more authentic .
= = = Traditional genealogies reconsidered = = =
In recent years , several historians have noted that within the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies and praise @-@ poetry concerning the MacLeods , Leod 's great @-@ grandfather 's name appears to equate to the Old Norse Ölvir , Olvér ; rather than the Old Norse Óláfr . There are considered to be four significant Gaelic @-@ language genealogies which concern Leod 's ancestry . These pedigree roughly agree with one another in the three generations after Leod . The greatest similarity between these genealogies are the names of Leod 's great @-@ grandfather , variously spelt Oilmoir , Olbair Snaige , Olbuir Snaithe , and Olbair Snoice . Taking into account variances in spelling , these names are now considered to represent the literary Gaelic Olbhar , and the vernacular Gaelic Olghair ; both which are in turn forms of Ölvir .
Matheson proposed that when Camden published his Britannia which included an account of the kings of Mann , genealogists saw the Latin Olavus ( a Latin form of the Old Norse Óláfr ) and concluded that it represented the Gaelic name Olbhar , Olghair . However , the Scottish Gaelic form of Olaf , Olavus , Olaus , Óláfr , is in fact Amhlaoibh , and the more modern Amhlaidh . Matheson further proposed that Leod 's father 's name also equates to Ölvir . So in Matheson 's opinion , genealogists mistakenly attached Leod 's father and great @-@ grandfather to the Manx king Olaf the Black and his own grandfather , Olaf the Red . While Matheson 's identification of the name of Leod 's grandfather is now accepted , Sellar later disagreed with him on the name of Leod 's father ; proposing instead that it was more likely the Gaelic name Gillemuire — a name which appears on one of the four Gaelic @-@ language genealogies .
Leod 's name is represented in Scottish Gaelic as Leòd . This name is a Gaelic form of the Old Norse Ljótr , meaning " ugly " . Matheson stated that this Norse name was rare in both Scandinavia and Iceland . He noted that in Scotland it was peculiar to the MacLeods , though it is almost never used within the clan . Matheson speculated that Leod 's great @-@ grandfather would have likely flourished at about the same time as Olvir Rosta was supposedly exiled to the Outer Hebrides . Matheson went even father and proposed that Leod 's great @-@ grandfather was in fact Olvir Rosta — a character from the mediaeval Orkneyinga saga . Matheson noted that while the name Ljótr is rare , Olvir Rosta 's maternal grandfather appears in the saga as Ljótr níðingr ( ' Ljótr Villain ' ) . In Matheson 's opinion , since the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies are inconsistent in the generations further back than Leod 's great @-@ grandfather , this may show that the man was a newcomer in the area . Sellar , however , rejected Matheson 's proposal , commenting that such evidence was entirely circumstantial . Sellar stated that Olvir was not such a rare name ; also , Olvir Rosta 's genealogy and family within the saga ( see above right ) has no similarity with that recorded in the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies relevant to Leod .
In contrast to Matheson 's opinion about the name Ljótr , the 20th @-@ century historian A. Morrison was of the opinion that the name may not be as rare as some people have thought . Morrison noted that the 19th century antiquary F.W.L. Thomas considered another saga character to be an eponymous ancestor of the MacLeods — this character was Ljótólfr , who would have lived on Lewis about a century before Leod 's time . Morrison considered it possible that Leod 's name could have ultimately originated from that of Ljótólfr 's ; however , while he considered it possible that Ljótólfr could have been an ancestor of Leod , he did not think it could have been in the male @-@ line .
= = Leod in clan tradition = =
= = = Clans Mackenzie , and Ross = = =
The first earl of Cromartie 's 17th century genealogical account of the MacLeods relates how Leod ( " Leodus " ) was a son of Harald , son of Godred Donn . When the Isle of Man passed into the possession of the Scots , Alexander III granted Lewis , Harris , Waternish , and Minginish to Harald . Leod later succeeded his father to the lands as his father 's only son . Cromartie 's account also states how Leod 's wife was Adama , daughter of Fearchar , Earl of Ross . However , according to Sellar , there is no record of a son of Harald named Leod , nor is there any record of a daughter of Fearchar named Adama . Sellar also noted that there is no record of the grant of lands by Alexander III . Sellar went so far as to state that Leod 's wife , father , and the grant , were nothing but figments of Cromartie 's imagination . The manuscript history of the Rosses of Balnagown also notes Leod . This account , according to the 19th @-@ century historian W.F. Skene , is older than that of Cromartie 's . The manuscript states that a King of Denmark had three sons who came to the north of Scotland — Gwine , Loid , and Leandres . Gwine conquered the braes of Caithness ; Loid conquered Lewis , and was the progenitor of the MacLeods ; and Leandres conquered " Braychat be the sworde " . Skene stated that Gwine likely was meant to refer to the eponymous ancestor of the Clan Gunn , and that Leandres refers to the Gilleandres whom " Clan Andres , or old Rosses " took their name .
= = = Clan MacLeod = = =
According to an account of MacLeod tradition written in 1797 for the clan 's chief , Olaf the Black had three sons by his third wife , Christina , daughter of the Earl of Ross — Gunn , from whom descended Clan Gunn ; Leandres , from whom descended Clan Leandres in Ross ; and Leod . The tradition goes on to say that Leod was fostered by " Pol , son of Bok " , sheriff of Skye . This Pol then gave Leod the island of Harris ; later Leod married a daughter of " McCraild Armuinn " and , in consequence , received Dunvegan and all the Skye estates which the MacLeods held in later times . In the Bannatyne manuscript , the sheriff is called " Paal Baccas " , and is stated to have owned the isle of Harris , as well as the following lands on Skye : Sleat , Trotternish , Waternish , and Snizort . The manuscript states that he had a natural son , but named Leod his heir . The " Pol , son of Bok " and " Paal Baccas " of MacLeod tradition are considered to be identical with the historical Páll , son of Bálki , who is mentioned within the Chronicles of Mann as a loyal ally of Olaf the Black . The Bannatyne manuscript states that Paal Baccas was killed in 1231 ; after which Leod peacefully succeeded to his possessions .
The Bannatyne manuscript is the main authority for information on the early chiefs of Clan MacLeod . It states that the first seven chiefs of Clan MacLeod were buried at Iona . The choir of Iona Abbey , for the most part , dates from the early 16th century . Within the centre of the choir there is a large stone which once contained a monumental brass , traditionally said to have been a MacLeod . The stone formed a matrix which at one time contained the brass inlay ( tradition states it was a silver inlay ) . It is the largest carved stone on the island , measuring 7 feet 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 37 m ) by 3 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 17 m ) . The early 20th @-@ century clan historian R.C. MacLeod speculated that perhaps Leod and five of his successors were buried beneath — however , in his opinion the fourth chief , Iain Ciar , was buried elsewhere . In fact , the stone may actually mark the tomb of a MacLean , rather than that of a MacLeod .
= = = Issue = = =
According to MacLeod tradition , Leod had two sons — Tormod and Torquil . The tradition is that Tormod was the ancestor of the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan ( the chiefs of Clan MacLeod ) , and Torquil was the ancestor of the MacLeods of Lewis . The Bannatyne manuscript does not specifically state which son was the elder , and subsequently there has been debate over which branch was more ' senior ' in descent . In the late 20th century , Matheson called into question this tradition of brothers , and his work was followed up by other historians . The current view of historians is that the two were not brothers at all ; but that Torquil was actually the grandson of Tormod .
The Bannatyne manuscript also names two other sons ; however , Matheson considered the manuscript to be of dubious authority , since it is the only source for these names . It lists Leod 's third son as John , stating that John followed Bruce to Ireland . The manuscript continues that in Ireland he acquired considerable estates in Galway and was knighted ; although he was the principal man of his name there , his descendants were known not as MacLeods , but as MacElliots . The manuscript states that his daughter , and heiress , married Maurice , 2nd Lord of Kerry . According to MacLeod , the statement about John following Bruce to Ireland is a mistake , since John 's daughter couldn 't have married later than 1285 . Bruce was , however , born in 1275 , and did not go to Ireland until 1306 . Leod 's fourth son is listed by the manuscript as being Olaus . The account states that this Olaus was the reputed ancestor of the MacLewis , or Fullarton family , which originated on the Isle of Arran and that this family traced its ancestry from Lewis , or MacLoy , son of Olaus , son of Leod .
The manuscript also states that Leod also had two daughters . Again , the manuscript is the only source for the existence of these offspring and does not mention their names . It states that one of the daughters married Fergus of Galloway ; while the other married John , Lord of Mull . It is unknown who these men could have been .
= = DNA and the founder of Clan MacLeod = =
In about 2004 , a DNA project attempted to uncover the genetic origin of Clan MacLeod . The project studied the Y @-@ DNA of about 400 men who bore surnames which equate to MacLeod . The study 's findings showed that 32 % of the men tested had a common ancestor in the male line ; and that this ancestor lived about 1 @,@ 000 years ago . This particular group was by far the largest group of related men . In consequence , the project concluded that this group 's common ancestor , though he might have lived further back in time than Leod , is the genetic founder of the clan . In 2011 , the results of a much smaller study were published . Of a sample of 45 men with the surname MacLeod , 47 % were found to share a common ancestor in the male line ( the remaining 53 % of the sample contained 9 different genetic male line lineages ) . The genetic marker of the 47 % -lineage was found to be the S68 branch of Haplogroup R1b . This marker is found not only the Western Isles , but also in Orkney , Shetland , England , Norway , and Sweden . In consequence , the study concluded that the genetic origin of Clan MacLeod likely lies in Scandinavia .
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= Shuffle ! =
Shuffle ! ( シャッフル ! , Shaffuru ! ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Navel . It was originally released as an adult game for Microsoft Windows on January 30 , 2004 . It was subsequently followed by an all @-@ ages release for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and an expanded adult release for Windows . The Windows version was localized in English by MangaGamer in 2009 . The gameplay in Shuffle ! follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios and courses of interaction and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters . Shuffle ! has been re @-@ made into an expanded version called Shuffle ! Essence + . It has expanded routes for the original five main heroines as well as new routes for six other characters . Shuffle ! also has three spin @-@ off sequels : Tick ! Tack ! , Really ? Really ! and Shuffle ! Love Rainbow .
Shuffle ! has made several transitions to other media . There have been two manga series based on the visual novel . The first was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's magazine Comptiq between December 2003 and 2006 . The second was a comic anthology published by Kadokawa Shoten between July 2004 and December 2005 . Two anime adaptations were produced by the animation studio Asread . The first anime was twenty @-@ four episodes in length and was broadcast in Japan between July 2005 and January 2006 . The second series was a twelve @-@ episode readaptation and was broadcast between January and March 2007 . Seven light novels , two fanbooks , nine drama CDs , and seven radio drama CDs adaptations have also been produced .
The visual novel was well received whereas the first anime adaptation received mixed reviews . Across the national semi @-@ monthly ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , the limited edition of Shuffle ! premiered in second place at the time of its release and remained in the top 50 for an additional three and a half @-@ months . The normal edition premiered in ninth place at the time of its release and remained in the top 50 for an additional three half @-@ months . Critics of the anime series were divided between whether or not the anime series set itself apart from other series in the harem genre and as to the quality of its audio and visual aspects .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay mostly consists of reading and listening to the conversations provided . Every now and then , a " Please Select Your Destiny " event will occur , giving the player multiple choices on how to respond . The choices selected determine who will be Rin 's destined love ; depending on which route the player takes , there will be between 8 and 12 multiple @-@ choice questions . At a certain point in the visual novel , a translucent image of the destined character appears when the day changes indicating who Rin has fallen in love with after which the multiple @-@ choice events become almost nonexistent . Near the end of the game , two sex scenes will occur . After some more conversation the visual novel ends . After the visual novel has been completed at least once , players can view CG ( computer graphics ) artwork they have observed , skip to scenes or endings for characters they have viewed , and listen to music they have heard in the game .
The PlayStation 2 version varies from the PC version as all the sex scenes are removed and the player may follow two new storylines : Mayumi Thyme 's and Kareha 's . Additionally , Kareha 's younger sister Tsubomi makes her first appearance in the PS2 version during Kareha 's path .
Shuffle ! Essence + allows the player to follow the storylines of seven heroines , including four new storylines : Tsubomi 's , Sakura Yae 's , Nadeshiko Benibara 's and Daisy 's . In Daisy 's path , Erica Suzuran makes her first appearance as a secondary character and Ruri Matsuri appears as the second main heroine , but she does not have any sex scenes .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The story takes place in a fictional universe where humans live in harmony with gods , resembling humans with slightly pointed ears , and devils ( demons in the English dub of the anime ) , who have more prominently pointed ears . Despite their respective positive and negative connotations , both races are equally kind and good @-@ natured . Ten years prior to the story , the gateway between the worlds of the gods and devils were opened , and since then , people from all races have been immigrating between the worlds . The characters attend the multi @-@ racial high school , National Verbena Academy ( バーベナ学園 , Bābena Gakuen ) in Kōyō @-@ chō ( 光陽町 , lit . Sunshine Town ) . This is so humans , gods and devils can interact and learn to live together in harmony with mutual understanding rather than hatred , fear and ignorance . Also , due to dimensional tears ( unknown why or how they appear ) some members of each race had been transported to one of the other worlds where they married and had children . This is how some of the students with mixed lineage are able to be older than the gateway to the human world like Mayumi Thyme , whose human parent had fallen into the world of the Devils through one of those tears years before the gateway to the Human world had been opened , or Asa 's mother , Ama Shigure , who somehow was transported from the world of the Devils to the Human world .
Shuffle ! contains a leitmotif of allusions to flowers . All of the characters ' names are references to flowers in some way , mostly genera of flowering plants .
= = = Main characters = = =
The protagonist and player character of Shuffle ! is Rin Tsuchimi , a normal seventeen @-@ year @-@ old second @-@ year high school student and the male protagonist to the series . Since a young age , he has placed the well @-@ being of others before his own and dislikes seeing people in sorrow . Since he lost his parents in his childhood , he has been living with Kaede Fuyou , a life envied by many of his classmates . One of the heroines of Shuffle ! , Kaede believes it her duty in life is to take care of Rin , which she takes upon herself in order to atone for her treatment of him in the past and bears a one @-@ sided love towards Rin . Kaede appears again as the heroine in Really ? Really ! , a sequel to Shuffle ! , that continues from Kaede 's ending in Shuffle ! . In middle school , the two meet and later befriend Asa Shigure , another heroine of Shuffle ! who is in her third @-@ year of high school . While she has a weak constitution , she makes up for it with her energetic tomboy personality and is an excellent cook . She has a habit of slapping Rin on his back .
At the onset of the story , two girls who Rin had met once during his childhood come to his school as transfer students and began living as his next door neighbours . Lisianthus , a heroine of Shuffle ! , is an energetic and enthusiastic person who is able to start a conversation with anyone . She comes to the human world as a possible marriage candidate for Rin and as the daughter of the Lord of Gods , thankful for his kindness to her in the past . Similarly , Nerine , who is also a heroine , is a reserved girl with a beautiful voice and a capable user of magic . She also comes to the human world to be a marriage candidate for Rin as the daughter of the Lord of Devils . Nerine appears again as a heroine in Navel 's game , Tick ! Tack ! , which continues from Nerine 's ending . Soon after the two daughters come to his school , Rin meets Primula , a strange , soft @-@ spoken girl who often carries a stuffed cat around .
There are two new storylines that are available in the PlayStation 2 version of the game . Mayumi Thyme is a heterochromia @-@ eyed girl who is half @-@ devil and half @-@ human . She is Rin 's classmate and is always searching for news . She takes pride in her smallest bust size , a fact often made fun of by Rin and Itsuki , claiming them to be a rarity sought after by a select group of men . Kareha is of the god race and is Asa 's friend and classmate who enjoys making sweets and taking on related part @-@ time jobs . Whenever she sees something romantic or cute , she has a habit of saying " Ma Ma Maa ! " and starts to daydream , losing awareness of her surroundings .
In Shuffle ! Essence + , there are four new storylines available in the game . Tsubomi is Kareha 's younger sister , and like Kareha , she has a tendency to space out when she see something romantic or cute . Her catchphrase is " Kya ! Kya ! Kya ! " . She 's the same age as Primula , so they easily become friends . Sakura is Rin 's and Kaede 's childhood friend , they know each other since elementary school . That 's why she knows about Rin 's and Kaede 's tragic past . Nadeshiko is Rin 's homeroom teacher . She 's quite self @-@ confident , firmly stepping on the ground , single , attractive and is frequently the victim of pickup lines , including from the Lord of Devils and Itsuki . It appears she has some martial arts training ( being able to slice a bottle with her bare hand ) . She has a habit of dealing out very strong punishments such as writing 100 @-@ page reports and dragging a tire around the track for minor offenses . However when it comes speak about romantic relationship or cuteness she can become shy , specially when someone speaks so about her . Daisy is Sia 's cousin . When they were kids they used to play a lot together , but because of some circumstances between their fathers both of them stopped playing together . Daisy remember the precious for her time she spend with Lisianthus , but Sia seems to forgotten the old days , when they were together .
= = = Story = = =
The storyline of Shuffle ! follows the life of Rin Tsuchimi , a normal seventeen @-@ year @-@ old second @-@ year high school student who finds himself sought after by a variety of girls . Eight years prior to the onset of the story , he lost his parents in a car accident that also took the life of Kaede Fuyou 's mother . From that point onwards , he began living with her . At around the same time he lost his parents , he met Lisianthus and Nerine at different times who each were accompanying their fathers on a diplomatic business in the human world . Each girl became lost after wandering through the human world . During that time , Rin befriended each girl after playing with them for a day . As a result of his kindness , Rin finds himself as the potential marriage candidate for both Lisianthus and Nerine , the daughters of the king of the gods and king of the demon worlds , who recently transfer to Rin 's school at the onset of the story .
= = Development = =
Shuffle ! is the first project developed by the visual novel developer Navel , and is the first title in the series . Shuffle ! ' s development team was largely composed of members involved with Basil 's Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops . The scenarios were written by Baria Ago , who had previously been in charge of writing the scenario for Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops and Long Cube . Art direction and character design was split between Aoi Nishimata , who had previously illustrated Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops , and Hiro Suzuhira . The music for the game was composed by Nachtmusik . The opening video was produced by Iris Motion Graphics .
The Limited Edition was released on January 30 , 2004 and came with a special artbook featuring original drawings of the cast by twelve guest artists and a special edition box . The Normal Edition was released on February 27 , 2004 on one DVD instead of three CDs and came with an original Shirotama & Kurotama keychain . The Standard Edition was released on December 17 , 2004 on one DVD . An Anniversary Edition was released on November 22 , 2007 and comes with a phone card of Sia and Kikyō . The PlayStation 2 version Shuffle ! On the Stage was released in two versions on October 20 , 2005 : the regular version including the game and the DX version that included a 12 cm figure of Lisianthus , a Shuffle ! On the Stage Mix soundtrack CD , and a cell phone cleaner . The development of a PC port of Shuffle ! On the Stage titled Shuffle ! Essence + was announced on May 9 , 2008 and released on October 30 , 2009 .
MangaGamer released an uncensored , English translation of the visual novel on August 15 , 2009 . It is available for download only with no physical release , and as the servers are in Europe , the payment is listed in euros . On April 26 , 2013 , MangaGamer released an English translation of its sequel Tick ! Tack ! .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written by and illustrated by Shiroi Kusaka , a manga adaptation of Shuffle ! titled Shuffle ! Days in the Bloom [ sic ] was first serialized monthly in Comptiq in December 2003 , a month before the release of the visual novel , until its conclusion in December 2006 . The twenty @-@ six chapters were then compiled by Kadokawa Shoten into six tankōbon volumes , which were later released from August 8 , 2004 to January 10 , 2007 . A second manga series , a comic anthology titled Shuffle ! Comic à la Carte ( SHUFFLE ! コミックアラカルト ) written by Comptiq 's Editorial Department , was published across five tankōbon volumes by Kadokawa Shoten between July 8 , 2004 and December 10 , 2005 . The cover illustrations were provided by Aoi Nishimata and Hiro Suzuhira .
= = = Audio dramas = = =
A total of nine drama CD adaptations were released by Lantis for Shuffle ! between 2004 and 2007 . Five CDs were released monthly between May 26 , 2004 and September 23 , 2004 , with each focused upon one of the five heroines of PC version of Shuffle ! . Each drama CD contains between four to five tracks . For the PlayStation 2 version , an additional two CDs were released on February 22 , 2006 and May 24 , 2006 , respectively , each focusing on Mayumi Thyme and Kareha , the two new heroines . For the second anime adaptation , Shuffle ! Memories , two additional drama CDs were released on July 25 , 2007 and October 24 , 2007 , focusing on Kaede Fuyou and Lisianthus , respectively . Three drama CDs appeared on the weekly Oricon albums chart of which the drama CD released for Shuffle ! On the Stage focused on Kareha ranked the highest , peaking at # 216 and remaining on the chart for one week .
A radio drama series titled Shuffle ! Charadio : Verbena Academy Broadcasting Department began broadcasting weekly in September 2005 , was hosted by Lisianthus and Nerine , and voiced by their respective voice actors . It was later released monthly by Lantis on five CDs between October 5 , 2005 and February 8 , 2006 . A shortened anthology of their tracks was then collected across a two @-@ CD compilation titled Shuffle ! Charadio : Verbena Academy Broadcasting Department Petit released by Lantis on April 5 , 2006 and June 7 , 2006 . Two of these releases charted on the weekly Oricon albums chart of which the compilation ranked the highest , peaking # 130 and remaining on the chart for one week .
= = = Books and publications = = =
A series of seven character novels was published monthly by Kadokawa Shoten between June 8 , 2004 and January 10 , 2006 each focusing on each of seven heroines of Shuffle ! , including the two introduced in the PlayStation 2 version . Each of the novels were written by Seishi Ogata and illisturated by Shiroi Kusaka with cover illustrations provided by Aoi Nishimata and Hiro Suzuhira .
A book titled " Shuffle ! First Fanbook " ( SHUFFLE ! ファーストファンブック ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7973 @-@ 2649 @-@ 9 ) was published by Softbank on January 22 , 2004 containing a series of illustrations , character introductions , and a CD containing wallpapers and various messages voiced by each of the five main heroines of Shuffle ! . Enterbrain published a fifty @-@ eight @-@ page book with a CD attachement titled " Shuffle ! Visual Fanbook " ( SHUFFLE ! ビジュアルファンブック ) in Tech Gian on June 9 , 2004 . It included detailed story explanations , seventy @-@ eight illustrations for Shuffle ! , a specially drawn A3 poster , and a interviews with the creators . Softbank also published another book titled " Shuffle ! Official Illustrations and Production Materials Collection " ( SHUFFLE ! 公式原画 ・ 設定資料集 ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7973 @-@ 2716 @-@ 8 ) on July 10 , 2004 collecting the computer graphics used in the game , production sketches , and information on character and world secrets . A book titled " Shuffle ! On the Stage Official Visual Guide " ( SHUFFLE ! ON THE STAGE 公式ビジュアルガイド ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 707202 @-@ 2 ) was released by Kadokawa Shoten on December 22 , 2005 . The book contained all the production sketches , concept art , and interviews with staff relating to the PS2 version of the visual novel compiled by Comptiq . Kadokawa Shoten released an additional book on April 10 , 2006 titled " Shuffle ! Anime Complete Album " ( SHUFFLE ! アニメコンプリートアルバム ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 853956 @-@ 2 ) providing an introduction to the production of the anime adaptation of the visual novel , a detailed plot overview , and interviews with staff involved in the anime .
= = = Anime = = =
Naoto Hosoda directed a 24 @-@ episode anime adaptation of Shuffle ! that was produced by Asread . A special prologue DVD was released on May 27 , 2005 . It was broadcast in Japan on WOWOW between July 7 , 2005 and January 5 , 2006 . The anime combines elements from all of the characters ' paths from the game into one plot , although it differs from the game by adding some elements , such as the idol clubs formed around Sia , Nerine , and Kaede , and removing others , such as the H @-@ scenes . The anime 's opening theme is " You " by Yuria , and the ending theme is " Innocence " by Miyuki Hashimoto . The series was released across twelve Region 2 DVD compilation volumes in Japan .
On January 1 , 2007 , Funimation Entertainment announced licensing the anime adaptation of Shuffle ! for English @-@ language dubbed release . Funimation released the series across six Region 1 DVD compilation volumes between February 26 , 2008 and September 9 , 2008 . The sixth DVD volume featured an artbox and Lisianthus ' " god " panties . Funimation later released a DVD boxset on March 31 , 2009 compiling all the six DVD volumes .
The game was again adapted by Asread into a 12 @-@ episode anime series titled Shuffle ! Memories directed by Naoto Hosoda and written by Masashi Suzuki . It was broadcast on Chiba TV and TV Saitama between January 6 and March 25 , 2007 . It is a recap of the original Shuffle ! anime , rearranging scenes from the original series into individual character specific episodes , and contains very little original content aside from the last episode . It features 13 pieces of theme music performed by Yuria , Miyuki Hashimoto , and the respective voice actors for the five heroines of Shuffle ! . It was released across seven region 2 DVD compilation volumes in Japan .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Kadokawa Shoten also released five boxsets , one for each of the five heroines of the PC version of Shuffle ! , between September 10 , 2005 and December 10 , 2005 . Each boxset was compiled by Comptiq and contained a book , clothed Figma figurines , drama CDs , and mousepad released for the visual novel , first anime adaptation , and manga adaptation for their respective characters .
= = Music = =
The visual novel features two pieces of theme music . The PC version features " Mirage Lullaby " as its opening theme . The PS2 version features " Original ! " as the opening theme . Both versions of the visual novel feature " Scramble ! " as the ending theme . Each song was performed by Yuria . Both versions also feature " In the Sky " as the ending theme to the Nerine 's path .
Several music albums for the novel and its adaptations have been released between 2004 and 2007 by Lantis . The game 's original soundtrack was released in February 2004 containing two @-@ discs with track thirty @-@ one total tracks consisting of background music , the theme songs , and bonus remixes of the opening theme . Following a month after the release of the series of five drama CDs for the PC version of the game , Lantis released an album in October 2004 containing elven tracks of character image songs , some of which were featured in the drama CD series , each performed by their respective voice actor . A remix album titled Rainbowremix followed in June 2005 released by Lantis containing eleven tracks of remixes of the opening theme for the PC version of the game by several artists . Two maxi singles containing the theme music used in the first anime adaptation titled " You " and " Innocence " were released in August 2005 . In November 2005 , a month after the initial release of the PS2 version of the game , was released its opening maxi single " Original ! " . A remix album titled Re @-@ mix Album Composition Eleven containing eleven remixes by various artists followed in December 2005 . An album titled Character Vocal Album was released in March 2006 containing thirteen new character image songs for many of the characters of the PS2 version of the game . In April 2007 , a month after the conclusion of the second anime adaptation of the game Shuffle ! Memories , an album titled Shuffle ! Memories Character Song Collection was released containing twelve tracks of character songs performed by their respective voice actors . The original soundtrack for the second adaptation of the game was released in May 2007 .
Most of the singles and albums ranked on Oricon charts with the highest ranking album being Shuffle ! Memories Character Song Collection at 104th , and the highest ranking single being " Original ! " , the opening theme for Shuffle ! On the Stage PS2 game , at 32nd .
= = Reception = =
Shuffle ! had much pre @-@ sale hype as the development team was largely composed of former members of BasiL , including Hiro Suzuhira and Aoi Nishimata , the illustrators for Shuffle ! . Shuffle ! was released at around the same time as Fate / stay night , a highly anticipated visual novel by Type @-@ Moon . The limited edition of Shuffle ! was the second highest @-@ selling computer game for the last two weeks of January 2004 the top 50 best @-@ selling Bishōjo games semi @-@ monthly sales chart in Japan , behind Fate / stay night . It then ranked 18th and 50th in February before dropping off the chart in the first two weeks of March at 40th . The regular edition of the PC version of Shuffle ! premiered at 9th in the chart in the last two weeks of February . It then ranked 5th and 40th in March , before its last appearance at 49th in the first half of April . Shuffle ! On the Stage was released on October 20 , 2005 and sold well ( for a visual novel ) during its first week , selling 29 @,@ 732 copies by October 23 .
Getchu.com hosts a yearly voting poll called the " Getchu.com Bishōjo Game Ranking " where game users vote online for the best games of the previous year in several different categories . For the 2004 ranking , the categories were : overall , scenario , theme songs , background music , visuals , gameplay system , and heroines . Out of the seven , Shuffle ! ranked in four . The game was voted 8th best overall , 11th best for its scenario , and 14th best for its gameplay system . Asa Shigure ranked as the 14th most popular heroine with Kaede Fuyou ranking 15th .
= = = Anime = = =
Shuffle ! the anime television series received mixed reviews from critics . Theron Martin of Anime News Network described the anime as although " genuinely enjoyable " , often " alternating between brazen stupidity , lame jokes , and disgusting sweetness " criticizing it as being a typical harem anime that offered little new content . Helen Ellingwood of Active Anime disagreed stating that Shuffle ! contained what she described as the most important ingredient , which sets it apart from other harem anime : " heart " . Anime News Network 's Carlo Santos agreed with Martin 's assessment , agreeing with the show 's lack of novelty and stating that the highlight of the anime is its comedy , but that its romance is " slowly running the series into the ground . " However , D. F. Smith of IGN stated that it actually does well against other harem anime as it " may be ridiculous , exploitative , a simultaneous affront to good sense and good taste , but at least it 's good for a chuckle or two " . Smith criticized the ending for lacking " intensity " ; however , Ellingwood praised it for showing the consequences of avoiding which heroine the protagonist would choose to love , unlike harem anime she had prior .
Ellingwood praised the animation quality as " high quality " with " wonderfully lush and vibrant color schemes " used for the character designs . Smith agreed , describing the anime as " colorful " and " sharply @-@ drawn " , however in the last few episodes as having darkened the scenes a little excessively . However , Martin criticized the " mediocre " animation noting the " bland " appearance of characters as uncharacteristic of harem anime . Santos stated that the animation was " sloppy " for the secondary characters , however praised the high quality and detail of the artwork . Although Ellingwood described the score as " energetic and pleasing " , Smith stated that the music " tends to stick to the background " . Martin expressed a similar view stating that the soundtrack " does little to spruce up the production " , although he described the opening theme " You " as " a strong , energetic J @-@ rock number worth listening to independently " and as " unquestioningly " the highlight of the soundtrack . On the other hand , Santos described the theme music and at times the music selection as " show [ ing ] absolutely no originality " but the background music as " surprisingly listenable " and at times " so evocative that it conveys the scene better than the story and characters do . "
= = = Legacy = = =
A 3D virtual world called Ai Sp @ ce was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from Shuffle ! , Clannad , and Da Capo II . Released in October 2008 , the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact , bridging the gap between the separate franchises . Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game , along with choosing one game heroine to live with , which is referred to as a character doll , or chara @-@ doll for short . The user and chara @-@ doll reside together on one of the three in @-@ game " islands " depending on which franchise the heroine is from , which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased . The chara @-@ dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user .
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= Cripple Creek miners ' strike of 1894 =
The Cripple Creek miners ' strike of 1894 was a five @-@ month strike by the Western Federation of Miners ( WFM ) in Cripple Creek , Colorado , USA . It resulted in a victory for the union and was followed in 1903 by the Colorado Labor Wars . It is notable for being the only time in United States history when a state militia was called out ( May / June 1894 ) in support of striking workers .
The strike was characterized by firefights and use of dynamite , and ended after a standoff between the Colorado state militia and a private force working for owners of the mines . In the years after the strike , the WFM 's popularity and power increased significantly through the region .
= = Causes of the strike = =
At the end of the 19th century , Cripple Creek was the largest town in the gold @-@ mining district that included the towns of Altman , Anaconda , Arequa , Goldfield , Elkton , Independence and Victor , about 20 miles from Colorado Springs on the southwest side of Pikes Peak . Surface gold was discovered in the area in 1891 , and within three years more than 150 mines were operating there .
The Panic of 1893 caused the price of silver to crash ; the gold price , however , remained fixed , as the United States was on the gold standard . The influx of silver miners into the gold mines caused a lowering of wages . Mine owners demanded longer hours for less pay , and assigned miners to riskier work .
In January 1894 , Cripple Creek mine owners J. J. Hagerman , David Moffat and Eben Smith , who together employed one @-@ third of the area 's miners , announced a lengthening of the work @-@ day to ten hours ( from eight ) , with no change to the daily wage of $ 3 @.@ 00 per day . When workers protested , the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only $ 2 @.@ 50 .
Not long before this dispute , miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union . Once the new changes went into effect , they affiliated with the Western Federation of Miners , and became Local 19 . The union was based in Altman , and had chapters in Anaconda , Cripple Creek and Victor .
On February 1 , 1894 , the mine owners began implementing the 10 @-@ hour day . Union president John Calderwood issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the eight @-@ hour day at the $ 3 @.@ 00 wage . When the owners did not respond , the nascent union struck on February 7 . Portland , Pikes Peak , Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight @-@ hour day and remained open , but larger mines held out .
= = Events of the strike = =
The strike had an immediate effect . By the end of February , every smelter in Colorado was either closed or running part @-@ time . At the beginning of March , the Gold King and Granite mines gave in and resumed the eight @-@ hour day .
Mine owners still holding out for the 10 @-@ hour day soon attempted to re @-@ open their mines . On March 14 , they obtained a court injunction ordering the miners not to interfere with the operation of their mines , and brought in a number of strikebreakers . The WFM initially attempted to persuade these men to join the union and strike , but when they were unsuccessful , the union resorted to threats and violence . These tactics succeeded in keeping the non @-@ union miners away .
On March 16 , an armed group of miners ambushed and captured six sheriff 's deputies en route to the Victor mine . Shots were fired , and the miners and deputies engaged in a fistfight , in which two of the deputies received minor injuries . An Altman judge , a member of the WFM , charged the deputies with carrying concealed weapons and disturbing the peace , then released them .
= = = Involvement of the state militia = = =
After the assault on his deputies , El Paso County Sheriff M.F. Bowers wired the governor and requested the intervention of the state militia ( predecessor to the Colorado National Guard ) . Governor Davis H. Waite , a 67 @-@ year @-@ old Populist , dispatched 300 troops to the area on March 18 under the command of Adjutant General T.J. Tarsney . Tarsney found the area tense but quiet . Union president Calderwood assured him that union members would cooperate with his operations , even surrendering for arrest if requested . Convinced that Bowers had exaggerated the extent of the chaos in the region , Tarsney recommended the withdrawal of troops ; Waite concurred . The state militia left Cripple Creek on March 20 .
In response to the recall of the state militia , the mine owners closed the mines . Bowers arrested Calderwood , 18 other miners , and the mayor and town marshal of Altman ( who had supported the miners ) . They were taken to Colorado Springs and quickly tried on several different charges , but found not guilty . Meanwhile , outbursts of violence , such as stone @-@ throwing and fights between union miners and scabs , increased in frequency . Stores and warehouses were broken into , and guns and ammunition stolen .
In early May , the mine owners met with representatives of the WFM in Colorado Springs in an attempt to end the strike . The owners offered to return to the eight @-@ hour day , but at a daily wage of only $ 2 @.@ 75 . The union rejected the offer and talks broke down .
= = = Mine owners raise a private army = = =
Shortly after negotiations with the union ended , the mine owners met secretly with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado Springs . They told Bowers they intended to bring in hundreds of nonunion workers , and asked if he would be able to protect such a large force of men . Bowers said he could not , for the county lacked the financial resources to pay and arm more than a few deputies . The mine owners offered to subsidize an initial force of a hundred or so men . Bowers agreed , and immediately began recruiting ex @-@ police and ex @-@ firefighters from Denver .
News of the mine owners ' meeting with Bowers soon leaked out , and the miners organized and armed themselves in response . Calderwood was leaving on a tour of the WFM locals in Colorado to raise funds for the Cripple Creek strike , and so appointed Junius J. Johnson , a former U.S. Army officer , to take over strike operations . Johnson immediately established a camp atop Bull Hill , which overlooked the town of Altman . He ordered that fortifications be built , a commissary stocked and the miners be drilled in maneuvers .
On May 24 , the strikers seized the Strong mine on Battle Mountain , which overlooked the town of Victor . The next day , at about 9 am , 125 deputies arrived in Altman and set up camp at the base of Bull Hill . As they started to march toward the strikers ' camp , miners at the Strong mine blew up the shafthouse , hurling the structure more than 300 feet into the air . A few moments later , the steam boiler was also dynamited , showering the deputies with timber , iron and cable . The deputies fled to the rail station and left town .
A celebration broke out among the miners , who broke into liquor warehouses and saloons . That night , some of the miners loaded a flatcar with dynamite and attempted to roll it toward the deputies ' camp . It overturned short of its goal and killed a cow . Other miners wanted to blow up every mine in the region , but Johnson quickly discouraged them . Frustrated , several drunken miners then stole a work train and steamed into Victor . They caught up with the group of fleeing deputies , and a gun battle broke out . One deputy and one miner died , a man on each side was wounded , and six strikers were captured by the deputies . The miners subsequently captured three officials of the Strong mine who had been present when the shafthouse was blown up . A formal prisoner exchange later freed all prisoners on both sides .
Calderwood returned during the night and restored calm . He asked saloons to close , and he imprisoned several miners who had instigated outbursts of violence .
On May 26 , mine owners met again with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado City . The owners agreed to provide more funding to allow the sheriff to raise 1 @,@ 200 additional deputies . Bowers quickly recruited men from all over the state , and established a camp for them in the town of Divide , about 12 miles away from Cripple Creek .
= = = Waite intervenes = = =
Warned about the size of the force Bowers was raising , Gov. Waite interceded again in the strike . He issued a proclamation on May 27 in which he called on the miners to disband their encampment on Bull Hill . In a development unparalleled in American labor history , he also declared the force of 1 @,@ 200 deputies to be illegal and ordered the group disbanded . He also ordered the state militia to be on the alert for a possible move on Cripple Creek . On May 28 , the governor visited the miners , who authorized Waite to negotiate on their behalf .
An initial meeting on May 30 nearly ended in disaster . Waite and several local civic leaders called union president Calderwood and mine owners Hagerman and Moffat to a conference in a meeting hall on the campus of Colorado College in Colorado Springs . Talks were under way and proceeding well when a mob of local citizens attempted to storm the building . Blaming Calderwood and Waite for the violence in Cripple Creek , they intended to lynch both men . As a local judge distracted the mob , Calderwood and Waite escaped out a rear door and onto the governor 's waiting train .
Negotiations resumed in Denver on June 2 , and the parties reached an agreement on June 4 . The agreement provided for resumption of the $ 3 @.@ 00 @-@ per @-@ day wage and the eight @-@ hour day . The mine owners agreed not to retaliate against or prosecute any miner who had taken part in the strike , and the miners agreed not to discriminate against or harass any nonunion worker who remained employed in the mines .
= = = The state militia returns = = =
With 1 @,@ 300 deputies still in Cripple Creek , Sheriff Bowers was unable to control the private army he had created . On June 5 , the deputies moved into Altman , perhaps as a prelude to storming Bull Hill . The deputies cut the telegraph and telephone wires leading out of town , and imprisoned a number of reporters . Concerned that the paramilitary force might get out of hand , Waite again dispatched the state militia , this time under the command of General E.J. Brooks .
When Colorado state troops arrived in Cripple Creek early on the morning of June 6 , more violence had already broken out . The deputies were exchanging gunfire with the miners on Bull Hill . Gen. Brooks quickly moved his troops from the train station to the foot of Bull Hill . As Sheriff Bowers and Gen. Brooks began to argue about what course of action to take next , the deputies took advantage of the lull and attempted to charge the miners . The miners sounded the whistle at the Victor mine , alerting Gen. Brooks . Soldiers of the state militia quickly intercepted the deputies and stopped their advance . Brooks ordered his men to occupy the top of Bull Hill , and the miners offered no resistance .
The deputies turned their attention to Cripple Creek itself . They arrested and imprisoned hundreds of citizens without cause . Many inhabitants of the town were seized on the street or pulled from their homes , then clubbed , kicked or beaten . The deputies formed a gauntlet and forced townspeople to pass through it , spitting , slapping and kicking them . With Bull Hill in his possession , Gen. Brooks began detaining the deputies . By nightfall , Brooks had seized the town and corralled all of Bowers ' men .
Waite threatened to declare martial law , but the mine owners refused to disband their deputy force . Gen. Brooks then threatened to keep his troops in the region for another 30 days . Faced with the prospect of paying for a paramilitary force which could only sit on its hands , the owners agreed to disband it . The deputies , which Gen. Brooks had dispatched via rail to Colorado Springs , began dispersing on June 11 . The Waite agreement became operative the same day , and the miners returned to work .
Union president Calderwood and 300 other miners were arrested and charged with a variety of crimes . Only four miners were convicted of any charges , and were quickly pardoned by the sympathetic populist governor .
= = Impact of the strike = =
The Cripple Creek strike was a major victory for the miners ' union . The Western Federation of Miners used the success of the strike to organize almost every worker in the Cripple Creek region – including waitresses , laundry workers , bartenders and newsboys – into 54 local unions . The WFM flourished in the Cripple Creek area for almost a decade , even helping to elect most county officials ( including the new sheriff ) .
The Cripple Creek strike also transformed the Western Federation of Miners enormously as a political entity . The year @-@ old union , weak and penniless before the strike , became widely admired among miners throughout the West . Thousands of workers joined the union over the next few years . Politicians and labor officials throughout the country became steady allies of the union , and the WFM became a political force throughout much of the Rocky Mountain West .
But the WFM 's success at Cripple Creek also created a significant backlash . The WFM was forever tarred as a dangerous and violent organization in the eyes of employers . Never again would the WFM have in a local strike the level of public support it enjoyed at Cripple Creek in 1894 . Indeed , when the union struck the Cripple Creek mines again in 1898 , its public support ended after violence broke out . During another strike in 1903 – 4 , whose violent significance earned it the name Colorado Labor Wars , the union went up against the power of the employers and the state combined .
The union 's success also altered the course of Colorado politics . Colorado citizens blamed Waite for protecting the miners ' union and encouraging violence and anarchy . The backlash led to Waite 's defeat at the polls in November 1894 and the election of Republican Albert McIntire . The Populist movement in Colorado never recovered .
The Cripple Creek strike of 1894 also hardened the attitudes of mine owners . Under Gov. McIntire , the government of Colorado formed a political alliance with the mine owners . Mine owners increasingly turned to the Thiel Detective Service Company and Pinkerton National Detective Agency for spies , increased the use of strikebreakers , and implemented the lockout and blacklist as a means of controlling union members . Whenever these tools proved ineffective , the state government stepped in to support the mine owners . When the WFM struck the Leadville mines in 1896 , Gov. McIntire called out the state militia against the union and broke the WFM 's power in Colorado .
The Cripple Creek backlash indirectly influenced the direction of American labor history . The collapse of the 1896 Leadville strike caused the WFM to sever its relationship with the American Federation of Labor and to turn strongly to the left politically . After the Colorado Labor Wars , the WFM was instrumental in launching the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) in 1905 . Although the IWW 's heyday was short @-@ lived , the union was symbolically important and the ideals embodied by it continue to deeply influence the American labor movement to this day .
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= Chester ( TTC ) =
Chester is a subway station on the Bloor – Danforth line in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The station is located on Chester Avenue just north of Danforth Avenue . It opened in 1966 as one of the original stations of this subway line . The Toronto Parking Authority operates a public parking lot across Chester Avenue opposite the subway entrance .
= = History = =
Chester station was opened on February 25 , 1966 , along with the rest of the first phase of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line which operated between Keele and Woodbine stations .
Following the design style set by the stations of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line , Chester station uses a two colour theme with the station 's name in the Toronto Subway Font . In keeping with the style , Chester 's colours match the ' opposing ' stations on the western half of the subway line : the trim tiles are blue and complement Lansdowne station , while the light green main tiles complement the original tile colour for Dufferin station .
= = Facilities = =
Chester station has one entrance which is located on Chester Avenue just north of Danforth Avenue . A walkway leads to the station from a nearby street to allow access to the station from the west side . The nearby communities that are served by this station are Greektown , Withrow Park , Riverdale , and Broadview North . In addition to serving these communities , Chester station is commonly used to access local street festivals such as the Taste of the Danforth .
Although the station is rated as high priority in the requirement for a second exit , Chester is the only one left on the east end of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line where design work and consultation has yet to be done .
The Gateway Newsstand kiosk at the station , which had been vacant for over six years , was reopened on May 8 , 2015 as " The Artist Newsstand " by a group of local artists led by Jess Dobkin . Along with the usual offerings of newspapers , magazines and drinks , The Artist Newsstand is a performance and gallery space for artists as well as being staffed by artists , as a way of funding their work . A $ 4000 Kickstarter campaign was launched to fund the renovation of the kiosk , with the campaign successfully raising $ 4 @,@ 931 . The Artist Newsstand will operate in the space for one year .
= = Service = =
Chester station is served by the Bloor @-@ Danforth line which operates between Kennedy and Kipling stations . The station was designed to be serviced with side platforms as it mainly serves the surrounding neighbouhood . As it is the only station in the system that is not connected to a regular bus or streetcar route it is one of the least used subway stations in Toronto . The 300 Bloor @-@ Danforth Night and 303 Don Mills Night Bus operates on Danforth from 1 : 30 @-@ 5 : 30 a.m. after the line is shut down for nightly maintenance .
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= On Translating Beowulf =
" On Translating Beowulf " is an essay by J. R. R. Tolkien which discusses the difficulties faced by anyone attempting to translate the Old English heroic @-@ elegiac poem Beowulf into modern English . It was first published in 1940 as a preface contributed by Tolkien to a translation of Old English poetry ; it was first published as an essay under its current name in the 1983 collection The Monsters and the Critics , and Other Essays .
In the essay , Tolkien explains the difficulty of translating individual words from Old English , noting that a word like eacen ( ' large ' , ' strong ' , ' supernaturally powerful ' ) cannot readily be translated by the same word in each case . He notes the problem of translating poetic kennings such as sundwudu ( ' flood @-@ timber ' , i.e. ' ship ' ) and that the language chosen by the poet was already archaic at that moment . He explains that such terms had echoes and connotations of another world , an " unrecapturable magic " .
The essay describes Old English metre , with each line in two opposed halves . The stressed syllables in each half contained alliterating sounds in six possible patterns , which Tolkien illustrates using modern English . Rhyme is used only for special effects , such as to imitate waves beating on a shore . The essay ends with the observation that the whole poem is itself in two opposed halves , covering " Youth + Age ; he rose – fell . "
Critics note that Tolkien attempted and sometimes failed to follow the rules he laid down in the essay in his own alliterative verse , in his own translations , and indeed in his narrative fiction such as Lord of the Rings .
= = Literary context = =
J.R.R. Tolkien contributed " On Translating Beowulf " as a preface entitled " Prefatory Remarks on Prose Translation of ' Beowulf ' " to the 1940 edition of C.L. Wrenn 's book Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment , A Translation into Modern English Prose , which had first been published in 1911 by John R. Clark Hall . Tolkien , the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo @-@ Saxon at the University of Oxford , had himself attempted a prose translation of Beowulf , but abandoned it , dissatisfied ; it was published posthumously , edited by his son Christopher Tolkien as Beowulf : A Translation and Commentary in 2014 .
The preface was published under the title " On Translating Beowulf " in 1983 ( and in subsequent editions ) , as one of the essays in The Monsters and the Critics , and Other Essays , also edited by Christopher Tolkien .
= = Essay = =
The essay is divided into the following sections ( which are arranged hierarchically but not numbered in the original ) :
= = = On Translation and Words = = =
Tolkien comments on the risk of using a translation as a substitute for study with grammar and dictionary , calling it an abuse , and writing that
On the strength of a nodding acquaintance of this sort ( it may be supposed ) , one famous critic informed his public that Beowulf was ' only small beer ' . Yet if beer at all , it is a drink dark and bitter : a solemn funeral @-@ ale with the taste of death .
He notes that a readable translation cannot always translate an Old English ( OE ) word the same way ; thus eacen is rendered ' stalwart ' , ' broad ' , ' huge ' , and ' mighty ' , correctly in each case to fit the context , but losing the clue to the word 's special meaning , " not ' large ' but ' enlarged ' " . The word implies , in fact , supernatural or superhuman power , like Beowulf 's gift from God of " thirtyfold strength " . And this is just an example , Tolkien points out , of a minor challenge to the translator .
A second issue ( in his view ) is the compactness of Old English words , which often have no modern equivalents , and phrases which are " inevitably weakened even in prose by transference to our looser modern language " .
Another problem is posed by the kennings , which Tolkien calls " poetical devices , ... descriptive compounds " . He gives the example of sundwudu ( ' flood @-@ timber ' ) for ' ship ' ; some phrase like ' wave @-@ borne timbers ' is " an attempt to unfold , at the risk of dissipating it , the briefly flashed picture " .
Tolkien mocks " oddities " like " ten timorous trothbreakers together " ( for Beowulf line 2846 , in Clark Hall 's unrevised version ) as " reminiscent of the ' two tired toads that tried to trot to Tutbury ' " . He does not approve , either , of choosing needlessly colloquial words : " Too often notables , visitors and subalterns appeared instead of the more fitting , and indeed more literally accurate , counsellors , strangers , and young knights . "
Further , he points out that the language used by the Beowulf poet was already archaic , and the choice of words was at the time recognisably poetic . Tolkien gives as an example beorn , which meant both ' bear ' and ' warrior ' , but only in heroic poetry could it be used to mean ' man ' . He advises the translator to prefer ' striking ' and ' smiting ' , and to avoid " hitting and whacking " . But on the other hand , he criticises William Morris for using the dead and unintelligible ' leeds ' for OE leode ( ' freemen ' , ' people ' ; cf German leute ) , even if antiquarians feel that the word ought to have survived . Tolkien does not accept the etymological fallacy either : mod means ' pride ' , not ' mood ' ; burg is ' stronghold ' , not ' borough ' , even though the modern word derives from the old one .
Some terms present special problems ; the Beowulf poet uses at least ten synonyms for the word ' man ' , from wer ( as in werewolf , a man @-@ wolf ) and beorn to leod and mann ; Tolkien writes that in heroic verse there were over 25 terms that could at a stretch be used to mean ' man ' , including words like eorl ( a nobleman , like ' earl ' ) ; cniht ( a young man , like ' knight ' ) ; ðegn ( a servant , like thain ) ; or wiga ( a warrior ) . He argues that the translator need not avoid words from the Middle Ages that might suggest the age of chivalry : better the world of King Arthur than " Red Indians " , and in the case of words for armour and weapons , there is no choice .
In the case of compound words , Tolkien observes that the translator has to
hesitate between simply naming the thing denoted ( so ' harp ' 1065 , for gomen @-@ wudu ' play @-@ wood ' ) , and resolving the combination into a phrase . The former method retains the compactness of the original but loses its colour ; the latter retains the colour , but even if it does not falsify or exaggerate it , it loosens and weakens the texture . Choice between the evils will vary with occasions . "
Tolkien concludes the section by warning the translator that even the most well @-@ worn kennings had not lost their meaning and connotations . Whereas , he argues , the Old English word hlaford , meaning ' lord ' ( which derives from it ) was all that was left of the antique hlafweard ( which originally meant ' bread @-@ keeper ' , ' loaf @-@ guard ' ) in daily speech , the poetic phrases used in verse retained echoes of another world :
He who in those days said and who heard flæschama ' flesh @-@ raiment ' , ban @-@ hus ' bone @-@ house ' , hreðer @-@ loca ' heart @-@ prison ' , thought of the soul shut in the body , as the frail body itself is trammelled in armour , or as a bird in a narrow cage , or steam pent in a cauldron . ... The poet who spoke these words saw in his thought the brave men of old walking under the vault of heaven upon the island earth [ middangeard ] beleaguered by the Shoreless Seas [ garsecg ] and the outer darkness , enduring with stern courage the brief days of life [ læne lif ] , until the hour of fate [ metodsceaft ] when all things should perish , leoht and lif samod . But he did not say all this fully or explicitly . And therein lies the unrecapturable magic of ancient English verse for those who have ears to hear : profound feeling , and poignant vision , filled with the beauty and mortality of the world , are aroused by brief phrases , light touches , short words resounding like harp @-@ strings sharply plucked .
= = = On Metre = = =
Tolkien states that he is going to give an account of Old English metre using modern English , bringing out " the ancestral kinship of the two languages , as well as the differences between them " .
= = = = Metre = = = =
Tolkien explains that each line of Old English poetry had two opposed halves , groups of words which had six possible patterns of stress , such as ' falling @-@ falling ' , like
kníghts in | ármour .
4 ........... 1 4 .... 1
where 4 means a full lift ( maximum stress ) and 1 is the lowest dip in stress .
A clashing pattern would be like
on hígh | móuntains .
1 ....... 4 4 ......... 1
Tolkien emphasises that these are still the patterns found everywhere in modern English ; poetry differs from prose , he argues , in that the poet clears away everything else , so " these patterns stand opposed to each other . "
He then provides " a free version of Beowulf 210 @-@ 228 in this metre . The passage should be read slowly , but naturally : that is with the stresses and tones required solely by the sense . " The first few lines , which as Tolkien says are a free ( non @-@ literal ) translation of the Old English , run :
= = = = Variations = = = =
In this section Tolkien describes variations on the basic patterns . For example , dips ( between lifts ) were usually monosyllabic , but the number of syllables was not limited by Old English metre , so a series of weak syllables was permitted in a half @-@ line . Other variations included breaking a lift into two syllables , the first short but stressed , the second weak , with for instance ' vĕssel ' in place of ' boat ' .
= = = = Alliteration = = = =
Tolkien states that calling Old English verse alliterative is a misnomer for two reasons . Firstly it is not fundamental to the metre , which would work without it . Secondly , it does not depend on letters , as in modern English alliteration , but on sounds . Old English alliteration , then , is an " agreement of the stressed elements in beginning with the same consonant , or in beginning with no consonant . " Further , all words starting with any stressed vowel are considered to alliterate : he gives the example of ' old ' alliterating with ' eager ' .
= = = = = Arrangement = = = = =
Tolkien lays down three rules of Old English alliteration . " One full lift in each half @-@ line must alliterate . " In the second half @-@ line , only the first lift may alliterate : the second must not . In the first half @-@ line , both lifts can alliterate ; the stronger one must do so . He notes that these rules force the second half @-@ line to have its stronger lift first , so lines tend to fall away at the end , contrasting with a " rise in intensity " at the start of the next line .
= = = = = Function = = = = =
Tolkien states that " The main metrical function of alliteration is to link the two separate and balanced patterns together into a complete line " , so it has to be as early in the second half @-@ line as possible . It also quickens and relieves heavy patterns ( which had double alliteration ) .
Rhyme is used only " gratuitously , and for special effects . " Here he gives an example from Beowulf itself , lines 212 @-@ 213 : ' stréamas wundon | | sund wið sande ' ( waves wound | | sea against sand ) , where ' wundon ' actually rhymes ( internally ) with ' sund ' . Tolkien explains : " [ here ] the special effect ( breakers are beating on the shore ) may be regarded as deliberate . " His version of this captures the rhyme and the alliteration , as well as the meaning :
Tolkien ends the essay with an analysis of lines 210 @-@ 228 of Beowulf , providing the original text , marked up with stresses and his metrical patterns for each half @-@ line , as well as a literal translation with poetical words underlined . He notes that there are three words for boat and for wave , five for men , four for sea : in each case some are poetical , some normal .
He also notes that sentences generally stop in the middle of a line , so " sense @-@ break and metrical break are usually opposed . " He notes too that significant elements in second half @-@ lines are often " caught up and re @-@ echoed or elaborated " , giving a characteristic ' parallelism ' to Beowulf . This is seen , he argues , not just in such small details , but in the parallel arrangement of narrative , descriptive and speech passages ; in the use of separate passages describing incidents of strife between Swedes and Geats ; and at the largest scale , in the fact that the whole poem
itself is like a line of its own verse written large , a balance of two great blocks , A + B ; or like two of its parallel sentences with a single subject but no expressed conjunction . Youth + Age ; he rose – fell . It may not be , at large or in detail , fluid or musical , but it is strong to stand : tough builder 's work of true stone .
= = Reception = =
Mark F. Hall , examining Tolkien 's own use of alliterative verse , writes that Tolkien notes that " the Beowulf poet likely was consciously using archaic and literary words " , and compares this to Tolkien 's own practice in poems such as " The Lay of the Children of Húrin " , where , Hall thinks , Tolkien 's words could be applied to his own verse : " Its manner and conventions , and its metre , are unlike those of modern English verse . Also it is preserved fragmentarily and by chance , and has only in recent times been redeciphered and interpreted , without the aid of any tradition or gloss " . Hall further comments that in ' Lays of Beleriand ' , Tolkien failed to heed his own warning against archaism , as he uses the word " weird " archaically to mean ' fate ' ( OE ' wyrd ' ) , and speculates that this may have been a reaction against the " rigidity and formality of translating authentic Anglo @-@ Saxon literature . "
The Green Man Review comments that Tolkien 's " emphasis as a translator was on selecting the word that best fit the tone of the poem . He defends the Beowulf poet 's use of high sounding language that was anachronistic even in [ the poet 's ] time . He also uses the works of earlier translators of Beowulf to give hilarious examples of what to avoid when translating an ancient text . " The reviewer concludes that together with " The Monsters and the Critics " , the essays are " strangely prescient . With a little tweaking , they could easily serve as a defense of The Lord of the Rings against charges that its high sounding language was at variance with the ' juvenile ' plot . "
The fantasy and science fiction author Alexa Chipman writes that while Tolkien was " firmly against any prose translation of Beowulf , as it is , at heart , a poem " , he agreed that " if one is trying to read the original , having a translation of it handy can sometimes be of assistance " . She recalls her own Beowulf studies with " a huge stack of dictionary and grammar books " , and draws attention to Tolkien 's comment that " Perhaps the most important function of any translation used by a student is to provide not a model for imitation , but an exercise for correction . "
The same comment , on the function of any translation , is cited by Hugh Magennis in his book Translating Beowulf : Modern Versions in English Verse , along with Tolkien 's opening remark that translating a poem into " plain prose " , " a work of skilled and close @-@ wrought metre ( to say no more ) needs defence . " Magennis writes that Tolkien " goes on to provide such a defence " by insisting that " Clark Hall " was offered not to enable people to judge the original poem or to substitute for it , but " to provide an aid to study . " He also cites Tolkien 's insistence that " the Modern English of prose Beowulf translations should be ' harmonious ' and should avoid ' colloquialism and false modernity ' . " Magennis argues that
This conviction provides the rationale for an elevated register incorporating archaizing features , such as he finds in Wrenn 's ' Clark Hall ' : ' If you wish to translate , not rewrite Beowulf ' , declares Tolkien , ' your language must be literary and traditional : not because it is now a long while since the poem was made , or because it speaks of things that have since become ancient ; but because the diction of Beowulf was poetical , archaic , artificial ( if you will ) , in the day that the poem was made . ' Here Tolkien does argue for literary correspondence between source and translation : the translation is doing more than conveying ( to revert to an earlier quotation from Tolkien ) ' the matter of the poem , and furnishing the professional student with the material and guidance necessary for the early stages of his study of the original ' ; it is doing so in an appropriate style that suggests qualities of the Old English .
The academic Philip Mitchell comments that " The entire essay is worth serious study " and notes that among other points made by Tolkien , " Anglo @-@ Saxon verse is not attempting to offer puzzles but an aesthetic of compression in a slow meter of balance . "
In his thesis , Peter Grybauskas writes that Tolkien is preoccupied with " structural juxtapositions " in " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " and " On Translating Beowulf " . In these essays , Grybauskas argues , Tolkien talks about concepts of balance and opposition , and indeed ends the essay on translation with a synecdoche , a " structural vision of the whole capable of being glimpsed in the smallest part " in the passage ( quoted above ) where Tolkien talks about the " two great blocks , A + B " . He points out that Tolkien makes use of the concept in the composition of his fictional work The Lord of the Rings .
The translator Ross Smith comments that while Tolkien was cautious about publishing his translations of Beowulf , " he was quite willing to explain the approach that in his opinion should be taken towards such a monolithic task . " Smith points out that , unlike publishing a prose or verse translation , explaining his translation criteria did not expose Tolkien to aesthetic criticism . Smith remarks that Tolkien is " somewhat disdainful " of Clark Hall 's version , such things being useful as study @-@ guides and little else ; putting Old English poetry into modern English prose inevitably creates something " dull and flat " , so Tolkien much prefers versions that try to preserve the original 's rhyme and metre . Smith notes that the same opinion can be found in Tolkien 's essay " Sir Gawain and the Green Knight " .
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= United States v. Washington =
United States v. Washington , 384 F. Supp . 312 ( W.D. Wash . 1974 ) , aff 'd , 520 F.2d 676 ( 9th Cir . 1975 ) , commonly known as the Boldt Decision ( from the name of the trial court judge , George Hugo Boldt ) , was a 1974 case heard in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . It reaffirmed the reserved right of American Indian tribes in the State of Washington to act alongside the state as co @-@ managers of salmon and other fish , and to continue harvesting them in accordance with the various treaties that the United States had signed with the tribes . The tribes of Washington had ceded their land to the United States but had reserved the right to fish as they had always done , including fishing at their traditional locations that were off the designated reservations .
Over time , the state of Washington had infringed on the treaty rights of the tribes despite losing a series of court cases on the issue . Those cases provided the Indians a right of access through private property to their fishing locations , and said that the state could neither charge Indians a fee to fish nor discriminate against the tribes in the method of fishing allowed . Those cases also provided for the Indians ' rights to a fair and equitable share of the harvest . The Boldt decision further defined that reserved right , holding that the tribes were entitled to half the fish harvest each year .
In 1975 the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Judge Boldt 's ruling . The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case . After the state refused to enforce the court order , Judge Boldt ordered the United States Coast Guard and federal law enforcement agencies to enforce his rulings . On July 2 , 1979 , the Supreme Court rejected a collateral attack on the case , largely endorsing Judge Boldt 's ruling and the opinion of the Ninth Circuit . In Washington v. Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Ass 'n , Justice John Paul Stevens wrote that " [ b ] oth sides have a right , secured by treaty , to take a fair share of the available fish . " The Supreme Court also endorsed Boldt 's orders to enforce his rulings by the use of federal law enforcement assets and the Coast Guard .
= = Background = =
= = = History of tribal fishing = = =
The American Indians of the Pacific Northwest had long depended on the salmon harvest , a resource which allowed them to become the wealthiest North American tribes . The salmon harvest for the Columbia River basin was estimated at 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) annually , which not only provided sufficient salmon for the tribes ' needs , but also enough to trade with others . By the 1840s , tribes were trading salmon to the Hudson Bay Company which shipped the fish to New York , Great Britain , and other locations around the world .
= = = Treaties = = =
In the 1850s , the United States government entered into a series of treaties with the American Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest . In the Treaty of Olympia , territorial governor Isaac I. Stevens agreed that the tribes had rights including :
" The right of taking fish at all usual and accustomed grounds and stations is secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the Territory , and of erecting temporary houses for the purpose of curing the same ; together with the privilege of hunting , gathering roots and berries , and pasturing their horses on all open and unclaimed lands . Provided , however , That they shall not take shell @-@ fish from any beds staked or cultivated by citizens ; and provided , also , that they shall alter all stallions not intended for breeding , and keep up and confine the stallions themselves . "
Other agreements with area tribes included the treaties of Medicine Creek , Point Elliott , Neah Bay , and Point No Point . All of these had similar language on the rights of the Indians to fish outside the reservation . While the tribes agreed to part with their land , they insisted on protecting their fishing rights throughout the Washington territory .
= = = Post @-@ treaty history = = =
Initially , the federal government honored its treaties with the tribes , but with increasing numbers of white settlers moving into the area , the settlers began to infringe upon the fishing rights of the native tribes . By 1883 , whites had established more than forty salmon canneries . In 1894 , there were three canneries in the Puget Sound area ; by 1905 there were twenty @-@ four . The whites also began to use new techniques that prevented a significant portion of the salmon from reaching the tribal fishing areas . When Washington Territory became a state in 1889 , the legislature passed " laws to curtail tribal fishing in the name of ' conservation ' but what some scholars described as being designed to protect white fisheries " . The state legislature , by 1897 , had banned the use of weirs , which were customarily used by Indians . The tribes turned to the courts for enforcement of their rights under the treaties .
= = = = United States v. Taylor = = = =
In one of the earliest of these enforcement cases , decided in 1887 , the United States Indian Agent and several members of the Yakima tribe filed suit in territorial court to enforce their right of access to off @-@ reservation fishing locations . Frank Taylor , a non @-@ Indian settler , had obtained land from the United States and had fenced off the land , preventing access by the Yakima to their traditional fishing locations . Although the trial court ruled in Taylor 's favor , the Supreme Court of the Territory of Washington reversed and held that the tribe had reserved its own rights to fish , thereby creating an easement or an equitable servitude of the land that was not extinguished when Taylor obtained title .
= = = = United States v. Winans = = = =
Within ten years , another case arose , which dealt with fishing rights at Celilo Falls , a traditional Indian fishing location . Two brothers , Lineas and Audubon Winans , owned property on both sides of the Columbia River and obtained licenses from the state of Washington to operate four fish wheels . The wheels prevented a significant number of salmon from passing the location . Additionally , the Winans prohibited anyone , whether an Indian with treaty rights or otherwise , from crossing their land to get to the falls .
The United States Attorney for Washington then filed a suit to enforce the treaty rights of the tribe . The trial court held that the property rights of the Winans allowed them to exclude others from the property , including the Indians . In 1905 , the United States Supreme Court reversed that decision , holding that the tribe had reserved fishing rights when they ceded the property to the United States . Since the tribes had the right to fish reserved in the treaties , the federal government and subsequent owners had no greater property rights than were granted by the treaties .
= = = = Seufert Bros. Co. v. United States = = = =
In 1914 , the United States sued again , this time against the Seufert Brothers Company which had prevented Yakima Indians including Sam Williams from fishing on the Oregon side of the Columbia River near the Celilo Falls . After the United States sued on behalf of Williams , the United States District Court in Oregon issued an injunction which the Supreme Court affirmed , again holding that the treaties created a servitude that ran with the land . This decision was significant in that it expanded the hunting and fishing rights outside the territory ceded by the tribes when it was shown that the tribe used the area for hunting and fishing .
= = = State attempts to regulate Indian fishing = = =
= = = = Tulee v. Washington = = = =
In Tulee v. Washington , the United States Supreme Court once again ruled on the treaty rights of the Yakima tribe . In 1939 , Sampson Tulee , a Yakima , was arrested for fishing without a state fishing license . The United States government immediately filed for a writ of habeas corpus on Tulee 's behalf , which was denied on procedural grounds because he had not yet been tried in state court and had not exhausted his appeals . Tulee was convicted in state court , which was upheld by the Washington Supreme Court on the grounds that the state 's sovereignty allowed it to impose a fee on Indians who were fishing outside the reservation . The United States Supreme Court reversed , stating " we are of the opinion that the state is without power to charge the Yakimas a fee for fishing " .
= = = = The Puyallup cases = = = =
Following the Tulee decision , there were three United States Supreme Court decisions involving the Puyallup tribe . The first was Puyallup Tribe v. Department of Game of Washington , ( Puyallup I ) which involved a state ban on the use of nets to catch steelhead trout and salmon . Despite the ban , the tribes continued to use nets based on their treaty rights . Justice William Douglas delivered the opinion of the Court which said that the treaty did not prevent state regulations that were reasonable and necessary under a fish conservation scheme , provided the regulation was not discriminatory .
After being remanded to determine if the regulations were not discriminatory , the case returned to the United States Supreme Court in Department of Game of Washington v. Puyallup Tribe ( Puyallyp II ) . Again , Justice Douglas wrote the opinion for the Court , but this time he struck down the state restrictions as discriminatory . Douglas noted that the restrictions for catching steelhead trout with nets had remained , and was a method used only by the Indians , whereas hook and line fishing was allowed but was used only by non @-@ Indians . As such , the effect of the regulation allocated all of the steelhead trout fishing to sport anglers , and none to the tribes .
The third case , Puyallup Tribe , Inc. v. Department of Game of Washington ( Puyallup III ) , was decided in 1977 . Members of the Puyallup Tribe filed suit , arguing that under the doctrine of sovereign immunity , Washington state courts lacked jurisdiction to regulate fishing activities on tribal reservations . Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice John Paul Stevens held that , despite the tribe 's sovereign immunity , the state could regulate the harvest of steelhead trout in the portion of the river that ran through the Puyallup Reservation as long as the state could base its decision and apportionment on conservation grounds .
= = = = The Belloni decision = = = =
One year after the Puyallup I decision , Judge Robert C. Belloni issued an order in Sohappy v. Smith , a treaty fishing case involving the Yakima tribe and the state of Oregon . In this case , Oregon had discriminated against the Indians in favor of sports and commercial fishermen , allocating almost nothing to the tribes at the headwaters of the river . Oregon argued that the treaties only gave the Indians the same rights as every other citizen , and Belloni noted that " [ s ] uch a reading would not seem unreasonable if all history , anthropology , biology , prior case law and the intention of the parties to the treaty were to be ignored " . Belloni also found that :
The state may regulate fishing by non @-@ Indians to achieve a wide variety of management or " conservation " objectives . Its selection of regulations to achieve these objectives is limited only by its own organic law and the standards of reasonableness required by the Fourteenth Amendment . But when it is regulating the federal right of Indians to take fish at their usual and accustomed places it does not have the same latitude in prescribing the management objectives and the regulatory means of achieving them . The state may not qualify the federal right by subordinating it to some other state objective or policy . It may use its police power only to the extent necessary to prevent the exercise of that right in a manner that will imperil the continued existence of the fish resource .
Belloni issued a final ruling that the tribes were entitled to a fair and equitable portion of the fish harvest . The court retained continuing jurisdiction , and his order was not appealed .
= = U.S. District Court ( Boldt decision ) = =
= = = Issue = = =
Although the Belloni decision established the rights of the Indians to exercise their treaty fishing rights , the states of Oregon and Washington continued to arrest Indians for violations of state law and regulations that infringed on those rights . In September 1970 , the United States Attorney filed an action in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington alleging that the state of Washington had infringed on the treaty rights of the Hoh , Makah , Muckleshoot , Nisqually , Puyallup , Quileute , and Skokomish tribes . Later , the Lummi , Quinault , Sauk @-@ Suiattle , Squaxin Island , Stillaguamish , Upper Skagit , and Yakima tribes intervened in the case . Defendants were the state of Washington , the Washington Department of Fisheries , the Washington Game Commission , and the Washington Reef Net Owners Association .
= = = Trial = = =
The first phase of the case took three years , mainly in preparation for trial . During the trial , Boldt heard testimony from about fifty witnesses and admitted 350 exhibits . The evidence showed that the state had shut down many sites used by Indians for net fishing while allowing commercial net fishing elsewhere on the same run . At most , the tribes took only about two percent ( 2 % ) of the total harvest . There was no evidence presented by the state that showed any detrimental actions by Indians toward the harvest . Both expert testimony and cultural testimony was presented , with tribal members relating the oral history dealing with the treaties and fishing rights . Additionally , Boldt found that the tribe 's witnesses were more credible than those of the state , finding that the tribe 's expert witnesses were " exceptionally well researched " .
= = = Holding = = =
The court held that , when the tribes conveyed millions of acres of land in Washington State through a series of treaties signed in 1854 and 1855 , they reserved the right to continue fishing . The court looked at the minutes of the treaty negotiations to interpret the meaning of the treaty language " in common with " as the United States described it to the Tribes , holding that the United States intended for there to be an equal sharing of the fish resource between the Tribes and the settlers . As the court stated , the phrase means " sharing equally the opportunity to take fish ... therefore , nontreaty fishermen shall have the opportunity to take up to 50 % of the harvestable number of fish ... and treaty right fishermen shall have the opportunity to take up to the same percentage " . The formula used by Boldt gave the tribes forty @-@ three percent ( 43 % ) of the Puget Sound harvest , which was equivalent to eighteen percent ( 18 % ) of the statewide harvest . The order required the state to limit the amount of fish taken by non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen , causing a drop in their income from about $ 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 .
Furthermore , the court also held the state could regulate the Indians ' exercise of their treaty rights , but only to ensure the " perpetuation of a run or of a species of fish " . To regulate the Indians , the state must be able to show that conservation could not be achieved by regulating only the non @-@ Indians , must not discriminate against the Indians , and must use appropriate due process .
= = Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals = =
= = = Opinion of the court = = =
After the District Court issued its ruling , both sides submitted appeals to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . Washington argued that the district court had no power to invalidate state fishing regulations , while the tribes argued " the state may not regulate their fishing activities at treaty locations for any reason " . Writing for a majority of the court , Circuit Court Judge Herbert Choy affirmed Judge Boldt 's opinion " in all respects " , but clarified that Judge Boldt 's " equitable apportionment " of harvestable fish did not apply to " fish caught by non @-@ Washington citizens outside the state 's jurisdiction " .
In his majority opinion , Judge Choy emphasized that states may not enact regulations that are " in conflict with treaties in force between the United States and the Indian nations " . Consequently , he concluded that the treaties signed in the 1850s expressly preempted Washington 's regulations and that non @-@ Indians had " only a limited right to fish at treaty places . " Judge Choy also emphasized that the tribes were " entitled to an equitable apportionment of the opportunity to fish in order to safeguard their federal treaty rights " and that the Ninth Circuit should grant the district court a " great amount of discretion as a court of equity " when apportioning rights to fisheries . He held that the district court 's apportionment " was well within its discretion " , but clarified that tribes were not entitled to compensation for " unanticipated heavy fishing " that occurred off Washington 's coast . Judge Choy also clarified that the district court 's equitable remedy should attempt to minimize hardships for white reef net fishermen .
= = = Concurrence = = =
District court judge James M. Burns , sitting by designation , wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he criticized the " recalcitrance of Washington State officials " in their management of the state 's fisheries . Judge Burns argued that Washington 's recalcitrance forced Judge Boldt to act as " perpetual fishmaster " and noted that he " deplore [ d ] " situations in which district court judges are forced to act as " enduring managers of the fisheries , forests , and highways " . In his concluding remarks , Judge Burns argued that Washington 's responsibility to manage its natural resources " should neither escape notice nor be forgotten . "
= = = Certiorari denied = = =
After the Ninth Circuit issued its ruling in the direct appeal , the case was remanded to the district court for further proceedings . Washington submitted an appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States , but the Supreme Court denied the state 's petition for certiorari and subsequent petition for rehearing . Despite these rulings , the parties in the original case continued to litigate issues relating to apportionment of the fisheries and subsequent rulings have been issued as recently as May 2015 .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Legal = = =
= = = = Collateral attacks = = = =
After Boldt 's decision , the Washington Department of Fisheries issued new regulations in compliance with the decision . The Puget Sound Gillnetters Association and the Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Association both filed lawsuits in state court to block the new regulations . These private concerns won at both the trial court and at the Washington Supreme Court . Washington Attorney General Slade Gorton , representing the state of Washington , supported the position of the private concerns and opposed the position of the United States and the tribes . The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and vacated the decision of the Washington Supreme Court .
Justice John Paul Stevens announced the decision of the Court , which upheld Judge Boldt 's order and overturned the rulings of the state courts . Stevens made it explicitly clear that Boldt could issue the orders he did , stating " [ t ] he federal court unquestionably has the power to enter the various orders that state official and private parties have chosen to ignore , and even to displace local enforcement of those orders if necessary to remedy the violations of federal law found by the court . "
= = = = Court supervision = = = =
When the state would not enforce his order to reduce the catch of non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen , Boldt took direct action , placing the matter under federal supervision . The United States Coast Guard and the National Marine Fisheries Service were ordered to enforce the ruling and soon had boats in the water confronting violators . Some of the protesters rammed Coast Guard boats and at least one member of the Coast Guard was shot . Those whom the officers caught breaking the court 's orders were taken before federal magistrates and fined for contempt , and the illegal fishing as a protest stopped . The United States District Court continued to exercise jurisdiction over the matter , determining traditional fishing locations and compiling major orders of the court .
= = = = Phase II = = = =
The case continued to have issues brought up before the district court . In what became known as " Phase II " , District Judge William H. Orrick , Jr. heard the issues presented by the United States on behalf of the tribes . Following the hearing , Orrick enjoined the state of Washington from damaging the fishes ' habitat , and included hatchery @-@ raised fish in the allocation to Indians . The state of Washington appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit , which affirmed in part and reversed in part , allowing the hatchery fish to remain in the allocation , but leaving the habitat issue open .
= = = = Culvert case subproceeding = = = =
In 2001 , twenty @-@ one northwest Washington tribes , joined by the United States filed a Request for Determination in U.S. District Court , asking the court to find that the State of Washington has a treaty @-@ based duty to preserve fish runs and habitat sufficiently for the tribes to earn a “ moderate living , ” and sought to compel the state to repair or replace culverts that impede salmon migration . On August 22 , 2007 , the district court issued a summary judgment order , holding that while culverts impeding andromadous fish migration are not the only factor diminishing their upstream habitat , in building and maintaining culverts that impede salmon migration , Washington State had diminished the size of salmon runs within the case area and thereby violated its obligation under the Stevens Treaties . On March 29 , 2013 , the court issued an injunction ordering the state to significantly increase the effort for removing state @-@ owned culverts that block habitat for salmon and steelhead , and to replace the state @-@ owned culverts that have the greatest adverse impact on the habitat of andromadous fish by 2030 .
The State of Washington appealed the district court ’ s decision to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . On June 27 , 2016 , a three judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court ’ s decision and upheld the injunction . Washington State has estimated it will need to fix an average of 30 to 40 culverts a year to comply with the injunction .
= = = Public response = = =
Scholars consider the Boldt decision to be a landmark case in American Indian law , in the area of cooperative management of resources , for Indian treaty rights , internationally for aboriginal treaty rights , and tribal civil rights .
The decision caused an immediate negative reaction from some citizens of Washington . Bumper stickers reading " Can Judge Boldt , Not Salmon " appeared , and Boldt was hung in effigy at the federal courthouse . Non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen ignored the ruling and the state was reluctant ( or at times refused ) to enforce the law . By 1978 , Congressman John E. Cunningham tried to get a bill passed to abrogate the treaties , to break up Indian holdings , and stop giving the tribes " special consideration " , but the effort failed . In 1984 , Washington voters passed an initiative ending " special rights " for Indians , but the state refused to enforce it as being preempted by federal law .
United States v. Washington was a landmark case in terms of Native American civil rights and evoked strong emotions . According to former U.S. Representative Lloyd Meeds of Everett , " the fishing issue was to Washington state what busing was to the East " for African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement .
= = = Tribal developments = = =
The tribes involved benefited greatly from the decision . Prior to Boldt 's ruling , Indians collected less than five percent ( 5 % ) of the harvest , but by 1984 , they were collecting forty @-@ nine percent ( 49 % ) . Tribal members became successful commercial fishermen , even expanding to marine fishing as far away as Alaska . The tribes became co @-@ managers of the fisheries along with the state , hiring fish biologists and staff to carry out those duties . The Makah tribe , based on the terms of the Neah Bay Treaty and the Boldt decision , took their first California gray whale in over seventy years in 1999 . Following a lawsuit by various animal rights activists , the tribe was allocated the right to take up to five whales a year for the 2001 and 2002 seasons .
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= Kurt Vonnegut =
Kurt Vonnegut Jr . ( / ˈvɒnᵻɡət / ; November 11 , 1922 – April 11 , 2007 ) was an American author . In a career spanning over 50 years , Vonnegut published fourteen novels , three short story collections , five plays , and five works of non @-@ fiction . He is most famous for his darkly satirical , best @-@ selling novel Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1969 ) .
Born and raised in Indianapolis , Indiana , Vonnegut attended Cornell University , but dropped out in January 1943 and enlisted in the United States Army . He was deployed to Europe to fight in World War II , and was captured by the Germans during the Battle of the Bulge . He was interned in Dresden and survived the Allied bombing of the city by taking refuge in a meat locker of the slaughterhouse where he was imprisoned . After the war , Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox , with whom he had three children . He later adopted his sister 's three sons , after she died of cancer and her husband died in a train accident .
Vonnegut published his first novel , Player Piano , in 1952 . The novel was reviewed positively , but was not commercially successful . In the nearly twenty years that followed , Vonnegut published several novels that were only marginally successful , such as Cat 's Cradle ( 1963 ) and God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1964 ) . Vonnegut 's magnum opus , however , was his immediately successful sixth novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five . The book 's antiwar sentiment resonated with its readers amidst the ongoing Vietnam War , and its reviews were generally positive . After its release , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five went to the top of The New York Times Best Seller list , thrusting Vonnegut into fame . He was invited to give speeches , lectures , and commencement addresses around the country and received many awards and honors .
Later in his career , Vonnegut published several autobiographical essays and short @-@ story collections , including Fates Worse Than Death ( 1991 ) , and A Man Without a Country ( 2005 ) . After his death , he was hailed as a morbidly comical commentator on the society in which he lived , and as one of the most important contemporary writers . Vonnegut 's son Mark published a compilation of his father 's unpublished compositions , titled Armageddon in Retrospect . Numerous scholarly works have examined Vonnegut 's writing and humor .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family and early life = = =
Kurt Vonnegut Jr. was born on November 11 , 1922 in Indianapolis , Indiana . He was the youngest of three children of Kurt Vonnegut Sr. and his wife Edith ( née Lieber ) . His older siblings were Bernard ( born 1914 ) and Alice ( born 1917 ) . Vonnegut was descended from German immigrants who settled in the United States in the mid @-@ 19th century ; his patrilineal great @-@ grandfather , Clemens Vonnegut of Westphalia , Germany , settled in Indianapolis and founded the Vonnegut Hardware Company . Kurt 's father , and his father before him , Bernard , were architects ; the architecture firm under Kurt Sr. designed such buildings as Das Deutsche Haus ( now called " The Athenæum " ) , the Indiana headquarters of the Bell Telephone Company , and the Fletcher Trust Building . Vonnegut 's mother was born into Indianapolis high society , as her family , the Liebers , were among the wealthiest in the city , their fortune derived from ownership of a successful brewery .
Although both of Vonnegut 's parents were fluent German speakers , the ill feeling toward that country during and after World War I caused the Vonneguts to abandon the culture to show their American patriotism . Thus , they never taught their youngest son German or introduced him to German literature and tradition , leaving him feeling " ignorant and rootless " . Vonnegut later credited Ida Young , his family 's African @-@ American cook and housekeeper for the first ten years of his life , for raising him and giving him values . " [ She ] gave me decent moral instruction and was exceedingly nice to me . So she was as great an influence on me as anybody . " Vonnegut described Young as " humane and wise " , adding that " the compassionate , forgiving aspects of [ his ] beliefs " came from her .
The financial security and social prosperity that the Vonneguts once enjoyed were destroyed in a matter of years . The Liebers 's brewery was closed in 1921 after the advent of Prohibition in the United States . When the Great Depression hit , few people could afford to build , causing clients at Kurt Sr. ' s architectural firm to become scarce . Vonnegut 's brother and sister had finished their primary and secondary educations in private schools , but Vonnegut was placed in a public school , called Public School No. 43 , now known as the James Whitcomb Riley School . He was not bothered by this , but both his parents were affected deeply by their economic misfortune . His father withdrew from normal life and became what Vonnegut called a " dreamy artist " . His mother became depressed , withdrawn , bitter , and abusive . She labored to regain the family 's wealth and status , and Vonnegut said she expressed hatred " as corrosive as hydrochloric acid " for her husband . Edith Vonnegut forayed into writing and tried to sell short stories to magazines like Collier 's and The Saturday Evening Post with no success .
= = = High school and Cornell = = =
Vonnegut enrolled at Shortridge High School in Indianapolis in 1936 . While there , he played clarinet in the school band and became an editor for the Tuesday edition of the school newspaper , The Shortridge Echo . Vonnegut said his tenure with the Echo allowed him to write for a large audience — his fellow students — rather than for a teacher , an experience he said was " fun and easy " . " It just turned out that I could write better than a lot of other people " , Vonnegut observed . " Each person has something he can do easily and can 't imagine why everybody else has so much trouble doing it . " For him , that was writing .
After graduating from Shortridge in 1940 , Vonnegut enrolled at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York . He wanted to study the humanities or become an architect like his father , but his father and brother , a scientist , urged him to study a " useful " discipline . As a result , Vonnegut majored in biochemistry , but he had little proficiency in the area and was indifferent towards his studies . As his father had been a member at MIT , Vonnegut was entitled to join the Delta Upsilon fraternity , and did . He overcame stiff competition for a place at the university 's independent newspaper , The Cornell Daily Sun , first serving as a staff writer , then as an editor . By the end of his freshman year , he was writing a column titled " Innocents Abroad " which reused jokes from other publications . He later penned a piece , " Well All Right " , focusing on pacifism , a cause he strongly supported , arguing against U.S. intervention in World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
The attack on Pearl Harbor brought the U.S. into the war . Vonnegut was a member of Reserve Officers ' Training Corps , but poor grades and a satirical article in Cornell 's newspaper cost him his place there . He was placed on academic probation in May 1942 and dropped out the following January . No longer eligible for a student deferment , he faced likely conscription into United States Army . Instead of waiting to be drafted , he enlisted in the army and in March 1943 reported to Fort Bragg , North Carolina , for basic training . Vonnegut was trained to fire and maintain howitzers , a type of artillery , and later received instruction in mechanical engineering at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the University of Tennessee as part of the Army Specialized Training Program ( ASTP ) . In early 1944 , the ASTP was canceled due to the Army 's need for soldiers to support the D @-@ Day invasion , and Vonnegut was ordered to an infantry battalion at Camp Atterbury , south of Indianapolis in Edinburgh , Indiana , where he trained as a scout . He lived so close to his home that he was " able to sleep in [ his ] own bedroom and use the family car on weekends " . On May 14 , 1944 , Vonnegut returned home on leave for Mother 's Day weekend to discover that his mother had committed suicide the previous night by overdosing on sleeping pills .
Three months following his mother 's suicide , Vonnegut was sent to Europe as an intelligence scout with the ill fated 106th Infantry Division . In December 1944 , he fought in the Battle of the Bulge , the final German offensive of the war . During the battle , the 106th Infantry Division , which had only recently reached the front and was assigned to a " quiet " sector due to its inexperience , was overrun by advancing German armored forces . The result was that over 500 members of the division were killed and over 6 @,@ 000 were captured .
On December 22 , Vonnegut was captured with about fifty other American soldiers . Vonnegut was taken by boxcar to a prison camp south of Dresden , in Saxony . During the journey , the Royal Air Force bombed the prisoner trains and killed about 150 men . Vonnegut was sent to Dresden , the " first fancy city [ he had ] ever seen " . He lived in a slaughterhouse when he got to the city , and worked in a factory that made malt syrup for pregnant women . Vonnegut recalled the sirens going off whenever another city was bombed . The Germans did not expect Dresden to get bombed , Vonnegut said . " There were very few air @-@ raid shelters in town and no war industries , just cigarette factories , hospitals , clarinet factories . "
On February 13 , 1945 , Dresden became the target of Allied forces . In the hours and days that followed , the Allies engaged in a fierce firebombing of the city . The offensive subsided on February 15 , leaving tens of thousands dead . Vonnegut marveled at the level of both the destruction in Dresden and the secrecy that attended it . He had survived by taking refuge in a meat locker three stories underground . " It was cool there , with cadavers hanging all around " , Vonnegut said . " When we came up the city was gone ... They burnt the whole damn town down . " Vonnegut and other American prisoners were put to work immediately after the bombing , excavating bodies from the rubble . He described the activity as a " terribly elaborate Easter @-@ egg hunt " .
The American prisoners of war were evacuated on foot to the border of Saxony and Czechoslovakia after General George S. Patton captured Leipzig . With the captives abandoned by their guards , Vonnegut reached a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war repatriation camp in Le Havre , France , before the end of May 1945 , with the aid of the Soviets . He returned to the United States and continued to serve in the Army , stationed at Fort Riley , Kansas , typing discharge papers for other soldiers . Soon after he was awarded a Purple Heart about which he remarked " I myself was awarded my country 's second @-@ lowest decoration , a Purple Heart for frost @-@ bite . " He was discharged from the U.S. Army and returned to Indianapolis .
= = = Marriage and early employment = = =
After he returned to the United States , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox , his high school girlfriend and classmate since kindergarten , on September 1 , 1945 . The pair relocated to Chicago , where Vonnegut enrolled in the University of Chicago as a graduate anthropology student , courtesy of the G.I. Bill , and worked for the Chicago City News Bureau at night . Jane accepted a scholarship from the university to study Russian at a graduate level . Neither of them finished their degrees . Jane dropped out of the school after becoming pregnant with the couple 's first child , Mark ( born May 1947 ) , and after Kurt 's master 's thesis , which analyzed the Ghost Dance religious movement among Native Americans , was unanimously rejected , he left the university without his degree .
General Electric ( GE ) hired Vonnegut as a publicist for the company 's Schenectady , New York research laboratory . The job had required a college education , and , despite dropping out of his program , Vonnegut lied that he had a master 's in anthropology from the University of Chicago . Kurt 's brother Bernard had worked at GE since 1945 , contributing significantly to an iodine @-@ based cloud seeding project . In 1949 , Kurt and Jane had a daughter named Edith . Still working for GE , Vonnegut had his first piece , titled " Report on the Barnhouse Effect " , published in the February 11 , 1950 issue of Collier 's , for which he received $ 750 . Vonnegut wrote another story , after being coached by the fiction editor at Collier 's , Knox Burger , and again sold it to the magazine , this time for $ 950 . Burger suggested he quit GE , a course he had contemplated before . Vonnegut moved with his family to Cape Cod , Massachusetts to write full @-@ time , and left GE in 1951 .
= = = First novel = = =
On Cape Cod , Vonnegut made most of his money writing pieces for magazines such as Collier 's , The Saturday Evening Post , and Cosmopolitan . He also did a stint as an English teacher , wrote copy for an advertising agency , and opened the first American Saab dealership , which eventually failed . In 1952 , Vonnegut 's first novel , Player Piano , was published by Scribner 's . The novel has a post @-@ third world war setting , in which factory workers have been replaced by machines .
Player Piano draws upon Vonnegut 's experience as a young executive at GE . He satirizes the drive to climb the corporate ladder , one that in Player Piano is rapidly disappearing as automation increases , putting even executives out of work . His central character , Paul Proteus , has an ambitious wife , a backstabbing assistant , and a feeling of sympathy for the poor . Sent by his boss , Kroner , as a double agent among the poor ( who have all the material goods they want , but little sense of purpose ) , he leads them in a machine @-@ smashing , museum @-@ burning revolution . Player Piano expresses Vonnegut 's opposition to McCarthyism , something made clear when the Ghost Shirts , the revolutionary organization Paul penetrates and eventually leads , is referred to by one character as " fellow travelers " .
In Player Piano , Vonnegut originates many of the techniques he would use in his later works . The comic , heavy @-@ drinking Shah of Bratpuhr , an outsider to this dystopian corporate United States , is able to ask many questions that an insider would not think to ask , or would cause offense by doing so . For example , when taken to see the artificially intelligent supercomputer EPICAC , the Shah asks it " what are people for ? " and receives no answer . Speaking for Vonnegut , he dismisses it as a " false god " . This type of alien visitor would recur throughout Vonnegut 's literature .
The New York Times writer and critic Granville Hicks gave the novel a positive review , comparing it to Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World . Hicks called Vonnegut a " sharp @-@ eyed satirist " . None of the reviewers considered the novel particularly important . Several editions were printed — one by Bantam with the title Utopia 14 , and another by the Doubleday Science Fiction Book Club — whereby Vonnegut gained the repute of a science fiction writer , a genre held in disdain by writers at that time . He defended the genre , and deplored a perceived sentiment that " no one can simultaneously be a respectable writer and understand how a refrigerator works . "
= = = Struggling writer = = =
After Player Piano , Vonnegut continued to sell short stories to various magazines . In 1954 the couple had a third child , Nanette . With a growing family and no financially successful novels yet , Vonnegut 's short stories sustained the family . In 1958 , his sister , Alice , died of cancer two days after her husband , James Carmalt Adams , was killed in a train accident . Vonnegut adopted Alice 's three young sons — James , Steven , and Kurt , aged fourteen , eleven , and nine respectively .
Grappling with family challenges , Vonnegut continued to write , publishing novels vastly dissimilar in terms of plot . The Sirens of Titan ( 1959 ) features a Martian invasion of Earth , as experienced by a bored billionaire , Malachi Constant . He meets Winston Rumfoord , an aristocratic space traveler , who is virtually omniscient but stuck in a time warp that allows him to appear on Earth every 59 days . The billionaire learns that his actions and the events of all of history are determined by a race of robotic aliens from the planet Tralfamadore , who need a replacement part that can only be produced by an advanced civilization in order to repair their spaceship and return home — human history has been manipulated to produce it . Some human structures , such as the Kremlin , are coded signals from the aliens to their ship as to how long it may expect to wait for the repair to take place . Reviewers were uncertain what to think of the book , with one comparing it to Offenbach 's opera The Tales of Hoffmann .
Rumfoord , who is based on Franklin D. Roosevelt , also physically resembles the former president . Rumfoord is described , " he put a cigarette in a long , bone cigarette holder , lighted it . He thrust out his jaw . The cigarette holder pointed straight up . " William Rodney Allen , in his guide to Vonnegut 's works , stated that Rumfoord foreshadowed the fictional political figures who would play major roles in God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater and Jailbird .
Mother Night , published in 1961 , received little attention at the time of its publication . Howard W. Campbell Jr . , Vonnegut 's protagonist , is an American who goes to Nazi Germany during the war as a double agent for the U.S. Office of Strategic Services , and rises to the regime 's highest ranks as a radio propagandist . After the war , the spy agency refuses to clear his name and he is eventually imprisoned by the Israelis in the same cell block as Adolf Eichmann , and later commits suicide . Vonnegut wrote in a foreword to a later edition , " we are what we pretend to be , so we must be careful about what we pretend to be " . Literary critic Lawrence Berkove considered the novel , like Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , to illustrate the tendency for " impersonators to get carried away by their impersonations , to become what they impersonate and therefore to live in a world of illusion " .
Also published in 1961 was Vonnegut 's short story , " Harrison Bergeron " , set in a dystopic future where all are equal , even if that means disfiguring beautiful people and forcing the strong or intelligent to wear devices that negate their advantages . Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Harrison is a genius and athlete forced to wear record @-@ level " handicaps " and imprisoned for attempting to overthrow the government . He escapes to a television studio , tears away his handicaps , and frees a ballerina from her lead weights . As they dance , they are killed by the Handicapper General , Diana Moon Glampers . Vonnegut , in a later letter , suggested that " Harrison Bergeron " might have sprung from his envy and self @-@ pity as a high school misfit . In his 1976 biography of Vonnegut , Stanley Schatt suggested that the short story shows " in any leveling process , what really is lost , according to Vonnegut , is beauty , grace , and wisdom " . Darryl Hattenhauer , in his 1998 journal article on " Harrison Bergeron " , theorized that the story was a satire on American Cold War misunderstandings of communism and socialism .
With Cat 's Cradle ( 1963 ) , Allen wrote , " Vonnegut hit full stride for the first time " . The narrator , John , intends to write of Dr. Felix Hoenikker , one of the fictional fathers of the atomic bomb , seeking to cover the scientist 's human side . Hoenikker , in addition to the bomb , has developed another threat to mankind , ice @-@ 9 , solid water stable at room temperature , and if a particle of it is dropped in water , all of it becomes ice @-@ 9 . Much of the second half of the book is spent on the fictional Caribbean island of San Lorenzo , where John explores a religion called Bokononism , whose holy books ( excerpts from which are quoted ) , give the novel the moral core science does not supply . After the oceans are converted to ice @-@ 9 , wiping out most of humankind , John wanders the frozen surface , seeking to have himself and his story survive .
Vonnegut based the title character of God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1964 ) , on an accountant he knew on Cape Cod , who specialized in clients in trouble and often had to comfort them . Eliot Rosewater , the wealthy son of a Republican senator , seeks to atone for his wartime shooting of noncombatant firefighters by serving in a volunteer fire department , and by giving away money to those in trouble or need . Stress from a battle for control of his charitable foundation pushes him over the edge , and he is placed in a mental hospital by a dishonest lawyer . He recovers , and ends the financial battle by declaring the children of his county to be his heirs . Allen deemed God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater more " a cry from the heart than a novel under its author 's full intellectual control " , that reflected family and emotional stresses Vonnegut was going through at the time .
= = = Slaughterhouse @-@ Five = = =
After spending much of two years at the writer 's workshop at the University of Iowa , teaching one course each term , Vonnegut was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for research in Germany . By the time he won it , in March 1967 , he was becoming a well @-@ known writer . He used the funds to travel in Eastern Europe , including to Dresden , where he found many prominent buildings still in ruins . At the time of the bombing , Vonnegut had not appreciated the sheer scale of destruction in Dresden ; his enlightenment came only slowly as information dribbled out , and based on early figures came to believe that 135 @,@ 000 had died there .
Vonnegut had been writing about his war experiences at Dresden ever since he returned from the war , but had never been able to write anything acceptable to himself or his publishers — Chapter 1 of Slaughterhouse @-@ Five tells of his difficulties . Released in 1969 , the novel rocketed Vonnegut to fame . It tells of the life of Billy Pilgrim , who like Vonnegut was born in 1922 and survives the bombing of Dresden . The story is told in a non @-@ linear fashion , with many of the story 's climaxes — Billy 's death in 1976 , his kidnapping by aliens from the planet Tralfamadore nine years earlier , and the execution of Billy 's friend Edgar Derby in the ashes of Dresden for stealing a teapot — disclosed in the story 's first pages . In 1970 , he was also a correspondent in Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War . Slaughterhouse @-@ Five received generally positive reviews , with Michael Crichton writing in The New Republic , " he writes about the most excruciatingly painful things . His novels have attacked our deepest fears of automation and the bomb , our deepest political guilts , our fiercest hatreds and loves . No one else writes books on these subjects ; they are inaccessible to normal novelists . " The book went immediately to the top of The New York Times Best Seller list . Vonnegut 's earlier works had appealed strongly to many college students , and the antiwar message of Slaughterhouse Five resonated with a generation marked by the Vietnam War . He later stated that the loss of confidence in government that Vietnam caused finally allowed for an honest conversation regarding events like Dresden .
= = = Later career and events = = =
After Slaughterhouse @-@ Five was published , Vonnegut embraced the fame and financial security that attended its release . He was hailed as a hero of the burgeoning anti @-@ war movement in the United States , was invited to speak at numerous rallies , and gave college commencement addresses around the country . In addition to lecturing on creative writing at Harvard University , Vonnegut taught at the City University of New York , where he was dubbed a Distinguished Professor of English Prose . He was later elected vice president of the National Institute of Arts and Letters , and given honorary degrees by , among others , Indiana University and Bennington College . Vonnegut also wrote a play called Happy Birthday , Wanda June , which opened on October 7 , 1970 at New York 's Theatre de Lys . Receiving mixed reviews , it closed on March 14 , 1971 . In 1972 , Universal Pictures adapted Slaughterhouse @-@ Five into a film which the author said was " flawless " .
Meanwhile , Vonnegut 's personal life was disintegrating . His wife Jane had embraced Christianity , which was contrary to Vonnegut 's atheistic beliefs , and with five of their six children having left home , Vonnegut said the two were forced to find " other sorts of seemingly important work to do . " The couple battled over their differing beliefs until Vonnegut moved from their Cape Cod home to New York in 1971 . Vonnegut called the disagreements " painful " , and said the resulting split was a " terrible , unavoidable accident that we were ill @-@ equipped to understand . " The couple divorced and they remained friends until Jane 's death in late 1986 . Beyond his marriage , he was deeply affected when his son Mark suffered a mental breakdown in 1972 , which exacerbated Vonnegut 's chronic depression , and led him to take Ritalin . When he stopped taking the drug in the mid @-@ 1970s , he began to see a psychologist weekly .
Vonnegut 's difficulties materialized in numerous ways ; most distinctly though , was the painfully slow progress he was making on his next novel , the darkly comical Breakfast of Champions . In 1971 , Vonnegut stopped writing the novel altogether . When it was finally released in 1973 , it was panned critically . In Thomas S. Hischak 's book American Literature on Stage and Screen , Breakfast of Champions was called " funny and outlandish " , but reviewers noted that it " lacks substance and seems to be an exercise in literary playfulness . " Vonnegut 's 1976 novel Slapstick , which meditates on the relationship between him and his sister ( Alice ) , met a similar fate . In The New York Times 's review of Slapstick , Christopher Lehmann @-@ Haupt said Vonnegut " seems to be putting less effort into [ storytelling ] than ever before " , and that " it still seems as if he has given up storytelling after all . " At times , Vonnegut was disgruntled by the personal nature of his detractors ' complaints .
In 1979 , Vonnegut married Jill Krementz , a photographer whom he met while she was working on a series about writers in the early 1970s . With Jill , he adopted a daughter , Lily , when the baby was three days old . In subsequent years , his popularity resurged as he published several satirical books , including Jailbird ( 1979 ) , Deadeye Dick ( 1982 ) , Galápagos ( 1985 ) , Bluebeard ( 1987 ) , and Hocus Pocus ( 1990 ) . In 1986 , Vonnegut was seen by a younger generation when he played himself in Rodney Dangerfield 's film Back to School . The last of Vonnegut 's fourteen novels , Timequake ( 1997 ) , was , as University of Detroit history professor and Vonnegut biographer Gregory Sumner said , " a reflection of an aging man facing mortality and testimony to an embattled faith in the resilience of human awareness and agency . " Vonnegut 's final book , a collection of essays entitled A Man Without a Country ( 2005 ) , became a best @-@ seller .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In a 2006 Rolling Stone interview , Vonnegut sardonically stated that he would sue the Brown & Williamson tobacco company , the maker of the Pall Mall @-@ branded cigarettes he had been smoking since he was twelve or fourteen years old , for false advertising . " And do you know why ? " he said . " Because I 'm 83 years old . The lying bastards ! On the package Brown & Williamson promised to kill me . " He died on the night of April 11 , 2007 in Manhattan , as a result of brain injuries incurred several weeks prior from a fall at his New York brownstone home . His death was reported by his wife Jill . Vonnegut was 84 years old . At the time of his death , Vonnegut had written fourteen novels , three short story collections , five plays and five non @-@ fiction books . A book composed of Vonnegut 's unpublished pieces , Armageddon in Retrospect , was compiled and posthumously published by Vonnegut 's son Mark in 2008 .
When asked about the impact Vonnegut had on his work , author Josip Novakovich stated that he has " much to learn from Vonnegut — how to compress things and yet not compromise them , how to digress into history , quote from various historical accounts , and not stifle the narrative . The ease with which he writes is sheerly masterly , Mozartian . " Los Angeles Times columnist Gregory Rodriguez said that the author will " rightly be remembered as a darkly humorous social critic and the premier novelist of the counterculture " , and The New York Times 's Dinitia Smith dubbed Vonnegut the " counterculture 's novelist . "
Kurt Vonnegut has inspired numerous posthumous tributes and works . In 2008 , the Kurt Vonnegut Society was established , and in November 2010 , the Kurt Vonnegut Memorial Library was opened in Vonnegut 's hometown of Indianapolis . The Library of America published a compendium of Vonnegut 's compositions between 1963 and 1973 the following April , and another compendium of his earlier works in 2012 . Late 2011 saw the release of two Vonnegut biographies , Gregory Sumner 's Unstuck in Time and Charles J. Shields 's And So It Goes . Shields 's biography of Vonnegut created some controversy . According to The Guardian , the book portrays Vonnegut as distant , cruel and nasty . " Cruel , nasty and scary are the adjectives commonly used to describe him by the friends , colleagues , and relatives Shields quotes " , said The Daily Beast 's Wendy Smith . " Towards the end he was very feeble , very depressed and almost morose " , said Jerome Klinkowitz of the University of Northern Iowa , who has examined Vonnegut in depth .
Vonnegut 's works have evoked ire on several occasions . His most prominent novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five , has been objected to or removed at various institutions in at least eighteen instances . In the case of Island Trees School District v. Pico , the United States Supreme Court ruled that a school district 's ban on Slaughterhouse @-@ Five — which the board had called " anti @-@ American , anti @-@ Christian , anti @-@ Semitic , and just plain filthy " — and eight other novels was unconstitutional . When a school board in Republic , Missouri decided to withdraw Vonnegut 's novel from its libraries , the Kurt Vonnegut Memorial Library offered a free copy to all the students of the district .
Tally , writing in 2013 , suggests that Vonnegut has only recently become the subject of serious study rather than fan adulation , and much is yet to be written about him . " The time for scholars to say ' Here 's why Vonnegut is worth reading ' has definitively ended , thank goodness . We know he 's worth reading . Now tell us things we don 't know . " Todd F. Davis notes that Vonnegut 's work is kept alive by his loyal readers , who have " significant influence as they continue to purchase Vonnegut 's work , passing it on to subsequent generations and keeping his entire canon in print — an impressive list of more than twenty books that [ Dell Publishing ] has continued to refurbish and hawk with new cover designs . " Donald E. Morse notes that Vonnegut , " is now firmly , if somewhat controversially , ensconced in the American and world literary canon as well as in high school , college and graduate curricula " . Tally writes of Vonnegut 's work :
Vonnegut 's 14 novels , while each does its own thing , together are nevertheless experiments in the same overall project . Experimenting with the form of the American novel itself , Vonnegut engages in a broadly modernist attempt to apprehend and depict the fragmented , unstable , and distressing bizarreries of postmodern American experience ... That he does not actually succeed in representing the shifting multiplicities of that social experience is beside the point . What matters is the attempt , and the recognition that ... we must try to map this unstable and perilous terrain , even if we know in advance that our efforts are doomed .
The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Vonnegut posthumously in 2015 .
= = Views = =
= = = War = = =
In 2011 , NPR wrote , " Kurt Vonnegut 's blend of anti @-@ war sentiment and satire made him one of the most popular writers of the 1960s . " Vonnegut stated in a 1987 interview that , " my own feeling is that civilization ended in World War I , and we 're still trying to recover from that " , and that he wanted to write war @-@ focused works without glamorizing war itself . Vonnegut had not intended to publish again , but his anger against the George W. Bush administration led him to write A Man Without a Country .
Slaughterhouse @-@ Five is the Vonnegut novel best known for its antiwar themes , but the author expressed his beliefs in ways beyond the depiction of the destruction of Dresden . He has one character , Mary O 'Hare , opine that " wars were partly encouraged by books and movies " , made by " Frank Sinatra or John Wayne or some of those other glamorous , war @-@ loving , dirty old men " . Vonnegut made a number of comparisons between Dresden and the bombing of Hiroshima in Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and wrote in Palm Sunday ( 1991 ) that " I learned how vile that religion of mine could be when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima " .
Nuclear war , or at least deployed nuclear arms , is mentioned in almost all of Vonnegut 's novels . In Player Piano , the computer EPICAC is given control of the nuclear arsenal , and is charged with deciding whether to use high @-@ explosive or nuclear arms . In Cat 's Cradle , John 's original purpose in setting pen to paper is to write an account of what prominent Americans had been doing as Hiroshima was bombed .
= = = Religion = = =
Kurt Vonnegut was an atheist and a humanist , serving as the honorary president of the American Humanist Association . In an interview for Playboy , he stated that his forebears who came to the United States did not believe in God , and he learned his atheism from his parents . Like his great @-@ grandfather Clemens , Vonnegut was a freethinker . Vonnegut went to a Unitarian church several times , but with little consistency . In his autobiographical work Palm Sunday , Vonnegut says he is a " Christian worshipping agnostic . " He also talked about Jesus ' Sermon on the Mount , and the Beatitudes , and made these biblical ideologies part of his own doctrine . Vonnegut laced a number of his speeches with religion @-@ focused rhetoric , and was prone to using such expressions as " God forbid " and " thank God " .
Vonnegut would often talk about religion , in his novels and elsewhere . In God Bless You , Dr. Kevorkian , Vonnegut goes to Heaven after he is euthanized by Dr. Jack Kevorkian . Once in Heaven , Vonnegut interviews twenty @-@ one deceased celebrities , including Isaac Asimov , William Shakespeare , and Kilgore Trout — the last a fictional character from several of his novels . Vonnegut 's works are filled with characters founding new faiths , and religion often serves as a major plot device , for example in Player Piano , The Sirens of Titan and Cat 's Cradle . In The Sirens of Titan , Rumfoord proclaims The Church of God the Utterly Indifferent . Slaughterhouse @-@ Five sees Billy Pilgrim , lacking religion himself , nevertheless become a chaplain 's assistant in the military and display a large crucifix on his bedroom wall . In Cat 's Cradle , Vonnegut invented the religion of Bokononism .
Vonnegut had a deep dislike for the Christian religion , often reminding his readers of the bloody history of the Crusades and other religion @-@ inspired violence . He despised the televangelists of the late 20th century , feeling that their thinking was narrow @-@ minded . Realizing that humans need a moral code by which to live , he greatly admired Christ 's Sermon on the Mount , and there are a string of references to it across his works . In Palm Sunday , he writes , " The Sermon on the Mount suggests a mercifulness that can never waver or fade . " Vonnegut , in his 1991 book Fates Worse than Death , suggests that during the Reagan administration , " anything that sounded like the Sermon on the Mount was socialistic or communistic , and therefore anti @-@ American " . Vonnegut did not however disdain those who seek the comfort of religion , hailing church associations as a type of extended family .
= = = Politics = = =
Vonnegut did not particularly sympathize with liberalism or conservatism , and mused on the specious simplicity of American politics . " If you want to take my guns away from me , and you 're all for murdering fetuses , and love it when homosexuals marry each other [ ... ] you 're a liberal . If you are against those perversions and for the rich , you 're a conservative . What could be simpler ? " Regarding political parties , Vonnegut said , " The two real political parties in America are the Winners and the Losers . The people don ’ t acknowledge this . They claim membership in two imaginary parties , the Republicans and the Democrats , instead . "
Vonnegut disregarded more mainstream political ideologies in favor of socialism , which he thought could provide a valuable substitute for what he saw as social Darwinism and a spirit of " survival of the fittest " in American society , believing that " socialism would be a good for the common man " . Vonnegut would often return to a quote by socialist and five @-@ time presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs , who went to prison for his beliefs : " As long as there is a lower class , I am in it . As long as there is a criminal element , I 'm of it . As long as there is a soul in prison , I am not free . " Vonnegut expressed disappointment that communism and socialism seemed to be unsavory topics to the average American , and believed that they may offer beneficial substitutes to contemporary social and economic systems .
= = Writing = =
= = = Influences = = =
Vonnegut 's writing was inspired by an eclectic mix of sources . When he was younger , Vonnegut stated that he read works of pulp fiction , science fiction , fantasy , and action @-@ adventure . He also read the Classics , like those of Aristophanes . Aristophanes , like Vonnegut , wrote humorous critiques of contemporary society . Vonnegut 's life and work also share similarities with that of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn writer Mark Twain . Both shared pessimistic outlooks on humanity , and a skeptical take on religion , and , as Vonnegut put it , were both " associated with the enemy in a major war " , as Twain briefly enlisted in the South 's cause during the American Civil War , and Vonnegut 's German name and ancestry connected him with the United States ' enemy in both world wars .
Vonnegut called George Orwell his favorite writer , and admitted that he tried to emulate Orwell . " I like his concern for the poor , I like his socialism , I like his simplicity " , Vonnegut said . Vonnegut also said that Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , and Brave New World by Aldous Huxley , heavily influenced his debut novel , Player Piano , in 1952 . Vonnegut commented that Robert Louis Stevenson 's stories were emblems of thoughtfully put together works that he tried to mimic in his own compositions . Vonnegut also hailed playwright and socialist George Bernard Shaw as " a hero of [ his ] " , and an " enormous influence . " Within his own family , Vonnegut stated that his mother , Edith , had the greatest influence on him . " [ M ] y mother thought she might make a new fortune by writing for the slick magazines . She took short @-@ story courses at night . She studied magazines the way gamblers study racing forms . "
Early on in his career , Vonnegut decided to model his style after Henry David Thoreau , who wrote as if from the perspective of a child , allowing Thoreau 's works to be more widely comprehensible . Using a youthful narrative voice allowed Vonnegut to deliver concepts in a modest and straightforward way . Other influences on Vonnegut include The War of the Worlds author H. G. Wells , and satirist Jonathan Swift . Vonnegut credited newspaper magnate H. L. Mencken for inspiring him to become a journalist .
= = = Style and technique = = =
In his book Popular Contemporary Writers , Michael D. Sharp describes Vonnegut 's linguistic style as straightforward ; his sentences concise , his language simple , his paragraphs brief , and his ordinary tone conversational . Vonnegut uses this style to convey normally complex subject matter in a way that is intelligible to a large audience . He credited his time as a journalist for his ability , pointing to his work with the Chicago City News Bureau , which required him to convey stories in telephone conversations . Vonnegut 's compositions are also laced with distinct references to his own life , notably in Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and Slapstick .
Vonnegut believed that ideas , and the convincing communication of those ideas to the reader , were vital to literary art . He did not always sugarcoat his points : much of Player Piano leads up to the moment when Paul , on trial and hooked up to a lie detector , is asked to tell a falsehood , and states , " every new piece of scientific knowledge is a good thing for humanity " . Robert T. Tally Jr . , in his volume on Vonnegut 's novels , wrote , " rather than tearing down and destroying the icons of twentieth @-@ century , middle @-@ class American life , Vonnegut gently reveals their basic flimsiness . " Vonnegut did not simply propose utopian solutions to the ills of American society , but showed how such schemes would not allow ordinary people to live lives free from want and anxiety . The large artificial families that the U.S. population is formed into in Slapstick soon serve as an excuse for tribalism , with people giving no help to those not part of their group , and with the extended family 's place in the social hierarchy becoming vital .
In the introduction to their essay " Kurt Vonnegut and Humor " , Tally and Peter C. Kunze suggest that Vonnegut was not a " black humorist " , but a " frustrated idealist " who used " comic parables " to teach the reader absurd , bitter or hopeless truths , with his grim witticisms serving to make the reader laugh rather than cry . " Vonnegut makes sense through humor , which is , in the author 's view , as valid a means of mapping this crazy world as any other strategies . " Vonnegut resented being called a black humorist , feeling that , as with many literary labels , it allows readers to disregard aspects of a writer 's work that do not fit the label 's stereotype .
Vonnegut 's works have , at various times , been labeled science fiction , satire and postmodern . He also resisted such labels , but his works do contain common tropes that are often associated with those genres . In several of his books , Vonnegut imagines alien societies and civilizations , as is common in works of science fiction , but unlike conventional science fiction , Vonnegut does this to emphasize or exaggerate absurdities and idiosyncrasies in our own world . Furthermore , Vonnegut often humorizes the problems that plague societies , as is done in satirical works . However , literary theorist Robert Scholes noted in Fabulation and Metafiction that Vonnegut " reject [ s ] the traditional satirist 's faith in the efficacy of satire as a reforming instrument . [ He has ] a more subtle faith in the humanizing value of laughter . "
Examples of postmodernism may also be found in Vonnegut 's works . Postmodernism often entails a response to the theory that the truths of the world will be discovered through science . Postmodernists contend that truth is subjective , rather than objective , as it is biased towards each individual 's beliefs and outlook on the world . They often use unreliable , first @-@ person narration , and narrative fragmentation . One critic has argued that Vonnegut ’ s most famous novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five , features a so @-@ called metafictional , Janus @-@ headed outlook insofar as the novel seeks to represent actual historical events while , at the same time , problematizing the very notion of doing exactly that at the same time . While Vonnegut does use these elements , e.g. fragmentation and metafictional elements , in some of his works , he more distinctly focuses on the peril posed by individuals who find subjective truths , mistake them for objective truths , then proceed to impose these truths on others .
= = = Themes = = =
Vonnegut was a vocal critic of the society in which he lived , and this was reflected in his writings . Several key social themes recur in Vonnegut 's works , such as wealth , the lack of it , and its unequal distribution among a society . In The Sirens of Titan , the novel 's protagonist , Malachi Constant , is exiled to one of Saturn 's moons , Titan , as a result of his vast wealth , which has made him arrogant and wayward . In God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater , readers may find it difficult to determine whether the rich or the poor are in worse circumstances as the lives of both group 's members are ruled by their wealth or their poverty . Further , in Hocus Pocus , the protagonist is named Eugene Debs Hartke , a homage to the famed socialist Eugene V. Debs and Vonnegut 's socialist views . In Kurt Vonnegut : A Critical Companion , Thomas F. Marvin states : " Vonnegut points out that , left unchecked , capitalism will erode the democratic foundations of the United States . " Marvin suggests that Vonnegut 's works demonstrate what happens when a " hereditary aristocracy " develops , where wealth is inherited along familial lines : the ability of poor Americans to overcome their situations is greatly or completely diminished . Vonnegut also often laments social Darwinism , and a " survival of the fittest " view of society . He points out that social Darwinism leads to a society that condemns its poor for their own misfortune , and fails to help them out of their poverty because " they deserve their fate " . Vonnegut also confronts the idea of free will in a number of his pieces . In Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and Timequake the characters have no choice in what they do ; in Breakfast of Champions , a character believes that he has everyone 's free will ; and in Cat 's Cradle , Bokononism views free will as heretical .
The majority of Vonnegut 's characters are estranged from their actual families and seek to build replacement or extended families . For example , the engineers in Player Piano called their manager 's spouse " Mom " . In Cat 's Cradle , Vonnegut devises two separate methods for loneliness to be combated : A " karass " , which is a group of individuals appointed by God to do his will , and a " granfalloon " , defined by Marvin as a " meaningless association of people , such as a fraternal group or a nation " . Similarly , in Slapstick , the U.S. government codifies that all Americans are a part of large extended families .
Fear of the loss of one 's purpose in life is a theme in Vonnegut 's works . The Great Depression forced Vonnegut to witness the devastation many people felt when they lost their jobs , and while at General Electric , Vonnegut witnessed machines being built to take the place of human labor . He confronts these things in his works through references to the growing use of automation and its effects on human society . This is most starkly represented in his first novel , Player Piano , where many Americans are left purposeless and unable to find work as machines replace human workers . Loss of purpose is also depicted in Galápagos , where a florist rages at her spouse for creating a robot able to do her job , and in Timequake , where an architect kills himself when replaced by computer software .
Suicide by fire is another common theme in Vonnegut 's works ; the author often returns to the theory that " many people are not fond of life . " He uses this as an explanation for why humans have so severely damaged their environments , and made devices such as nuclear weapons that can make their creators extinct . In Deadeye Dick , Vonnegut features the neutron bomb , designed to kill people , but leave buildings and structures untouched . He also uses this theme to demonstrate the recklessness of those who put powerful , apocalypse @-@ inducing devices at the disposal of politicians .
" What is the point of life ? " is a question Vonnegut often pondered in his works . When one of Vonnegut 's characters , Kilgore Trout , finds the question " What is the purpose of life ? " written in a bathroom , his response is , " To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe , you fool . " Trout 's theory is curious seeing that Vonnegut was an atheist , and thus for him , there is no Creator to report back to . Marvin comments that , " [ a ] s Trout chronicles one meaningless life after another , readers are left to wonder how a compassionate creator could stand by and do nothing while such reports come in . " In the epigraph to Bluebeard , Vonnegut quotes his son Mark , and gives an answer to what he believes is the meaning of life : " We are here to help each other get through this thing , whatever it is . "
= = Works = =
The following is an account of Vonnegut 's major works . Unless otherwise cited , this list is taken from Thomas F. Marvin 's 2002 book Kurt Vonnegut : A Critical Companion ( date in brackets is the date the work was first published ) :
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= Ryan Johansen =
Ryan Johansen ( born July 31 , 1992 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre currently playing for the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Growing up , he played minor hockey in the Greater Vancouver area until joining the junior ranks with the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) for one season . In 2009 – 10 , he moved to the major junior level with the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . After his first WHL season , he was selected fourth overall by the Blue Jackets in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft . Internationally , he has competed for the Canadian national junior team at the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , where he earned a silver medal and was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . In 2015 , he participated in the 2015 NHL Skills Competition and was named the 2015 NHL All Star Game MVP .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Johansen was drafted into the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) 150th overall by the Portland Winterhawks in the 2007 Bantam Draft . Having been offered an athletic scholarship to play with Northeastern University , he opted to play for the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) in 2008 – 09 to protect his eligibility for the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) . He appeared in 42 games for the Vees as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , scoring five goals and 12 assists .
Convinced of his ability , the Winterhawks persuaded Johansen to forego university and join their club for the 2009 – 10 WHL season . In Portland , he joined a line with fellow 2010 NHL Entry Draft prospects Nino Niederreiter and Brad Ross . He finished the year with 25 goals and 69 points in 71 games , second among league rookies behind Kevin Connauton and second in team scoring , behind Chris Francis . Helping the Winterhawks make the playoffs one year after finishing last in the WHL , they advanced to the second round . Johansen added 18 points in 13 games , ninth in league scoring and first among rookies , despite playing in only two of four playoff rounds .
Johansen rapidly climbed prospect charts for the 2010 NHL Draft , starting the year as a potential second round selection , before rising to 16th among North American skaters when the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ( CSB ) released its mid @-@ season ranking . Johansen 's coach with Penticton noted that , as one of the younger players of his draft class , his skill was often overlooked . NHL scouts praised his speed , playmaking ability and vision on the ice but believed he needed to show more consistency and physicality . He has been compared to Ottawa Senators centre Jason Spezza , while Johansen has said he tries to model his game after San Jose Sharks centre Joe Thornton . He finished the season as the tenth ranked skater according to Central Scouting and was projected to be a top 20 pick , perhaps as high as top 10 . With the fourth overall pick in the 2010 NHL Draft , Johansen was chosen by the Columbus Blue Jackets .
A couple of months after his draft , Johansen signed with Columbus to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract on September 9 , 2010 . With a base salary of $ 900 @,@ 000 , the deal could reach $ 1 @.@ 975 million per year if he achieves all his bonus incentives . Attending his first NHL training camp that month , he did not make the Blue Jackets roster and was returned to Portland on October 2 for another year of junior hockey . Back in the WHL , Johansen was chosen to represent the league at the 2010 Subway Super Series , a six @-@ game exhibition tournament featuring all @-@ stars from the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) against Russian junior players . He completed the 2010 – 11 season improving to 92 points ( 40 goals and 52 assists ) in 63 games , ranking seventh among league scorers .
= = = = Professional = = = =
Joining the Blue Jackets ' training camp for a second year , Johansen made the opening lineup for the 2011 – 12 season . He made his NHL debut on October 7 , 2011 , registering 8 minutes and 46 seconds of ice time in a 3 – 2 loss to the Nashville Predators . He registered his first NHL point , an assist on a Kris Russell goal , in a 4 – 3 loss to the Ottawa Senators on October 22 . Three days later , he scored his first NHL goal against Ty Conklin of the Detroit Red Wings . Banking the puck off of Conklin 's skate from behind the goal line , the milestone came on the power play and was the game @-@ winner . He also added an assist to help Columbus to their first win of the season , a 4 – 1 victory . After playing in his ninth game of the season , having recorded two goals and two assists in that span , Johansen was notified by Blue Jackets head coach Scott Arniel that he would remain with the team and not be returned to junior .
Due to the NHL 's decision to lock out the players at the start of the 2012 – 13 season until a new collective bargaining agreement could be reached , Johansen was reassigned to the Blue Jackets ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . On February 24 , 2013 , Johansen was re @-@ called by the Blue Jackets for the remainder of the season , which began on January 19 after an agreement was reached . In the 2013 – 14 season , Johansen had a breakout year , scoring 33 goals and 30 assists for a total of 63 points , a career high . He is the third Blue Jacket in franchise history to post 30 goals or more in one season .
During the 2015 – 16 season , on January 6 , 2016 , Johansen was traded by the Blue Jackets to the Nashville Predators in exchange for Seth Jones .
= = International play = =
Johansen was invited to take part in the Canadian national junior team 's selection camp in August and December 2011 . He was later named to the squad , competing in the 2011 IIHF World U20 Championship , held in Buffalo , New York . Making his international debut against Russia , he scored his first goal for Canada in a 5 – 3 win . In the quarterfinal against Switzerland , he was named the player of the game , having scored his second goal of the tournament . He scored again in the semifinal against the United States to help Canada advance to the gold medal game , where they were defeated 5 – 3 by Russia . Johansen finished with three goals and nine points , third in team scoring behind Brayden Schenn and Ryan Ellis , and was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team .
= = Personal life = =
Johansen was born in Vancouver , British Columbia , to Randall and Rosalind Johansen . He has a younger brother , Lucas , who plays for the Kelowna Rockets in the Western Hockey League . He played his first years of minor hockey with the Vancouver Thunderbirds organization until his family moved to the suburb of Port Moody . The relocation meant giving up playing for triple @-@ A teams in Vancouver and diminished exposure to scouts . Nonetheless , he played in Port Moody at the double @-@ A level through to bantam ( age 13 – 14 level ) , including a peewee ( age 11 – 12 ) provincial championship . In 2007 – 08 , he played with the Vancouver North East Chiefs of the British Columbia Major Midget League .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Wings for My Flight =
Wings for My Flight : The Peregrine Falcons of Chimney Rock is a 1991 book by American wildlife biologist Marcy Cottrell Houle . The book focuses on Houle 's efforts to save the then @-@ endangered peregrine falcons from extinction . By 1975 , peregrine falcons had been reduced to 324 pairs in North America , primarily as a result of DDT , a widely used pesticide . DDT inhibited the production of calcium and caused eggs to thin and break during incubation . Recovery efforts for the peregrine have been successful : DDT was banned by the U.S. in 1972 and efforts to breed and train peregrine falcons in captivity to later release to the wild were effective . In 1999 , the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list .
After graduating from Colorado College in the 1970s , Houle was employed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife and assigned to Chimney Rock , a prominent rock formation where one of the last pairs of peregrine falcons had been discovered . Wings for My Flight documents Houle 's observations of the Chimney Rock peregrine falcons , as well as the Chimney Rock community , in the summer of 1975 . To protect the falcons , Houle had to halt a million @-@ dollar project turn ancient Anasazi ruins in the area into a tourist attraction and faced opposition and harassment by the Chimney Rock community as a result . The community eventually showed concern for Houle , however , after her trailer was broken into and vandalized .
Wings for My Flight was originally published in hardcover by Addison @-@ Wesley in 1991 . The book was republished in 1999 by Pruett Publishing with a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle . The book was updated again in 2014 and republished by the University of New Mexico Press with photographs and a preface by Houle touching upon the recovery of the peregrine falcon . In May 1996 , the children 's magazine Cricket published a short story written by Houle titled " Albert " , adapted from Wings for My Flight . Reception to Wings for My Flight has generally been positive . In 1991 , the book co @-@ received the Oregon Book Award , which promotes literature by Oregon @-@ based authors . Wings for My Flight was also awarded a Christopher Award for books in 1992 , which recognizes works that " affirm the highest values of the human spirit " . The Library Journal described it as " well @-@ crafted and compelling " , while the Los Angeles Times referred to it as " heartfelt " , although " naive and overdrawn at times " .
= = Background = =
Marcy Cottrell Houle wrote Wings for My Flight in the several decades following a major decline in the peregrine falcon population , which occurred between 1950 and 1970 . During the 1930s and 1940s , an estimated 1000 breeding pairs of peregrine falcons inhabited the western United States and Mexico , coupled with 500 pairs in the eastern U.S. By the 1970s , no peregrine falcons were discovered east of the Rocky Mountains , and in the west , peregrine falcon populations had declined by 80 to 90 percent . By 1975 , the year in which the events of Wings for My Flight take place , only 324 pairs of peregrine falcons were known to reside in North America , with only seven pairs in the Rocky Mountains region , and one at Chimney Rock National Monument in southwestern Colorado .
During the peregrine falcon decline , Houle studied biology at Colorado College in Colorado Springs . The institution 's block scheduling system meant that Houle had fewer classes each day , allowing her to travel frequently to experience various ecosystems in addition to her academic studies . Upon leaving college , Houle began working for the Colorado Division of Wildlife , and her first field assignment was to observe peregrine falcon activity along the Rocky Mountains for four summers , two of which were spent at Chimney Rock . Following her experience with the peregrine falcons , Houle had to decide whether to continue pursuing wildlife biology or to commit instead to her passion of writing . Wings for My Flight combined both of Houle 's interests ; it recounted her observations of the peregrines as well as her interaction with the community at Chimney Rock during her first summer there .
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species primarily due to the use of organochlorine pesticides , especially DDT , the breakdown of which lowered estrogen levels in the female peregrine bloodstream and inhibited the production of calcium , causing eggs to grow thinner by up to 20 percent . Since peregrine falcons lay their eggs on rocky ledges rather than nests , the thinned shells break under the stress of both the rocky ledge and the weight of the parents during incubation . Following 1970 , recovery efforts for the peregrine falcon population have been successful . The agricultural use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1972 , and recovery teams in the eastern United States were successful in breeding and training peregrines in captivity to later release to the wild , a procedure called hacking . In 1999 , the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list .
= = Content summary = =
The events of Wings for My Flight take place throughout 1975 . Marcy Cottrell Houle ( then " Marcy Cottrell " ) , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old wildlife biologist , is sent by her supervisor , Barry Layne , to the U.S. Forest Service office near Chimney Rock in Colorado , where a pair of peregrine falcons reside . The pair is one of only seven pairs remaining in the Rocky Mountains region . Mr. Preston Fitch , an administrator involved with the peregrine falcon project , criticizes Houle for her lack of experience in the field upon meeting her . Nevertheless , Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to Chimney Rock . He explains that the Forest Service spent more than half a million dollars building a road which led to Chimney Rock ; work on the road had to be discontinued upon discovery of the falcons . Further , the Chimney Rock area is home to 250 Anasazi ruins dated between 900 and 1100 . The Chimney Rock community had been planning a million @-@ dollar development to build a tourist attraction for the ruins . Houle spends several weeks with the peregrine falcons , recording her observations in her notebook . In spite of her initial attempt at maintaining an impersonal relationship with the falcons , Houle names the female peregrine " Jenny " and the male " King Arthur " . In the middle of June , after Houle had spent several days of making field observations alone and with limited equipment , Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to her teammate , Alex Porter . He also provides them with a garbage truck for transportation .
Meanwhile , Houle faces indignation and harassment from the residents of the Chimney Rock community , who view her presence as impeding the progress of the construction of a tourist attraction for the Anasazi ruins . At one point , Maurice Richards , a high @-@ ranking official of the Colorado Division of Wildlife , attempts to host a picnic on an area restricted for the peregrines . When Houle forces him to leave , Richards threatens to fire her . Later , the female peregrine , Jenny , disappears and never returns . A local resident claims she was shot and killed by a member of the Chimney Rock community.As a result of Jenny 's disappearance , King Arthur spends several days ignoring the hatchlings . After this period of " grief " , King Arthur begins to raise the young falcons singlehandedly . Following this , Houle discovers that of five nestlings hatched by the pair , only two received enough food to survive . Houle names the surviving pair of nestlings " Bold Leopold " and " Albert " after their distinct personalities ; Leopold was more courageous and was always the first to try new things , such as flying , whereas Albert was more hesitant . In spite of all the attempts to intimidate her , the people of Chimney Rock eventually sympathize with Houle after her trailer , containing valuable field equipment as well as personal items , is broken into and vandalized .
= = Publication history = =
Wings for My Flight was first published in 1991 in hardcover by Addison @-@ Wesley . Houle later wrote a short story titled " Albert " that was adapted from Wings for My Flight , focusing on Albert and Leopold 's first attempts at flying . The story was published in the May 1996 issue of the children 's magazine Cricket . Wings for My Flight was republished , this time in paperback , in 1999 by Pruett Publishing . This edition included a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle . In 2014 , the book was updated and republished again by University of New Mexico Press . The updated edition contained photographs of the Chimney Rock landscape , as well as a preface by Houle that addressed the recovery of the peregrine falcon population since the book was first published in 1991 . Houle highlighted the 1972 agricultural prohibition of DDT , which was the chemical primarily responsible for the peregrine decline ; the Endangered Species Act of 1973 , which allowed the pursuit of wildlife conservation to take precedence over land issues ; and successful attempts to raise peregrines in captivity and later release them to the wild . While writing the book , Houle changed the names of various people and places , explaining the choice by saying " I felt more comfortable changing the names because I worked for so long with those people , it was impossible to be honest about them if I named them " .
= = Reception = =
Wings for My Flight was generally well received . In 1991 , the book received the Oregon Book Award for literary nonfiction , co @-@ receiving the award with My Country , My Right to Serve by Mary Ann Humphrey . The Oregon Book Award , presented annually by Literary Arts , a non @-@ profit organization that promotes literature , intends to recognize the works of Oregon @-@ based authors in a variety of literary genres . Additionally , in 1992 , the book received a Christopher Award , which is presented annually by The Christophers , a non @-@ profit Christian inspirational group , and recognizes creators of books , motion pictures , and television specials that " affirm the highest values of the human spirit " .
Dolores and Roger Flaherty wrote a positive review in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , noting how " Houle blends elements of adventure , romance , humor and pathos in the story of her rookie summer as a wildlife biologist . Along the way she offers vivid descriptions of her skydiving subjects and the seductive beauty of the wilderness . " David M. Schwartz , in the May 1992 edition of Smithsonian , praised Houle 's prose in Wings for My Flight , and wrote that the story is " told with a charming simplicity in fewer than 200 pages " . Schwartz also praised Houle for including her notational system for documenting field observations , stating that it " opens a window on field biology " . Writing in the Library Journal , Henry T. Armistead referred to the book as " well crafted and compelling , a dramatization of the classic conflict between the legitimate interests of conservationists and developers " , and , " highly recommended on several levels , as science , sociology , or a story " . Andrew Gulliford , a professor of history and environmental studies at Fort Lewis College , noted in The Durango Herald the significance of Houle 's efforts to prevent " inappropriate development " at Chimney Rock , which was proclaimed a U.S. National Monument by President Barack Obama in 2012 . " Wings for My Flight is a personal story " , wrote Gulliford , " but also a chronicle of environmental success . Without a doubt , peregrines saved Chimney Rock for the rest of us . "
Freehance writer Paul De Witte wrote a mixed review in The Record ( now the Waterloo Region Record ) , writing that although the book " will certainly find its audience , its Disneyesque sensibilities will kill its broader appeal . The topics of wildlife conservation and global ecological accountability warrant a depth that the author seems unwilling to give her book . " Kirkus Reviews referred to the book as " an enlightening cautionary take " and " a charmingly personal account " , but also as " loosely organized and occasionally sparse on detail " . John Wilkes , in the Los Angeles Times , wrote , " Although naive and overdrawn at times , this heartfelt tale will bring tears and smiles to even the most stubbornly objective reader . " Donna Mitchell , writing in The Wilson Bulletin ( now The Wilson Journal of Ornithology ) , wrote that Houle 's interpretation of the falcons ' behavior is excessively " anthropomorphic " , but also that " Ms. Houle 's perseverance and dedication to the protection of the Peregrine Falcon is admirable and an incentive not only to young biologists just getting started but to those of us who get a little more than discouraged with the struggle to protect endangered species and their habitats . "
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= Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey =
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey ( Japanese : 真 ・ 女神転生 STRANGE JOURNEY ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus and Lancarse for the Nintendo DS . It was published by Atlus in 2009 in Japan , and in 2010 in North America . It is the fourth entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series , which forms the core of the Megami Tensei franchise . The story follows a special task force sent by the United Nations to investigate the Schwarzwelt , a spatial distortion that appears in Antarctica and threatens to engulf the world . Players take control of an unnamed protagonist , navigating the environments of the Schwarzwelt in first @-@ person . Combat involves the player and recruited demons fighting against various enemies , with the protagonist having the option of talking with and recruiting enemies .
The game originated from the team 's wish to develop a large @-@ scale role @-@ playing game for the DS . Many of the main staff had worked on previous Megami Tensei titles in some capacity , including producer and designer Kazuma Kaneko , director Eiji Ishida , writer Shogo Isogai , and composer Shoji Meguro . The setting in Antarctica was chosen to appeal to an overseas audience . Alongside the new setting , the game featured multiple science fiction elements new to the series , taking inspiration from films such as Damnation Alley and The Thing . For the music , Meguro used grander musical styles than his previous works , incorporating choir music using a special synthesizer . Reception of the game has been generally positive for its story and gameplay , but many disliked its first @-@ person navigation .
= = Gameplay = =
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey is a role @-@ playing game in which players control the main protagonist , who can be named by the player . The environments within the Schwarzwelt are seen and navigated from a first @-@ person perspective : the 3D environment is displayed on the top screen of the Nintendo DS , while a 2D map is displayed on the bottom screen . Explored environments are automatically mapped out , with highlights being placed for unopened containers and doorways . These environments contain traps including pits , shifting floors , and floor tiles which damage the protagonist if stepped on . Alongside the main story quests , human non @-@ playable characters and demons within the Schwarzwelt unlock side quests which yielded rewards upon completion . During the game , the protagonist 's Demonica suit can be upgraded to open new pathways , enabling entry into new areas for story progression , as well as new parts of previously explored areas .
During exploration , the player enters battle through both story @-@ based boss battles and random encounters with standard enemies . Combat is turn @-@ based , with enemies facing against a four @-@ member party made up of the protagonist and three chosen demons . Combat is governed by a derivative of the Press Turn system used in Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne : in Strange Journey , the relevant system is called the Demon Co @-@ op System . If either combatant group hits their opponent with a Critical Attack or strikes their weak point , any allied demon of the attacker 's aliment will follow up with an unblockable attack which deals high damage .
As well as fighting demons , the protagonist can negotiate with them in a variety of ways : demons can be bribed , scared away , or recruited depending on responses given during conversation . After they are recruited , different demons can be fused together to create new demons . The new demon inherits skills from its parents , and some demons can only be obtained through fusion . The game includes 300 recruitable demons , all of which take inspiration from various world mythologies including Welsh , Egyptian , Norse , and Christian . Two main alignments govern the way demons must be approached : one that represents light , neutral and dark alignments ; and one representing law , neutral and chaos alignments . The choices made in the story also effect how demons respond to player commands , and whether they will remain loyal . As with earlier titles , a Moon Phase divided into eight segments dictates how demons will behave . When the Moon is full , demons will refuse to talk . Fused demons can be shared between players using thirty @-@ two character passwords generated when a new demon is fused . These passwords can be traded between different players .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The setting and events of Strange Journey are unrelated to any other entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series . The game is set in the early 21st century on the continent of Antarctica . During the game 's opening , a massive atomic collapse occurs at the South Pole , causing the creation of the Schwarzwelt ( シュバルツバース , Shubarutsubāsu , German for " Black World " ) , a black void which swallows anything it touches and threatens to engulf the Earth . The space within the Schwarzwelt is occupied by spaces representing the many vices of humanity , acting as a critique of them . The main bases are special amphibious vehicles : Red Sprite No. 1 , the protagonist 's vehicle , Blue Jet No. 2 , Elves No. 3 , and Gigantic No. 4 .
The central cast are part of a special task force created by the United Nations to investigate and neutralize the Schwarzwelt . Players take control of a nameless member of the task force ( Japanese in the original and American in the localization ) . Alongside the main protagonist , there are three main crew members on the Red Sprite : Commander Gore ( ゴア隊長 , Goa @-@ taichō ) , the crew 's leader ; Jimenez ( ヒメネス , Himenesu ) , an experienced American soldier who seeks rewards for his work ; and Zelenin ( ゼレーニン , Zerēnin ) , a knowledgeable Russian scientist . Other characters include Arthur ( アーサー , Āsā ) , the Red Sprite 's AI computer ; the angel Mastema ( マンセマット , Mansematto ) , who represents the forces of God ; Mem Aleph ( メムアレフ , Memu Arefu ) , a primordial mother goddess who controls the demons of the Schwarzwelt ; and Louisa Ferre ( ルイザ ・ フェレ , Ruiza Fere ) , an avatar of Lucifer who watches the protagonist 's actions .
= = = Plot = = =
As the expansion of the Schwarzwelt is threatening to destroy Earth , the United Nations send in multiple teams , led by Gore , to investigate and eradicate the phenomenon . During their attempt to enter the Schwarzwelt , all ships but the Red Sprite are destroyed . During their missions , the crew is helped by Arthur , who gradually accumulates knowledge of the Schwarzwelt and developers a personality . During an early mission within the Schwarzwelt , Gore is killed . As the protagonist and members of the Red Sprite 's crew explore the regions of the Schwarzwelt , they slowly uncover the truth behind its existence . In ancient times , humans were controlled by the forces of God . His rule over them was broken when the Mother Goddess Mem Aleph destroyed him , breaking his hold on Earth . Residing within the Schwarzwelt , Mem Aleph saw humans abusing Earth 's environment and consequently corrupting her dimension . Determined to remove those humans responsible for the corruption and return the world to its ancient state , Mem Aleph unleashed the Schwarzwelt . The remaining forces of God , mainly represented by Mastema , intend to use the Schwarzwelt to spread their influence across the world , removing free will to create a united utopia . Key items are the Cosmic Eggs , objects created by Mem Aleph that can reshape the world when combined by the core of the Schwarzwelt .
Zelenin and Jimenez respectively side with Law and Chaos , while a resurrected Gore becomes Neutral . Depending on the choices made during the game , the protagonist has the choice of allying with either Law , Chaos or following a Neutral route and continuing with the original mission . If he sides with Law , the protagonist and Zelenin defeat Mem Aleph and use the Cosmic Eggs to create a World of Law , with Zelenin worshiped as a channel to God for humanity , which is forced to surrender its free will . If he sides with Chaos , he and Jimenez help Mem Aleph and defeat Zelenin , using the Eggs to fulfill the Schwarzwelt 's original purpose and create a world where humans and demons live together in a primal world where only the strong survive . In both the Law and Chaos routes , Arthur chooses to destroy his new personality to save the protagonist after the Red Sprite is damaged by Gore . If the protagonist rejects Law and Chaos , Gore transmits the necessary information for the destruction of the Schwarzwelt to him before truly dying . After defeating Zelenin , Jimenez and Mem Aleph , the protagonist and surviving crew escape in the Red Sprite while Arthur sacrifices himself to ensure the destruction of the Schwarzwelt , although there is a chance of it reappearing if humanity continues its abuse of the Earth .
= = Development = =
Strange Journey originated during talks among Atlus staff about creating a large @-@ scale role @-@ playing game using a small development team . Kazuma Kaneko suggested a Shin Megami Tensei game for the Nintendo DS . There were two main reasons for developing the game for this platform : Kaneko felt that the portable design fitted in well with Shin Megami Tensei gameplay philosophies , fellow role @-@ playing game Etrian Odyssey had been a commercial success , it had the biggest install base among their target audience , and its nature as a portable game meant people could concentrate more on the game when knowing that they could end their play session with ease . The game 's title was originally going to be Shin Megami Tensei IV , but due to the game 's setting , it was decided to give it its own subtitle . The original inspiration behind it was the event horizon as associated with black holes . An early subtitle was " Strange Horizon " , but this had been used in a previous unspecified video game setting . After Kaneko watched Amazing Journey : The Story of The Who , he and Eishida agreed on the title Strange Journey . Despite lacking a numeral , it is still a mainline entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series .
The game was co @-@ developed by Atlus and Lancarse , the developers of the Etrian Odyssey series . Strange Journey ran on a modified version of the engine used in the original Etrian Odyssey . The Atlus staff were made up of many veterans of the Megami Tensei series : Kaneko was producer , and character and demon designer ; Ishida made his debut as a director after being chief designer for Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne ; and the scenario 's main writer was Shogo Isogai , who had worked on Shin Megami Tensei II , Shin Megami Tensei If ... , and Nocturne . The gameplay was kept firmly within the traditions of the Megami Tensei series , while evolving and sometimes changing them . For example , the fusion system was re @-@ designed to keep the game fast @-@ paced , and former restrictions on skill inheritance were loosened to encourage experimentation . In contrast , the ability to fine @-@ tune the main character 's stats was removed . The battle system design and programming were both handled by Lancarse . The battle system was designed to provide ease of player , while aspects of demon alignment directly tied to the game 's moral alignment system . The Demonica suit , which was tied into many of the game 's systems , was designed around the concept of a spacesuit that included crucial software with which new demons could become visible and new areas could be explored . The multiplayer feature was originally conceived as players having contests between their demons , but this was decided against as it did not fit the game 's atmosphere . Instead , the concept of demon exchanges was designed . Passwords were chosen over Wi @-@ fi functions as it would make password exchanges through internet forums easier .
From the outset , the game was designed with an overseas release in mind . Among the early ideas created for the title was for it to be set in New York City , inspired by John Carpenter 's 1981 film Escape from New York . This was vetoed as it would not offer much variety in its cast . To enable an international cast , it was decided to set the game in Antarctica . This choice of setting was also made to depict the danger posed by the Schwarzwelt on a worldwide scale . This setting differed greatly from previous Shin Megami Tensei games , which had taken place in Tokyo . It was also chosen as the North Pole had no widespread landmass , making it an impractical setting . When developing the character drama , the team took inspiration from another film by Carpenter , 1982 's The Thing . The moral alignment system , a staple in earlier Shin Megami Tensei entries , was reintroduced for Strange Journey to help players experience the game 's themes . The central cast acted as both a microcosm of humanity and representation of the game 's alignments . Due to the setting , the characters had to be members of a Special Forces group , as opposed to previous protagonists who had been average people . The game includes a larger presence of science fiction elements than in previous Shin Megami Tensei games . Various elements within the game were inspired by science fiction movies : the Red Sprite was inspired by the main vehicle from the 1977 film Damnation Alley , and some equipment was inspired by James Cameron 's 1986 film Aliens . The characters ' firearms were all modeled after real @-@ life guns . Elaborating on how the science fiction elements complemented rather than clashed with the mystical elements of Shin Megami Tensei , Kaneko stated that he felt that the series had always had elements of those two genres merging , commenting that some people saw a web URL as something like a magical incantation and referencing a quote from Arthur C. Clark about technology becoming so advanced that it looked like magic .
= = Music = =
The music was composed and arranged by Shoji Meguro , whose previous work for the series included Revelations : Persona and Nocturne . In contrast to his previous work on the Persona series , Meguro did not use contemporary musical elements . Instead , he created a more mature experience to reflect the game 's story and setting . To achieve this , he used militaristic orchestration , Gregorian choir , and minimalistic ambiance . The choir sounds were created using Eastwest Quantum Leap Symphonic Choir , a synthesizer which could realistically simulate a choir . An exception was the " Sorrow " theme , for which he primarily used a piano melody . For the game 's " chaos " theme , he used musical elements similar to those in Nocturne . So as to get as much music as possible on the game cartridge , Meguro used CRI Middleware 's Kyuseishu Sound Streamer compression algorithm .
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey Original Sountrack released on November 18 , 2009 as a single CD release under the catalog number COCX @-@ 35945 . It was published by Nippon Columbia . A bonus soundtrack containing music from the game was included with launch copies of the game in North America . After the game 's release , it was discovered that the bonus disc had a manufacturing defect that made it unplayable . Once the issue was raised , Atlus and its manufacturing partner moved to enable players to receive free replacements . Reviews of the original soundtrack release have been positive , with reviewers noting its change in style compared to previous Megami Tensei games .
= = Release = =
Strange Journey released on October 8 , 2009 in Japan , and March 23 , 2010 in North America . The first information on a new title in the series appeared in the form of a teaser site created on July 16 , 2009 for the Japanese Atlus website , depicting Earth with a large hole in the bottom . Using the page 's source code and locating an unused graphic , it was deciphered the game 's title was Strange Journey and confirmed it to be a Megami Tensei title . A week later , Atlus officially announced the game for the DS , clearing up a rumor among fans that the title was an entry in the Persona series .
The game 's North American release , along with a release window , was announced in November 2009 . For its release , the ESRB rated the game " M for Mature " . This made the game the tenth game for a Nintendo DS game to earn the rating . Alongside the bonus CD , Atlus revealed a mini @-@ poster exclusive to GameStop customers who purchased the game through street stores and online . After release , Atlus USA gave away exclusive demon passwords to fans to unlock otherwise inaccessible demons during gameplay .
The localization was handled by Atlus USA , led by project editor Nich Maragos , and project lead Yu Namba . During translation , the team had a mixed experience translating the katakana names . While names such as " Williams " were easy , names such as " Skogsra " , a demon based on a Scandinavian forest spirit , proved a challenge and required specific research on the name 's origins . Some of the localization choices were made due to the team 's knowledge of Ishida 's enthusiasm for western culture . They also needed to create varied speaking styles for the various demons , from Archaic English to a more modern vernacular , which proved a time @-@ consuming process .
= = Reception = =
Strange Journey sold 97 @,@ 000 units in its first week in Japan , coming in third on the Japanese sales charts behind Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver and Wii Fit Plus . Ultimately , the game sold lower than expected : Atlus expected the game to sell 170 @,@ 000 copies , but actual sales by November had only reached 152 @,@ 000 copies .
The game has had a positive reception , earning scores of 80 % and 80 / 100 respectively from aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic . Famitsu gave the game a score of 36 points out of 40 , noted by IGN as being the highest score given by the magazine to a Shin Megami Tensei game up to that time . In their review , Famitsu praised the game 's consistent balancing present throughout the game as well as commenting that while the player is having fun exploring , there is always a constant tension around . They also praised the demon combination system by saying that it was " the greatest asset the game has -- they give you better results the more you use them " as they allowed the battles to remain fresh and new . Famitsu also noted that " The tutorial is helpful , and the mission goals are clear enough that you 're never really lost . "
Charles Onyett of IGN called the game 's plot " interesting " and " well @-@ developed " , concluding that there is a " surprising amount of personality in the game " . Andrew Fitch , in his review on 1UP.com , commented that the game 's story is the " same kooky MegaTen narrative fans have come to expect " , but that fans will miss the voice acting of the Persona games . Lark Anderson of GameSpot agreed , calling the plot " excessively preachy " . Phil Kollar of Game Informer said that the game " numerous troubling means of highlighting the tension between technology and nature " . Heidi Kemps , writing for GamePro , called it " a refreshingly thoughtful experience compared to most Japanese RPG plots , but it 's not for the easily offended " . Eurogamer 's Matt Edwards called the story " isn 't particularly original but is nonetheless absorbing " .
Speaking of the gameplay , Fitch called it a combination of " classically engrossing MegaTen and Etrian Odyssey " , noting that the " same sense of exploration 's still there , but there 's also a meatier plot pulling you along " . Kemps called the dungeon exploration " exciting " , but found the lack of help with demon fusion detracted from the experience . Edwards was generally positive about the battle system , which he called " an easy @-@ to @-@ understand , turn @-@ based set @-@ up " . Anderson found the gameplay dated , particularly citing the dungeon design and negotiation system , citing the former as being too repetitive to be interesting . Onyett called the combat " standard " , but praised the demon fusion and negotiation mechanics . Kollar said that the Demon Co @-@ op attack system made the game more approachable than previous Shin Megami Tensei series , but found that exploration could become tedious .
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= Toyah Battersby =
Toyah Battersby is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street , played by Georgia Taylor . Toyah and her family were introduced to the serial by executive producer Brian Park in a bid to increase falling ratings . Actress and singer Toyah Willcox gave the producers permission to name the youngest member of the Battersby family after herself , since the character was said to be born during the height of her career . Taylor originally auditioned for the part of Zoe Tattersall , but was cast as Toyah instead . The role marked her acting debut . She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 4 July 1997 .
Toyah was portrayed as cocky , naive , too trusting and occasionally needing to be " a bit more clued up " about things . Taylor called Toyah a decent person and someone who was loyal to her friends and family . Taylor initially disliked Toyah 's image , particularly her make @-@ up and clothes , which were too revealing . Toyah 's first major storyline saw her abducted by a stranger . At the time , Taylor said it was one of the hardest storylines she had to film and the Independent Television Commission believed it should have carried a warning before it was broadcast . A few months later , Toyah became the show 's first female character to be involved in a storyline surrounding the subject of under @-@ age sex . The storyline was criticised by watchdogs , but Taylor defended it , calling it educational .
Toyah began a relationship with Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) in 1999 , which lasted until Hancock 's departure in July 2000 . The following year , the character was the focus of one of Coronation Street 's most controversial storylines , which saw her beaten and raped by Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) . The storyline marked the first time in forty years that the show had included a rape . The storyline was criticised by some former Coronation Street cast members , who thought the producers were using the subject of rape to boost ratings . Taylor decided to leave the show in July 2002 and her character departed on @-@ screen the following year . Toyah was well received by critics and Taylor received the Best Young Actor accolade at the Inside Soap Awards and Best Dramatic Performance at The British Soap Awards .
= = Storylines = =
Toyah and her family move into 5 Coronation Street and soon upset the neighbours with their bad behaviour , most notably Curly Watts ( Kevin Kennedy ) . Toyah and her stepsister Leanne ( Jane Danson ) steal from the local newsagent and indulge in some under @-@ age drinking . Toyah develops a crush on Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) and turns vegetarian to impress him . She also asks him to help save a turkey from being slaughtered for Christmas . After arguing with her mother , Janice ( Vicky Entwistle ) , and step @-@ father , Les ( Bruce Jones ) , Toyah runs away to London to find her biological father , Ronnie . However , Toyah comes across Neil Flynn ( Tim Dantay ) , who initially pretends to be her father and abducts her . Neil takes Toyah to some woods , but while he is distracted , Toyah manages to escape and she is soon found by Janice and Les .
Toyah gets a job at Roy 's Rolls , the local café , and begins dating Philip " Dobber " Dobson ( John Donnelly ) . Dobber is a bad influence on Toyah , persuading her to steal from the café and threatening to break up with her if she did not have sex with him . Toyah loses her virginity to Dobber , but she eventually sees through him and they break up . With the help of former teacher Ken Barlow ( William Roache ) , Toyah begins to improve her grades and even wins a writing competition . While spending the night watching a lunar eclipse together , Toyah and Spider have sex . They soon begin a relationship and live together at Emily Bishop 's ( Eileen Derbyshire ) house until she asks them to leave . Toyah and Spider then find themselves a bedsit . Toyah gets a second job as a barmaid at The Rovers Return . She and Spider start to drift apart and when Spider asks her to go to India with him , she turns him down . Spider then leaves Weatherfield alone . Toyah later has a one @-@ night stand with Andy McDonald ( Nicholas Cochrane ) .
After a night out with Sam Kingston ( Scott Wright ) , Toyah decides to walk the short distance home alone . She is soon set upon by an unseen assailant , who beats and rapes her . Toyah is found by Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) , who takes her home . Janice initially believes Toyah has been robbed and is shocked when Toyah tells her she was raped . Toyah recounts her story to the police after undergoing an examination at the hospital . Several male residents come under suspicion , particularly Peter Barlow ( Chris Gascoyne ) , but they are ruled out by DNA tests . Toyah struggles to deal with what has happened to her and she develops agoraphobia . While being comforted at home by her friend Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) , Toyah recognises his voice as he calls out her name and realises that he is her rapist . Phil becomes aware that she knows and prevents her from escaping . Toyah 's screams are heard by Peter , who breaks the door down and knocks Phil unconscious . Phil is found guilty of rape and sent to prison .
Toyah has a brief romance with Sam . She also moves into a flat with Fiz Brown ( Jennie McAlpine ) and Maria Sutherland ( Samia Ghadie ) . While on holiday in Blackpool , Toyah meets Goran Milanovic ( Matt Zarb ) , an illegal immigrant . After a few dates , Goran proposes to Toyah , but she turns him down . Toyah starts dating her college tutor John Arnley ( Paul Warriner ) . She is initially reluctant to introduce him to her flatmates and when she does , they are surprised to see that he is a lot older than Toyah . John asks Toyah to move in with him and she agrees . When Toyah argues with Fiz about not liking John , Fiz reveals that he and Maria had sex , resulting in Maria becoming pregnant . Toyah confronts Maria , who gives her the impression that John forced himself on her . Remembering her rape , Toyah attacks John in front of his class . When he calms her down , Toyah breaks up with him . Toyah decides to leave Weatherfield . She reunites with Spider and they move to London .
= = Creation and casting = =
The four @-@ strong Battersby family was created and introduced to Coronation Street in a bid to increase falling ratings . News of the family 's arrival came days after the series producer , Brian Park , axed three regular characters . He stated " The Battersbys are an exciting injection of fresh blood . They follow in the great tradition of the Ogdens and Duckworths , balancing the mix of comedy and drama for which Coronation Street is justly renowned . " Actress and singer Toyah Willcox gave the producers permission to name the youngest member of the family after herself , since the character was born in 1982 at the height of her career . Willcox later regretted her decision .
Actress Georgia Taylor was cast as Toyah and the role marked her acting debut . Taylor was studying for her A @-@ levels when she originally auditioned for the part of Zoe Tattersall . She was unsuccessful , so she then auditioned for Toyah and won the role . Of her casting , she explained " When I got the call to say that I 'd got the part I just sat there open @-@ mouthed , hugging my best friend . I could barely believe it . It is all very different than being on stage – it 's not quite so intense because your audience isn 't right there in front of you . But it 's a very different type of satisfaction , working much faster with storylines and characters developing all the time . " At the time of her casting , Taylor was two years older than the character she portrayed .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
A month before she made her debut on @-@ screen , Toyah was described as being Janice 's ( Vicky Entwistle ) fourteen @-@ year @-@ old illegitimate daughter , who would become " the scourge of every Weatherfield Comprehensive teacher " . During an interview with the Daily Record 's Polly Graham , Taylor stated " Toyah 's gobby and cocky and makes her parents ' life a misery . But it 's brilliant playing her , it 's more fun than playing somebody nice . " Graham explained that both Toyah and her stepsister , Leanne ( Jane Danson ) were well known to the police for under @-@ age drinking and burglary . Taylor said that she hated her character 's clothes , as they were too revealing for her . She explained " In the beginning , the clothes that Toyah wore were terrible . I was very conscious of my bum hanging out from these tiny mini @-@ skirts . There are a lot of girls who wear those tarty skirts , but I never felt comfortable in that sort of thing . " Taylor also disliked Toyah 's make @-@ up , which was initially bright pink lipstick , a lot of black eyeliner and no foundation .
Toyah 's image eventually began to change and she became more aware of the way she looked when she got a boyfriend and started college . Toyah also took extra English lessons from Ken Barlow ( William Roache ) in a bid to better herself . Taylor later commented that her character got on her nerves due to her naivety . She also thought that Toyah had a romantic view of love , was too trusting and occasionally needed to be " a bit more clued up " . The actress added that Toyah was " a very decent person " , who was loyal to her friends . Digital Spy 's Kris Green described Toyah as " the more mellow of the Battersbys " and thought that was due to Les ( Bruce Jones ) not being her biological father . The Daily Mirror 's Charlie Catchpole commented that Toyah went " from lumpy , sulky schoolgirl to confident , radiant young woman " .
= = = Abduction = = =
Following an argument with Janice and Les , Toyah ran away to London to find her real father , Ronnie . However , she was " led on " by Neil Flynn ( Tim Dantay ) , a stranger pretending to be Ronnie , and was later abducted by him . Taylor said the storyline was one of the hardest she had to film : " In the story , I come down to London to track down my real father and things go badly wrong . Toyah hitchhikes all the way and just leaves herself so wide open . She is so naive and trusting and open to being used and abused . " The storyline was filmed on location in the city of London in early August . An hour long episode focusing on Janice and Les ' search for Toyah was broadcast a month later .
Jones , who played Les , revealed that the runaway storyline was tough on him and he began crying when he read the script . He continued " The four of us in the Battersby family read our scripts together to work out how we are going to play our parts . On this occasion , all four of us were sobbing . It is not like a normal Coronation Street story , it 's more like a Taggart or a Cracker . " Jones thought the " scrapes " that Toyah found herself in were frightening and hoped that if the storyline could stop one teenager from running away from home , then it would be worthwhile . The storyline attracted the attention of the Independent Television Commission , who believed that the episode featuring Toyah 's abduction should have carried a warning before it was broadcast .
= = = Under @-@ age sex = = =
In October 1998 , Toyah became the first female Coronation Street character to be involved in a storyline surrounding the subject of under @-@ age sex . Toyah , who was sixteen at the time , had a holiday romance with Philip " Dobber " Dobson ( John Donnelly ) . She quickly introduced him to her parents and was prepared to do anything for him , like stealing from the local café . When Dobber asked Toyah to have sex with him , she agreed , despite knowing that she should wait . Toyah was scared that if she said no , Dobber would break up with her . Toyah was persuaded to lose her virginity to Dobber in the back of his car . The storyline was branded " controversial " and " shocking " , while watchdogs stated that it sent out the wrong ideas to young schoolgirls . Taylor defended the storyline and her character , saying " We have taken a strong moral line and are not promoting teenage sex . It 's quite the opposite . Toyah 's actions should be a lesson for other girls not to fall into the same trap . It was an educational storyline , and I feel it was done in a responsible way . "
The actress went on to explain that the storyline showed how Toyah regretted her actions and that young female viewers could learn from her mistake . She added " Anyone watching can see Dobber is just using Toyah and I hope the message gets across to other girls not to fall into the same trap . " Toyah did not use protection with Dobber , so her sister , Leanne , persuaded her to go to the doctor for the morning @-@ after pill . Taylor praised Leanne for being Toyah 's " conscience and the voice of common sense " . She thought that Leanne had given her good and responsible advice on how to deal with what happened . The Daily Record 's John Millar agreed with Taylor and wrote that the storyline was " building to a stark warning for the millions of teenagers tuning into the Street . " Millar believed at no time did the viewers get the impression that Toyah was doing something " admirable " and proclaimed that Toyah was " the sort of girl who needs care and affection , which explains why the poor soul was coaxed into losing her virginity after a holiday romance convinced her that she was in love . "
= = = Relationship with Spider Nugent = = =
Five months after moving onto Coronation Street , Toyah developed a crush on her neighbour , Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) , and even turned vegetarian to try and impress him . Hancock told All About Soap 's Hilary Kingsley that Spider initially saw Toyah as " a chubby schoolgirl , a pesky brat who had a crush on him . " However , when she listened to his issues and helped him with his battles against the local supermarket and the council , Spider began to admire her instead . Hancock explained " She was so efficient and hard @-@ working that she became a friend . And then , over the summer , it hit him , " Blimey ! She 's turned out nice ! " While Spider and Toyah watched the 1999 solar eclipse together , they ended up having sex for the first time . Hancock observed that both Spider and Toyah were overcome by the excitement to the point that there was " an explosion of lust . " However , in the morning , Spider was torn about what had happened . He admired Toyah , but knew that if they became a couple , it would cause a lot of problems , particularly as there was a ten @-@ year age gap between them . Taylor explained that she was happy that her character was getting together with Spider , although their scenes together often took place in the " grottiest " of locations .
Spider decided to " dodge his responsibilities " and began staying away from Toyah , who was not happy about it as she wanted them to make a commitment . Spider eventually changed his mind and Hancock commented " The fact is that he really fancies Toyah , and he figures that he may as well be hung for a sheep as a goat . " The actor reckoned that Spider and Toyah brought out the best in each other . Spider and Toyah soon began a proper relationship and briefly lived together . However , when Spider announced that he wanted to settle down and buy a house with Toyah , the couple realised that they had started to drift apart . Spider thought that if they got a mortgage together it would help save the relationship , but Toyah did not want that at all . When Spider was offered a promotion , he realised that he did not want to work for the DSS anymore and quit . He then told Toyah that he had bought them tickets to India so that they could go and " find themselves . " However , Toyah insisted that she did not want to leave Weatherfield . Nicole Carmichael from Inside Soap wrote that while Spider did not want to lose Toyah , he felt that he could not stay and soon departed .
= = = Rape = = =
In April 2001 , Toyah was the focus of one of Coronation Street 's most controversial storylines . After enjoying a night out with her friend Sam Kingston ( Scott Wright ) , Toyah was raped , beaten and left for dead in an alleyway by an unknown assailant as she walked home alone . The storyline began during a special 45 @-@ minute episode that was broadcast during the Easter weekend . It marked the first time in forty years that Coronation Street had included a rape . Viewers saw Toyah being grabbed by her attacker , but not the actual act of rape . Instead Toyah 's " bruised body " was found by Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) just as he set out for an early morning run . Jason took a " traumatised " Toyah back to her house , where she told her mother what had happened . Toyah then had to repeat the story to the police and revealed that she did not know who raped her because she was semi @-@ conscious during the attack . Toyah underwent an examination and counselling at the local hospital . The scenes were shot at the St Mary 's Hospital Sexual Assault Centre in Manchester , where the writers spent four months researching victim 's experiences and working with the clinical director and the staff to get the scenario right .
The storyline was criticised by some former Coronation Street cast members , who believed the producers were using the subject of rape to gain higher ratings than rival soap opera EastEnders . Taylor defended the storyline and hoped that it would help other women who had been attacked to seek help . She stated " The main focus of the storyline is the psychological effect that the attack has on Toyah . There are many women out there who have been raped or sexually assaulted and we owe it to them to make sure that the story @-@ line is handled sensitively and accurately . There is no denying that rape is a sensitive and controversial storyline . But I have put my heart and soul into it trying to portray it accurately and I only hope that women who have experienced it will think I have given it justice . " A show spokesperson commented that the storyline would be " handled sensitively " and that it would not become " a whodunnit " . Some of the male residents came under suspicion and were forced to give DNA samples . Peter Barlow ( Chris Gascoyne ) briefly became the prime suspect , but DNA soon eliminated him from enquires .
Toyah was aware that her attacker knew her as she remembered him calling her name , but could not put a name to the voice . She also struggled to deal with her " physical and emotional scars " and soon developed agoraphobia . Toyah found support from her mother and neighbour Charlie Ramsden ( Clare McGlinn ) , who revealed that she had once been raped . Taylor told Inside Soap 's Allison Maund that Charlie 's advice really helped Toyah to start getting back on her feet . However , the process was hampered when Toyah received an anonymous phone call , which left her feeling " extremely frightened " . The phone call sparked " a terrifying event " in which Toyah 's rapist was finally revealed to be her friend Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) . When Phil came round to comfort Toyah , she recognised his voice as he called out her name and realised that he was her rapist . While Toyah tried to escape , Phil grabbed her and held her hostage . Toyah 's screams were heard by Peter , who broke the door down and knocked Phil unconscious . A show spokesperson commented that Toyah would be left to worry about whether Phil would deny the rape and be convicted .
A couple of months later , Toyah received a letter from Phil asking her to visit him in prison and in return he would plead guilty to raping her . Until the letter arrived , Toyah had been piecing her life back together by getting her job back at the Rovers and starting a romance with Sam . Of how Toyah felt about the letter , Taylor told Adrian Lobb from Inside Soap , " By the time Toyah gets the letter , she has grown a little stronger . But it comes as a complete surprise . Toyah doesn 't trust Phil , obviously , and she thinks he 's playing games . While part of her wants to confront him about the attack , there 's another side of her that wants to let it go , and just leave it to the courts to deal with him . " Toyah agreed to Phil 's request to visit him and Taylor said that Toyah believed that seeing Phil in person would help her to come to terms with what happened . When Toyah came face to face with Phil , her first thought was how pathetic he looked . When Phil tried to make excuses for what he had done , Toyah did not feel any pity and told him to plead guilty , which he agreed to do . Toyah left the prison feeling " tearful , but triumphant " and Taylor commented that while she would never fully recover from her ordeal , Toyah was determined to look towards the future .
= = = Departure = = =
On 30 July 2002 , Neil Wilkes from Digital Spy reported that Taylor had quit Coronation Street after five years . Wilkes revealed that her contract would expire in October that year , but the actress had chosen to stay with the serial beyond that to give the writers time to come up with a storyline for her character 's departure . Series producer Kieran Roberts added that he was sorry to see Taylor go , but understood her decision to move on . Taylor later explained that she chose to leave because she and the writers struggled to come up with storylines for Toyah . She told the Liverpool Echo 's Janet Tansley " I was asked where she would go from there and couldn 't think what she could do . If I couldn 't see a future for her , I couldn 't play her . " Taylor filmed her final scenes on 3 January 2003 .
Despite a rumour that Toyah would become a victim of serial killer Richard Hillman ( Brian Capron ) , the producers decided that she needed " a fiery fling " before she left . Therefore , Toyah 's last storylines saw her embark on " a passionate affair " with her university tutor John Arnley ( Paul Warriner ) . However , the relationship quickly turned into a love triangle when John had an affair with Toyah 's flatmate Maria Sutherland ( Samia Ghadie ) . When Toyah discovered the affair , she decided to leave the Street and made her on @-@ screen exit in February 2003 .
= = Reception = =
In 1998 , Taylor earned the Best Young Actor accolade at the Inside Soap Awards . In 2001 , Taylor won Best Dramatic Performance at The British Soap Awards . She was also nominated for Most Popular Actress at the 7th National Television Awards . At the Inside Soap Awards , Taylor earned a Best Actress nomination , while Toyah 's rape was nominated in the Most Dramatic Storyline category .
The People 's Gavin Blyth and Jon Clarke stated that Toyah and Leanne were " rough , tough and make other streetwise teenagers look like they are fresh out of nursery . " The characters were credited with increasing the show 's ratings from 13 million to 19 million viewers . When Toyah met Dobber , the Daily Mirror 's Tony Purnell commented " If anyone was going to find Mr Wrong on holiday it was Toyah Battersby . " John Millar from the Daily Record wrote " The Street should be congratulated if the plight of Toyah Battersby – a brilliant performance by young Georgia Taylor , by the way – means just one schoolgirl says no to her lusting boyfriend . "
An Inside Soap columnist observed that during the controversy over whether the show was right to run a storyline about rape , Taylor 's " magnificent " portrayal of a rape victim seemed to have been forgotten . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart also praised Taylor 's performance throughout the storyline , saying it was " so heart @-@ achingly convincing " . Stewart also wrote that Toyah 's attack was " a chilling reminder of how brutal life can be " . Stewart 's colleague , Sue Crawford , branded Toyah a " disaster magnet " . In June 2011 , Rachel Tarley from the Metro included Toyah 's rape in her list of the top 10 most controversial soap storylines .
Lorna Cooper , editor for MSN TV , included Toyah in a feature about soap 's forgotten characters . Cooper said Toyah " didn 't have the best of luck during her 1997 – 2003 stint on Coronation Street . " A writer for Virgin Media quipped " Wayward teen Toyah rampaged through The Street in the 1990s . She fell for eco @-@ warrior Spider but her life fell apart after she was raped by evil Phil Simmonds . She then followed Spider to London . " In November 2012 , Paul Millar from Digital Spy stated " Toyah Battersby was one of Coronation Street 's best @-@ loved characters – certainly the best @-@ loved Battersby – during the time in which she graced the cobbles . "
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= Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev =
The full understanding of the history of the late Soviet Union and of its successor , the Russian Federation , requires the assessment of the legacy of Leonid Brezhnev , the third General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) and twice Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . Leonid Brezhnev was the leader of the CPSU from 1964 until his death in 1982 , whose eighteen @-@ year reign was recognised as the time of social and economic stagnation in the late Soviet Union .
Despite his failures in domestic reforms , his foreign affairs and defence policies consolidated the position of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) as a superpower . His popularity among the citizenry waned during his last years , and the Soviet people 's belief in communism and Marxism – Leninism slowly withered away but support still continued to be evident , even on the eve of his death . Following his death , political wrangling led to harsh criticism of both him and his family . Mikhail Gorbachev , the last Soviet leader , drew support from communists and the Soviet population by criticising Brezhnev 's rule , and referred to his rule as the " Era of Stagnation " .
Aside from the socio @-@ economic stagnation Brezhnev left to the nation , there was also a heritage of political and personal values . When Brezhnev died he left behind a gerontocracy , a group of leaders who were significantly older than most of the adult population . Historians have largely agreed that Brezhnev 's reign was one primarily of stagnation . However , in a poll taken in 2006 , 61 percent of the people polled viewed the Brezhnev era as good for Russia .
= = Immediate legacy = =
When Leonid Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 Yuri Andropov was elected chairman of the committee in charge of managing his funeral . According to Time magazine Brezhnev 's death was mourned by the majority of Soviet citizens . First World commentators saw this as proof that Andropov would become Brezhnev 's successor as general secretary . The political corruption which had grown considerably during Brezhnev 's tenure had become a major problem to the Soviet Union 's economic development by the 1980s . In response Andropov initiated a nationwide anti @-@ corruption campaign . Andropov believed that the Soviet economy would possibly recover if the Soviet Government was able to increase social discipline amongst workers . Brezhnev 's regime was also criticised for ideological laxness and self @-@ indulgence . The gerontocracy established by Brezhnev was slowly phased out by Andropov , and new recruits were appointed to the Party " centre " , such as future Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov and Chief Ideologue Yegor Ligachev . Soviet foreign policy had also gone awry during Brezhnev 's last years , and by June 1982 , just before his death , Ronald Reagan classified the Soviet Union as an " Evil Empire " . This hardline diplomatic stance did not wither away before Mikhail Gorbachev initiated the " New Thinking " . Support for Marxism – Leninism continued to be evident amongst the Soviet people , however , its base of support slowly withered during the Brezhnev Era . The Soviet people still remained wary of such concepts as liberal democracy and multi @-@ party systems , and because of it , Marxism – Leninism remained the leading belief in the country . Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a superpower during Brezhnev 's rule .
Brezhnev 's family , Yuri , Galina and Yuri Churbanov , were investigated and all , with the exception of Galina , were arrested on charges of political corruption during Mikhail Gorbachev 's administration . Churbanov , Brezhnev 's son @-@ in @-@ law , was sentenced to twelve years in prison on charges of large @-@ scale embezzlement and corruption . By December 1988 Churbanov had been stripped of all state honours , and sent to a labour camp . Galina , along with the rest of Brezhnev 's family , lost all their state privileges . The city of Brezhnev reverted to its old name Naberezhnye Chelny , and a group within the Soviet leadership wanted to rename all towns , street , factories and institutions bearing Brezhnev 's name . This was actually carried through by the authorities in December 1988 when the Soviet Government issued a decree which stated all town , streets , factories , institutions and the like bearing Brezhnev 's and Konstantin Chernenko 's were to revert to their former name . According to his grandson Andrei Brezhnev , the very name Brezhnev had become a curse for the family , and several family members had been forced out of their jobs and their friends had deserted them . Brezhnev , who had inflated his role in World War II , was rescinded the Order of Victory on 21 September 1989 in a Supreme Soviet convocation .
During the Gorbachev Era , Brezhnev 's rule was considered less successful than that of Joseph Stalin ; in an opinion measurement poll only 7 percent chose the Brezhnev Era as good , while 10 percent picked the Stalin Era as good . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Boris Yeltsin 's subsequent market reforms , many Russians viewed the Brezhnev era with nostalgia ; they missed the stability of that era which had subsequently been lost during the Gorbachev and Yeltsin eras .
= = Historical assessments = =
Historians have expressed criticism for Brezhnev and his rule . The scholarly literature dealing with him is scarce and , with the exception of the period immediately after his death , overwhelmingly negative . Very little has been written about Brezhnev in English , and even Russian literature . According to Mark Sandle and Edwin Bacon , the authors behind Brezhnev Reconsidered , Brezhnev had attracted little attention from the media due to a consensus of his rule that was formed shortly after his death ; literally that his rule was one primarily of stagnation . When Mikhail Gorbachev , the last Soviet leader , initiated perestroika he blamed the degradation of the Soviet economic and political system on Brezhnev , and called his rule the " Era of Stagnation " . Gorbachev claimed that Brezhnev followed " a fierce neo @-@ Stalinist line " , although in a later statement Gorbachev made assurances that Brezhnev was not as bad as he was made out to be , saying , " Brezhnev was nothing like the cartoon figure that is made of him now " .
British historian Robert Service wrote in his book , Russia : From Tsarism to the Twenty @-@ First Century , that " When he [ Brezhnev ] succeeded Khrushchev , he was still a vigorous politician who expected to make the Party and government work more effectively . He had not been inactive ; he had not been entirely inflexible . But his General Secretaryship had turned into a ceremonial reign that had brought communism into its deepest contempt since 1917 . " He added that it was " hard to feel very sorry for Brezhnev " ; his socio @-@ economic policies had sent the country into an Era of Stagnation from which his successors were never able to fully recover . Talal Nizameddin states in his book Russia and the Middle East : Towards A New Foreign Policy that " Brezhnev 's legacy , generally unaffected by his weak successors ( Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko ) , was entanglement in Afghanistan , tension with China and Japan , as well as the prospect of a new dimension to the arms race with the United States in the form of the Strategic Defence Initiative ( Star Wars ) . " According to historian David Dyker in his book The Soviet Union under Gorbachev : Prospects for Reform " Brezhnev left his successors a Soviet Union suffering from a host of domestic and foreign problems " . The biggest obstacle , according to Dyker , was the weakness of the economy which had undermined Soviet influence outside its borders considerably during the late Brezhnev due to its relative technological backwardness .
The author of The Soviet Paradox : External Expansion , Internal Decline Seweryn Bialer has a more mixed assessment of Brezhnev 's reign . Bialer notes that the era was a time of " lost opportunities " , but admits that the economic growth during Brezhnev 's first years weakened " the rationale for radical reform " . However , as Bialer notes in his book , even the gerontocracy which Brezhnev himself had created were disillusioned with Brezhnev 's leadership when he died in 1982 . In his book Russia 's Transformation : Snapshots of a Crumbling System Robert Vincent Daniels argues that Brezhnev " gave the country stability , if nothing else , even though it was the stability of the police state " , and that his domestic and external policies tried to ensure the " status quo " . Daniels believes that Brezhnev 's reign can be separated into two parts , the first , starting in 1964 and ending in 1975 conforms to a " status quo leadership , building the economy , pursuing détente , and maintaining political equilibrium at home " . The second phase , which began in 1975 , was exactly the opposite ; the economy stopped growing , the collective leadership ended with Nikolai Podgorny 's removal , Brezhnev developed a cult of personality and the Soviet Union itself started to stagnate . Historians Jiří Valenta and Frank Cibulka noted in their book Gorbachev 's New Thinking and Third World Conflicts that Brezhnev 's legacy was a " mixture of achievements and failures in both domestic and foreign policy " . However , they argue that by the time of his death his failures had become severe chronic systematic problems . Brezhnev 's main achievements , according to Valenta and Cibulka , was his foreign and defence policies , however , with the economy in decline these achievements were not durable in the long @-@ run . They also note that the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a superpower , which in turn increased their influence in non @-@ communist Third World countries .
On a positive note , Ian Thatcher argues that " [ r ] ather than deserving a reputation as the most vilified of all Soviet leaders , Brezhnev should be praised as one of the most successful exponents of the art of Soviet politics . " He argues that Brezhnev was a good politician within the framework of the Soviet political system . Dmitry Peskov said " Brezhnev wasn ’ t a minus for the history of our country , he was a huge plus , He laid a foundation for the country ’ s economics and agriculture . " Archie Brown wrote in his book , The Rise & Fall of Communism , that " From the point of view of Communist rulers , the Brezhnev era was in many ways successful . " Brown adds that the Soviet Union reached " rough parity with the United States " militarily by the early 1970s , and became a superpower in the military sense of the world . According to Brown " The Brezhnev era was a time when tens of millions of Soviet citizens lived a peaceful and predictable life than hitherto " and where " Most people did not live in fear of the KGB . "
= = Opinion polls = =
Brezhnev has fared well in Russian opinion polls when compared to his successors and predecessors . However , in the West he is most commonly remembered for starting the economic stagnation which triggered the dissolution of the Soviet Union . A 2000 poll by VTsIOM asked various Russians the question " Was a given period more positive or more negative for the country ? " . 36 percent of the people polled viewed Brezhnev 's tenure as more positive than negative . His predecessor , Nikita Khrushchev trailed close behind him , earning 33 percent . A poll by the Public Opinion Fund ( VTsIOM ) in September 1999 similarly chose the Brezhnev period as the time in the 20th century when " ordinary people lived best " , having a clear majority of 51 to 10 . In a similar poll done in 1994 , Brezhnev garnered a majority of only 36 to 16 . According to a 2006 Public Opinion Fund poll , 61 percent of the Russian people viewed the Brezhnev era as good for the country . A poll by the VTsIOM in 2007 showed that the majority of Russians would choose to live during the Brezhnev era over any other period of 20th @-@ century Russian history . Researchers have noted a surge in Brezhnev 's popularity , along with other communist rulers , during and in the aftermath of the Russian financial crisis of 1998 , which is well remembered by many Russians for plunging many into poverty . When comparing these two periods , Brezhnev 's USSR is best remembered for stability in prices and income by the Russians and not the socio @-@ economic stagnation for which he is remembered in the West .
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= Percheron =
The Percheron is a breed of draft horse that originated in the Huisne river valley in western France , part of the former Perche province from which the breed takes its name . Usually gray or black in color , Percherons are well muscled , and known for their intelligence and willingness to work . Although their exact origins are unknown , the ancestors of the breed were present in the valley by the 17th century . They were originally bred for use as war horses . Over time , they began to be used for pulling stagecoaches and later for agriculture and hauling heavy goods . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , Arabian blood was added to the breed . Exports of Percherons from France to the United States and other countries rose exponentially in the late 19th century , and the first purely Percheron stud book was created in France in 1883 .
Before World War I , thousands of Percherons were shipped from France to the United States , but after the war began , an embargo stopped shipping . The breed was used extensively in Europe during the war , with some horses being shipped from the US back to France to help in the war effort . Beginning in 1918 , Percherons began to be bred in Great Britain , and in 1918 the British Percheron Horse Society was formed . After a series of name and studbook ownership changes , the current US Percheron registry was created in 1934 . In the 1930s , Percherons accounted for 70 percent of the draft horse population in the United States , but their numbers declined substantially after World War II . However , the population began to recover and as of 2009 , around 2 @,@ 500 horses were registered annually in the United States alone . The breed is still used extensively for draft work , and in France they are used for food . They have been crossed with several light horse breeds to produce horses for range work and competition . Purebred Percherons are used for forestry work and pulling carriages , as well as work under saddle , including competition in English riding disciplines such as show jumping .
= = Characteristics = =
The ideal size for the Percheron varies between countries . In France , height ranges from 15 @.@ 1 to 18 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 to 73 inches , 155 to 185 cm ) and weight from 1 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 600 pounds ( 500 to 1 @,@ 200 kg ) . Percherons in the United States generally stand between 16 @.@ 2 and 17 @.@ 3 hands ( 66 and 71 inches , 168 and 180 cm ) , with a range of 15 and 19 hands ( 60 and 76 inches , 152 and 193 cm ) . American Percherons average 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) , and their top weight is around 2 @,@ 600 pounds ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) . In Great Britain , 16 @.@ 2 hands ( 66 inches , 168 cm ) is the shortest acceptable height for stallions and 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) for mares , while weights range from around 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 910 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ) for stallions and 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 820 to 910 kg ) for mares . They are generally gray or black in coloring , although the American registry also allows the registration of roan , bay and chestnut horses . Only gray or black horses may be registered in France and Britain . Many horses have white markings on their heads and legs , but registries consider excessive white to be undesirable .
The head has a straight profile , broad forehead , large eyes and small ears . The chest is deep and wide and the croup long and level . The feet and legs are clean and heavily muscled . The overall impression of the Percheron is one of power and ruggedness . Enthusiasts describe the temperament as proud and alert , and members of the breed are considered intelligent , willing workers with good dispositions . They are considered easy keepers and adapt well to many conditions and climates . In the 19th century , they were known to travel up to 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) a day at a trot . Horses in the French registry are branded on the neck with the intertwined letters " SP " , the initials of the Société Hippique Percheronne .
= = History = =
The Percheron breed originated in the Huisne river valley in France , which arises in Orne , part of the former Perche province , from which the breed gets its name . Several theories have been put forth as to the ancestry of the breed , though its exact origins are unknown . One source of foundation bloodstock may have been mares captured by Clovis I from the Bretons some time after 496 AD , and another may have been Arabian stallions brought to the area by Muslim invaders in the 8th century . Other possibilities are captured Moorish cavalry horses from the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD , some of which were taken by warriors from Perche . A final theory posits that the Percheron and the Boulonnais breed are closely related , and that the Boulonnais influenced the Percheron when they were brought to Brittany as reinforcements for the legions of Caesar . It is known that during the 8th century , Arabian stallions were crossed with mares native to the area , and more Oriental horse blood was introduced by the Comte de Perche upon his return from the Crusades and expeditions into territory claimed by Spain . Blood from Spanish breeds was added when the Comte de Rotrou imported horses from Castile . No matter the theory of origin , breed historians agree that the terrain and climate of the Perche area had the greatest influence on the development of the breed . A possible reference to the horse is made in the 13th @-@ century romance Guillaume de Dole , in which the title character asks for " the Count of Perche 's horse " to be made ready , possibly indicating the " ' great horse , ' which could accommodate an armored knight " and was bred in the geographical setting of the poem .
During the 17th century , horses from Perche , the ancestors of the current Percheron , were smaller , standing between 15 and 16 hands ( 60 and 64 inches , 152 and 163 cm ) high , and more agile . These horses were almost uniformly gray ; paintings and drawings from the Middle Ages generally show French knights on mounts of this color . After the days of the armored knight , the emphasis in horse breeding was shifted so as to develop horses better able to pull heavy stage coaches at a fast trot . Gray horses were preferred because their light coloring was more visible at night . This new type of horse was called the " Diligence Horse " , because the stage coaches they pulled were named " diligences " . After the stage coach was replaced by rail , the modern Percheron type arose as a slightly heavier horse for use in agriculture and heavy hauling work moving goods from docks to railway terminals .
= = = 19th century = = =
Arabian stallions were made available to Percheron breeders for use in breeding army mounts , beginning in 1760 at the royal stud at Le Pin . Between 1789 and the early 1800s , the Percheron was in danger of becoming extinct as horse breeding was suppressed during the French Revolution and its aftermath . Early histories of the breed point to two gray Arabian stallions from Le Pin , Godolphin , and Gallipoly , as the blood that helped to restart Percheron breeding . However , later research found that Godolphin was a chestnut Arabian of ordinary conformation and no special worth , while Gallipoly was a gray saddle horse of unknown breeding . Modern breed historians contest that there was enough breeding stock left after the early 19th century to restart the breed without further Arabian influence , and state that it is unlikely that two horses of unremarkable breeding and conformation had a significant influence on the breed . Jean le Blanc , a founding stallion of the Percheron breed , was foaled in 1823 . Today , all Percherons trace their ancestry to this stallion . At this time the breed also became larger , with horses from other French districts being imported to Perche to change the Percheron from a coach horse averaging 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 400 pounds ( 540 to 640 kg ) to a draft horse averaging 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) . In 1893 , the first Percheron stud book was created in France . By 1910 , French registrations had risen to almost 32 @,@ 000 horses . Between 1880 and 1920 , Percheron breeders in France exported horses all over the world , including South Africa , South America , Australia and North America .
= = = = In the United States and Great Britain = = = =
Percherons were first imported into the United States in 1839 , although only one of the initial four horses survived the ocean trip . Soon after , two stallions and two mares were imported ; one mare died shortly after arrival and one stallion went blind and was retired within a year . Although the first importations of Percherons were less than successful , the remaining stallion , named Diligence , was credited with siring almost 400 foals . In 1851 , three stallions were imported : Normandy 351 , Louis Napoleon 281 and Gray Billy . Throughout their stud careers , each had significant influence on American draft horse stock . In the mid @-@ 19th century in the United States , Percheron stallions were crossed with homebred mares to improve the local stock , resulting in thousands of crossbred horses . After the American Civil War in the 1860s greatly reduced the number of horses , there was a significant need for large draft horses , especially in growing cities and in the expanding West . Large numbers of Percherons were imported to the United States beginning in the early 1870s , and they became popular with draft horse breeders and owners . In the 1880s , approximately 7 @,@ 500 horses were exported to the United States . This extensive importation lasted until 1893 , when the US experienced a financial panic , and virtually no Percheron imports occurred between 1894 and 1898 . In addition , many existing horses were lost as people were too poor to purchase or care for large draft horses . In 1898 , importations began again as abruptly as they had ceased , with an average of 700 horses a year imported between 1898 and 1905 . In 1906 alone , over 13 @,@ 000 horses were imported to the United States from France . In the American traveling circuses of the late 19th century and early 20th century , the Percheron was the most frequently seen draft horse . Drivers appreciated the breed 's agility , stamina and quick @-@ footed gait .
In 1876 , the Norman @-@ Percheron Association was formed by a group of Percheron breeders in Chicago , and at the same time the stud book was begun . The Norman @-@ Percheron Association was the United States ' first purebred livestock association . In 1877 , the word " Norman " was dropped from the name . Later , in the panic of 1893 , the Percheron Association went bankrupt and ceased to function . In 1905 , also in Chicago , Percheron breeders met again to reform as the Percheron Society of America . Since 1934 , the group has been known as the Percheron Horse Association of America . At its height , the organization was the largest draft horse association in the world , in the early 20th century registering over 10 @,@ 000 horses annually .
In the late 19th century , Percherons also began to be exported from the United States to Great Britain , where they were used to pull horse @-@ drawn buses in large cities . The first Percherons imported to Britain included some of the thousands of crossbreds from the United States . In Britain , many of the horses , once they finished their bus @-@ pulling career , were sold to farmers . Other imported horses were sold to the British Army , and in 1900 , 325 horses were shipped to South Africa for use in the Boer War .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
In 1911 , the French society restricted registration to horses with both parents already registered with the society . In the early 20th century , the Percheron was one of the four major draft horse breeds , along with the Belgian , the Clydesdale and the Shire . Breeders could sell their horses for significant amounts of money , especially in the United States and Canada , where breeding stock brought a premium price .
Prior to World War I , a flourishing trade route for Percherons existed between Nogent @-@ le @-@ Rotrou , Le Havre and the United States . However , after the war began , an embargo was placed on French Percherons , disallowing them from exportation . Other than an exception in April 1916 to allow 59 horses to be shipped from France to the US , this embargo remained in place until the end of the war . The war took its toll on the Percheron breed as horses , fodder , and handlers were requisitioned for the fighting , and even after the embargo was lifted France did not have the quality or quantity of stock to fulfill the needs of American breeders . The embargo created a breeding boom in the US , replacing the previous practice of importing the majority of Percherons from France , and late in the war horses were shipped the other way – from the US to Europe – to supply those needed in the war . The lack of feathering on the Percheron 's lower legs made them easier to care for in the mud that they often worked in during wartime . Their quick trot on paved roads made them more versatile than motorized vehicles , and they were useful for work with guns and in forward units due to their calm temperaments .
Between 1918 and 1922 , over 350 Percherons were imported to Britain from France and , combined with stock from the US and Canada , were used as breeding stock to establish the breed in the country . In 1918 , the British Percheron Horse Society was formed . British breeders and owners continue to import Percherons from France , and also occasionally from Canada , when not prohibitively expensive .
By the 1930s , Percherons accounted for over 70 percent of the purebred draft horses in the United States , and all of the major land @-@ grant universities maintained stables of Percherons . A 1930 census of horses found over 33 @,@ 000 Percherons in the United States , with the next most popular breed , the Belgian , having a population of less than 10 @,@ 000 . One Percheron historian attributes this popularity to the breed 's " strength , energy , activity , robustness and endurance " . After World War II , increasing mechanization prompted a decline in the Percheron population . In 1954 , only 85 Percherons were registered in the US , a record low . The 1950s , 1960s and early 1970s were bad years for the US Percheron population , and breeding was reduced to only a few farms . These breeders kept the American population alive through these years , however , and the 1980s saw renewed interest in the breed .
In 1966 , the French stud book was changed to include draft types from other areas of France that were closely related to the Percheron – including the horses of Berrichon , Nivernais , Marne , Augeron , Bourbonnais , Loire and Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire . French Percherons were also hit hard by the advent of mechanization , and between 1970 and 1990 focus was placed on breeding horses of greater mass for the meat market . The largest and heaviest stallions were selected for breeding . Beginning at the 1989 World Percheron Congress , French breeders realized that they needed a lighter breed for tourism , export to Japan for draft work , and other markets . In 1993 , a trend of importing American stallions to France was started with the black stallion Silver Shadows Sheik . This stallion and others were used to create a more elegant , smaller and sleeker look in the French Percheron , while still retaining the traditional bone and foot structure . All the imported stallions were black , reviving the popularity of black Percherons in France . French breeders continue to import American @-@ bred Percheron stallions in order to produce lighter foals , moving away from the heavier meat @-@ type horses of the late 20th century . Also in 1993 , the Société Hippique Percheronne anticipated the increasing tourist and exportation markets by prohibiting docking , which was not prohibited for other draft breeds until 1996 . This was partly at the request of the Germans , and partly due to the influence of magazines such as Cheval .
In 1988 , there were 1 @,@ 088 Percherons in the United States , rising to 2 @,@ 257 by 1998 . As of 2009 , the Percheron Horse Association of America had horses registered in all 50 states , and had nearly 3 @,@ 000 members , with around 2 @,@ 500 new horses being registered annually . The French Société Hippique Percheronne de France ( Percheron Horse Society of France ) registered between 750 and 885 horses in each year between 2007 and 2010 . As of 2012 , the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy considers the Percheron to be " recovering " , meaning that the breed has exceeded the numbers required to be in one of the " watch " categories , but still needs to be monitored .
= = = Augeron = = =
The Augeron , also known as Caen or Virois , was developed from the Percheron during the 19th century and was merged back into the Percheron in the 1960s . Bred mainly in the Pays d 'Auge region , it previously had its own studbook , registered by the Société hippique du trait augeron . The status of the subtype has been repeatedly debated because of its origin from Percherons bred in Pays d 'Auge , a breeding group that was modified from the original breed standard due to the influence of soil and climate over the years , creating the Augeron type . Augerons are light gray in color , tall , strong , well @-@ built , and energetic . They stand between 158 – 170 cm ( 15 @.@ 2 – 16 @.@ 3 hands ) in height , but those horses bred in Vire are known to be smaller than the standard .
In the 19th century , the existence of the Augeron population was , despite its popularity , generally ignored by authors . In Paris , they were named " Caen " and " Virois " , after their region of origin , although specialists included the " Caen Virois " breed with the Augeron in a 1904 text . In the 19th century , these horses were sold at fairs in Argences and Bayeux in Lower Normandy . They were noticed several times for their homogeneity , beauty , and high value . In 1858 , Augerons were sold for between 600 and 1200 francs .
The Société hippique du trait augeron , or Augeron Horse Society , was formed in 1913 by breeders in Auge to record these horses in a breed registry . One reason for this lay in the desire to protect the cradle of breeding Percheron horses : only animals born near the Perche were entitled to registration in the studbook , and hence to use the name of " Percheron " . This limitation excluded several nearby populations of horses foaled outside of Perche , such as the Maine and the Augeron .
= = Uses = =
The Percheron is the most famous and populous of all French draft breeds in the world today . They were used to improve both the Ardennes and Vladimir Heavy Draft horses , and to create the Spanish @-@ Norman breed , a cross between the Andalusian and the Percheron . By the end of the 19th century , Percherons made up the majority of driving horses in Paris . The Percheron is still used extensively for draft work and , like other draft breeds , it is also used in France for meat production . Around the world , Percherons are used for parades , sleigh rides and hayrides , as well as being used to pull carriages in large cities . The largest team of working Percherons in Europe is found at Disneyland Paris , where the breed makes up 30 percent of the horses in the park and the horses work to pull trams on the main park street . One of the most famous horse teams in the United States is the Heinz hitch of Percherons , having appeared multiple times at the Tournament of Roses Parade .
In Great Britain , the Percheron is used for advertising and publicity , as well as forestry and farm work . They are crossbred with lighter horses by breeders of heavy hunters in order to increase size and improve disposition . Purebred Percherons are also ridden , and some have proven useful at show jumping . Crossbred Percherons have been used successfully in dressage . In both the Falkland Islands and northern Australia , Percherons have been crossed with local mares , primarily Criollos in the Falklands , to produce larger stock horses with greater stamina . These crossbred horses are used extensively in both the sub @-@ Antarctic climate of the Falklands and the sub @-@ tropical climate of Australia for working stock . In Australia they are also crossed with Thoroughbreds for use as mounted police horses .
In 1978 , the first World Percheron Congress was held in Great Britain , and has been held annually ever since . Although the majority of the shows have been held in North America , four – in 1980 , 1989 , 2001 and 2011 – have been held in France . Each year , in July , the French national breed show is held in Haras du Pin .
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= Iridium =
Iridium is a chemical element with symbol Ir and atomic number 77 . A very hard , brittle , silvery @-@ white transition metal of the platinum group , iridium is generally credited with being the second densest element ( after osmium ) based on measured density , although calculations involving the space lattices of the elements show that iridium is denser . It is also the most corrosion @-@ resistant metal , even at temperatures as high as 2000 ° C. Although only certain molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium , finely divided iridium dust is much more reactive and can be flammable .
Iridium was discovered in 1803 among insoluble impurities in natural platinum . Smithson Tennant , the primary discoverer , named iridium for the Greek goddess Iris , personification of the rainbow , because of the striking and diverse colors of its salts . Iridium is one of the rarest elements in Earth 's crust , with annual production and consumption of only three tonnes . 191Ir and 193Ir are the only two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium , as well as the only stable isotopes ; the latter is the more abundant of the two .
The most important iridium compounds in use are the salts and acids it forms with chlorine , though iridium also forms a number of organometallic compounds used in industrial catalysis , and in research . Iridium metal is employed when high corrosion resistance at high temperatures is needed , as in high @-@ performance spark plugs , crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures , and electrodes for the production of chlorine in the chloralkali process . Iridium radioisotopes are used in some radioisotope thermoelectric generators .
Iridium is found in meteorites with an abundance much higher than its average abundance in Earth 's crust . For this reason , the unusually high abundance of iridium in the clay layer at the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary gave rise to the Alvarez hypothesis that the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object caused the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago . Similarly , an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
It is thought that the total amount of iridium in the planet Earth is much higher than that observed in crustal rocks , but as with other platinum @-@ group metals , the high density and tendency of iridium to bond with iron caused most iridium to descend below the crust when the planet was young and still molten .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A member of the platinum group metals , iridium is white , resembling platinum , but with a slight yellowish cast . Because of its hardness , brittleness , and very high melting point , solid iridium is difficult to machine , form , or work , thus powder metallurgy is commonly employed , instead . It is the only metal to maintain good mechanical properties in air at temperatures above 1 @,@ 600 ° C ( 2 @,@ 910 ° F ) . It has the 10th highest boiling point among all elements and becomes a superconductor at temperatures below 0 @.@ 14 K.
Iridium 's modulus of elasticity is the second @-@ highest among the metals , only being surpassed by osmium . This , together with a high shear modulus and a very low figure for Poisson 's ratio ( the relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain ) , indicate the high degree of stiffness and resistance to deformation that have rendered its fabrication into useful components a matter of great difficulty . Despite these limitations and iridium 's high cost , a number of applications have developed where mechanical strength is an essential factor in some of the extremely severe conditions encountered in modern technology .
The measured density of iridium is only slightly lower ( by about 0 @.@ 12 % ) than that of osmium , the densest element known . Some ambiguity occurred regarding which of the two elements was denser , due to the small size of the difference in density and difficulties in measuring it accurately , but , with increased accuracy in factors used for calculating density X @-@ ray crystallographic data yielded densities of 22 @.@ 56 g / cm3 for iridium and 22 @.@ 59 g / cm3 for osmium .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Iridium is the most corrosion @-@ resistant metal known : it is not attacked by almost any acid , aqua regia , molten metals , or silicates at high temperatures . It can , however , be attacked by some molten salts , such as sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide , as well as oxygen and the halogens ( particularly fluorine ) at higher temperatures .
= = = Compounds = = =
Iridium forms compounds in oxidation states between − 3 and + 9 ; the most common oxidation states are + 3 and + 4 . Well @-@ characterized examples of the high + 6 oxidation state are rare , but include IrF
6 and two mixed oxides Sr
2MgIrO
6 and Sr
2CaIrO
6 . In addition , it was reported in 2009 that iridium ( VIII ) oxide ( IrO
4 ) was prepared under matrix isolation conditions ( 6 K in Ar ) by UV irradiation of an iridium @-@ peroxo complex . This species , however , is not expected to be stable as a bulk solid at higher temperatures . The highest oxidation state ( + 9 ) , which is also the highest recorded for any element , is only known in one cation , IrO +
4 ; it is only known as gas @-@ phase species and is not known to form any salts .
Iridium dioxide , IrO
2 , a brown powder , is the only well @-@ characterized oxide of iridium . A sesquioxide , Ir
2O
3 , has been described as a blue @-@ black powder which is oxidized to IrO
2 by HNO
3 . The corresponding disulfides , diselenides , sesquisulfides , and sesquiselenides are known , and IrS
3 has also been reported . Iridium also forms iridates with oxidation states + 4 and + 5 , such as K
2IrO
3 and KIrO
3 , which can be prepared from the reaction of potassium oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures .
Although no binary hydrides of iridium , IrxHy are known , complexes are known that contain IrH4 −
5 and IrH3 −
6 , where iridium has the + 1 and + 3 oxidation states , respectively . The ternary hydride Mg
6Ir
2H
11 is believed to contain both the IrH4 −
5 and the 18 @-@ electron IrH5 −
4 anion .
No monohalides or dihalides are known , whereas trihalides , IrX
3 , are known for all of the halogens . For oxidation states + 4 and above , only the tetrafluoride , pentafluoride and hexafluoride are known . Iridium hexafluoride , IrF
6 , is a volatile and highly reactive yellow solid , composed of octahedral molecules . It decomposes in water and is reduced to IrF
4 , a crystalline solid , by iridium black . Iridium pentafluoride has similar properties but it is actually a tetramer , Ir
4F
20 , formed by four corner @-@ sharing octahedra . Iridium metal dissolves in molten alkali @-@ metal cyanides to produce the Ir ( CN ) 3 +
6 ( hexacyanoiridate ) ion .
Hexachloroiridic ( IV ) acid , H
2IrCl
6 , and its ammonium salt are the most important iridium compounds from an industrial perspective . They are involved in the purification of iridium and used as precursors for most other iridium compounds , as well as in the preparation of anode coatings . The IrCl2 −
6 ion has an intense dark brown color , and can be readily reduced to the lighter @-@ colored IrCl3 −
6 and vice versa . Iridium trichloride , IrCl
3 , which can be obtained in anhydrous form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at 650 ° C , or in hydrated form by dissolving Ir
2O
3 in hydrochloric acid , is often used as a starting material for the synthesis of other Ir ( III ) compounds . Another compound used as a starting material is ammonium hexachloroiridate ( III ) , ( NH
4 )
3IrCl
6 . Iridium ( III ) complexes are diamagnetic ( low @-@ spin ) and generally have an octahedral molecular geometry .
Organoiridium compounds contain iridium – carbon bonds where the metal is usually in lower oxidation states . For example , oxidation state zero is found in tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl , Ir
4 ( CO )
12 , which is the most common and stable binary carbonyl of iridium . In this compound , each of the iridium atoms is bonded to the other three , forming a tetrahedral cluster . Some organometallic Ir ( I ) compounds are notable enough to be named after their discoverers . One is Vaska 's complex , IrCl ( CO ) [ P ( C
6H
5 )
3 ]
2 , which has the unusual property of binding to the dioxygen molecule , O
2 . Another one is Crabtree 's catalyst , a homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation reactions . These compounds are both square planar , d8 complexes , with a total of 16 valence electrons , which accounts for their reactivity .
An iridium @-@ based organic LED material has been documented , and found to be much brighter than DPA or PPV , so could be the basis for flexible OLED lighting in the future .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Iridium has two naturally occurring , stable isotopes , 191Ir and 193Ir , with natural abundances of 37 @.@ 3 % and 62 @.@ 7 % , respectively . At least 34 radioisotopes have also been synthesized , ranging in mass number from 164 to 199 . 192Ir , which falls between the two stable isotopes , is the most stable radioisotope , with a half @-@ life of 73 @.@ 827 days , and finds application in brachytherapy and in industrial radiography , particularly for nondestructive testing of welds in steel in the oil and gas industries ; iridium @-@ 192 sources have been involved in a number of radiological accidents . Three other isotopes have half @-@ lives of at least a day — 188Ir , 189Ir , and 190Ir . Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β + decay , α decay , and ( rare ) proton emission , with the exceptions of 189Ir , which decays by electron capture . Synthetic isotopes heavier than 191 decay by β − decay , although 192Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path . All known isotopes of iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2001 ; the most recent is 171Ir .
At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized , ranging in mass number from 164 to 197 . The most stable of these is 192m2Ir , which decays by isomeric transition with a half @-@ life of 241 years , making it more stable than any of iridium 's synthetic isotopes in their ground states . The least stable isomer is 190m3Ir with a half @-@ life of only 2 µs . The isotope 191Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a Mössbauer effect . This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics , chemistry , biochemistry , metallurgy , and mineralogy .
= = History = =
The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group . Native platinum used by ancient Ethiopians and by South American cultures always contained a small amount of the other platinum group metals , including iridium . Platinum reached Europe as platina ( " silverette " ) , found in the 17th century by the Spanish conquerors in a region today known as the department of Chocó in Colombia . The discovery that this metal was not an alloy of known elements , but instead a distinct new element , did not occur until 1748 .
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia ( a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids ) to create soluble salts . They always observed a small amount of a dark , insoluble residue . Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite . The French chemists Victor Collet @-@ Descotils , Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803 , but did not obtain enough for further experiments .
In 1803 , British scientist Smithson Tennant ( 1761 – 1815 ) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal . Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide , which he believed to be of this new metal — which he named ptene , from the Greek word πτηνός ptēnós , " winged " . Tennant , who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue , continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue , iridium and osmium . He obtained dark red crystals ( probably of Na
2 [ IrCl
6 ] · nH
2O ) by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid . He named iridium after Iris ( Ἶρις ) , the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods , because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored . Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21 , 1804 .
British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of " the greatest galvanic battery that has ever been constructed " ( at that time ) . The first to obtain high @-@ purity iridium was Robert Hare in 1842 . He found it had a density of around 21 @.@ 8 g / cm3 and noted the metal is nearly immalleable and very hard . The first melting in appreciable quantity was done by Henri Sainte @-@ Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray in 1860 . They required burning more than 300 liters of pure O
2 and H
2 gas for each kilogram of iridium .
These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the possibilities for handling iridium . John Isaac Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs , and in 1834 managed to create an iridium @-@ pointed gold pen . In 1880 , John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States ; British company Johnson Matthey later stated they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a number of World Fairs . The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933 . These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to 2000 ° C.
In Munich , Germany in 1957 Rudolf Mössbauer , in what has been called one of the " landmark experiments in twentieth @-@ century physics " , discovered the resonant and recoil @-@ free emission and absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191Ir . This phenomenon , known as the Mössbauer effect ( which has since been observed for other nuclei , such as 57Fe ) , and developed as Mössbauer spectroscopy , has made important contributions to research in physics , chemistry , biochemistry , metallurgy , and mineralogy . Mössbauer received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961 , at the age 32 , just three years after he published his discovery . In 1986 Rudolf Mössbauer was honored for his achievements with the Albert Einstein Medal and the Elliot Cresson Medal .
= = Occurrence = =
Iridium is one of the nine least abundant stable elements in Earth 's crust , having an average mass fraction of 0 @.@ 001 ppm in crustal rock ; gold is 40 times more abundant , platinum is 10 times more abundant , and silver and mercury are 80 times more abundant . Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium . In contrast to its low abundance in crustal rock , iridium is relatively common in meteorites , with concentrations of 0 @.@ 5 ppm or more . The overall concentration of iridium on Earth is thought to be much higher than what is observed in crustal rocks , but because of the density and siderophilic ( " iron @-@ loving " ) character of iridium , it descended below the crust and into Earth 's core when the planet was still molten .
Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys ; especially the iridium – osmium alloys , osmiridium ( osmium @-@ rich ) , and Iridosmium ( iridium @-@ rich ) . In the nickel and copper deposits , the platinum group metals occur as sulfides ( i.e. ( Pt , Pd ) S ) , tellurides ( i.e. PtBiTe ) , antimonides ( PdSb ) , and arsenides ( i.e. PtAs
2 ) . In all of these compounds , platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium . As with all of the platinum group metals , iridium can be found naturally in alloys with raw nickel or raw copper .
Within Earth 's crust , iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure : igneous deposits ( crustal intrusions from below ) , impact craters , and deposits reworked from one of the former structures . The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa , though the large copper – nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia , and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of iridium . Smaller reserves are found in the United States . Iridium is also found in secondary deposits , combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits . The alluvial deposits used by pre @-@ Columbian people in the Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum @-@ group metals . As of 2003 , the world reserves had not been estimated .
= = = Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary presence = = =
The Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary of 66 million years ago , marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods of geological time , was identified by a thin stratum of iridium @-@ rich clay . A team led by Luis Alvarez proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium , attributing it to an asteroid or comet impact . Their theory , known as the Alvarez hypothesis , is now widely accepted to explain the extinction of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs . A large buried impact crater structure with an estimated age of about 66 million years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula ( the Chicxulub crater ) . Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of volcanic origin instead , because Earth 's core is rich in iridium , and active volcanoes such as Piton de la Fournaise , in the island of Réunion , are still releasing iridium .
= = Production = =
Iridium is also obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel and copper mining and processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud , which forms the starting point for their extraction . To separate the metals , they must first be brought into solution . Several separation methods are available depending on the nature of the mixture ; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid .
After the mixture is dissolved , iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by precipitating ammonium hexachloroiridate ( ( NH
4 )
2IrCl
6 ) or by extracting IrCl2 −
6 with organic amines . The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollaston used for their separation . The second method can be planned as continuous liquid – liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques .
Iridium prices have fluctuated over a considerable range . With a relatively small volume in the world market ( compared to other industrial metals like aluminium or copper ) , the iridium price reacts strongly to instabilities in production , demand , speculation , hoarding , and politics in the producing countries . As a substance with rare properties , its price has been particularly influenced by changes in modern technology : The gradual decrease between 2001 and 2003 has been related to an oversupply of Ir crucibles used for industrial growth of large single crystals . Likewise the prices above 1000 USD / oz between 2010 and 2014 have been explained with the installation of production facilities for single crystal sapphire used in LED backlights for TVs .
= = Applications = =
The demand for iridium surged from 2 @.@ 5 tonnes in 2009 to 10 @.@ 4 tonnes in 2010 , mostly because of electronics @-@ related applications that saw a rise from 0 @.@ 2 to 6 tonnes – iridium crucibles are commonly used for growing large high @-@ quality single crystals , demand for which has increased sharply . This increase in iridium consumption is predicted to saturate due to accumulating stocks of crucibles , as happened earlier in the 2000s . Other major applications include spark plugs that consumed 0 @.@ 78 tonnes of iridium in 2007 , electrodes for the chloralkali process ( 1 @.@ 1 t in 2007 ) and chemical catalysts ( 0 @.@ 75 t in 2007 ) .
= = = Industrial and medical = = =
The high melting point , hardness and corrosion resistance of iridium and its alloys determine most of its applications . Iridium and especially iridium – platinum alloys or osmium – iridium alloys have a low wear and are used , for example , for multi @-@ pored spinnerets , through which a plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers , such as rayon . Osmium – iridium is used for compass bearings and for balances .
Their resistance to arc erosion makes iridium alloys ideal for electrical contacts for spark plugs , and iridium @-@ based spark plugs are particularly used in aviation .
Pure iridium is extremely brittle , to the point of being hard to weld because the heat @-@ affected zone cracks , but it can be made more ductile by addition of small quantities of titanium and zirconium ( 0 @.@ 2 % of each apparently works well )
Corrosion and heat resistance makes iridium an important alloying agent . Certain long @-@ life aircraft engine parts are made of an iridium alloy , and an iridium – titanium alloy is used for deep @-@ water pipes because of its corrosion resistance . Iridium is also used as a hardening agent in platinum alloys . The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV , whereas platinum with 50 % of iridium can reach over 500 HV .
Devices that must withstand extremely high temperatures are often made from iridium . For example , high @-@ temperature crucibles made of iridium are used in the Czochralski process to produce oxide single @-@ crystals ( such as sapphires ) for use in computer memory devices and in solid state lasers . The crystals , such as gadolinium gallium garnet and yttrium gallium garnet , are grown by melting pre @-@ sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing conditions at temperatures up to 2100 ° C.
Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid .
The radioisotope iridium @-@ 192 is one of the two most important sources of energy for use in industrial γ @-@ radiography for non @-@ destructive testing of metals . Additionally , 192Ir is used as a source of gamma radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy , a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment . Specific treatments include high @-@ dose @-@ rate prostate brachytherapy , bilary duct brachytherapy , and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy .
Iridium is a good catalyst for the decomposition of hydrazine ( into hot nitrogen and ammonia ) , and this is used in practice in low @-@ thrust rocket engines ; there are more details in the monopropellant rocket article .
= = = Scientific = = =
An alloy of 90 % platinum and 10 % iridium was used in 1889 to construct the International Prototype Metre and kilogram mass , kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris . The meter bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum of krypton , but the kilogram prototype is still the international standard of mass .
Iridium has been used in the radioisotope thermoelectric generators of unmanned spacecraft such as the Voyager , Viking , Pioneer , Cassini , Galileo , and New Horizons . Iridium was chosen to encapsulate the plutonium @-@ 238 fuel in the generator because it can withstand the operating temperatures of up to 2000 ° C and for its great strength .
Another use concerns X @-@ ray optics , especially X @-@ ray telescopes . The mirrors of the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory are coated with a layer of iridium 60 nm thick . Iridium proved to be the best choice for reflecting X @-@ rays after nickel , gold , and platinum were also tested . The iridium layer , which had to be smooth to within a few atoms , was applied by depositing iridium vapor under high vacuum on a base layer of chromium .
Iridium is used in particle physics for the production of antiprotons , a form of antimatter . Antiprotons are made by shooting a high @-@ intensity proton beam at a conversion target , which needs to be made from a very high density material . Although tungsten may be used instead , iridium has the advantage of better stability under the shock waves induced by the temperature rise due to the incident beam .
Carbon – hydrogen bond activation ( C – H activation ) is an area of research on reactions that cleave carbon – hydrogen bonds , which were traditionally regarded as unreactive . The first reported successes at activating C – H bonds in saturated hydrocarbons , published in 1982 , used organometallic iridium complexes that undergo an oxidative addition with the hydrocarbon .
Iridium complexes are being investigated as catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation . These catalysts have been used in the synthesis of natural products and able to hydrogenate certain difficult substrates , such as unfunctionalized alkenes , enantioselectively ( generating only one of the two possible enantiomers ) .
Iridium forms a variety of complexes of fundamental interest in triplet harvesting .
= = = Historical = = =
Iridium – osmium alloys were used to tip fountain pen nibs . The first major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted on gold . Since 1944 , the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with a nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy ( with 3 @.@ 8 % iridium ) . The tip material in modern fountain pens is still conventionally called " iridium " , although there is seldom any iridium in it ; other metals such as tungsten have taken its place .
An iridium – platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent pieces of cannon . According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of 1867 , one of the pieces being exhibited by Johnson and Matthey " has been used in a Withworth gun for more than 3000 rounds , and scarcely shows signs of wear yet . Those who know the constant trouble and expense which are occasioned by the wearing of the vent @-@ pieces of cannon when in active service , will appreciate this important adaptation " .
The pigment iridium black , which consists of very finely divided iridium , is used for painting porcelain an intense black ; it was said that " all other porcelain black colors appear grey by the side of it " .
= = Precautions = =
Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity with tissues ; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue . Like most metals , finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle , as it is an irritant and may ignite in air . Very little is known about the toxicity of iridium compounds because they are used in very small amounts , but soluble salts , such as the iridium halides , could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to iridium itself . However , most iridium compounds are insoluble , which makes absorption into the body difficult .
A radioisotope of iridium , 192Ir , is dangerous like other radioactive isotopes . The only reported injuries related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from 192Ir used in brachytherapy . High @-@ energy gamma radiation from 192Ir can increase the risk of cancer . External exposure can cause burns , radiation poisoning , and death . Ingestion of 192Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines . 192Ir , 192mIr , and 194mIr tend to deposit in the liver , and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta radiation .
|
= NeXT =
NeXT , Inc . ( later NeXT Computer , Inc. and NeXT Software , Inc ) was an American computer company headquartered in Redwood City , California , that developed and manufactured a series of computer workstations intended for the higher education and business markets . NeXT was founded in 1985 by Apple Computer co @-@ founder Steve Jobs , after he resigned from Apple , along with his co @-@ workers . NeXT introduced the first NeXT Computer in 1988 , and the smaller NeXTstation in 1990 . The NeXT computers experienced relatively limited sales , with estimates of about 50 @,@ 000 units shipped in total . Nevertheless , their innovative object @-@ oriented NeXTSTEP operating system and development environment were highly influential .
The NeXT Computer and NeXTSTEP operating system were the platform used for creating the World Wide Web , as well as creating the first app store , which was originally demonstrated to Steve Jobs in 1993 .
NeXT later released much of the NeXTSTEP system as a programming environment standard called OpenStep . NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Mach , its own OpenStep implementation , for several OEMs . NeXT also developed WebObjects , one of the first enterprise Web application frameworks . WebObjects never became very popular because of its initial high price of $ 50 @,@ 000 , but it remains a prominent early example of a Web server based on dynamic page generation rather than on static content .
Apple purchased NeXT in 1997 for $ 429 million and 1 @.@ 5 million shares of Apple stock . As part of the agreement , Steve Jobs , Chairman and CEO of NeXT Software , returned to Apple , the company he had co @-@ founded in 1976 . The founder promised to merge software from NeXT with Apple 's hardware platforms , eventually resulting in OS X , iOS , and now watchOS and tvOS . Parts of these operating systems incorporated the OPENSTEP foundation .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1985 , Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs was the head of Apple 's SuperMicro division , which was responsible for the development of the Macintosh and Lisa personal computers . The Macintosh had been successful on university campuses in considerable part because of the Apple University Consortium , which allowed students and institutions to buy the computers at a discount . The consortium had sold more than $ 50 million in computers by February 1984 .
While chairman , Jobs visited university departments and faculty members to sell Macintosh . Jobs met Paul Berg , a Nobel Laureate in chemistry , at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor François Mitterrand , then President of France . Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet laboratories , used for the testing and analysis of chemicals , drugs , and other materials or biological matter . Wet labs were prohibitively expensive for lower @-@ level courses and were too complex to be simulated on personal computers of the time . Berg suggested to Jobs to use his influence at Apple to create a " 3M computer " workstation for higher education , featuring more than one megabyte of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , a megapixel display and megaFLOP performance , hence the name " 3M " .
Jobs was intrigued by Berg 's concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education computer company in the fall of 1985 , amidst increasing turmoil at Apple . Jobs ' division did not release upgraded versions of the Macintosh and most of the Macintosh Office . As a result , sales plummeted , and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory . Apple 's chief executive officer ( CEO ) John Sculley ousted Jobs from his day @-@ to @-@ day role at Apple , replacing him with Jean @-@ Louis Gassée in 1985 . Later that year , Jobs began a power struggle to regain control of the company . The board of directors sided with Sculley while Jobs took a business visit to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple .
= = = Original NeXT team = = =
After several months of being sidelined , Jobs resigned from Apple on September 13 , 1985 . He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company , and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him . He also told the board that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing its designs back to them to market under the Macintosh brand .
Jobs named his new company Next , Inc . A number of former Apple employees followed him to Next , including Joanna Hoffman , Bud Tribble , George Crow , Rich Page , Susan Barnes , Susan Kare , and Dan 'l Lewin . After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country , including a follow @-@ up meeting with Paul Berg , a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up . It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and cheap enough for college students to use in their dormitory rooms . Before the specifications were finished , however , Apple sued Next for " nefarious schemes " to take advantage of the cofounders ' insider information . Jobs remarked , " It is hard to think that a $ 2 billion company with 4 @,@ 300 @-@ plus people couldn 't compete with six people in blue jeans . " The suit was eventually dismissed before trial .
In 1986 , Jobs recruited the famous graphic designer Paul Rand to create a brand identity costing $ 100 @,@ 000 . Rand created a 100 @-@ page brochure detailing the brand , including the precise angle used for the logo ( 28 ° ) and a new company name , NeXT . The first major outside investment was from Ross Perot , who invested after seeing a segment about NeXT on The Entrepreneurs . In 1987 , he invested $ 20 million in exchange for 16 percent of NeXT 's stock and subsequently joined the board of directors in 1988 .
= = = 1987 – 93 : NeXT Computer = = =
= = = = First generation = = = =
NeXT changed its business plan in mid @-@ 1986 . The company decided to develop both computer hardware and software , instead of just a low @-@ end workstation . A team led by Avie Tevanian , who had joined the company after working as one of the Mach kernel engineers at Carnegie Mellon University , was to develop the NeXTSTEP operating system . The hardware division , led by Rich Page — one of the cofounders who had previously led the Apple Lisa team — designed and developed the hardware . NeXT 's first factory was completed in Fremont , California in 1987 . It was capable of producing 150 @,@ 000 machines per year . NeXT 's first workstation was officially named the NeXT Computer , although it was widely termed " the cube " because of its distinctive case , a 1 ft magnesium cube , designed by Apple IIc case designer Frogdesign in accordance with an edit from Jobs .
The original design team had anticipated releasing the computer for US $ 3 @,@ 000 in spring of 1987 to be ready for sale by summer of that year . Prototype workstations were eventually shown to standing ovations on October 12 , 1988 . The NeXT Computer was revealed at a lavish , invitation @-@ only gala event , " NeXT Introduction — the Introduction to the NeXT Generation of Computers for Education " at the Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall , San Francisco , California on Wednesday October 12 , 1988 . The following day , selected educators and software developers were invited ( for $ 100 registration fee ) to attend the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at an event called " The NeXT Day " held at the San Francisco Hilton . This event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture , object @-@ oriented programming and developing for the NeXT Computer . The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs .
The first machines were tested in 1989 , after which NeXT started selling limited numbers to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system installed . Initially the NeXT Computer was targeted at U.S. higher education establishments only , with a base price of $ 6 @,@ 500 . The machine was widely reviewed in magazines , generally concentrating on the hardware . When asked if he was upset that the computer 's debut was delayed by several months , Jobs responded , " Late ? This computer is five years ahead of its time ! "
The NeXT Computer was based on the new 25 MHz Motorola 68030 central processing unit ( CPU ) . The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered , but was not available in sufficient quantities . It included between 8 and 64 MB of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , a 256 MB magneto @-@ optical ( MO ) drive , a 40 MB ( swap @-@ only ) , 330 MB , or 660 MB hard disk drive , 10BASE2 Ethernet , NuBus and a 17 @-@ inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels . In 1989 a typical new PC , Macintosh , or Amiga computer included a few megabytes of RAM , a 640 × 480 16 @-@ color or 320x240 4000 @-@ color display , a 10 to 20 megabyte hard drive and few networking capabilities . It also was the first computer to ship with a general @-@ purpose DSP chip ( Motorola 56001 ) on the motherboard . This was used to support sophisticated music and sound processing , including the Music Kit software .
The magneto @-@ optical drive manufactured by Canon Inc. was used as the primary mass storage device . These drives were relatively new to the market , and the NeXT was the first computer to use them . They were cheaper than hard drives ( blank media especially so : though each had a cost of $ 150 to Canon , Jobs 's typically forthright negotiations saw Canon agree to a retail of only $ 50 apiece ) but slower ( with an average seek time of 96 ms ) . The design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network , since each NeXT Computer had only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system . Storage options proved challenging for the first NeXT Computers . The magneto @-@ optical media was relatively expensive and had performance and reliability problems despite being faster than a floppy drive . The drive was not sufficient to run as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system both in terms of speed and capacity .
In 1989 , NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller Businessland to sell NeXT computers in select markets nationwide . Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT 's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions . Businessland founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months .
In 1989 , Canon invested US $ 100 million in NeXT , giving it a 16 @.@ 67 percent stake , making NeXT worth almost $ 600 million . Canon invested in NeXT with the condition that it would be able to use the NeXTSTEP environment with its own workstations , which would mean a greatly expanded market for the software . After NeXT exited the hardware business , Canon produced a line of PCs , called object.station , including models 31 , 41 , 50 and 52 , specifically designed to run NeXTSTEP / Intel . Canon also served as NeXT 's distributor in Japan .
The first NeXT computers were released on the retail market in 1990 , for $ 9 @,@ 999 . NeXT 's original investor Ross Perot resigned from the board of directors in June 1991 to dedicate more time to Perot Systems , a Plano , Texas @-@ based systems integrator .
= = = = Second generation = = = =
NeXT released a second generation of workstations in 1990 . The new range included a revised NeXT Computer , renamed the NeXTcube , and the NeXTstation , nicknamed " the slab , " which used a " pizza box " case form @-@ factor . Jobs was explicit in ensuring NeXT staff did not use the latter terminology , lest the NeXT machines be compared to competing Sun workstations . The magneto @-@ optical drive was replaced with a 2 @.@ 88 MB floppy drive to offer users a way to use their floppy disks . However , individual 2 @.@ 88 MB floppies were expensive and the technology did not supplant the 1 @.@ 44 MB floppy . Realizing this , NeXT utilized the CD @-@ ROM drive , which eventually became an industry standard for storage . Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and the NeXTdimension graphics processor hardware for the NeXTcube . The new computers were cheaper and faster than their predecessors , with the new Motorola 68040 processor .
In 1992 , NeXT launched " Turbo " variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB . NeXT sold 20 @,@ 000 computers in 1992 ( NeXT counted upgraded motherboards on back order as sales ) — a small number compared with their competitors . However , the company reported sales of $ 140 million for the year , encouraging Canon to invest a further $ 30 million to keep the company afloat .
In total , 50 @,@ 000 NeXT machines were sold , including thousands to the then super secret National Reconnaissance Office located in Chantilly , Virginia . NeXT 's long @-@ term aim was to migrate to the RISC ( Reduced Instruction Set Computing ) architecture , a processor design strategy intended to increase performance . The project was known as the NeXT RISC Workstation ( NRW ) . Initially the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor , but due to a lack of confidence in Motorola 's commitment to the 88000 @-@ series architecture , it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s . NeXT produced some motherboards and enclosures , but exited the hardware business before full production .
= = = = Software applications = = = =
NeXT computers were delivered with Mathematica pre @-@ installed . Several developers used the NeXT platform to write pioneering programs . Tim Berners @-@ Lee used a NeXT Computer in 1990 to create the first Web browser and Web server ; accordingly , NeXT was instrumental in the development of the World Wide Web .
NeXT was an engineering computer used by professors for the most serious science challenges , and also for developing finished newspaper layouts using News running on Next . George Mason University in the early 1990s had a set of them for publishing , as well as Silicon Graphics for CAD / GL and Mathematica for astrophysics . The games Doom , Doom II : Hell on Earth and Quake were developed by id Software on NeXT machines . Other games based on the Doom engine , such as Heretic and Hexen : Beyond Heretic by Raven Software , as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using id 's tools .
Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers , including Altsys Virtuoso , a vector drawing program with page @-@ layout features which was ported to Mac OS and Microsoft Windows as Aldus FreeHand v4 , and the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program . The systems also came with a number of smaller built @-@ in applications , such as the Merriam @-@ Webster Collegiate Dictionary , Oxford Quotations , the complete works of William Shakespeare , and the Digital Librarian search engine to access them .
= = = 1993 – 96 : NeXT Software = = =
NeXT started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to IBM PC compatible computers using the Intel 80486 processor in late 1991 . The operating system was ported to Intel 's architecture because of a change in NeXT 's business strategy , which was then to remove themselves from the hardware business entirely . A demonstration of the port was displayed at the NeXTWorld Expo in January 1992 . By mid @-@ 1993 the product was complete and version 3 @.@ 1 , also known as NeXTSTEP 486 , was released . Prior to the release of NeXTSTEP , Chrysler planned to buy 3 @,@ 000 copies in 1992 .
NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to PA @-@ RISC and SPARC @-@ based platforms , for a total of four versions : NeXTSTEP / NeXT ( for NeXT 's 68k " black boxes " ) , NeXTSTEP / Intel , NeXTSTEP / PA @-@ RISC and NeXTSTEP / SPARC . Although these ports were not widely used , NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD , Swiss Bank Corporation , O 'Connor and Company , and other organizations owing to its programming model . It was also used by many American federal agencies , such as United States Naval Research Laboratory , the National Security Agency , the Advanced Research Projects Agency , the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office . Some IBM PC clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions that were delivered running NeXTSTEP on Intel , such as the Elonex NextStation and the Canon object.station 41 .
NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 and the company was renamed NeXT Software Inc ; consequently , 300 of the 540 staff employees were laid off . NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business , including the Fremont factory , to Canon . Canon later pulled out of the deal . Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped , along with all hardware production . CEO of Sun Microsystems Scott McNealy announced plans to invest $ 10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software ( OpenStep ) in future Sun systems . NeXT partnered with Sun to create OpenStep which was NeXTSTEP sans the Mach @-@ based kernel .
After dropping the hardware business , NeXT returned to selling a toolkit to run on other operating systems , in effect returning to the original business plan . New products based on OpenStep were released , including OpenStep Enterprise , a version for Microsoft 's Windows NT . The company also launched WebObjects , a platform for building large @-@ scale dynamic web applications . Many large businesses including Dell , Disney , WorldCom , and the BBC used this WebObjects software for a short time . In the modern day , WebObjects is used almost solely to power Apple 's iTunes Store and most of its corporate Web site .
= = = 1996 – 97 : Apple merger = = =
Apple Computer announced an intention to acquire NeXT on December 20 , 1996 . Apple paid $ 429 million in cash , which went to the initial investors and 1 @.@ 5 million Apple shares , which went to Steve Jobs , who was deliberately not given cash for his part in the deal . The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated Mac OS , instead of BeOS or the in @-@ development Copland . The deal was finalized on February 7 , 1997 , bringing Jobs back to Apple as a consultant , who was later appointed as interim CEO . In 2000 Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment .
Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Steve Jobs restructured the company 's board of directors . Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture . At the same time , an Intel port and OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were both produced . The operating system was code named Rhapsody , while the toolkit for development on all platforms was called " Yellow Box " . For backwards compatibility Apple added the " Blue Box " to Rhapsody , allowing existing Mac applications to be run in a self @-@ contained cooperative multitasking environment .
A server version of the new operating system was released as Mac OS X Server 1 @.@ 0 in 1999 , and the first consumer version , Mac OS X 10 @.@ 0 , in 2001 . The OpenStep developer toolkit was renamed Cocoa . Rhapsody 's Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment and changed to run applications full @-@ screen without requiring a separate window . Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox , called Carbon , that gave existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box . Some of NeXTSTEP 's interface features were used in Mac OS X , including the Dock , the Services menu , the Finder 's " browser " view , and the Cocoa text system .
NeXTSTEP 's processor @-@ independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X , leading to both PowerPC and Intel x86 versions ( although only PowerPC versions were publicly available before 2006 ) . Apple moved to Intel processors by August 2006 .
= = Corporate culture and community = =
Jobs created a different corporate culture at NeXT in terms of facilities , salaries , and benefits . Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures , instead making a " community " with " members " instead of employees . There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s . Team members who joined before 1986 were paid $ 75 @,@ 000 while those who joined afterwards were paid $ 50 @,@ 000 . This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees . Employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months because of the spartan salary plans . To foster openness , all employees had full access to the payrolls , although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege . NeXT 's health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples but unmarried couples and same @-@ sex couples , although the latter privilege was later withdrawn due to insurance complications . The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time : instead of getting paid twice a month at the end of the pay period , employees would get paid once a month in advance .
Jobs found office space in Palo Alto , California on 3475 Deer Creek Road , occupying a glass and concrete building which featured a staircase designed by architect I. M. Pei . The first floor used hardwood flooring and large worktables where the workstations would be assembled . To avoid inventory errors , NeXT used the just @-@ in @-@ time ( JIT ) inventory strategy . The company contracted out for all major components such as mainboards and cases and had the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly . The second floor was the office space with an open floor plan . The only enclosed rooms were Jobs 's office and a few conference rooms .
As NeXT expanded , more office space was needed . The company rented an office at 800 and 900 Chesapeake Drive in Redwood City , also designed by Pei . The architectural centerpiece was a " floating " staircase with no visible supports . The open floor plan was retained , although furnishings became luxurious , with $ 5 @,@ 000 chairs , $ 10 @,@ 000 sofas and Ansel Adams prints .
NeXT 's first former campus in Palo Alto was subsequently occupied by SAP AG . Its second former campus in Redwood City was occupied by ApniCure and OncoMed Pharmaceuticals Inc .
The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine was printed in 1991 . It was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media and edited by Michael Miley and later Dan Ruby . It was the only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers , the operating system , and NeXT software . Publication was discontinued in 1994 after only four volumes were released . A NeXTWORLD Expo followed as a developer conference , held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 and 1994 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco , with Steve Jobs as the keynote speaker .
= = Influence on the computer industry = =
Steve Jobs pooled the finest of over @-@ specified hardware and software into NeXT , and also the company added innovations of their own . As such , it was the machine of choice for well @-@ funded science departments that , of course , were Unix @-@ friendly at the time .
Despite NeXT 's limited commercial success , the company had a wide @-@ ranging impact on the computer industry . Object @-@ oriented programming and graphical user interfaces became more common after the 1988 release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP , when other companies started to emulate NeXT 's object @-@ oriented system . Apple started the Taligent project in 1989 , with the goal of building a NeXT @-@ like operating system for the Macintosh , with collaboration from both Hewlett @-@ Packard and IBM .
Microsoft announced the Cairo project in 1991 ; the Cairo specification included similar object @-@ oriented user interface features for a coming consumer version of Windows NT . Although the project was ultimately abandoned , some elements were integrated into other projects . By 1994 , Microsoft and NeXT were collaborating on a Windows NT @-@ port of OpenStep ; the port , however , was never released .
WebObjects failed to achieve wide popularity partly because of the initial high price of US $ 50 @,@ 000 , but it remains the first and most prominent early example of a web application server which enabled dynamic page generation based on user interactions as opposed to static content . WebObjects is now bundled with OS X Server and Xcode .
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= R v Secretary of State for Home Affairs , ex p O 'Brien =
R v Secretary of State for Home Affairs ex parte O 'Brien [ 1923 ] 2 KB 361 was a 1923 test case in English law that sought to have the internment and deportation of Irish nationalist sympathisers earlier that year declared legally invalid . In March 1923 between 80 and 100 suspected Irish nationalists in Britain were arrested by the police and sent to the Irish Free State under the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 ( ROIA ) . One of the detainees , Art O 'Brien , challenged his detention in a test case at the Divisional Court . The case eventually went to both the Court of Appeal and House of Lords , who decided that the internments were illegal because the Irish Free State was an independent nation and so British Acts of Parliament no longer applied to it .
The decision effectively illegalised the ROIA and led to the immediate release of O 'Brien and the other detained individuals , who sued the British Government for false imprisonment . The government pushed through the Restoration of Order in Ireland ( Indemnity ) Act 1923 , which limited the money they had to pay the detainees , who eventually received £ 43 @,@ 000 . O 'Brien himself was re @-@ arrested and found guilty of sedition , and was imprisoned until 1924 .
= = Background = =
Following the Irish War of Independence the Irish Free State was set up as an independent British Dominion covering most of the island of Ireland . After a brief civil war between the pro @-@ Free State forces and members of the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) who wanted any independent nation to cover the entire island the status of the Irish Free State was confirmed , and the IRA forced underground . The IRA had supporters in the United Kingdom , working openly as the Irish Self @-@ Determination League ( ISDL ) , and the Free State government shared the names of these supporters with the British authorities , who kept a close eye on them . Between February and March they provided information on individuals that they said were part of widespread plots against the Irish Free State being prepared on British soil . On 11 March 1923 the police in Britain arrested IRA sympathisers living in Britain including Art O 'Brien , the head of the ISDL . Sources disagree on numbers , giving either approximately eighty or approximately 100 . The arrested men were placed on special trains and sent to Liverpool , where they were transferred to Dublin via a Royal Navy destroyer . It later transpired that not only were many British citizens ( Art O 'Brien himself had been born in England ) , at least six had never even been to Ireland before .
The next day the arrests were publicly queried in the House of Commons , and a Labour backbencher Jack Jones started a debate on the subject in the afternoon . W.C. Bridgeman , the Home Secretary , said that he had directly ordered the police to arrest the ISDL members under the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 , and that he had consulted the Attorney General who considered it legal .
= = Divisional Court = =
A few days after the arrests the solicitors for one of the deported men , Art O 'Brien , got in contact with Sir Patrick Hastings KC , a Member of Parliament for the Labour Party and a noted barrister . On 23 March 1923 Hastings represented O 'Brien in front of a Divisional Court consisting of Mr Justice Avory and Mr Justice Salter to apply for a writ of habeas corpus for O 'Brien as a test case to allow the release of the others . The initial hearing did not go anywhere because Hastings was unable to provide an affidavit from O 'Brien ( who was in Mountjoy Prison ) , which was required for a writ of habeas corpus to be considered , but by the time the hearing was resumed on 10 April he had managed to obtain one . Hastings argued that because the Irish Free State was an independent nation the British laws governing it , such as the 1920 act , were effectively repealed . In addition the Home Secretary had no power to order an individual to be detained overseas because he had no control over what happened to them there .
The court eventually declared that they could not issue a writ , because the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 prevented them from issuing a writ to any colony possessing a court which could also issue a writ . Since Ireland possessed such a court , the English Divisional Court could not act . Hastings attempted to argue that the writ could be issued against the Home Secretary but this also failed , since the Home Secretary did not actually possess O 'Brien .
= = Court of Appeal and House of Lords = =
The decision was then appealed to the Court of Appeal and argued on 23 and 24 April . The Court of Appeal reversed the Divisional Court 's decision . The court decided that the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 had been implicitly repealed when the Irish Free State , an independent nation , came into existence . In addition it was not proper for the Home Secretary to order the detention and deportation of someone overseas , since they had no control over what happened to them . It was completely appropriate to issue a writ of habeas corpus against the Home Secretary because , even though he did not physically have O 'Brien , he was considered responsible for him . The Home Secretary was accordingly ordered to produce O 'Brien before the court on 16 May .
He appealed to the House of Lords , who decided ( led by Lord Birkenhead ) that they did not have the jurisdiction to hear the appeal , since a rule of English law specifies that once a writ of habeas corpus is issued ( as it was by the Court of Appeal ) no superior court can overrule it . After a further attempt to keep O 'Brien in custody ( simply by not letting him out of prison ) he was finally released on 16 May .
= = Aftermath = =
O 'Brien immediately sued the British Government for false imprisonment , and to avoid any liability the government prepared the Restoration of Order in Ireland ( Indemnity ) Act 1923 which would indemnify them against any claims for damages by the imprisoned sympathisers . The Labour Party whittled it down when it was being prepared so that it would only limit compensation rather than remove it entirely . A tribunal was set up under Lord Atkin to assess damages , and the sympathisers as a whole were eventually paid £ 43 @,@ 000 . Art O 'Brien himself was arrested soon after release and convicted of sedition . He was released in 1924 .
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= Amanita australis =
Amanita australis is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family . It is found only in New Zealand , where it occurs in Leptospermum and Nothofagus forest . The species was first described by New Zealand mycologist Greta Stevenson in 1962 ; in the same publication Stevenson also described what she thought was a unique species , Limacella macrospora , but over 30 years later this was reduced to synonymy with A. australis .
Amanita australis produces small- to medium @-@ sized fruit bodies , with brown caps up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter covered with pyramidal warts . The gills on the underside of the cap are white , closely crowded together , and free from attachment to the stem . The stem , which is up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long and 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , has a ring and a bulbous base . The mushroom may be confused with another endemic New Zealand species , A. nothofagi , but can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Amanita australis was first described by Greta Stevenson in 1962 , based on specimens she collected in April 1954 around Lake Rotoiti in Nelson Lakes National Park , in New Zealand . In the same publication , Stevenson described Limacella macrospora , collected in 1952 at Day 's Bay near Wellington . Stevenson thought this was a new species different from any previously described Limacella because of its larger size and amyloid spores . Austrian mycologist Egon Horak later transferred it to the genus Oudemansiella , but did not provide a reason for making the new combination . In 1986 , Pegler and Young proposed a classification for Oudemansiella based largely on spore structure , but they excluded O. macrospora , considering it a species of Amanita . Geoff Ridley examined Stevenson 's holotype material and reduced L. macrosporus to synonymy with A. australis in 1993 , explaining :
The size , shape and amyloid reaction of the spores , the dimensions of the basidia , the presence of clamp connections and lamella margin cells indicate that this is Amanita australis Stevenson and easily fits into the concept of this taxon . ... Macroscopically the specimen lacks the typical pronounced basal bulb to the stipe and volva remnants on the pileus ; however , it is not an unknown condition in this taxon .
Although Stevenson originally placed the species in Amanita section Phalloideae because of a perceived similarity to A. citrina , it is now classified in section Validae ; many species in this section have bulbous stem bases . Ridley suggests an appropriate common name would be the " straw flycap " , while Rodham Tulloss calls it the " far south Amanita " . The specific epithet australis means " southern " .
= = Description = =
The shape of the A. australis cap is initially convex , later flattening out or even developing a central depression , and reaching diameters of 20 – 90 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 4 in ) wide . The cap margin sometimes splits and rolls back to give a ragged appearance . The centre of the cap is dark buff , honey or isabelline , becoming paler to buff at the margin . The surface is sticky when young or wet , but dries out with age . The remnants of the volva form conical to pyramidal warts that are most densely aggregated in the center , but become sparse and low towards the margin . They are initially white then greyish @-@ sepia or isabelline with white to buff tips .
The gills are crowded closely together , free from attachment to the stem , 6 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide , and white . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) have truncated ends . The stem is 37 – 90 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) tall , 6 – 26 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 02 in ) in diameter , and narrowest at center . It is hollow , and has an abruptly bulbous base that is between 14 and 38 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 and 1 @.@ 50 in ) in diameter . The surface of the stem above the level of the ring is white and covered in woolly tufts of mycelia ; below the ring it is white with buff to greyish transverse , grooved bands . The base may or may not have a rim of volval remnants that are powdery , and a greyish @-@ buff to greyish @-@ sepia colour . The ring is membranous , white to buff , first hanging freely then later adhering to the stem . The flesh of the cap is white , occasionally pale isabelline under the center of the cap ; the flesh of the stem is white .
The spore print is white . The spores are typically 9 – 12 by 8 – 10 @.@ 5 µm , spherical to ellipsoid , and thin @-@ walled . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , and amyloid — meaning they will stain bluish @-@ black to black in Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are 43 @.@ 5 – 76 @.@ 5 by 10 @.@ 5 – 17 µm , mostly four @-@ spored , and clamped at their bases . There are abundant spherical , elliptic or club @-@ shaped hyaline cells on the gill edges , measuring 16 – 39 @.@ 5 by 10 @.@ 5 – 27 @.@ 5 µm . The cap cuticle is 220 – 270 µm wide , consisting of a gelatinised suprapellis ( upper layer ) and non @-@ gelatinised subpellis ( lower layer ) . The volval remnants on the cap consist of abundant spherical , club @-@ shaped , or turnip @-@ shaped cells , measuring 10 – 86 by 9 – 85 µm . These cells are umber in colour , and arranged in chains perpendicular to the cap surface , becoming smaller and paler at tip of the wart , subtended by moderately abundant hyphae that are 4 – 10 µm wide . Clamp connections are abundant in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita australis mushrooms that have lost their warts and have had the colours faded may resemble another New Zealand species , A. nothofagi . The two species may be distinguished reliably using microscopy — A. nothofagi does not have clamp connections at the base of the basidia , unlike A. australis.A. australis also bears some resemblance to the eastern North American and east Asian species A. abrupta , which also has an abruptly bulbous stem base .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Amanita australis is found only on the north and south islands of New Zealand , where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with Southern Beech ( genus Nothofagus ) ( including New Zealand Red Beech , Silver beech , New Zealand Black Beech , Hard Beech ) , Manuka , and Kānuka . The mushroom usually grows solitarily , but has on rare occasions been found growing in groups .
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= Jaws 3 @-@ D =
Jaws 3 @-@ D ( also known as Jaws 3 or Jaws III ) is a 1983 American thriller film directed by Joe Alves and starring Dennis Quaid , Bess Armstrong , Lea Thompson and Louis Gossett , Jr . It is the second sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws and the third installment in the Jaws franchise . The film follows the Brody children from the previous films at SeaWorld , a Florida marine park with underwater tunnels and lagoons . As the park prepares for opening , a young great white shark infiltrates the park from the sea , seemingly attacking and killing the park 's employees . Once the shark is captured , it becomes apparent that it was a second , much larger shark who also entered the park , that was the real culprit .
The film is notable for making use of 3D film during the revived interest in the technology in the 1980s , amongst other horror films such as Friday the 13th Part III and Amityville 3D . Cinema audiences could wear disposable cardboard polarized 3D glasses to create the illusion that elements penetrate the screen . Several shots and sequences were designed to utilise the effect , such as the shark 's destruction . Since 3D was ineffective in home viewing until the advent of 3D televisions in the late 2000s , the alternative title Jaws III is used for television broadcasts , VHS and DVD . Jaws 3 @-@ D received negative reviews and was followed by Jaws : The Revenge in 1987 .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with a great white shark moving throughout the ocean as it starts to follow an unsuspecting team of water skiers . The driver , Richie , stalls the boat and manages to get it going again before the shark can attack anyone . The shark follows the water skiers into the park and throws the gate off its rails while it is closing . Meanwhile , Florida announces the opening of SeaWorld 's new underwater tunnels .
Kathryn " Kay " Morgan , the senior marine biologist , and her assistants wonder why the dolphins , Cindy and Sandy , are so afraid of leaving their dolphin pen . Shelby Overman , one of the mechanics , dives into the water to repair and secure the gates . He is attacked by a shark and killed , leaving only his severed right arm . Additionally that night , two men in diving equipment sneak into the park in a small inflatable boat to steal coral they intend to sell . One slips into the water quietly , but is taken by the shark , leaving only his diving mask drifting in the water . The other man is pulled into the water also ; then something sinks the inflatable .
The next day , Michael Brody and Kay are informed of Overman 's disappearance . They go down in a submarine to look in the tunnels to find Overman 's body . Kay suggests the filtration pipe but Mike says that the current is too strong and that it flows into the lagoon every hour . They decide to go into a piece of scenery , the Spanish Galleon , despite the two dolphins attempting to keep them out . As they search the Spanish Galleon they encounter a small great white shark . The dolphins rescue Kay and Mike but the shark escapes back into the park .
The news of the shark is disbelieved by Calvin Bouchard , the SeaWorld park manager , although the news is exciting to his hunter friend , Phillip FitzRoyce , who states his intention to kill the shark on network television . Kay protests , arguing that while killing the shark would be good for one headline , capturing and keeping a great white shark alive in captivity would guarantee TV crews and money constantly rolling into SeaWorld . The young shark is captured and Kay and her staff nurse it to health . Calvin , desperate to start the money rolling in immediately , orders it moved to an exhibit as " the first great white in captivity " . However , the shark dies in the exhibit .
At the underwater tunnel , a girl is terrified when she sees part of Overman 's corpse bob up to a window . Forcing Mike and a paramedic to let her review Overman 's corpse , Kay realizes that the shark that killed him must be the young shark 's mother , and that since Overman was killed inside the park , the mother shark must also be inside the park ; the shape of the bite shows that the shark 's mouth must be about 3 feet wide and thus the shark about 35 feet long . She captures the attention of FitzRoyce , but she cannot convince Calvin until the enormous shark herself shows up at the window of their underwater cafe , terrifying the customers .
Flushed out from her refuge inside the filtration pipe , the shark begins to wreak havoc on the park and attacks water skier Kelly Ann Bukowski and Sean Brody . The shark injures Kelly in the left leg and leaves . Sean is unharmed but the shark causes a leak that nearly drowns everyone in the underwater tunnel . FitzRoyce and his assistant Jack go down to the filtration pipe in an attempt to trap the shark back inside to kill it . FitzRoyce leads the shark into the pipe but his lifeline rope snaps and the shark attacks him . FitzRoyce grabs a grenade and prepares to use it , but before he can get his other hand to the grenade to pull its safety pin he is crushed and chewed , in the shark 's mouth as it swallows him fins first , cylinder and all as far as it can .
Hearing the shark has been lured into the pipe , Michael goes down to repair the underwater tunnel so the technicians can restore air pressure and drain the water , with Kay to watch his back . He welds the repair piece and Calvin orders the pump shut down to suffocate the shark , but all shutting the pump down does is let her break free from the pipe and attack Mike and Kay . They escape thanks to help from Cindy and Sandy , who attack the shark to distract her briefly .
They make their way back to the control room with Calvin and the technicians , but the shark appears in front of the window and smashes its way through the glass and floods the room . Calvin manages to swim out and rescue one technician but another technician is killed in the process . Mike notices FitzRoyce 's corpse still in the shark 's throat with the grenade in his hand trailing into its mouth , and uses a bent pole to pull the grenade 's pin , killing the shark . Its jaws then float through the blood and water and are shown to the viewer in 3D .
In the aftermath , Mike and Kay celebrate with Cindy and Sandy , who survived their brush with the shark at the snapshot to portraits as the background and screen fades to black and the movie ends .
= = Cast = =
Dennis Quaid as Michael ' Mike ' Brody
Bess Armstrong as Kathryn " Kay " Morgan
Simon MacCorkindale as Philip FitzRoyce , 16th Earl of Haddenfield
Louis Gossett , Jr. as Calvin Bouchard
John Putch as Sean Brody
John W. Wilson as 3D Shark
Lea Thompson as Kelly Ann Bukowski
Harry Grant as Shelby Overman
P. H. Moriarty as Jack Tate
Dan Glasko as Danny
Liz Morris as Liz
Lisa Maurer as Ethal
Kaye Stevens as Mrs Kellender
= = Production = =
David Brown and Richard Zanuck , the producers for the first two films , originally pitched the second Jaws sequel as a spoof named Jaws 3 , People 0 . Matty Simmons , fresh off the success of National Lampoon 's Animal House , was brought in as producer , with Brown and Zanuck taking on executive producer roles . Simmons outlined a story and commissioned National Lampoon writers John Hughes and Todd Carroll for a script . Joe Dante was briefly pursued as a director . The project was shut down due to conflicts with Universal Studios . David Brown later said that the studio attitude was that a spoof would have been a mistake and that it would be like " fouling in your own nest . We should have fouled the nest . It would have been golden , maybe even platinum . "
Alan Landsburg bought the rights to produce the film . He attempted to involve experimental filmmaker Murray Lerner in Jaws 3 , telling him that people at the Marineland theme park in Florida had seen his 1978 3D film Sea Dream . Lerner said that his " heart sank " when he was sent the first script of Jaws 3 @-@ D , saying " I can 't really get involved in this " . As the production already had an art director , Lerner , who didn 't like the script , declined to be involved in the film .
The film was directed by Joe Alves , who was the production designer for the first two films and was the second unit director for Jaws 2 . It had been suggested that Alves co @-@ direct the first sequel with Verna Fields when first director John D. Hancock left the project . It was filmed at SeaWorld Orlando , a landlocked water park ; and Navarre , Florida , a community in the Florida Panhandle near Pensacola .
As with the first two films in the series , many people were involved in writing the film . Richard Matheson , who had written the script for Steven Spielberg 's celebrated 1971 television film Duel , says that he wrote a " very interesting " outline , although the story is credited to " some other writer " . Universal forced Matheson to include Brody 's two sons , which the writer " thought was dumb " . They also wanted it to be the same shark that was electrocuted in Jaws 2 . Matheson was also requested to write a custom @-@ role for Mickey Rooney , " which I did so successfully that when Mickey Rooney turned out not to be available , the whole part was pointless " . The writer was unhappy with the finished film .
I 'm a good storyteller and I wrote a good outline and a good script . And if they had done it right and if it had been directed by somebody who knew how to direct , I think it would have been an excellent movie . Jaws 3 @-@ D was the only thing Joe Alves ever directed ; the man is a very skilled production designer , but as a director , no . And the so @-@ called 3D just made the film look murky – it had no effect whatsoever . It was a waste of time .
Guerdon Trueblood is credited for the story ; a reviewer for the website SciFilm says that the screenplay was based upon Trueblood 's story about a white shark swimming upstream and becoming trapped in a lake . Carl Gottlieb , who had also revised the screenplays for the first two Jaws films , was credited for the script alongside Richard Matheson . Matheson has reported in interviews that the screenplay was revised by script doctors .
The film did not use any actors from the first two Jaws films . Roy Scheider , who played Police Chief Martin Brody in the first two films , laughed at the thought of Jaws 3 , saying that " Mephistopheles ... couldn 't talk me into doing [ it ] ... They knew better than to even ask " . He agreed to do Blue Thunder to ensure his unavailability for Jaws 3 @-@ D.
= = = 3D = = =
There was a revival in popularity of 3D at this time , with many films using the technique . Jaws ' second sequel integrated the technology into its title , as did Amityville 3D . Friday the 13th Part III could also make dual use of the number three . The gimmick was also advertised in the tagline " the third dimension is terror . " As it was Joe Alves ' first film as director , he thought that 3D would " give him an edge " .
Cinema audiences could wear disposable polarized glasses to view the film , creating the illusion that elements from the film were penetrating the screen to come towards the viewers . The opening sequence makes obvious use of the technique , with the titles flying to the forefront of the screen , leaving a trail . There are more subtle instances in the film where props are meant to leave the screen . The more obvious examples are in the climactic sequence of the shark attacking the control room and its subsequent destruction . The glass as the shark smashes into the room uses 3D , as does the shot where the shark explodes , with fragmented parts of it apparently bursting through the screen , ending with its jaws . There were many difficulties in making the green screen compositing work in 3D , and a lot of material had to be reshot .
Jaws 3 @-@ D had two 3D consultants : the production started with Chris Condon , president of StereoVision , and Stan Loth was later added to the team for the Arrivision 3D . Production began using the StereoVision , but this was dropped after a week for the Arrivision system , " which Alves believed was a superior system because it has a wider variety of lenses " . According to Alves , inferior systems lead to ghosting and blurring , leaving audiences with headaches . He says that " the left and right images [ in Jaws 3 @-@ D ] are very well @-@ matched , and the photography is very clean ; it 's restful to the eye , and though we do have the occasional effects where things do emerge toward the audience from the plane of projection , you come out of the film without a headache . " Historian R. M. Hayes says that the film was shot using both the Arrivision and StereoVision single strip @-@ over @-@ and @-@ under units . Both cameras were used in conjunction with each other . This is a means of shooting 3D movies in normal color with a single camera and single strip of film : the Arrivision 3D technique uses a special twin @-@ lens adapter fitted to the film camera , and divides the 35 mm film frame in half along the middle , capturing the left @-@ eye image in the upper half of the frame and the right @-@ eye image in the lower half – this is known as " over / under " . This allows filming to proceed as for any standard 2D film , without the considerable additional expense of having to double up on cameras and film stock for every shot . When the resultant film is projected through a normal projector ( albeit one requiring a special lens that combines the upper and lower images ) , a true polarised 3D image is produced . This system allows 3D films to be shown in almost any cinema since it does not require two projectors running simultaneously through the presentation – something most cinemas are not equipped to handle . What is required of the theatre is both the special projection lens and a reflective " silver " screen to enable the polarized images to reflect back to the viewer with the appropriate filter on each eye blocking out the wrong image , thus leaving the viewer to see the film from two angles as the eyes naturally see the world . According to the company that built the underwater camera housings for Jaws 3 @-@ D , the underwater sequences were shot using an Arriflex 35 – 3 camera with Arrivision 18 mm over / under 3D lens .
This kind of 3D effect does not work on television without special electronic hardware at the viewer 's end , and so with two exceptions , the home video and broadcast TV versions of Jaws 3 @-@ D were created using just the left @-@ eye image , and with the title changed to " Jaws 3 " or " Jaws III " . Because the left @-@ eye image only takes up half the 35 mm film frame , the picture resolution is noticeably poorer than would normally be expected of a film shot on 35 mm .
One of the above @-@ mentioned exceptions was a 1986 release of the film for the now @-@ obsolete VHD video disc system ( not to be confused with LaserDisc ) . This required a special 3D VHD player , or a standard VHD player with a hardware 3D adapter , and a set of LCD glasses that shuttered the viewer 's eyes according to control signals sent by the player , allowing the polarised 3D effect to work . The other exception was the Sensio 3D DVD of Jaws 3 @-@ D released in February 2008 . The Sensio 3D Processor is needed for 3D home viewing .
SCTV in Indonesian television broadcast the 3D version of the film on HD by 30 September 1994 at 21 : 30 to 22 : 30 WIB , STAR TV Xing Kong in Chinese satellite television broadcast on Chinese New Year 's Eve Rabbit 2011 ( 22 January 2012 ) at 22 : 00 to 00 : 00 CST and TVB Pearl in Hong Kong English television broadcast on 3 July 2016 at 21 : 30 to 23 : 40 Hong Kong Time before News Roundup programme . The event was advertised heavily and required viewers to buy or obtain a pair of anaglyph glasses to fully enjoy the movie ; this was an anaglyph 3D version of the film created from the Arrivision original .
On June 14 , 2016 Universal released a Blu Ray transfer of the film . Though advertised as a 2 @-@ D release a complete Blu @-@ Ray 3D version is included as a special feature .
= = Music = =
The score was composed and conducted by Alan Parker , who had previously provided music for British television shows including Van der Valk and Minder . It was Parker 's first feature score , but he would later work on What 's Eating Gilbert Grape and American Gothic . John Williams ' original shark motif is , however , integrated into the score . The soundtrack album was released by MCA Records which was absorbed by Geffen Records . The soundtrack was later released on CD by Intrada and was limited to only 3000 copies .
= = = Track listing = = =
" Jaws 3 @-@ D Main Title " ( 2 : 59 )
" Kay and Mike 's Love Theme " ( 2 : 18 )
" Panic at Seaworld " ( 2 : 07 )
" Underwater Kingdom and Shark Chase " ( 4 : 20 )
" Shark Chase and Dolphin Rescue " ( 1 : 22 )
" Saved by the Dolphins " ( 2 : 05 )
" The Shark 's Gonna Hit Us ! " ( 2 : 42 )
" It 's Alive / Seaworld Opening Day / Silver Bullet " ( 2 : 34 )
" Overman 's Last Dive " ( 1 : 18 )
" Philip 's Demise " ( 4 : 59 )
" Night Capture " ( 4 : 53 )
" Jaws 3 @-@ D End Titles " ( 4 : 06 )
= = Reception = =
The film opened in more than a thousand screens across the U.S. There were many promotions to accompany the release of the film . As with Jaws 2 , Topps produced a series of trading cards . Television stations were encouraged to broadcast the featurette , Making of Jaws 3 @-@ D : Sharks Don 't Die , in a prime @-@ time slot between July 16 and 22 , 1983 to take advantage of an advertisement in that week 's issue of TV Guide . Alan Landsburg Productions found itself in trouble for using 90 seconds of footage from the National Geographic 's 1983 documentary film The Sharks in the featurette without authorization .
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed $ 13 @,@ 422 @,@ 500 on its opening weekend , playing to 1 @,@ 311 theaters at its widest release . This was 29 @.@ 5 % of its total gross . It has achieved total lifetime worldwide gross of $ 87 @,@ 987 @,@ 055 . Despite being No. 1 at the box office , this illustrates the series ' diminishing returns , since Jaws 3 @-@ D has earned nearly $ 100 million less than the total lifetime gross of its predecessor and $ 300 million less than the original film . The final sequel would attract an even lower income , with around two thirds of Jaws 3 @-@ D 's total lifetime gross . However , the film was still drawing huge audiences when it was pulled from theaters ; film historian R.M. Hayes says this action " was pure nonsense considering some cinemas were actually turning over more money per screen than the latest Star Wars film " .
= = = Critical response = = =
Reception for the movie was generally poor . Variety calls it " tepid " and suggests that Alves " fails to linger long enough on the Great White . " It has a 12 % ' rotten ' rating at Rotten Tomatoes . The 3D was criticized as being a gimmick to attract audiences to the aging series and for being ineffective . Allrovi , however , says that " the suspense sequences were made somewhat more memorable during the film 's original release with 3D photography , an attribute lost on video , thereby removing the most distinctive element of an otherwise run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill sequel . " Derek Winnert says that " with Richard Matheson 's name on the script you 'd expect a better yarn " although he continues to say that the film " is entirely watchable with a big pack of popcorn . " Others are disappointed that Matheson and Gottlieb produced this script given their previous success .
Although most critics are in agreement that Jaws 2 is the best of the Jaws sequels , some are unsure if Jaws @-@ 3D is better than Jaws : The Revenge . One reviewer says of Jaws 3 @-@ D :
Campy performances , cheesy special effects , and downright awful dialogue all contribute to making Jaws 3 a truly dismal experience for just about everyone . It 's not only hard to believe that a sequel this downright abominable didn 't kill the franchise , but that it actually would be followed by a movie that was arguably worse — Jaws : the Revenge .
Amongst some flaws , some critics describe the film as " marginally entertaining . " The sound design has been commended , however . The moment when an infant 's cry is heard when the baby shark dies in the pool is particularly praised by one reviewer . Gossett , Jet magazine says , was the " only cast member to survive the generally negative reviews " .
In her screenwriting textbook , Linda Aronson suggests that its protagonist , played by Quaid , is a major problem with the film . She says that after taking too long for him to be introduced , the character is " essentially a passive onlooker . " There is no hunt until the climax when the shark is terrorizing the people in the aquarium ; only then does Mike Brody become centre of the action . She also highlights inaccuracies in the plot . For instance , she refutes the idea of a " mother shark protecting her offspring [ as ] sharks do not mother their young , " and points out that dolphins can attack sharks .
Leonard Maltin calls the film a " road @-@ company Irwin Allen type @-@ disaster film " and notes that its premise is similar to the 1955 sequel to The Creature from the Black Lagoon .
Jaws 3 @-@ D was nominated for five 1983 Golden Raspberry Awards , including Worst Picture , Director , Supporting Actor ( Lou Gossett , Jr . ) , Screenplay , and Newcomer ( Cindy and Sandy , " The Shrieking Dolphins " ) , but received none .
= = DVD release = =
The film was released in a standard 2 @-@ D format on DVD by Universal on June 3 , 2003 under the title Jaws 3 . With the exception of one theatrical trailer , no bonus features were included . Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released The Jaws flims on Blu @-@ ray ( 2016 )
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= Ralph Waldo Christie =
Ralph Waldo Christie ( 30 August 1893 – 19 December 1987 ) was an admiral in the United States Navy who played a pivotal role in the development of torpedo technologies . During World War II , he commanded submarine operations out of the Australian ports of Brisbane and Fremantle .
A 1915 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , Christie served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship New Jersey in 1915 . He was trained in torpedo design and implementation and became one of the first members of the Submarine School at New London . In 1923 Christie graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a Master 's degree in Mechanical Engineering , specializing in torpedoes . During the 1920s , he was involved with project G @-@ 53 , a highly secret program to develop a magnetic influence exploder for torpedoes . The result of this was the development of the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo . Christie also developed a design for an oxygen torpedo , designated project G @-@ 49 or " Navol " .
After the United States entered World War II , Christie was posted to Brisbane and commanded submarine operations during the Solomon Islands campaign . He then returned to the U.S. as Inspector of Ordnance at the Newport Torpedo Station . In January 1943 , Christie returned to Australia as commander of submarine operations in Fremantle . Despite growing evidence of problems with the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo , he remained convinced of their effectiveness . During 1944 , he accompanied war patrols on the submarines USS Bowfin and USS Harder . In November 1944 , Christie was relieved of command of submarine operations at Fremantle by Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid and returned to the United States , where he commanded the Puget Sound Navy Yard . He retired from the Navy in August 1949 with the rank of vice admiral .
= = Early career = =
Ralph W. Christie was born in Somerville , Massachusetts on 30 August 1893 . He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1915 and served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship New Jersey . Aboard the cruiser Montana in 1916 , he was trained in torpedo design and implementation . Christie was one of the first students of the Submarine School at New London . He went on to command the submarines USS Octopus in 1918 , USS R @-@ 6 in 1920 , USS S @-@ 1 in 1923 and USS S @-@ 17 in 1924 . Christie served as Commander , Submarines at Cavite from 1925 to 1926 . In 1923 , he graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a Master 's degree in Mechanical Engineering , specializing in torpedoes .
= = = Development of the Mark 6 magnetic exploder = = =
In 1922 , as Christie was completing his graduate studies , the Bureau of Ordnance initiated project G @-@ 53 , a highly secret program to develop a magnetic influence exploder for torpedoes . In the summer of 1926 , Christie became intimately involved in the project , and was substantially involved in the technical development of the weapon system . By 1926 , the exploder was far enough advanced to permit its first test . On 8 May , the obsolete submarine USS L @-@ 8 was used as a target , and destroyed with an influence torpedo . Despite this early success , the influence exploder , which would become the Mark 6 , needed significant refinement .
Christie urged the Navy Department to allocate a target ship for extensive field tests of the torpedo and exploder . The Chief of Naval Operations authorized the use of the obsolete destroyer USS Ericsson , but placed so many restrictions on its use , Newport was forced to decline the offer . As a result , neither the Mark 6 exploder nor the Mark 14 torpedo ever underwent a live test , and their shortcomings would not become apparent until the outbreak of hostilities . It would be twenty months before the problems were corrected , over Christie 's objections .
= = = Development of the oxygen torpedo = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s , Christie carried out experimental work on an oxygen torpedo with the Ordnance Laboratory , in Alexandria , Virginia . Designated project G @-@ 49 or “ Navol ” , this torpedo used hydrogen peroxide instead of compressed air . Christie ’ s design had the experimental torpedo propel a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) warhead at 50 kn ( 93 km / h ; 58 mph ) to a maximum range of 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . The Navol design was subsequently designated Mark 16 for submarines and Mark 17 for surface ships . The hydrogen peroxide system was test fitted to a Mark 14 torpedo in the mid @-@ 1930s , where Christie ’ s design propelled a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) warhead to a range of 16 @,@ 500 yd ( 15 @,@ 100 m ) at 46 kn ( 53 mph ; 85 km / h ; 53 mph ) .
Despite the promise of the design , many operational officers were opposed to the use of volatile hydrogen peroxide aboard ship . Ultimately , the Mark 16 went into limited production while work on the Mark 17 was suspended in 1941 , but resumed in 1944 . Admiral Ernest King favored focusing research efforts on electric torpedoes so work on the oxygen system was downgraded . As such , the U.S. Navy made no combat use of the oxygen torpedo design during the Second World War .
By May 1938 , Christie was head of the Torpedo Section at BuOrd and involved in providing torpedoes to the fleet . He would take command of Newport Torpedo Station in 1943 , shortly before the death of Admiral Robert English on 21 January 1943 .
= = = Other pre @-@ war assignments = = =
In 1939 , Christie was given command of Submarine Division 15 , consisting of all six Salmon @-@ class submarines . By 1941 , Germany and the United Kingdom were engaged in the Battle of the Atlantic . Although the United States was neutral , President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Atlantic Fleet to enforce the Neutrality Patrol to assist UK @-@ bound convoys . As part of secret agreements with Britain , the United States agreed to provide the former with submarines under Royal Navy control , should America enter the conflict . Admiral Richard S. Edwards , Commander , Submarines , Atlantic Fleet ( ComSubLant ) , selected the now Captain Christie as tactical commander for the proposed submarine force in British waters . Christie wanted the new Tambor @-@ class submarines to be assigned to the Atlantic Fleet , but was overruled by Admiral Harold R. Stark , who selected the older S and Barracuda classes instead . As war seemed increasingly likely toward the end of 1941 , Christie placed his boats on full war footing .
= = World War Two service = =
= = = Brisbane = = =
At the outbreak of the Pacific War , remnants of the United States Asiatic Fleet fled to Australia , on orders from Washington . The S @-@ boats from the Philippines were organized into a fighting force at Brisbane , and Admiral Ernest King ordered S @-@ boats from the Atlantic Fleet to supplement the force in Australia . Christie went along , arriving in April 1942 , just in time for the Battle of the Coral Sea . During the Solomon Islands campaign , he ordered his boats to patrol around harbors which , while being key points for shipping , also tended to be heavily patrolled by aircraft and anti @-@ submarine craft . In step with then @-@ current U.S. Navy submarine doctrine , he made capital ships the prime targets , rather than have his boats focus on merchant shipping .
Almost as soon as the war began , submarine captains indicated there were problems with the Mark 14 torpedo and the influence feature of the Mark 6 exploder . Torpedoes would fail to explode , or explode prematurely . Despite these reports , Christie was not fully aware of the impact of the situation , because his S @-@ boats used the older Mark 10 torpedo , with a contact @-@ only pistol . Christie acknowledged Mark 14s were running deeper than set , but attributed the failures to poor maintenance and errors on the part of the captain and crew . He was convinced the Mark 6 was satisfactory , and ordered all fleet boats to continue to use it . In November 1942 , Christie was ordered to return to Newport as Inspector of Ordnance at the Torpedo Station . Newport had become a bottleneck for torpedo manufacture , and the Bureau of Ordnance wanted to advance development of the Mark 18 electric torpedo . Christie resisted leaving his command at Brisbane , but was considered of more use to resolve the torpedo issue . He was replaced by Captain James Fife . For his service at Brisbane , Christie was awarded the Legion of Merit .
Christie was promoted to rear admiral as part of his move back to Newport . In January 1943 , however , Rear Admiral Robert English , Commander , Submarines , U.S. Pacific Fleet , was killed in a plane crash . Christie hoped to get the position but the job went to Rear Admiral Charles A. Lockwood , commander of submarine operations in Fremantle , and the Bureau of Personnel selected Christie to take over Lockwood 's old command . Christie lobbied Vice Admiral Arthur ' Chips ' Carpender , Douglas MacArthur 's Commander Allied Naval Forces , to allow him to replace Fife as commander of the larger submarine force at Brisbane . Carpender refused , and Christie went on to Fremantle . Nevertheless , Christie continued to try for some time to take the Brisbane force under his control .
By the middle of 1943 , Lockwood had received enough reports from submarine officers to convince him the Mark 6 was significantly flawed . On 24 June 1943 , he formally ordered all submarines operating out of Pearl Harbor to deactivate the magnetic influence feature . However , Christie was still committed to the exploder , and ordered Fremantle boats to continue using the influence feature . Submarines operating between the two commands were required to either enable or disable it , depending on which command area they were in . This difference of opinion strained relations between the two admirals .
In November 1943 , Carpender was replaced by Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid , who ordered the final deactivation of the Mark 6 in all combat commands . Christie abided by the order , commencing on 20 January 1944 , but was still convinced the Mark 6 had potential . He had Commanders Chester Nimitz , Jr. and James McCallum continue technical studies of the Mark 6 and to develop improvements , but these revised exploders were just as unreliable as the earlier versions .
= = = Fremantle = = =
It was common for Christie to greet a returning submarine at the pier , and to award decorations to the crew on the spot . This bypassed naval award boards , and annoyed Kinkaid and Lockwood , possibly because confirmation of sinkings was accomplished by Ultra , the reading of coded Japanese radio traffic , and news of awards given so quickly could constitute a security breach . Complicating the matter was the fact MacArthur awarded army decorations to naval personnel ; like Christie , he took it upon himself to authorize the decorations rather than to go through the standard review procedures . These events compelled Kinkaid to forbid Christie to give pierside awards , and to keep Christie from recommending the award of army medals to navy personnel . These events would ultimately contribute to Christie 's dismissal as Commander of Submarines in Fremantle .
In early 1944 , Christie decided he wanted to make a war patrol and selected to ride with Walt Griffith in USS Bowfin . The admiral joined the boat on 29 January 1944 and , during the patrol , conducted standard duties such as standing watch . He departed Bowfin after an active 29 @-@ day patrol . In June 1944 , Christie decided he wanted to make a second patrol , and selected USS Guitarro . However , that boat was having engine troubles , so Christie decided to go in USS Harder , commanded by Samuel D. Dealey . Dealey had just finished up Harder 's epic fifth war patrol , in which he was credited with sinking five Japanese destroyers ( reduced post @-@ war to three destroyers ) . Despite the fact the crew was exhausted , Dealey agreed to extend his fifth patrol and take Christie on board . When Harder returned to port on 3 July 1944 , Christie was concerned about its commander . Dealey was one of the leading submarine skippers but , having completed five war patrols , he was showing signs of strain . The admiral believed Dealey should step down from command of Harder , but Dealey felt he should make one more patrol before leaving the boat .
After Christie 's return from his second combat patrol , Admiral Chester Nimitz recommended he and Lockwood meet in Brisbane and discuss joint submarine operations . During the visit , Lockwood and Christie discussed technical issues , as well as the establishment of advanced bases in Mios Woendi and Saipan . However , the meeting also resulted in some kind of personal rift between the two men . They had already clashed over the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo , and some of Lockwood 's staff believed Christie 's ride in Harder was a risky and unnecessary stunt . After meeting with Lockwood , Christie met with MacArthur and related the events of Dealey 's fifth war patrol to the general . MacArthur then decided to award Dealey a Distinguished Service Cross , and Christie the Silver Star . Additionally at this meeting , Christie found out his earlier recommendation for an army decoration to Griffith had apparently been blocked by Kinkaid . Despite Kinkaid 's order regarding army decorations , MacArthur insisted on granting medals to the two men . Although Christie did not request the decorations , he was put on the spot and felt compelled to report the entire affair to Kinkaid . In the end , the general awarded the medals , displeasing Kinkaid .
On 5 August , Dealey took Harder out for a sixth patrol . His former executive officer , Frank C. " Tiny " Lynch , believed Dealey was mentally exhausted . Christie also had reservations , but Dealey seemed to recuperate while Harder was being refitted in port . The admiral therefore allowed Dealey to retain command . On 24 August , Harder was sunk with all hands off Dasol Bay . Dealey 's loss was a great shock to Christie , and the event worsened his relationship with Kinkaid . Christie recommended Dealey for the Medal of Honor for Harder 's fifth patrol and the supposed sinking of five Japanese destroyers . Kinkaid turned down the recommendation on the grounds Dealey had already received the Distinguished Service Cross for the same patrol . Christie was angered by this , and sent dispatches to Admiral Edwards , MacArthur , and Kinkaid himself . The radio dispatch to Kinkaid was sent in a low @-@ grade code that was easily decipherable ; it criticized Kinkaid and urged him to reconsider . The message was so blunt and public , it was viewed as bordering on insubordination .
In October and November 1944 , Christie received intelligence regarding German plans to operate a wolfpack of U @-@ boats in Australian waters . He directed Allied forces to detect and eliminate the threat , resulting in the Dutch submarine Zwaardvisch ( swordfish ) sinking U @-@ 168 on 6 October near Surabaya and USS Flounder 's sinking of U @-@ 537 on 10 November near the northern end of the Lombok Strait . Another U @-@ boat disappeared en route while a fourth , U @-@ 862 , evaded searchers to slip around the south coast of Australia and sink a Liberty ship south of Sydney in late December .
In November 1944 , Kinkaid relieved Christie of command of submarine operations at Fremantle , and assigned the position to Fife commencing 30 December . Although no specific reason was given , Christie was convinced it was because he pushed Kinkaid too hard for Dealey 's Medal of Honor , and for his process of awarding decorations in general . However , Christie 's losses , which included Dealey and Kinkaid 's nephew , Lieutenant Commander Manning Kimmel in USS Robalo in July 1944 , may have also influenced Kinkaid 's decision .
Christie returned to the United States , and went on to command Puget Sound Navy Yard . Now that he was no longer under Kinkaid 's command , Christie renewed his push to get Dealey awarded the Medal of Honor , this time by getting the endorsement for the decoration from MacArthur . The general agreed , and Dealey was posthumously awarded the medal .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Christie attempted to get command of operations for Atlantic submarines , but that job went to James Fife instead . However , Christie was given command of naval forces in the Philippines . He retired from the Navy on 1 August 1949 , with tombstone promotion to the rank of vice admiral . He sold life insurance and dabbled in other ventures for some time . In his final years , he lived on the west coast of the United States and in Hawaii . Christie died in Honolulu , Hawaii on 19 December 1987 at the age of 94 . His wife , LaRene , joined him at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific following her death on 31 May 2002 . His papers are in the Library of Congress .
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= U.S. Route 2 in Washington =
U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) is a component of the United States Numbered Highway System that connects the city of Everett in the U.S. state of Washington to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , with a separate segment that runs from Rouses Point , New York , to Houlton , Maine . Within Washington , the highway travels on a 326 @.@ 36 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 525 @.@ 23 km ) route that connects the western and eastern regions of the state as a part of the state highway system and the National Highway System . US 2 forms parts of two National Scenic Byways , the Stevens Pass Greenway from Monroe to Cashmere and the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway near Coulee City , and an All @-@ American Road named the International Selkirk Loop within Newport .
US 2 begins in Everett at an intersection with State Route 529 ( SR 529 ) in Everett and travels east to an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . The highway travels over the Cascade Range through Stevens Pass , connecting the western and eastern parts of the state . US 2 becomes concurrent with US 97 from Peshastin to Orondo , crossing the Columbia River in Wenatchee on the Richard Odabashian Bridge . The highway continues east across the Columbia Plateau in Central Washington and crosses the Grand Coulee while concurrent with SR 17 west of Coulee City . The highway travels into Spokane concurrent with I @-@ 90 and US 395 and leaves both highways continuing northeast to Newport . US 2 leaves Washington at the Idaho state line , located along SR 41 in Newport and Idaho State Highway 41 ( ID @-@ 41 ) in Oldtown , Idaho .
The present route of US 2 follows several wagon roads that were built in the late 19th century by local railroad companies , including the Stevens Pass Highway along the Skykomish River . The state of Washington began maintaining sections of what would become US 2 with the extension of State Road 7 in 1909 , from Pashastin to Spokane on the Sunset Highway and later State Road 2 . In addition to State Road 2 , State Road 23 was created in 1915 , traveling north from Spokane to Newport , and was renumbered to State Road 6 in 1923 . The Stevens Pass Highway was transferred to state maintenance in 1931 with the establishment of State Road 15 , traveling from Everett to Peshastin . The United States Highway System was adopted on November 11 , 1926 , and designated US 10 on the future route of US 2 from Peshastin to Spokane and US 195 from Spokane to Newport . US 10 was re @-@ routed in 1939 and replaced by US 10 Alternate , which was routed across Stevens Pass in the 1940s and itself replaced by US 2 in 1946 . The primary state highways were replaced by the current state route system during the 1964 state highway renumbering , and US 2 replaced its three concurrent routes . US 2 underwent conversions to limited @-@ access highways during the next several decades , including the completion of the Hewitt Avenue Trestle and a bypass of Snohomish . A series of projects is planned to improve the US 2 corridor between Snohomish and Skykomish by expanding the highway near various cities and the completion of a bypass around Monroe in the near future .
= = Route description = =
US 2 is defined by the Washington State Legislature as SR 2 , part of the Revised Code of Washington as § 47 @.@ 17 @.@ 005 . Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2013 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of US 2 within Washington was the Hewitt Avenue Trestle above the Snohomish River east of Everett , carrying over 76 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of US 2 is in Moses Coulee , carrying 630 vehicles . The entire route of US 2 within Washington is designated as part of the National Highway System , classifying it as important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . WSDOT designates US 2 as a Highway of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
US 2 begins in downtown Everett , with its eastbound lanes starting at the intersection of Hewitt Avenue and Maple Street , signed as SR 529 , and its westbound lanes ending at the intersection of California Street and Maple Street ( SR 529 ) . The highway travels east onto the Hewitt Avenue Trestle , crossing the Snohomish River after an interchange with I @-@ 5 . The four @-@ lane trestle continues east across Ebey Island , intersecting Homeacres Road before crossing the Ebey Slough . US 2 turns southeast at the east end of the trestle in Cavalero at an interchange with SR 204 , which serves Lake Stevens . The limited @-@ access road travels around the city of Snohomish , intersecting Bickford Avenue in an at @-@ grade intersection and SR 9 in a diamond interchange . US 2 turns south and crosses over the Pilchuck River and the Centennial Trail before its limited @-@ access road ends at a diamond interchange with 88th Street . The two @-@ lane road continues southeast along the Scenic Subdivision of the Northern Transcon , a BNSF rail line , into Monroe . The highway travels past the Evergreen State Fairgrounds and intersects SR 522 before entering downtown Monroe .
US 2 , now part of a National Scenic Byway named the Stevens Pass Greenway , continues through the city of Monroe and forms the northern terminus of SR 203 . The highway leaves the city while parallel to the Skykomish River and travels through the cities of Sultan and Gold Bar . US 2 begins following the South Fork Skykomish River at Index into the Cascade Range , crossing into King County near the town of Baring . The highway enters Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest and continues east along the Tye River past the town of Skykomish and the Cascade Tunnel towards Stevens Pass . The pass , located 4 @,@ 061 feet ( 1 @,@ 238 m ) above sea level , is also home to the Stevens Pass Ski Area and a trailhead for the Pacific Crest Trail while serving as the point in which US 2 crosses into the Wenatchee National Forest in Chelan County . The highway continues east down Nason Creek to Coles Corner , the southern terminus of SR 207 , which serves Lake Wenatchee . US 2 travels due south along the Wenatchee River valley through Leavenworth before it begins a 27 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 43 km ) concurrency with US 97 at a diamond interchange east of Peshastin .
US 2 and US 97 travel together on a four @-@ lane highway on the north side of the Wenatchee River heading southeast past Cashmere heading towards Wenatchee . The roadway intersects SR 285 , a short connector to downtown Wenatchee , and US 97 Alternate , an alternate route to Chelan , in Sunnyslope before crossing the Richard Odabashian Bridge over the Columbia River and into Douglas County . The two highways continue east into East Wenatchee and turn north at the western terminus of SR 28 . US 2 and US 97 continue north between the Columbia River to the west and Badger Mountain to the east , passing the Rocky Reach Dam and its reservoir , Lake Entiat before reaching Orondo . US 2 and US 97 split at Orondo , with US 97 continuing north along the Columbia River towards Chelan and US 2 traveling east up Pine Canyon onto the Waterville Plateau . The highway travels through the town of Waterville via several turns on city streets before heading due east across the Columbia Plateau , intersecting SR 172 at Farmer . US 2 becomes concurrent with SR 17 as it descends into the Grand Coulee south of Banks Lake , becoming part of the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway .
The byway travels off US 2 and onto SR 155 east of Coulee City at Fordair , continuing north through Grant County towards the Grand Coulee Dam . US 2 travels east into Lincoln County between the towns of Hartline and Almira and becomes concurrent with SR 21 in Wilbur for several city blocks . The highway parallels the Columbia River Subdivision of the BNSF Northern Transcon through Bachelor Prairie towards Davenport , where it intersects the termini of SR 28 and SR 25 . US 2 travels into Reardan concurrent with SR 231 and enters Spokane County east of the town boundary . The highway passes Fairchild Air Force Base and becomes a four @-@ lane arterial street through Airway Heights approaching Spokane . US 2 enters the city of Spokane as a four @-@ lane freeway northeast of Spokane International Airport and intersects Airport Way before beginning its 3 @.@ 82 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 15 km ) concurrency with I @-@ 90 and US 395 at a partial cloverleaf interchange .
I @-@ 90 , US 2 and US 395 travel east into Downtown Spokane and intersects the northern terminus of US 195 , which travels south towards Pullman and Lewiston , Idaho . US 2 and US 395 split from I @-@ 90 and travel into Downtown Spokane on the one @-@ way pair of Browne and Division streets , serving the Spokane Intermodal Center and Spokane Convention Center before reaching Riverfront Park . Division Street crosses the Spokane River and the Centennial Trail on the Senator Sam C. Guess Memorial Bridge before splitting into the one @-@ way pairing of Division and Ruby streets . Division Street continues north past the NorthTown Mall and the eastern terminus of SR 291 at Francis Street before US 2 and US 395 split .
US 2 travels northeast through Country Homes on the Newport Highway to an interchange with the North Spokane Corridor , an incomplete freeway bypass of Spokane that is signed as a spur route of US 395 . The highway continues west of Mead and intersects SR 206 , a road serving Mount Spokane State Park , before becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway parallel the Kooteani River Subdivision of the BNSF Northern Transcon . US 2 travels north along the Little Spokane River through Colbert and Chattaroy before leaving Spokane County and entering Pend Oreille County . The divided highway ends at the southern terminus of SR 211 , located west of Diamond Lake . US 2 continues northeast along the Little Spokane River and enters the city of Newport , splitting into a one @-@ way pair on Washington and Union avenues . The two streets travel north through the city to the eastern terminus of SR 20 and turn east onto Walnut Street and the International Selkirk Loop , where US 2 crosses the Idaho state line at the northern terminus of SR 41 in Newport and ID @-@ 41 in Oldtown , Idaho .
= = History = =
US 2 follows the route of several wagon roads and early state highways that themselves followed the route of the Skykomish River and the Great Northern Railway , a transcontinental railroad that was completed in 1893 . A wagon road from Snohomish to Skykomish was completed in the late 1880s , while another wagon road along the Wenatchee River from Leavenworth to Sunnyslope was completed by 1904 . The state of Washington began maintaining State Road 7 in 1909 , traveling from Peshastin to Spokane on what would become the Sunset Highway and US 2 . The easternmost segment of US 2 within Washington , from Spokane to Newport , was added to the state highway system in 1915 as State Road 23 and renamed to the Pend Oreille Highway two years later . State Road 7 was renumbered to State Road 2 , part of an east – west highway connecting Seattle to Spokane . The Stevens Pass Highway was opened on July 11 , 1925 , and traveled from Everett along the Skykomish River and over Stevens Pass towards Leavenworth . The highway was transferred to state maintenance from the Department of Highways in 1931 as State Road 15 .
The United States Highway System was adopted by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) on November 11 , 1926 , and included a shorter US 2 , traveling from Bonners Ferry , Idaho to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and several routes along the modern route of US 2 in Washington . The corridor of US 2 was signed as US 10 from Peshastin to Spokane and US 195 from Spokane to Newport , co @-@ signed with State Road 2 and State Road 6 , respectively . The Washington primary and secondary state highway system was adopted by the Washington State Legislature on March 17 , 1937 , and the three highways that comprise the present route of US 2 were included in the system as Primary State Highway 15 ( PSH 15 ) from Everett to Peshastin , PSH 2 from Peshastin to Spokane , and PSH 6 from Spokane to the Idaho state line in Newport via a short branch route . US 10 was relocated to a southern route in 1939 , crossing the Columbia River at Vantage , and the former route was replaced by US 10 Alternate the following year . A proposal from representatives of the highway departments of Idaho and Washington to extend US 2 to Everett was considered by the AASHO 's U.S. Route Numbering Committee in January 1946 , but was vetoed . The proposal resurfaced during the committee 's meeting on December 20 , 1946 , and was approved as a replacement of US 10 Alternate from Everett to Bonners Ferry and US 195 from Spokane to Newport .
The Washington state highway system was changed to its current " sign route system " beginning in January 1963 with a state highway renumbering . Under the new system , Interstate highways , U.S. routes , and state routes replaced the primary and secondary highways and were codified under the Revised Code of Washington in 1970 . US 2 was re @-@ routed around various cities over the next several decades onto limited @-@ access highways to reduce congestion , beginning with the construction of the current westbound Hewitt Avenue Trestle east of Everett in the 1960s , moving traffic off an existing wooden trestle that would be replaced with a new eastbound trestle in 2002 . US 2 was routed north of Wenatchee onto the Olds Station Bridge , renamed in 1991 to honor Richard Odabashian , over the Columbia River in 1975 , while the former alignment was designated as SR 285 in 1977 . The present two @-@ lane expressway north and east of Snohomish was completed in 1983 and was intended to also include an unfinished bypass of Monroe . US 97 had its concurrency with US 2 extended from Sunnyslope to Orondo along the east side of the Columbia River in 1987 after US 97 was moved onto the former route of SR 151 . The Stevens Pass Greenway , which became a National Forest Scenic Byway on April 14 , 1992 , was re @-@ designated as a National Scenic Byway on September 22 , 2005 . Within Newport , US 2 had an unsigned spur route that traveled on the southbound lanes of ID @-@ 41 on the Idaho state line until 1997 , when SR 41 was created to avoid confusion . The intersection between US 2 and US 97 east of Peshastin was replaced by a new diamond interchange completed in October 2008 as part of general improvements to the two highways ' concurrency from Peshastin to Sunnyslope . The current interchange between US 2 and the North Spokane Corridor , a spur route of US 395 , was opened in November 2011 to coincide with the opening of the northernmost 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 85 km ) of the future freeway .
Recently , WSDOT began planning a series of 56 projects to improve the US 2 corridor between Snohomish and Skykomish , where the highway is two lanes wide and has been the site of over 2 @,@ 600 collisions between 1999 and 2007 that caused 47 fatalities . A study , conducted by WSDOT in 2007 , divided the corridor into four segments , each with a specialized development plan . The study suggested the expansion of the limited @-@ access highway from Snohomish to the western city limits of Monroe to four lanes , including an interchange at Bickford Avenue that is expected to be completed in fall 2013 . WSDOT planned the re @-@ routing of US 2 onto a northern bypass of Monroe with an extension of SR 522 to a roundabout with the bypass north of Monroe . From Monroe to Gold Bar , US 2 would be expanded to a four @-@ lane highway , with a roundabout connecting the highway to the city of Gold Bar , and become a two @-@ lane highway with wider shoulder lanes to Skykomish .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Here Come the Warm Jets =
Here Come the Warm Jets is the debut solo album by Brian Eno , credited only as " Eno " . Produced by him , it was released on Island Records in November 1973 . The musical style of Here Come the Warm Jets is a hybrid of glam rock and art rock , similar to Eno 's previous album work with Roxy Music , although in a stronger experimental fashion . In developing the album 's words and music , Eno used unusual methods such as dancing for his band members and having them play accordingly , and singing nonsense words to himself that would form the basis of subsequent lyrics . The album features various guest musicians , including members of Roxy Music , Hawkwind , Matching Mole and Pink Fairies , as well as Chris Spedding , and Robert Fripp of King Crimson , who collaborated with Eno a year before in ( No Pussyfooting ) .
Here Come the Warm Jets peaked at number 26 on the United Kingdom album charts and number 151 on the US Billboard charts , receiving mostly positive reviews . It was re @-@ issued on compact disc in 1990 on Island Records and in 2004 on Virgin Records , and continued to elicit praise . Critic Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that the album " still sounds exciting , forward @-@ looking , and densely detailed , revealing more intricacies with every play " .
= = Production = =
Here Come the Warm Jets was recorded in twelve days at Majestic Studios in London during September 1973 by recording engineer Derek Chandler . It was mixed at Air and Olympic Studios by Eno and audio engineer Chris Thomas . The album 's title was originally described by Eno as a slang term for urination . However , in an interview with Mojo magazine in 1996 , Eno explained that it came from a description he wrote for the treated guitar on the title track ; he called it " warm jet guitar ... because the guitar sounded like a tuned jet . "
Eno enlisted sixteen guest musicians to play on the album with him , including John Wetton and Robert Fripp of King Crimson , Simon King from Hawkwind , Bill MacCormick of Matching Mole , Paul Rudolph of Pink Fairies , Chris Spedding and all the members of Roxy Music except vocalist Bryan Ferry . Eno selected them on the basis that he thought they were incompatible with each other musically . He stated that he " got them together merely because I wanted to see what happens when you combine different identities like that and allow them to compete ... [ The situation ] is organized with the knowledge that there might be accidents , accidents which will be more interesting than what I had intended " .
Eno directed the musicians by using body language and dancing , as well as through verbal suggestion , to influence their playing and the sounds they would emit . He felt at the time that this was a good way to communicate with musicians . The album credits Eno with instruments such as " snake guitar " , " simplistic piano " and " electric larynx " . These terms were used to describe the sound 's character or the means of production used to treat the instruments . After recording the individual tracks , Eno condensed and mixed the instrumentation deeply , resulting in some of the tracks bearing little resemblance to what the musicians recorded during the session .
Eno 's girlfriend at the time , potter Carol McNicoll , supervised the design of the cover for the album and it features one of her teapots .
= = Style = =
The songs on Here Come the Warm Jets reference various musical styles from the past and present . The overall style of the album has been described as " glammed @-@ up art @-@ pop " , showcasing glam rock 's simple yet theatrical crunchy guitar rock and art pop 's sonic texture and avant @-@ garde influences . In some tracks , Eno 's vocals emulate the manner of the lead singer of his former band Roxy Music , Bryan Ferry . On other songs such as " Baby 's on Fire " , they were described as " more nasal and slightly snotty vocals " . Musically , the album borrows from popular styles of the music in the 1950s such as the tinkling pianos and falsetto backing vocals on " Cindy Tells Me " , and the drum rhythm of " Blank Frank " , taken from Bo Diddley 's song " Who Do You Love ? " .
To create the lyrics , Eno would later play these backing tracks singing nonsense syllables to himself , then take them and form them into actual words , phrases and meaning . This lyric @-@ writing method was used for all his more vocal @-@ based recordings of the 1970s . The lyrics on Here Come the Warm Jets are macabre with an underlying sense of humour . They are mostly free @-@ associative and have no particular meaning . Exceptions include " The Paw Paw Negro Blowtorch " , about the historical A.W. Underwood of Paw Paw , Michigan with the purported ability to set items ablaze with his breath ; according to Eno , the song " celebrates the possibility of a love affair with the man . " Eno has attempted to dissuade fans from reading too much into his words ; he claims that the song " Needles in the Camel 's Eye " was " written in less time than it takes to sing ... I regard [ the song ] as an instrumental with singing on it " .
= = Release = =
Here Come the Warm Jets was released in January 1974 . The album was one of Brian Eno 's best @-@ selling releases , charting for two weeks and peaking at number 26 on the UK Albums Chart on 9 March 1974 , and number 151 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . Eno planned a tour with the band The Winkies to accompany him following the release of Here Come the Warm Jets . Eno had to depart the tour after being diagnosed with a collapsed lung . After recovering , Eno played at an Island Records 1 June 1974 concert with fellow musicians Nico , Kevin Ayers and John Cale .
Here Come the Warm Jets was later re @-@ issued on Polydor in March 1977 , and again on compact disc in January 1987 . In 2004 , Virgin Records began reissuing Eno 's albums in batches of four to five . The remastered digipak release of Here Come the Warm Jets was released on 31 May 2004 in the UK and on 1 June 2004 in North America .
= = Reception = =
Initial critical reception for the album was mostly positive , praising its experimental tendencies . Critic Lester Bangs of Creem declared it " Incredible " , while Robert Christgau also of Creem gave it an " A " rating , stating that " The idea of this record — top of the pops from quasi @-@ dadaist British synth wizard — may put you off , but the actuality is quite engaging in a vaguely Velvet Underground kind of way . " Billboard wrote a positive review , stating that " ... while it all may be a bit unpredictable , and may be a longshot to do much in the U.S. market , it is an excellent LP . " The album was also placed in Circus magazine 's section for " Picks of the Month " . Cynthia Dagnal of Rolling Stone wrote an article on Eno , calling the album " a very compelling experiment in controlled chaos and by his own self @-@ dictated standards a near success . " The next month , Gordon Fletcher wrote a negative review for the album in the " Records " section of Rolling Stone , stating " [ Eno 's ] record is annoying because it doesn 't do anything ... the listener must kick himself for blowing five bucks on baloney . " In 1974 , Here Come the Warm Jets was voted one of the best albums of the year in the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll for that year .
Modern assessments of the album have been positive ; AllMusic gave the album five stars , their highest rating . In 1991 , Select gave the album a five out of five rating , describing it as an album of " mind @-@ blowing diversity " and as a " classic album " . In the November 2003 issue of Rolling Stone , the album charted at number 436 in the magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums ever . In a retrospective review , Rolling Stone 's J. D. Considine gave the album four out of five stars and commented that " It may be easy to hear both an anticipation of punk and an echo of Roxy Music in the arch clangor of Here Come the Warm Jets , but what shines brightest is the offhand accessibility of the songs " , adding that " the melodies linger on [ … ] the album seems almost a blueprint for the pop experiments Bowie ( with Eno collaborating ) would conduct with Low " . In 2004 , Pitchfork ranked the album at number 24 on its " Top 100 Albums of the 1970s " list , as well as giving the re @-@ issue of the album 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . In 2003 , Blender placed the album on their list " 500 CDs You Must Own : Alternative Rock " , stating that Here Come the Warm Jets " remains his best pop effort . His experimental touch turns basic glam @-@ rock into something sick and sinister . The free @-@ associating , posh @-@ voiced vocals are an acquired taste , but there 's method in this madness " . The Canadian music magazine Exclaim ! referred to Here Come the Warm Jets as " Arguably one of the greatest solo debuts of the 1970s ... Songs such as " Baby 's on Fire " , " Driving Me Backwards " and " Needles in the Camel 's Eye " capture the lush and sleazy underpinning narratives of the British Invasion in arrangements that sound quintessentially timeless " .
The album was included in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Brian Eno , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= Circus Juventas =
Circus Juventas ( formerly Circus of the Star ) is a youth performing arts circus school located in Saint Paul , Minnesota , serving youth throughout the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metropolitan area . The organization was founded in 1994 by Dan and Betty Butler , and offers circus arts training to young people ranging from 3 to 21 years old .
Emulating the style of Cirque du Soleil , Circus Juventas 's first show was at Saint Paul 's Highland Fest in 1995 . From there , the school 's enrollment quickly expanded and the organization initiated a campaign to fund a $ 2 @.@ 1 million permanent big top facility , which opened in 2001 on Saint Paul parkland in the Highland Park neighborhood . That year , it began to produce annual summer performances showcasing the work of its most advanced students , each with a distinct theme .
These shows have proven popular with local audiences and have been well received critically , with reviewers praising the professionalism and fearlessness exhibited in the productions , while noting students ' occasional missteps during performances . Circus Juventas students have performed and competed both around the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area and abroad . As of 2014 , Juventas was the largest youth performing arts circus in North America . The school had tentative plans to add a second facility elsewhere in the region .
= = History = =
The founders of Circus Juventas , Dan and Betty Butler , met as teenagers at the Sailor Circus of Sarasota during the mid @-@ 1970s . Dan was a catcher on the flying trapeze , and Betty was an aerialist on the cloud swing . They began dating at age sixteen , went on to perform at Florida State University 's Flying High Circus , and married in 1980 . Dan became a successful real estate broker in Atlanta , but eventually faced bankruptcy and chemical dependency . The couple came to reside in Minnesota because Dan Butler was receiving alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation at Hazelden . The Butlers attended Sailor Circus reunions together and after one , in April 1994 , Betty Butler wondered , " Wouldn 't it be great if we could do something in Minnesota ? "
The Butlers founded Circus Juventas as a nonprofit corporation in October 1994 , citing a desire to give back to the community as one of the reasons for its creation . It was originally known as Circus of the Star , so called for Minnesota 's nickname , The North Star State . The newly opened Hillcrest Recreation Center in Saint Paul provided the couple with inspiration for the circus program , and they asked the city if they could hold classes there . The Saint Paul Parks and Recreation Department approved the program , and assumed liability for approximately fifty children who enrolled the first year . About thirty of those students stayed with the program and performed in their first show at the 1995 Highland Fest , an annual family @-@ oriented neighborhood festival . After this performance , interest in the program increased . By 1996 , 30 more students were enrolled , and by 1997 , an additional 25 had joined the program . The circus was still based out of the Hillcrest Recreation Center 's gym , and had to work around the schedule of the other regular activities in the facility . In 1997 , the waitlist for the program was around 200 students .
With the school 's growing popularity , the Butlers saw the need for a larger space so they developed plans to build a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ seat facility . In an article published in the St. Paul Pioneer Press in 1997 , the estimated cost of the project was quoted at $ 700 @,@ 000 , with a groundbreaking planned for April 1998 . The Butlers initiated their capital campaign on February 18 , 1998 , with the goal of raising $ 1 @.@ 1 million for their new building . By August 1999 , they had raised $ 1 million of their expanded $ 1 @.@ 6 million goal for the circus expansion , with plans to break ground on the new facility that November . Part of the funding came from Saint Paul 's Sales Tax Revitalization ( STAR ) program , through which surplus funds were distributed by councilmembers to worthy organizations . A total of $ 627 @,@ 183 was disbursed for the circus through the program , split between three STAR components : $ 450 @,@ 000 as part of Neighborhood STAR which sought to fund local initiatives , $ 122 @,@ 183 as part of Cultural STAR which funded arts and culture programs , and $ 55 @,@ 000 from 3rd Ward City Councilmember Pat Harris 's discretionary Neighborhood Investment Initiative budget . Another $ 60 @,@ 000 came from an anonymous recently retired Saint Paul businessperson .
The $ 1 @.@ 6 million were raised in full by the end of April 2000 , just in time to ensure the circus received its STAR funding which would have been nullified if the Butlers had not made their fundraising goal by May 5 of that year . The Butlers had found the space for the school through coincidence ; after driving along Montreal Avenue in Saint Paul one night , they turned into a parking lot , noticed an area beneath some trees , and realized it was an ideal location for their school 's expanded facility . On August 25 , 2000 , ground was broken on the new structure . The big top took about a year to complete , during which time the school also changed its name to Circus Juventas , named for Juventas , an ancient Roman goddess of youth and rejuvenation . Ultimately , the project totaled $ 2 @.@ 1 million and by 2006 , the school was $ 700 @,@ 000 in debt . It was working with various city agencies to resolve the shortfall and faced " no looming threat . " The school relies heavily on parent volunteers to help with various operational aspects , from rigging to administrative work to set construction and decoration , and concessions sales . Betty Butler estimated that 90 percent of work on the school 's shows is done by parent volunteers . The circus operates with the equivalent of 40 full @-@ time employees .
In 2010 , the circus school enrolled students from ages 6 to 21 , with an additional enrollment of about 150 toddlers and other younger participants as young as three years old . By 2013 , the enrollment had reached over 800 and the school 's annual operating budget exceeded $ 2 million . Circus Juventas has also held circus arts fitness classes for adults , taught by the school 's regular instructors . The school is a member of the Outdoor Amusement Business Association and the Fédération Mondiale du Cirque . A listing on the latter organization 's website notes that as of 2014 , Juventas is the largest performing arts circus school for youth in the United States ; other sources indicate that it is the largest in all of North America .
= = Facilities = =
Circus Juventas 's big top is located in the Highland Park neighborhood of Saint Paul , Minnesota . It stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and encompasses 21 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 951 m2 ) of floor space built on concrete slab . The structure is supported by an aluminum frame and covered with flame @-@ resistant vinyl @-@ coated cloth . The building 's 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 m2 ) lobby space was designed by Locus Architecture , Ltd . , of Minneapolis . The firm connected texteline fabric ( often used for awnings ) to the system of catwalks and supports to help " the lobby act ... as an immersion tank , rather than a threshold , to introduce spectators to the illusion of the world of circus . " Although Locus was still installing the fabric within hours of the circus 's gala opening , the company won one of the 10 honor awards distributed in 2002 by the Minnesota branch of the American Institute of Architects for their design . The circus school 's original bleachers could seat 1 @,@ 200 audiencemembers .
= = = Bleacher collapse = = =
On August 16 , 2009 , at the closing performance of the show Yulong , a set of bleachers with a carrying capacity of 450 people and holding 420 at the time collapsed , sending seven people to the hospital . In the ensuing investigation , it came to light that Juventas had not had the bleachers inspected each time they were set up , as required by their lease with the city . They had been issued a permit in 2006 for the bleachers , and had not had them inspected since . The school was fined $ 500 and shut down until the legal and safety issues could be fully investigated . It reopened about a month later and installed new bleachers with molded plastic seats the next March .
= = = Future = = =
In early 2014 , the Butlers announced plans to expand their big top facility by an additional 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 m2 ) . The additional space would house a dance and theater studio , a costume shop , offices , and a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 420 m2 ) gym . Naming rights for the new structure would provide a component of the $ 4 million the school hoped to raise for the $ 2 million expansion , a $ 1 million addition to the circus 's endowment , and eventual repairs to the building 's exterior , estimated at $ 1 million . Betty Butler stated that the project stemmed from the desire to create " a true professional program , a separate program " for students looking to study and perform circus arts post @-@ Juventas , even though she and her husband originally shied away from pre @-@ professional training as a core aspect of their circus school .
According to Saint Paul 's Parks and Recreation Department , the cliffside space which the expansion would occupy was deemed unsuitable for building a structure of the expansion 's proposed size . In response , the Butlers were considering building a new facility of up to 50 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) in the western suburbs of Minneapolis – Saint Paul . Construction of a new building would likely cost $ 10 million , require a capital campaign to fund , and probably not begin for five to 10 years . In the meantime , the school is performing a small expansion to its Highland Park space , on which the Circus has a lease for at least 17 more years , as of 2014 .
= = Performances = =
The school typically puts on two shows each year : a spring performance featuring less advanced students studying circus arts at beginning and intermediate levels , and a late summer show to display the talents of more advanced students . While the earliest shows were focused primarily on technique and the individual acts , by 1997 or 1998 the school began to emphasize the artistic side of performances , including integrating those acts into Cirque du Soleil @-@ style narratives . The school also hosts an annual gala in late autumn that includes portions of the year 's earlier summer performance . Circus Juventas does not utilize animal acts in its shows .
= = = Big top summer shows = = =
2001 : Mythos , a production dealing with Greek mythology was performed not only in Circus Juventas 's newly opened permanent big top facility but also at the Minnesota State Capitol on New Year 's Eve , 2001 .
2002 : Cirque Napoleon , a show that delved into the history of circus , taking place in a French circus in 1859 and honoring Jules Léotard , an early trapeze artist .
2003 : Taroq , a production set in Morocco following four traveling nomads on a quest to determine the meaning of life .
2004 : Swash , a pirate @-@ themed performance that entailed a quest for lost treasure .
2005 : Dyrnwych , a production that included " an amalgam of fairy @-@ tale types , with wicked hag witches , trolls , forest spirits , and warrior women . "
2006 : Pazzanni , a retelling of the story of Cinderella , inspired by 1500s Venetian carnivales and featuring masks designed by the maskmaker responsible for those used in the 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut .
2007 : Atlanticus , a performance set under the oceans in the domain of Poseidon .
2008 : RavensManor , a haunted house @-@ themed show , based loosely on the Haunted Mansion ride located in Disneyland . RavensManor 's story , set in New Orleans , included a tragic romance and zombies .
2009 : Yulong : The Jade Dragon ( sometimes shortened to Yulong ) , a presentation derived from Chinese legendary and circus traditions . Produced in collaboration with the Chinese American Association of Minnesota , the show spotlighted three Taiwanese guest artists and included an emphasis on Chinese circus acts such as Chinese pole and hoop diving .
2010 : Sawdust , a performance evoking the traditions of historic American circuses . Special guests in the show were veteran circus performers Willie Edleston and Tony Steele who played slightly fictionalized versions of themselves .
2011 : Grimm — Happily Ever After ! ( sometimes shortened to Grimm ) , a show retelling a number of the Brothers Grimm 's fairy tales . Characters included Rapunzel , Cinderella , Little Red Riding Hood , Hansel and Gretel , Snow White , and the Frog Prince .
2012 : Showdown , a Wild West @-@ themed show set in the fictional town of Tumbleweed . The performance included portrayals of historical figures including Lillie Langtry , Black Bart , Billy the Kid , and Wyatt Earp , and featured a seven @-@ man highwire pyramid , becoming the second youth circus to complete this trick .
2013 : Oz , based on The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . The performance retold Dorothy Gale 's travels through the Land of Oz and incorporated a " maison " trapeze , a cubic apparatus replicating Dorothy 's house that gets swept away and carried to Oz by a tornado .
2014 : Neverland , incorporating elements from the world of Peter Pan and featuring a cradle act .
2015 : 1001 Nights , a retelling of Scheherazade 's One Thousand and One Nights .
2016 's summer show is planned to be an adaptation of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland .
= = = Other engagements = = =
In addition to shows at their Saint Paul big top , Juventas students have performed across the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metro area and at domestic and international shows and competitions . Performers have appeared at local events including the Saint Paul Winter Carnival , Minneapolis mayor R. T. Rybak 's 2002 inauguration at the Minneapolis City Hall , and at the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts as part of the Flint Hills International Children 's Festival . Students have presented their work at a variety of local public , retail , and theater spaces . Students have also participated non @-@ Juventas shows , including a 2004 Minnesota Fringe Festival production , the 2005 world premiere of Tin Forest with the Minnesota Orchestra at Orchestra Hall , the Children 's Theatre Company 's 2008 stage adaptation of Madeline and the Gypsies , and the 2012 adaptation of Jack Prelutsky 's The Dragons Are Singing Tonight at The Southern Theater . In 2010 , a cohort of Juventas students traveled to perform in Chattanooga , Tennessee at the RiverRocks Festival , Outside the United States , performers have traveled to compete , including at the International Circus Festival in Latina , Italy , and at the Circus Ring of Friendship Festival in Norrköping , Sweden , in which the troupe 's triple trapeze team garnered the gold medal .
= = Music = =
Much of the accompaniment for the big top summer shows came from Peter Ostroushko , a local mandolin player . Ostroushko , known for his work on the radio show A Prairie Home Companion , became involved in the youth circus after his daughter saw a show and decided to join . In 2005 , the Butlers discovered Ostroushko 's affinity for the mandolin and fiddle , and asked if he would play a Celtic song at the premiere of their upcoming summer big top show , Dyrnwych . He happily agreed , having expressed a lifelong dream of joining a circus , and played the track , " See It There / Con Cassidy 's " , not only at Dyrnwych 's opening but also at each of its subsequent 18 performances . The following year , he composed original music for the 2006 Juventas show , Pazzanni , and expanded his band to five members , including himself on mandolin , fiddle , and mandocello , Marc Anderson on percussion , Dan Chouinard on piano , accordion , and keyboard , Dirk Freymuth on electric and acoustic guitars , and Joel Sayles on electric and acoustic bass guitars . Ostroushko again provided a score for Atlanticus and RavensManor , continued in 2010 with Sawdust , then Grimm , and finally Showdown . Tracks from the first four shows for which he played , from Dyrnwych to RavensManor , are anthologized on the album Peter Joins the Circus , published by Borderland Productions in 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Jando Dominique , reporting for Spectacle : An Online Journal of Circus Arts , summarized audience and critical reception for Circus Juventas 's shows by describing them as " always sold out and enthusiastically reviewed by the press . " Renee Valois cited the age of the performers and the proximity between them and the audience when she asked in a St. Paul Pioneer Press review of Oz comparing the circus school with Cirque du Soleil , " Dare I say Circus Juventas is more exciting than the troupe that inspired it ? " Writing for Minnesota Monthly , Amanda Bankston commended the technical skill and professionalism of the performers in 2012 's Showdown : " There is nothing child @-@ like about the talent in this show . The budding stars fearlessly swing , flip , and soar through the air like pros . " In Spectacle , Dominique noted that Juventas 's productions consistently have " a polish and style not often seen in youth circuses , or most professional ones , for that matter . "
Susannah Schouweiler of Knight Arts wrote , " at two hours and 45 minutes , plus a 20 @-@ minute intermission , [ Grimm 's ] run time is an awfully long haul for the smallest circus @-@ goers . " Critics have also commented on the occasional misstep in a performance ; Rohan Preston noted in his review of Grimm that " there are moments – just a few stand out – when you realize that these are students , after all , in a celebrated after @-@ school program . You want them to succeed , even if they do not always . " Similarly , writing for BroadwayWorld , Elaina Lenertz stated , " Sometimes their silks routines are a bit out of sync and sometimes the show features dance routines from younger kids who are still mastering stunts . Despite this , the performance is very impressive . "
= = = Cited = = =
LeFevre , Camille ( March – April 2003 ) . " Performance Architecture " . Architecture Minnesota 29 ( 2 ) . ISSN 0149 @-@ 9106 .
Rea , Amy C. ( 2012 ) . An Explorer 's Guide : Minnesota , Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes ( 2nd ed . ) . Woodstock , VT : Countryman Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88150 @-@ 954 @-@ 0 .
Rowe , Ashleigh V. ( Series producer ) ( October 7 , 2010 ) . # 209 : Lightsey Darst , Mike Wohnoutka , Circus Juventas + The Pines . Minnesota Original ( Television production ) ( Saint Paul , MN : Twin Cities PBS ) . Retrieved December 13 , 2013 .
Wall , Duncan ( 2013 ) . The Ordinary Acrobat : A Journey into the Wondrous World of the Circus , Past and Present . New York City : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 96229 @-@ 4 .
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= Bill Cook =
William Osser Xavier Cook ( October 9 , 1895 – May 5 , 1986 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played for the Saskatoon Crescents of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) and the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . A prolific scorer , Cook led the WCHL in goals twice and the NHL three times . He was named an all @-@ star seven times between the two leagues . Known as " The Original Ranger " , Cook was the first captain of the New York Rangers , scored the first goal in franchise history and led the team to two Stanley Cup championships .
Turning to coaching following his playing career , Cook led the Cleveland Barons to two Calder Cup championships and the Minneapolis Millers to a United States Hockey League championship . He coached the New York Rangers during the 1951 – 52 NHL season until his retirement in 1953 . Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1952 and Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 1975 .
= = Early life = =
Cook was born on October 9 , 1895 , in Brantford , Ontario . He was a middle child of a large family , and the eldest of three sons , preceding his brothers Frederick ( " Bun " ) and Alexander ( " Bud " ) . The family moved to Kingston , Ontario , where he learned to skate on the Rideau Canal . He joined the Kingston Frontenacs ' junior hockey team in 1913 and played for two seasons before his career was interrupted by the First World War .
He volunteered to join the Canadian Expeditionary Force in 1915 , and served with the Canadian Field Artillery for nearly two years in France and another at the Belgian front . Cook participated in several engagements , including at Ypres , the Somme , Vimy Ridge and Hill 70 . He then fought into 1919 in Siberia as part of the allied intervention in the Russian Civil War .
Upon his return from the war , Cook rejoined the Frontenacs for one season before joining the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in 1920 . He led the Northern Ontario Hockey Association ( NOHA ) in both goals , 12 , and points , 19 , while the Greyhounds won the NOHA championship . He won the scoring title again in 1921 – 22 with 20 goals and 28 points .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Saskatoon Crescents = = =
Spurning offers from National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams to turn professional in the eastern league , Cook moved to Saskatchewan where he had been granted land for his service in the war . The Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) attempted to recruit him for the 1922 – 23 season but failed to sign him . Instead , he joined the Saskatoon Crescents . He recorded 25 points in 30 games in his first professional season .
Returning to Saskatoon in 1923 – 24 , Cook led the WCHL with 26 goals and 40 points . He was named the all @-@ star right wing for the first of three consecutive seasons . He scored 22 goals in 1924 – 25 . The WCHL rebranded itself the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and the Crescents became the Sheiks in 1925 – 26 . Cook again led in both goals and points with 31 and 44 respectively , and had become known as the best right wing in hockey .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
The WHL had run into financial difficulty in its final seasons , and after 1926 , ceased operations . The Montreal Maroons intended to sign both Cook and his brother Bun to join their team for the 1926 – 27 NHL season . While the team 's manager waited in Montreal to meet the brothers , Conn Smythe , manager of the newly formed New York Rangers , travelled to Winnipeg to reach the pair first . Smythe signed both Cook brothers for $ 12 @,@ 000 . Bill Cook was officially the first player signed by the Rangers , and was named the team 's first captain . The Cook brothers joined Frank Boucher to form the " Bread Line " , one of the early NHL 's most prolific scoring lines .
The Rangers made their NHL debut on November 16 , 1926 , against the Maroons . Cook scored the franchise 's first goal , which also stood up as the winner , in a 1 – 0 victory . Appearing in 44 games , he led the league in both goals , 33 , and points , 37 . He finished as the runner @-@ up to Herb Gardiner of the Montreal Canadiens for the Hart Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player . The Rangers finished first in the American Division , but were eliminated by the Boston Bruins in the playoffs . Cook recorded 24 points in 1927 – 28 , the seventh highest total in the league . The Rangers again qualified for the playoffs , where they defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates , Boston Bruins and Montreal Maroons to win the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship . The Bread Line scored every Rangers goal in the 1928 Stanley Cup Finals .
Twenty @-@ three points in 1928 – 29 again placed Cook seventh in the league . The Rangers defeated the New York Americans to reach the 1929 Stanley Cup Finals , but were defeated by the Montreal Canadiens . Cook led the Rangers and finished fourth in league scoring in 1929 – 30 and 1930 – 31 with 59 and 42 points respectively . In 1931 , he was named to the NHL 's inaugural All @-@ Star Team at right wing . It was the first of four consecutive appearances ; he was placed on the first team in 1931 , 1932 and 1933 , and on the second team in 1934 . Cook 's 34 goals in 1931 – 32 tied Charlie Conacher for the league lead . The Rangers won the American Division title , and after defeating the Canadians , faced Conacher 's Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1932 Stanley Cup Final . Toronto swept the series with three consecutive victories .
Cook was again the top scorer in 1932 – 33 , leading the NHL in both goals , 28 , and points , 50 . At 36 years , 5 months old , Cook was the oldest player in NHL history to win a scoring title until 2013 when Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning led the NHL in scoring at the age of 39 . The Rangers reached the 1933 Stanley Cup Finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs . Cook scored the winning goal in the second game , then scored the championship winning goal , in overtime , in the fourth game . It was the first overtime power play goal in NHL playoff history . The trophy was not available on the night the Rangers won , leading the series to become known as the " Forgotten Cup " . Cook accepted the Stanley Cup on behalf of his team in November of that year , seven months after the Rangers victory .
After scoring only 13 goals in 1933 – 34 , Cook improved to 20 goals in 1934 – 35 . In a 7 – 5 victory over the Maple Leafs on January 29 , 1935 , the Bread line scored four goals and five assists to reach a combined 1 @,@ 000 points as a unit over their nine seasons together . The Bread Line was broken up in 1935 – 36 when Bun was forced out of the Rangers lineup by illness . Bill Cook scored just seven goals that season , and at the age of 40 , scored one goal in 21 games before retiring as a player during the 1936 – 37 season .
= = Coaching career = =
Turning to coaching , Cook took over as the manager of the Cleveland Barons in the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ) in the 1937 – 38 season . He inherited a team that had struggled the season before and led it to a respectable season , winning 34 of 50 games played combined between the regular season and playoffs . Cook was pressed into service as a player as a result of injuries . His team was able to dress only 10 of 17 players in the deciding game of the Barons ' playoff series against the Syracuse Stars . Cook played a regular shift in the game , but the Barons lost , 3 – 2 , in the fourth overtime period .
The Barons finished fifth overall in the IAHL standings in 1938 – 39 , but defeated the Springfield Indians and Providence Reds to reach the league championship series against the Philadelphia Ramblers . They won the best @-@ of @-@ five championship three games to one to claim the Calder Cup . Cook coached the Barons to a second Calder Cup in 1940 – 41 , defeating the Hershey Bears in the final . Cook remained behind the Barons ' bench until the conclusion of the 1942 – 43 American Hockey League ( AHL ) season . He then turned coaching duties over to his brother Bun , but remained the team 's general manager .
Cook left the Barons to join the Minneapolis Millers of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) in 1947 . He coached the team for three seasons , leading the team to the Paul W. Loudon Trophy as league champions in 1949 – 50 . He moved on to coach the Denver Falcons , also of the USHL , in 1950 – 51 then the Saskatoon Quakers of the Pacific Coast Hockey League ( PHCL ) the following season . Cook left the Quakers midway through the season when asked by Frank Boucher , general manager of the New York Rangers , to return to the NHL club as its head coach . He coached the final 47 games of the Rangers ' 1951 – 52 season , winning 17 , losing 22 and tying 8 . He remained behind the Rangers bench in 1952 – 53 , but the Rangers missed the playoffs after winning only 17 of 70 games . Cook was replaced as coach following the season as Boucher named himself head coach . Cook then retired from hockey .
= = Legacy = =
A prolific scorer , Cook scored 317 goals and 508 points in 591 games in his 15 year professional career . Known as " The Original Ranger " , he led the team in goals six times . He was regarded as being the greatest right wing in the game 's history when he retired , an opinion former teammate Frank Boucher retained many years later : " Bill was the finest all @-@ round player in Ranger history . And he 's my choice as the best right winger hockey ever knew – despite the fact that others disagree and give their votes to Rocket Richard or Gordie Howe . I say Cook topped them both . " Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1952 , and Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 1975 .
A popular former Ranger , Cook participated in the closing of the old Madison Square Garden and the opening of the new facility in 1968 . In recognition of his scoring the first Rangers goal in the old Garden , he was asked to " score " the first goal in the new facility as part of the opening ceremony for the new . In 1986 , he was presented with the Rangers ' Alumni Association award , the first former Ranger to receive the award through a vote of alumni membership . The Hockey News ranked Cook as the 44th greatest player in NHL history , and highest Ranger on the list , in its 1998 book The Top 100 NHL Players of All Time .
= = Personal life = =
Accepting a land grant from the federal government , Cook settled in Saskatchewan following the First World War , taking a half section of land adjacent to a similar holding of his brother Bun 's . He established his farm near Lac Vert , hunted and played baseball during hockey off @-@ seasons . He later returned to Kingston , Ontario , where he continued to farm and was nearly killed when one of his bulls gored him . Cook was married and had three children . He died of cancer in Kingston on May 5 , 1986 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing career = = =
= = = NHL Coaching career = = =
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= Leni Riefenstahl =
Helene Bertha Amalie " Leni " Riefenstahl ( German : [ ˈʁiːfənʃtaːl ] ; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003 ) was a German film director , producer , screenwriter , editor , photographer , actress , dancer , and propagandist for the Nazis .
Born in 1902 into a Lutheran Protestant family , Leni Riefenstahl grew up in Germany with her brother Heinz ( 1905 – 1944 ) , who was killed on the Eastern Front in World War II . A talented swimmer and artist , she also became interested in dancing during her childhood , taking dancing lessons and performing across Europe .
After seeing a promotional poster for the 1924 film Der Berg des Schicksals ( " The Mountain of Destiny " ) , Riefenstahl was inspired to move into acting . Between 1925 and 1929 , she starred in five successful motion pictures . In 1932 , Riefenstahl decided to try directing with her own film called Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) . In the 1930s , she directed Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " ) and Olympia , resulting in worldwide attention and acclaim . Both movies are widely considered two of the most effective , and technically innovative , propaganda films ever made . Her involvement in Triumph des Willens , however , would significantly damage her career and reputation after the war . The exact nature of her relationship with Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler remains a matter of debate , although a friendship is known to have existed . After the war , Riefenstahl was arrested , but classified as being a " fellow traveler " only and was not associated with war crimes . Throughout her life , she denied having known about the Holocaust , and won nearly 50 libel cases . Besides directing , Riefenstahl released an autobiography and wrote several books on the Nuba people .
Riefenstahl died of cancer on 8 September 2003 at the age of 101 and was buried at Munich Waldfriedhof . She was praised for her body of work following her death and remains one of the most acclaimed movie directors .
= = Early life = =
Helene Bertha Amalie Riefenstahl was born in Germany on 22 August 1902 . Her father , Alfred Theodor Paul Riefenstahl , owned a successful heating and ventilation company and wanted his daughter to follow him into the business world . Since Riefenstahl was the only child for several years , Alfred wanted her to carry on the family name and secure the family fortune . However , her mother , Bertha Ida ( Scherlach ) , who had been a part @-@ time seamstress before her marriage , had faith in Riefenstahl and believed that her daughter 's future was in show business . Riefenstahl had a younger brother , Heinz , who was killed at the age of 39 on the Eastern Front in Nazi Germany 's war against the Soviet Union .
Riefenstahl fell in love with the arts in her childhood . She began to paint and write poetry at the age of four . She was also athletic , and at the age of twelve joined a gymnastic and swim club . Her mother was confident her daughter would grow up to be successful in the field of art and therefore gave her full support , unlike Riefenstahl 's father , who was not interested in his daughter 's artistic inclinations . In 1918 , when she was 16 , Riefenstahl attended a presentation of Snow White which interested her deeply ; it led her to want to be a dancer . Her father instead wanted to provide his daughter with an education that could lead to a more dignified occupation . His wife , however , continued to support her daughter 's passion . Without her father 's knowledge , she enrolled Riefenstahl in dance and ballet classes at the Grimm @-@ Reiter Dance School in Berlin , where she quickly became a star pupil .
= = Dancing and acting careers = =
Riefenstahl attended dancing academies and became well known for her self @-@ styled interpretive dancing skills , traveling across Europe with Max Reinhardt in a show funded by Jewish producer Harry Sokal . Riefenstahl often made almost 700 Reichmarks for each performance and was so captivated with dancing that she gave filmmaking no thought . She began to suffer foot injuries that led to knee surgery , threatening her dancing career . It was while going to a doctor 's appointment that she first saw a poster for the 1924 film Der Berg des Schicksals ( " The Mountain of Destiny " ) . She became inspired to go into movie making , and began visiting the cinema to see films and also attended film shows .
On one of her adventures , Riefenstahl met Luis Trenker , who was an actor from Der Berg des Schicksals . At a meeting arranged by her friend Gunther Rahn , she met Arnold Fanck , the director of Der Berg des Schicksals and a pioneer of the mountain film genre . Fanck was working on a film in Berlin . After Riefenstahl told him how much she admired his work , she also convinced him of her acting skill . She persuaded him to feature her in one of his movies . Riefenstahl later received a package from Fanck containing the script of the 1926 film Der Heilige Berg ( " The Holy Mountain " ) . She made a series of films for Fanck , where she learned from him acting and film editing techniques . One of Fanck 's films that brought Riefenstahl into the limelight was Die Weisse Hölle vom Piz Palü ( " The White Hell of Piz Palü " ) of 1929 , co @-@ directed by G. W. Pabst . Her fame spread to countries outside Germany .
Riefenstahl produced and directed her own work called Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) in 1932 , co @-@ written by Carl Mayer and Béla Balázs . This film won the Silver Medal at the Venice Film Festival , but was not universally well @-@ received , for which Riefenstahl blamed the critics , many of whom were Jewish . Upon its 1938 re @-@ release , the names of Balázs and Sokal , both Jewish , were removed from the credits ; some reports claim this was at Riefenstahl 's behest . In the film , Riefenstahl played an innocent peasant girl who is hated by the villagers because they think she is diabolic and cast out . She is protected by a glowing mountain grotto . According to herself , Riefenstahl received invitations to travel to Hollywood to create films , but she refused them in favour of remaining in Germany with a boyfriend . The film attracted the attention of Hitler , who believed she epitomized the perfect German female . He saw talent in Riefenstahl and arranged a meeting .
In 1933 , Riefenstahl would appear in the U.S.-German co @-@ productions of the Arnold Fanck @-@ directed , German @-@ language SOS Eisberg and the Tay Garnett @-@ directed , English @-@ language SOS Iceberg . The movies were filmed simultaneously in English and German and produced and distributed by Universal Studios . Her role as an actress in SOS Iceberg would be her only English language role in film .
= = Directing career = =
= = = Propaganda films = = =
Riefenstahl heard Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) leader Adolf Hitler speak at a rally in 1932 and was mesmerized by his talent as a public speaker . Describing the experience in her memoir , Riefenstahl wrote , " I had an almost apocalyptic vision that I was never able to forget . It seemed as if the Earth 's surface were spreading out in front of me , like a hemisphere that suddenly splits apart in the middle , spewing out an enormous jet of water , so powerful that it touched the sky and shook the earth " .
After meeting Hitler , Riefenstahl was offered the opportunity to direct Der Sieg des Glaubens ( " The Victory of Faith " ) , an hour @-@ long propaganda film about the fifth Nuremberg Rally in 1933 . Riefenstahl agreed to direct the movie . She and Hitler got on well , forming a friendly relationship . The propaganda film was funded entirely by the NSDAP .
Impressed with Riefenstahl 's work , Hitler asked her to film Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " ) , a new propaganda film about the 1934 party rally in Nuremberg . More than one million Germans participated in the rally . Initially , according to Riefenstahl , she resisted and did not want to create further Nazi Party films , instead wanting to direct a feature film based on Hitler 's favourite opera , Eugen d 'Albert 's Tiefland ( " Lowlands " ) . Riefenstahl received private funding for the production of Tiefland , but the filming in Spain was derailed and the project was cancelled . Hitler was able to convince her to film Triumph des Willens on the condition that she would not be required to make further films for the party , according to Riefenstahl . The motion picture was generally recognized as an epic , innovative work of propaganda filmmaking . The film took Riefenstahl 's career to a new level and gave her further international recognition .
In interviews for the 1993 documentary The Wonderful , Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl , Riefenstahl adamantly denied any deliberate attempt to create Nazi propaganda and said she was disgusted that Triumph des Willens was used in such a way .
Despite allegedly vowing not to make any more films about the Nazi Party , Riefenstahl made the 28 @-@ minute Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( " Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces " ) about the German Army in 1935 . Like Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens , this was filmed at the annual Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg . Riefenstahl said this film was a sub @-@ set of Der Sieg des Glaubens , added to mollify the German Army which felt it was not represented well in Triumph des Willens .
Hitler invited Riefenstahl to film the 1936 Summer Olympics scheduled to be held in Berlin , a film which Riefenstahl claimed had been commissioned by the International Olympic Committee . She visited Greece to take footage of the route of the inaugural torch relay and the games ' original site at Olympia , where she was aided by Greek photographer Nelly 's . This material became Olympia , a hugely successful film which has since been widely noted for its technical and aesthetic achievements . She was one of the first filmmakers to use tracking shots in a documentary , placing a camera on rails to follow the athletes ' movement . The film is also noted for its slow motion shots . Riefenstahl played with the idea of slow motion , underwater diving shots , extremely high and low shooting angles , panoramic aerial shots , and tracking system shots for allowing fast action . Many of these shots were relatively unheard of 80 years ago , but Leni ’ s use caused many of them to become streamlined , and is the reason why they are still used to this day . Riefenstahl 's work on Olympia has been cited as a major influence in modern sports photography . Riefenstahl filmed competitors of all races , including African @-@ American Jesse Owens in what would later become famous footage .
Olympia premiered for Hitler 's 49th birthday in 1938 . Its international debut led Riefenstahl to embark on an American publicity tour in an attempt to secure commercial release . In February 1937 , Riefenstahl enthusiastically told a reporter for the Detroit News , " To me , Hitler is the greatest man who ever lived . He truly is without fault , so simple and at the same time possessed of masculine strength " . She arrived in New York City on 4 November 1938 , five days before Kristallnacht ( the " Night of the Broken Glass " ) . When news of the event reached the United States , Riefenstahl publicly defended Hitler . On 18 November , she was received by Henry Ford in Detroit . Olympia was shown at the Chicago Engineers Club two days later . Avery Brundage , President of the International Olympic Committee , praised the film and held Riefenstahl in the highest regard . She negotiated with Louis B. Mayer , and on 8 December , Walt Disney brought her on a three @-@ hour tour showing her the ongoing production of Fantasia .
From the Goebbels Diaries , researchers learned that Riefenstahl had been friendly with Joseph Goebbels and his wife Magda , attending the opera with them and going to his parties . Riefenstahl maintained that Goebbels was upset when she rejected his advances and was jealous of her influence on Hitler , seeing her as an internal threat . She therefore insisted his diary entries could not be trusted . By later accounts , Goebbels thought highly of Riefenstahl 's filmmaking but was angered with what he saw as her overspending on the Nazi @-@ provided filmmaking budgets .
= = = World War II = = =
When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 , Riefenstahl was photographed in Poland wearing a military uniform and a pistol on her belt in the company of German soldiers ; she had gone to Poland as a war correspondent . On 12 September , she was in the town of Końskie when 30 civilians were executed in retaliation for an alleged attack on German soldiers . According to her memoir , Riefenstahl tried to intervene but a furious German soldier held her at gunpoint and threatened to shoot her on the spot . She claimed she did not realize the victims were Jews . Closeup photographs of a distraught Riefenstahl survive from that day . Nevertheless , by 5 October 1939 , Riefenstahl was back in occupied Poland filming Hitler 's victory parade in Warsaw . Afterwards , she left Poland and chose not to make any more Nazi @-@ related movies .
On 14 June 1940 , the day Paris was declared an open city by the French and occupied by German troops , Riefenstahl wrote to Hitler in a telegram , " With indescribable joy , deeply moved and filled with burning gratitude , we share with you , my Führer , your and Germany 's greatest victory , the entry of German troops into Paris . You exceed anything human imagination has the power to conceive , achieving deeds without parallel in the history of mankind . How can we ever thank you ? " She later explained , " Everyone thought the war was over , and in that spirit I sent the cable to Hitler " . Riefenstahl was friends with Hitler for 12 years and reports vary as to whether she ever had an intimate relationship with him . Her relationship with Hitler severely declined in 1944 when her brother died on the Russian Front .
After the Nuremberg rallies trilogy and Olympia , Riefenstahl began work on the movie she had tried and failed to direct once before , namely Tiefland . On Hitler 's direct order , the German government paid her seven million Reichsmarks in compensation . From 23 September until 13 November 1940 , she filmed in Krün near Mittenwald . The extras playing Spanish women and farmers were drawn from gypsies detained in a camp at Salzburg @-@ Maxglan who were forced to work with her . Filming at the Babelsberg Studios near Berlin began 18 months later in April 1942 . This time Sinti and Roma people from the Marzahn detention camp near Berlin were compelled to work as extras . Almost to the end of her life , despite overwhelming evidence that the concentration camp occupants had been forced to work on the movie unpaid , Riefenstahl continued to maintain all the film extras survived and that she had met several of them after the war . Riefenstahl sued filmmaker Nina Gladitz , who said Riefenstahl personally chose the extras at their holding camp ; Gladitz had found one of the Gypsy survivors and matched his memory with stills of the movie for a documentary Gladitz was filming . The German court ruled largely in favour of Gladitz , declaring that Riefenstahl had known the extras were from a concentration camp , but they also agreed that Riefenstahl had not been informed the Gypsies would be sent to Auschwitz after filming was completed .
This issue came up again in 2002 , when Riefenstahl was one hundred years old and she was taken to court by a Roma group for denying the Nazis had exterminated gypsies . Riefenstahl apologized and said , " I regret that Sinti and Roma [ people ] had to suffer during the period of National Socialism . It is known today that many of them were murdered in concentration camps " .
In October 1944 the production of Tiefland moved to Barrandov Studios in Prague for interior filming . Lavish sets made these shots some of the most costly of the film . The film was not edited and released until almost ten years later .
The last time Riefenstahl saw Hitler was when she married Peter Jacob on 21 March 1944 . Riefenstahl and Jacob divorced in 1946 . As Germany 's military situation became impossible by early 1945 , Riefenstahl left Berlin and was hitchhiking with a group of men , trying to reach her mother , when she was taken into custody by American troops . She walked out of a holding camp , beginning a series of escapes and arrests across the chaotic landscape . At last making it back home on a bicycle , she found that American troops had seized her house . She was surprised by how kindly they treated her .
= = = Thwarted film projects = = =
Most of Riefenstahl 's unfinished projects were lost towards the end of the war . The French government confiscated all of her editing equipment , along with the production reels of Tiefland . After years of legal wrangling , these were returned to her , but the French government had reportedly damaged some of the film stock whilst trying to develop and edit it , with a few key scenes being missing ( although Riefenstahl was surprised to find the original negatives for Olympia in the same shipment ) . She edited and dubbed the remaining material and Tiefland premiered on 11 February 1954 in Stuttgart . However , it was denied entry into the Cannes Film Festival . Although Riefenstahl lived for almost another half century , Tiefland was her last feature film .
Riefenstahl tried many times to make more films during the 1950s and 1960s , but was met with resistance , public protests and sharp criticism . Many of her filmmaking peers in Hollywood had fled Nazi Germany and were unsympathetic to her . Although both film professionals and investors were willing to support her work , most of the projects she attempted were stopped owing to ever @-@ renewed and highly negative publicity about her past work for the Third Reich .
In 1954 , Jean Cocteau , who greatly admired the film , insisted on Tiefland being shown at the Cannes Film Festival , which he was running that year . In 1960 , Riefenstahl attempted to prevent filmmaker Erwin Leiser from juxtaposing scenes from Triumph des Willens with footage from concentration camps in his film Mein Kampf . Riefenstahl had high hopes for a collaboration with Cocteau called Friedrich und Voltaire ( " Friedrich and Voltaire " ) , wherein Cocteau was to play two roles . They thought the film might symbolize the love @-@ hate relationship between Germany and France . Cocteau 's illness and 1963 death put an end to the project . A musical remake of Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) with L. Ron Hubbard , a science fiction writer and founder of Scientology , also fell apart .
In the 1960s , Riefenstahl became interested in Africa from Ernest Hemingway 's Green Hills of Africa and from the photographs of George Rodger . She visited Kenya for the first time in 1956 and later Sudan , where she photographed Nuba tribes with whom she sporadically lived , learning about their culture so she could photograph them more easily . Even though her film project about modern slavery entitled Die Schwarze Fracht ( " The Black Cargo " ) was never completed , Riefenstahl was able to sell the stills from the expedition to magazines in various parts of the world . While scouting shooting locations , she almost died from injuries received in a truck accident . After waking up from a coma in a Nairobi hospital , she finished writing the script , but was soon thoroughly thwarted by uncooperative locals , the Suez Canal crisis and bad weather . In the end , the film project was called off . Even so , Riefenstahl was granted Sudanese citizenship for her services to the country , becoming the first foreigner to receive a Sudanese passport .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
= = = Detention and trials = = =
Novelist and sports writer Budd Schulberg , assigned by the U.S. Navy to the OSS for intelligence work while attached to John Ford 's documentary unit , was ordered to arrest Riefenstahl at her chalet in Kitzbühel , ostensibly to have her identify Nazi war criminals in German film footage captured by the Allied troops shortly after the war . Riefenstahl claimed she was not aware of the nature of the internment camps . According to Schulberg , " She gave me the usual song and dance . She said , ' Of course , you know , I 'm really so misunderstood . I 'm not political ' " .
Riefenstahl claimed she was fascinated by the Nazis , but also politically naive , remaining ignorant about war crimes . Throughout 1945 to 1948 , she was held by various Allied @-@ controlled prison camps across Germany . She was also under house arrest for a period of time . Despite being tried four times by postwar authorities , Riefenstahl was never convicted in any denazification trial . She was found to be a fellow traveler only who merely sympathized with the Nazis .
Riefenstahl said that her biggest regret in life was meeting Hitler , declaring , " It was the biggest catastrophe of my life . Until the day I die people will keep saying , ' Leni is a Nazi ' , and I 'll keep saying , ' But what did she do ? ' " Even though she went on to win up to 50 libel cases , details about her relation to National Socialism generally remain unclear .
= = = Books and final film = = =
Riefenstahl began a lifelong companionship with her cameraman Horst Kettner , who was 40 years her junior and assisted her with the photographs ; they were together from the time she was 60 and he was 20 .
Riefenstahl 's books with photographs of the Nuba tribes were published in 1974 and republished in 1976 as Die Nuba ( translated as " The Last of the Nuba " ) and Die Nuba von Kau ( " The Nuba People of Kau " ) . While heralded by many as outstanding colour photographs , they were harshly criticized by Susan Sontag , who claimed in a review that they were further evidence of Riefenstahl 's " fascist aesthetics " . The Art Director 's Club of Germany awarded Riefenstahl a gold medal for the best photographic achievement of 1975 . She also sold some of the pictures to German magazines . She photographed the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich , and rock star Mick Jagger along with his wife Bianca for the Sunday Times . Years later , Riefenstahl photographed Las Vegas entertainers Siegfried & Roy . She was guest of honour at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal , Canada .
In 1978 , Riefenstahl published a book of her sub @-@ aquatic photographs called Korallengärten ( " Coral Gardens " ) , followed by the 1990 book Wunder unter Wasser ( " Wonder under Water " ) . In her 90s , Riefenstahl was still photographing marine life and gained the distinction of being one of the world 's oldest scuba divers . On 22 August 2002 , her 100th birthday , she released the film Impressionen unter Wasser ( " Underwater Impressions " ) , an idealized documentary of life in the oceans and her first film in over 25 years . Riefenstahl was a member of Greenpeace for eight years .
Riefenstahl survived a helicopter crash in Sudan in 2000 while trying to learn the fates of her Nuba friends during the Second Sudanese Civil War and was airlifted to a Munich hospital .
= = = Death = = =
Riefenstahl celebrated her 101st birthday on 22 August 2003 at a hotel in Feldafing , on Lake Starnberg , Bavaria , near her home . However , the day after her birthday celebration , she became ill .
Riefenstahl had been suffering from cancer for some time , and her health rapidly deteriorated during the last weeks of her life . Kettner said in an interview in 2002 , " Ms. Riefenstahl is in great pain and she has become very weak and is taking painkillers " . Leni Riefenstahl died in her sleep at around 10 : 00 pm on 8 September 2003 at her home in Pöcking , Germany . After her death , there was a varied response in the obituary pages of leading publications , although most recognized her technical breakthroughs in film making .
= = Reception = =
Film scholar Mark Cousins notes in his book The Story of Film that , " Next to Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock , Leni Riefenstahl was the most technically talented Western film maker of her era " .
Reviewer Gary Morris called Riefenstahl , " An artist of unparalleled gifts , a woman in an industry dominated by men , one of the great formalists of the cinema on a par with Eisenstein or Welles " .
Film critic Hal Erickson of the New York Times states that the " Jewish Question " is mainly unmentioned in Triumph des Willens ; " filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl prefers to concentrate on cheering crowds , precision marching , military bands , and Hitler 's climactic speech , all orchestrated , choreographed and illuminated on a scale that makes Griffith and DeMille look like poverty @-@ row directors " .
Charles Moore of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " She was perhaps the most talented female cinema director of the 20th century ; her celebration of Nazi Germany in film ensured that she was certainly the most infamous " .
Film journalist Sandra Smith from The Independent remarked , " Opinions will be divided between those who see her as a young , talented and ambitious woman caught up in the tide of events which she did not fully understand , and those who believe her to be a cold and opportunist propagandist and a Nazi by association . "
Critic Judith Thurman said in The New Yorker that , " Riefenstahl 's genius has rarely been questioned , even by critics who despise the service to which she lent it . Riefenstahl was a consummate stylist obsessed with bodies in motion , particularly those of dancers and athletes . Riefenstahl relies heavily for her transitions on portentous cutaways to clouds , mist , statuary , foliage , and rooftops . Her reaction shots have a tedious sameness : shining , ecstatic faces — nearly all young and Aryan , except for Hitler 's " .
Pauline Kael , also a film reviewer employed for The New Yorker , called Triumph des Willens and Olympia , " the two greatest films ever directed by a woman " .
Writer Richard Corliss wrote in Time that he was " impressed by Riefenstahl 's standing as a total auteur : producer , writer , director , editor and , in the fiction films , actress . The issues her films and her career raise are as complex and they are important , and her vilifiers tend to reduce the argument to one of a director 's complicity in atrocity or her criminal ignorance " .
= = Film biographies = =
In 1993 , Riefenstahl was the subject of the award @-@ winning German documentary film The Wonderful , Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl , directed by Ray Müller . Riefenstahl appeared in the film and answered several questions and detailed the production of her films . The biofilm was nominated for seven Emmy Awards , winning in one category . Riefenstahl , who for some time had been working on her memoirs , decided to cooperate this documentary to tell her life story about the struggles she had gone through in her personal life , her film @-@ making career and what people thought of her . She was also the subject of Müller 's 2000 documentary film Leni Riefenstahl : Her Dream of Africa , about her return to Sudan to visit the Nuba people .
In April 2007 , The Guardian reported that British screenwriter Rupert Walters was writing a movie based on Riefenstahl 's life which would star actress Jodie Foster . The project did not receive Riefenstahl 's approval , since Riefenstahl asked for a veto on any scenes to which she did not agree . Riefenstahl also wanted Sharon Stone to play her rather than Foster , which ultimately resulted in the cancellation of the project .
In 2011 , director Steven Soderbergh revealed that he had also been working on a biopic of Riefenstahl for about six months . He eventually abandoned the project over concerns of its commercial prospects and instead pursued the pandemic thriller Contagion .
= = In popular culture = =
Riefenstahl 's filming merits are discussed between characters in the 2009 Quentin Tarantino film Inglourious Basterds .
Riefenstahl was portrayed by Zdena Studenková in Leni , a 2014 Slovak drama play about her fictional participation in the The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . In Czech version of the play she was portrayed by Vilma Cibulková .
Riefenstahl was portrayed by Dutch actress Carice van Houten in Race , a sports drama film directed by Stephen Hopkins about Jesse Owens . It was released in North America on February 19 , 2016 . To make her sympathetic portrayal acceptable for an American audience , the film dramatizes her quarrels with Goebbels over her direction of the film , Olympia , especially about filming the African American star who is proving to be a politically embarrassing refutation of Nazi Germany 's claims of Aryan athletic supremacy .
Riefenstahl was referred to in the series finale of the television show Weeds when Nancy questions Andy for naming his daughter after a Nazi to which he replied " she was a pioneer in film @-@ making , I don 't believe in holding grudges . "
= = Works = =
= = = Films acted = = =
1925 : Wege zu Kraft und Schönheit ( " Ways to Strength and Beauty " )
1926 : Der Heilige Berg ( " The Holy Mountain " )
1927 : Der Große Sprung ( " The Great Leap " )
1928 : Das Schicksal derer von Habsburg ( " Fate of the House of Habsburg " )
1929 : Die Weisse Hölle vom Piz Palü ( " The White Hell of Pitz Palu " )
1930 : Stürme über dem Mont Blanc ( " Storm Over Mont Blanc " )
1931 : Der Weisse Rausch ( " The White Ecstasy " )
1932 : Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " )
1933 : S.O.S. Eisberg ( " S.O.S. Iceberg " )
1954 : Tiefland ( " Lowlands " )
= = = Films directed / produced = = =
1932 : Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " )
1933 : Der Sieg des Glaubens ( " The Victory of Faith " )
1935 : Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( " Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces " )
1935 : Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " )
1937 : Wilde Wasser ( " Wilder Water " )
1938 : Olympia
1954 : Tiefland ( " Lowlands " )
1965 : Allein unter den Nuba ( " Alone Among the Nuba " ) ( Unreleased )
2002 : Impressionen unter Wasser ( " Impressions under Water " )
= = = Books = = =
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1973 ) . Die Nuba [ The Last of the Nuba ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 13642 @-@ 0 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1976 ) . Die Nuba von Kau [ The Nuba People of Kau ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 16963 @-@ 9 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1978 ) . Korallengärten [ Coral Gardens ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 013591 @-@ 3 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1982 ) . Mein Afrika [ Vanishing Africa ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 517 @-@ 54914 @-@ X.
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1987 ) . Leni Riefenstahl 's Memoiren [ Leni Riefenstahl 's Memoir ] . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 0834 @-@ 2 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1990 ) . Wunder unter Wasser [ Wonder under Water ] . ISBN 3 @-@ 7766 @-@ 1651 @-@ 2 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1995 ) . Leni Riefenstahl : a memoir . New York : Picador USA . ISBN 9780312119263 .
Review : hooks , bell ( 1997 ) . " Review : the feminazi mystique " . Transition ( Indiana University Press on behalf of the Hutchins Center for African and African American Research at Harvard University via JSTOR ) 73 : 156 – 162 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2935451 . JSTOR 2935451 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 2002 ) . Africa . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 1616 @-@ 7 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 2002 ) . Riefenstahl Olympia . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 1945 @-@ X.
= = = Printed = = =
= = = Online = = =
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= Wilfrid =
Wilfrid ( originally spelled Wilfrith ; c . 633 – c . 709 ) was an English bishop and saint . Born a Northumbrian noble , he entered religious life as a teenager and studied at Lindisfarne , at Canterbury , in Gaul , and at Rome ; he returned to Northumbria in about 660 , and became the abbot of a newly founded monastery at Ripon . In 664 Wilfrid acted as spokesman for the Roman position at the Synod of Whitby , and became famous for his speech advocating that the Roman method for calculating the date of Easter should be adopted . His success prompted the king 's son , Alhfrith , to appoint him Bishop of Northumbria . Wilfrid chose to be consecrated in Gaul because of the lack of what he considered to be validly consecrated bishops in England at that time . During Wilfrid 's absence Alhfrith seems to have led an unsuccessful revolt against his father , Oswiu , leaving a question mark over Wilfrid 's appointment as bishop . Before Wilfrid 's return Oswiu had appointed Ceadda in his place , resulting in Wilfrid 's retirement to Ripon for a few years following his arrival back in Northumbria .
After becoming Archbishop of Canterbury in 668 , Theodore of Tarsus resolved the situation by deposing Ceadda and restoring Wilfrid as the Bishop of Northumbria . For the next nine years Wilfrid discharged his episcopal duties , founded monasteries , built churches , and improved the liturgy . However his diocese was very large , and Theodore wished to reform the English Church , a process which included breaking up some of the larger dioceses into smaller ones . When Wilfrid quarrelled with Ecgfrith , the Northumbrian king , Theodore took the opportunity to implement his reforms despite Wilfrid 's objections . After Ecgfrith expelled him from York , Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the papacy . Pope Agatho ruled in Wilfrid 's favour , but Ecgfrith refused to honour the papal decree and instead imprisoned Wilfrid on his return to Northumbria before exiling him .
Wilfrid spent the next few years in Selsey , where he founded an episcopal see and converted the pagan inhabitants of the Kingdom of Sussex to Christianity . Theodore and Wilfrid settled their differences , and Theodore urged the new Northumbrian king , Aldfrith , to allow Wilfrid 's return . Aldfrith agreed to do so , but in 691 he expelled Wilfrid again . Wilfrid went to Mercia , where he helped missionaries and acted as bishop for the Mercian king . Wilfrid appealed to the papacy about his expulsion in 700 , and the pope ordered that an English council should be held to decide the issue . This council , held at Austerfield in 702 , attempted to confiscate all of Wilfrid 's possessions , and so Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal against the decision . His opponents in Northumbria excommunicated him , but the papacy upheld Wilfrid 's side , and he regained possession of Ripon and Hexham , his Northumbrian monasteries . Wilfrid died in 709 or 710 . After his death , he was venerated as a saint .
Historians then and now have been divided over Wilfrid . His followers commissioned Stephen of Ripon to write a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi ( or Life of Wilfrid ) shortly after his death , and the medieval historian Bede also wrote extensively about him . Wilfrid lived ostentatiously , and travelled with a large retinue . He ruled a large number of monasteries , and claimed to be the first Englishman to introduce the Rule of Saint Benedict into English monasteries . Some modern historians see him mainly as a champion of Roman customs against the customs of the British and Irish churches , others as an advocate for monasticism .
= = Background = =
During Wilfrid 's lifetime the British Isles consisted of a number of small kingdoms . Traditionally the English people were thought to have been divided into seven kingdoms , but modern historiography has shown that this is a simplification of a much more confused situation . A late 7th @-@ century source , the Tribal Hidage , lists the peoples south of the Humber river ; among the largest groups of peoples are the West Saxons ( later Wessex ) , the East Angles and Mercians ( later the Kingdom of Mercia ) , and the Kingdom of Kent . Smaller groups who at that time had their own royalty but were later absorbed into larger kingdoms include the peoples of Magonsæte , Lindsey , Hwicce , the East Saxons , the South Saxons , the Isle of Wight , and the Middle Angles . Other even smaller groups had their own rulers , but their size means that they do not often appear in the histories . There were also native Britons in the west , in modern @-@ day Wales and Cornwall , who formed kingdoms including those of Dumnonia , Dyfed , and Gwynedd .
Between the Humber and Forth the English had formed into two main kingdoms , Deira and Bernicia , often united as the Kingdom of Northumbria . A number of Celtic kingdoms also existed in this region , including Craven , Elmet , Rheged , and Gododdin . A native British kingdom , later called the Kingdom of Strathclyde , survived as an independent power into the 10th century in the area which became modern @-@ day Dunbartonshire and Clydesdale . To the north @-@ west of Strathclyde lay the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata , and to the north @-@ east a small number of Pictish kingdoms . Further north still lay the great Pictish kingdom of Fortriu , which after the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 came to be the strongest power in the northern half of Britain . The Irish had always had contacts with the rest of the British Isles , and during the early 6th century they immigrated from the island of Ireland to form the kingdom of Dál Riata , although exactly how much conquest took place is a matter of dispute with historians . It also appears likely that the Irish settled in parts of Wales , and even after the period of Irish settlement , Irish missionaries were active in Britain .
Christianity had only recently arrived in some of these kingdoms . Some had been converted by the Gregorian mission , a group of Roman missionaries who arrived in Kent in 597 and who mainly influenced southern Britain . Others had been converted by the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , chiefly Irish missionaries working in Northumbria and neighbouring kingdoms . A few kingdoms , such as Dál Riata , became Christian but how they did so is unknown . The native Picts , according to the medieval writer Bede , were converted in two stages , initially by native Britons under Ninian , and subsequently by Irish missionaries .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and early education = = =
Wilfrid was born in Northumbria in about 633 . James Fraser argues that Wilfrid 's family were aristocrats from Deira , pointing out that most of Wilfrid 's early contacts were from that area . A conflict with his stepmother when he was about 14 years old drove Wilfrid to leave home , probably without his father 's consent . Wilfrid 's background is never explicitly described as noble , but the king 's retainers were frequent guests at his father 's house , and on leaving home Wilfrid equipped his party with horses and clothes fit for a royal court .
Queen Eanflæd became Wilfrid 's patroness following his arrival at the court of her husband , King Oswiu . She sent him to study under Cudda , formerly one of her husband 's retainers , but by that time in about 648 a monk on the island of Lindisfarne . The monastery on the island had recently been founded by Aidan , who had been instrumental in converting Northumbria to Christianity . At Lindisfarne Wilfrid is said to have " learned the whole Psalter by heart and several books " . Wilfrid studied at Lindisfarne for a few years before going to the Kentish king 's court at Canterbury in 652 , where he stayed with relatives of Queen Eanflæd . The queen had given Wilfrid a letter of introduction to pass to her cousin , King Eorcenberht , in order to ensure that Wilfrid was received by the king . While in Kent , Wilfrid 's career was advanced by Eanflæd 's cousin Hlothere , who was later the King of Kent from 673 to 685 . The Kentish court included a number of visiting clergymen at that time , including Benedict Biscop , a noted missionary . Wilfrid appears to have spent about a year in Kent , but the exact chronology is uncertain .
= = = Time at Rome and Lyon = = =
Wilfrid left Kent for Rome in the company of Benedict Biscop , another of Eanflæd 's contacts . This is the first pilgrimage to Rome known to have been undertaken by English natives , and took place some time between 653 and 658 . According to Wilfrid 's later biographer , Stephen of Ripon , Wilfrid left Biscop 's company at Lyon , where Wilfrid stayed under the patronage of Annemund , the archbishop . Stephen says that Annemund wanted to marry Wilfrid to the archbishop 's niece , and to make Wilfrid the governor of a Frankish province , but that Wilfrid refused and continued on his journey to Rome . There he learned the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter , and studied the Roman practice of relic collecting . After an audience with the pope , Wilfrid returned to Lyon .
Stephen of Ripon says that Wilfrid stayed in Lyon for three years , leaving only after the archbishop 's murder . However , Annemund 's murder took place in 660 and Wilfrid returned to England in 658 , suggesting that Stephen 's chronology is awry . Stephen says that Annemund gave Wilfrid a clerical tonsure , although this does not appear to mean that he became a monk , merely that he entered the clergy . Bede is silent on the subject of Wilfrid 's monastic status , although Wilfrid probably became a monk during his time in Rome , or afterwards while he was in Gaul . Some historians , however , believe that Wilfrid was never a monk . While in Gaul , Wilfrid absorbed Frankish ecclesiastical practices , including some aspects from the monasteries founded by Columbanus . This influence may be seen in Wilfrid 's probable adoption of a Frankish ceremony in his consecration of churches later in his life , as well as in his employment of Frankish masons to build his churches . Wilfrid would also have learned of the Rule of Saint Benedict in Gaul , as Columbanus ' monasteries followed that monastic rule .
= = = Abbot of Ripon = = =
After Wilfrid 's return to Northumbria in about 658 , Cenwalh , King of Wessex , recommended Wilfrid to Alhfrith , Oswiu 's son , as a cleric well @-@ versed in Roman customs and liturgy . Alhfrith was a sub @-@ king of Deiria under his father 's rule , and the most likely heir to his father 's throne as his half @-@ brothers were still young . Shortly before 664 Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon , formed around a group of monks from Melrose Abbey , followers of the Irish monastic customs . Wilfrid ejected the abbot , Eata , because he would not follow the Roman customs ; Cuthbert , later a saint , was another of the monks expelled . Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into Ripon , claiming that he was the first person in England to make a monastery follow it , but this claim rests on the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi and does not say where Wilfrid became knowledgeable about the Rule , nor exactly what form of the Rule was being referred to . Shortly afterwards Wilfrid was ordained a priest by Agilbert , Bishop of Dorchester in the kingdom of the Gewisse , part of Wessex . Wilfrid was a protégé of Agilbert , who later helped in Wilfrid 's consecration as a bishop . The monk Ceolfrith was attracted to Ripon from Gilling Abbey , which had recently been depopulated as a result of the plague . Ceolfrith later became Abbot of Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow during the time the medieval chronicler and writer Bede was a monk there . Bede hardly mentions the relationship between Ceolfrith and Wilfrid , but it was Wilfrid who consecrated Ceolfrith a priest and who gave permission for him to transfer to Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow .
= = Whitby = =
= = = Background to Whitby = = =
The Roman churches and those in the British Isles ( often called " Celtic churches " ) used different methods to calculate the date of Easter . The church in Northumbria had traditionally used the Celtic method , and that was the date observed by King Oswiu . His wife Eanflæd and a son , Alhfrith , celebrated Easter on the Roman date however , which meant that while one part of the royal court was still observing the Lenten fast , another would be celebrating with feasting .
Oswiu called a church council held at Whitby Abbey in 664 in an attempt to resolve this controversy . Although Oswiu himself had been brought up in the " Celtic " tradition , political pressures may have influenced his decision to call a council , as well as fears that if dissent over the date of Easter continued in the Northumbrian church it could lead to internal strife . The historian Richard Abels speculates that the expulsion of Eata from Ripon may have been the spark that led to the king 's decision to call the council . Regional tensions within Northumbria between the two traditional divisions , Bernicia and Deira , appear to have played a part , as churchmen in Bernicia favoured the Celtic method of dating and those in Deira may have leaned towards the Roman method . Abels identifies several conflicts contributing to both the calling of the council and its outcome , including a generational conflict between Oswiu and Alhfrith and the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury , Deusdedit . Political concerns unrelated to the dating problem , such as the decline of Oswiu 's preeminence among the other English kingdoms and the challenge to that position by Mercia , were also factors .
= = = Synod = = =
Wilfrid attended the synod , or council , of Whitby , as a member of the party favouring the continental practice of dating Easter , along with James the Deacon , Agilbert , and Alhfrith . Those supporting the " Celtic " viewpoint were King Oswiu , Hilda , the Abbess of Whitby , Cedd , a bishop , and Colmán of Lindisfarne , the Bishop of Lindisfarne .
Wilfrid was chosen to present the Roman position to the council ; he also acted as Agilbert 's interpreter , as the latter did not speak the local language . Bede describes Wilfrid as saying that those who did not calculate the date of Easter according to the Roman system were committing a sin . Wilfrid 's speech in favour of adopting Roman church practices helped secure the eclipse of the " Celtic " party in 664 , although most Irish churches did not adopt the Roman date of Easter until 704 , and Iona held out until 716 . Many of the Irish monasteries did not observe the Roman Easter , but they were not isolated from the continent ; by the time of Whitby the southern Irish were already observing the Roman Easter date , and Irish clergy were in contact with their continental counterparts . Those monks and clergy unable to accept the Whitby decision left Northumbria , some going to Ireland and others to Iona .
= = York = =
= = = Elevation to the episcopate = = =
After the supporters of the " Celtic churches " had withdrawn following the Council of Whitby , Wilfrid became the most prominent Northumbrian cleric . As a result , and because of his performance at Whitby , Wilfrid was elected to a bishopric in Northumbria about a year after the council . It is unclear where his diocese was located , although he was considered to be Alhfrith 's bishop . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi states that , nominated by both Oswiu and Alhfrith , he was made bishop at York , and that he was a metropolitan bishop , but York at that time was not a metropolitan diocese . Bede says that Alhfrith alone nominated Wilfrid , and that Oswiu subsequently proposed an alternative candidate , " imitating the actions of his son " . Several theories have been suggested to explain the discrepancies between the two sources . One is that Alhfrith wished the seat to be at York , another is that Wilfrid was bishop only in Deira , a third supposes that Wilfrid was never bishop at York and that his diocese was only part of Deira . However , at that time the Anglo @-@ Saxon dioceses were not strictly speaking geographical designations , rather they were bishoprics for the tribes or peoples .
Wilfrid refused to be consecrated in Northumbria at the hands of Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops . Deusdedit had died shortly after Whitby , and as there were no other bishops in Britain whom Wilfrid considered to have been validly consecrated he travelled to Compiègne , to be consecrated by Agilbert , the Bishop of Paris . During his time in Gaul Wilfrid was exposed to a higher level of ceremony than that practised in Northumbria , one example of which is that he was carried to his consecration ceremony on a throne supported by nine bishops .
= = = Delays and difficulties = = =
Wilfrid delayed his return from Gaul , only to find on his arrival back in Northumbria that Ceadda had been installed as bishop in his place . The reason for Wilfrid 's delay has never been clear , although the historians Eric John and Richard Abels theorise that it was caused by Alhfrith 's unsuccessful revolt against Oswiu . They suggest that the rebellion happened shortly after Whitby , perhaps while Wilfrid was in Gaul for his consecration . Because Oswiu knew that Alhfrith had been a supporter of Wilfrid 's , Oswiu prevented Wilfrid 's return , suspecting Wilfrid of supporting his rivals . That Ceadda was supported by Oswiu , and Wilfrid had been a supporter of Oswiu 's son , lends further credence to the theory that Alhfrith 's rebellion took place while Wilfrid was in Gaul . Stephen of Ripon reported that Wilfrid was expelled by " Quartodecimans " , or those who supported the celebration of Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish month Nisan , whether or not this was a Sunday . However , as the Irish church had never been Quartodecimans , Stephen in this instance was constructing a narrative to put Wilfrid in the best light .
During his return to Northumbria Wilfrid 's ship was blown ashore on the Sussex coast , the inhabitants of which were at that time pagan . On being attacked by the locals , Wilfrid 's party killed the head priest before refloating their ship and making their escape . The historian Marion Gibbs suggests that after this episode Wilfrid visited Kent again , and took part in the diplomacy related to Wigheard 's appointment to the see of Canterbury . Wilfrid may also have taken part in negotiations to persuade King Cenwalh of Wessex to allow Agilbert to return to his see .
= = = Favourable outcome = = =
Denied episcopal office , Wilfrid spent the three years from 665 to 668 as abbot of the monastery at Ripon . He occasionally performed episcopal functions in Mercia and Kent , but never did so north of the river Humber . The historian James Fraser argues that Wilfrid may not have been allowed to return to Northumbria and instead went into exile at the Mercian court , but most historians have argued that Wilfrid was at Ripon .
Wilfrid 's monasteries in Mercia may date from this time , as King Wulfhere of Mercia gave him large grants of land in Mercia . Wilfrid may have persuaded King Ecgberht of Kent in 669 to build a church in an abandoned Roman fort at Reculver . When Theodore , the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury , arrived in England in 669 it was clear that something had to be done about the situation in Northumbria . Ceadda 's election to York was improper , and Theodore did not consider Ceadda 's consecration to have been valid . Consequently , Theodore deposed Ceadda , leaving the way open for Wilfrid , who was finally installed in his see in 669 , the first Saxon to occupy the see of York . Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches , including at the monastery at Hexham , and attending to diocesan business . He continued to exercise control over his monastic houses of Ripon and Hexham while he was bishop . Oswiu 's death on 15 February 670 eliminated a source of friction and helped to assure Wilfrid 's return .
While at York , Wilfrid was considered the " bishop of the Northumbrian peoples " ; Bede records that Wilfrid 's diocese was contiguous with the area ruled by Oswiu . The diocese was restricted to north of the Humber , however . Wilfrid may also have sought to exercise some ecclesiastical functions in the Pictish kingdom , as he is accorded the title " bishop of the Northumbrians and the Picts " in 669 . Further proof of attempted Northumbrian influence in the Pictish regions is provided by the establishment for the Picts in 681 of a diocese centred on Abercorn , in the old territory of the British kingdom of Gododdin . The grants of land to Wilfrid west of the Pennines testify to Northumbrian expansion in that area . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi claims that Wilfrid had ecclesiastical rule over Britons and Gaels . In 679 , while Wilfrid was in Rome , he claimed authority over " all the northern part of Britain , Ireland and the islands , which are inhabited by English and British peoples , as well as by Gaelic and Pictish peoples " .
= = = Diocesan affairs = = =
Wilfrid did not attend the Council of Hertford held in September 672 , but he did send representatives . Among the council 's resolutions was one postponing a decision on the creation of new dioceses , which affected Wilfrid later . Another ruling confirmed that the Roman calculation for the date of Easter should be adopted , and that bishops should act only in their own dioceses . During the middle 670s Wilfrid acted as middleman in the negotiations to return a Merovingian prince , Dagobert II , from his exile in Ireland to Gaul . Wilfrid was one of the first churchmen in Northumbria to utilise written charters as records of gifts to his churches . He ordered the creation of a listing of all benefactions received by Ripon , which was recited at the dedication ceremony .
Wilfrid was an advocate for the use of music in ecclesiastical ceremonies . He sent to Kent for a singing master to instruct his clergy in the Roman style of church music , which involved a double choir who sang in antiphons and responses . Bede says that this singing master was named Æddi ( or Eddius in Latin ) and had the surname Stephen . Traditionally historians have identified Æddi as Stephen of Ripon , author of the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , which has led to the assumption that the Vita was based on the recollections of one of Wilfrid 's long @-@ time companions . However , recent scholarship has come to believe that the Vita was not authored by the singing master , but by someone who joined Wilfrid in the last years of Wilfrid 's life , not a close companion .
Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into the monasteries he founded . It appears likely that he was the first to introduce the Benedictine Rule into England , as evidence is lacking that Augustine 's monastery at Canterbury followed the Rule . He also was one of the first Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops to record the gifts of land and property to his church , which he did at Ripon . Easter tables , used to calculate the correct date to celebrate Easter , were brought in from Rome where the Dionysiac Easter tables had been recently introduced . He set up schools and became a religious advisor to the Northumbrian queen Æthelthryth , first wife of Ecgfrith . Æthelthryth donated the land at Hexham where Wilfrid founded a monastery and built a church using some recycled stones from the Roman town of Corbridge . When Wilfrid arrived in York as bishop the cathedral 's roof was on the point of collapse ; he had it repaired and covered in lead , and had glass set in the windows .
The historian Barbara Yorke says of Wilfrid at this time that he " seems to have continued a campaign against any survival of ' Irish errors ' and distrusted any communities that remained in contact with Iona or other Irish religious houses which did not follow the Roman Easter " . He also worked to combat pagan practices , building a church at Melrose on a pagan site . Contemporaries said of him that he was the first native bishop to " introduce the Catholic way of life to the churches of the English " . He did not neglect his pastoral duties in his diocese , making visits throughout the diocese to baptise and perform other episcopal functions , such as consecrating new churches . Some of the monasteries in his diocese were put under his protection by their abbots or abbesses , who were seeking someone to help protect their endowments . In ruling over such monasteries , Wilfrid may have been influenced by the Irish model of a group of monasteries all ruled by one person , sometimes while holding episcopal office .
Wilfrid was criticised for dressing his household and servants in clothing fit for royalty . He was accompanied on his travels by a retinue of warriors , one of whom , while at York , Wilfrid sent to abduct a young boy who had been promised to the church but whose family had changed their mind . Wilfrid also educated young men , both for clerical and secular careers .
= = Expulsion = =
= = = Dispute with the king = = =
In 677 or 678 , Wilfrid and Ecgfrith quarrelled , and Wilfrid was expelled from his see . Abbess Hilda of Whitby was a leader in a faction of the Northumbrian church that disliked Wilfrid , and her close ties with Theodore helped to undermine Wilfrid 's position in Northumbria . Another contributory factor in Wilfrid 's expulsion was his encouragement of Æthelthryth 's entry into a nunnery ; he had personally given her the veil , the ceremony of entering a nunnery , on her retirement to Ely Abbey . Æthelthryth had donated the lands Wilfrid used to found Hexham Abbey , and the historian N. J. Higham argues that they had been part of the queen 's dower lands , which , when Ecgfrith remarried , his new queen wanted to recover . The historian Eric John feels that Wilfrid 's close ties with the Mercian kingdom also contributed to his troubles with Egfrith , although John points out that these ties were necessary for Wilfrid 's monastic foundations , some of which were in Mercia . Wilfrid not only lost his diocese , he lost control of his monasteries as well .
Theodore took advantage of the situation to implement decrees of some councils on dividing up large dioceses . Theodore set up new bishoprics from Wilfrid 's diocese , with seats at York , Hexham , Lindisfarne , and one in the region of Lindsey . The Lindsey see was quickly absorbed by the Diocese of Lichfield , but the other three remained separate . The bishops chosen for these sees , Eata at Hexham , Eadhæd at Lindsey , and Bosa at York , had all either been supporters of the " Celtic " party at Whitby , or been trained by those who were . Eata had also been ejected from Ripon by Wilfrid . The new bishops were unacceptable to Wilfrid , who claimed they were not truly members of the Church because of their support for the " Celtic " method of dating Easter , and thus he could not serve alongside them . Another possible problem for Wilfrid was that the three new bishops did not come from Wilfrid 's monastic houses nor from the communities where the bishops ' seats were based . This was contrary to the custom of the time , which was to promote bishoprics from within the locality . Wilfrid 's deposition became tangled up in a dispute over whether or not the Gregorian plan for Britain , with two metropolitan sees , the northern one set at York , would be followed through or abandoned . Wilfrid seems to have felt that he had metropolitan authority over the northern part of England , but Theodore never acknowledged that claim , instead claiming authority over the whole of the island of Britain .
= = = Appeal to Rome = = =
Wilfrid went to Rome after his expulsion to appeal against Theodore and Ecgfrith 's decisions , the first Englishman to challenge a royal or ecclesiastical decision by petitioning the papacy . On the way he stopped at the court of Aldgisl , the Frisian king in Utrecht for most of 678 . Wilfrid had been blown off course on his trip from England to the continent , and ended up in Frisia according to some historians . Others state that he intended to journey via Frisia to avoid Neustria , whose mayor of the palace , Ebroin , disliked Wilfrid . He wintered in Frisia , avoiding the diplomatic efforts of Ebroin , who according to Stephen attempted to have Wilfrid killed . During his stay , Wilfrid attempted to convert the Frisians , who were still pagan at that time . Wilfrid 's biographer says that most of the nobles converted , but the success was short @-@ lived . After Frisia , he stopped at the court of Dagobert II in Austrasia , where the king offered Wilfrid the Bishopric of Strasbourg , which Wilfrid refused . Once in Italy , Wilfrid was received by Perctarit , a Lombard king , who gave him a place at his court .
Pope Agatho held a synod in October 679 , which although it ordered Wilfrid 's restoration and the return of the monasteries to his control , also directed that the new dioceses should be retained . Wilfrid was , however , given the right to replace any bishop in the new dioceses to whom he objected . The council had been called to deal with the Monothelete controversy , and Wilfrid 's concerns were not the sole focus of the council . In fact , the historian Henry Chadwick thought that one reason Wilfrid secured the mostly favourable outcome was that Agatho wished for Wilfrid 's support and testimony that the English Church was free of the monothelete heresy . Although Wilfrid did not win a complete victory , he did secure a papal decree limiting the number of dioceses in England to 12 . Wilfrid also secured the right for his monasteries of Ripon and Hexham to be directly supervised by the pope , preventing any further interference in their affairs by the diocesan bishops .
Wilfrid returned to England after the council via Gaul . According to Stephen of Ripon , after the death of Dagobert II , Ebroin wished to imprison Wilfrid , but Wilfrid miraculously escaped . In 680 Wilfrid returned to Northumbria and appeared before a royal council . He produced the papal decree ordering his restoration , but was instead briefly imprisoned and then exiled by the king . Wilfrid stayed for a short time in the kingdom of the Middle Angles and at Wessex , but soon took refuge in Sussex with King Æthelwealh of Sussex .
= = Missions in Sussex = =
Wilfrid spent the next five years preaching to , and converting the pagan inhabitants of Sussex , the South Saxons . He also founded Selsey Abbey , on an estate near Selsey of 87 hides , given to Wilfrid by Æthelwealh , king of the South Saxons . Bede attributes Wilfrid 's ability to convert the South Saxons to his teaching them how to fish , and contrasts it with the lack of success of the Irish monk Dicuill . Bede also says that the Sussex area had been experiencing a drought for three years before Wilfrid 's arrival , but miraculously when Wilfrid arrived , and started baptising converts , rain began to fall . Wilfrid worked with Bishop Erkenwald of London , helping to set up the church in Sussex . Erkenwald also helped reconcile Wilfrid and Theodore before Theodore 's death in 690 . The mission was jeopardised when King Æthelwealh died during an invasion of his kingdom by Cædwalla of Wessex . Wilfrid previously had contact with Cædwalla , and may have served as his spiritual advisor before Cædwalla 's invasion of Sussex . After Æthelwealh 's death and Cædwalla 's accession to the throne of Wessex , Wilfrid became one of the new king 's advisors , and the king was converted . Cædwalla confirmed Æthelwealh 's grant of land in the Selsey area and Wilfrid built his cathedral church near the entrance to Pagham Harbour believed to be what is now Church Norton .
Cædwalla sent Wilfrid to the Isle of Wight , which was still pagan , with the aim of converting the inhabitants . The king also gave Wilfrid a quarter of the land on the island as a gift . In 688 , the king relinquished his throne and went on a pilgrimage to Rome to be baptised , but died shortly after the ceremony . Wilfrid was probably influential in Cædwalla 's decision to be baptised in Rome .
During his time in Sussex Wilfrid was reconciled with Archbishop Theodore ; the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says that Theodore expressed a desire for Wilfrid to succeed him at Canterbury . Wilfrid may have been involved in founding monasteries near Bath as well as in other parts of Sussex , but the evidence backing this is based on the wording used in the founding charters resembling wording used by Wilfrid in other charters , not on any concrete statements that Wilfrid was involved .
= = Return to Northumbria and exile = =
= = = Return from exile = = =
In 686 Wilfrid was recalled to Northumbria after the death of Ecgfrith in battle with the Picts . During the 680s Theodore had created two more dioceses in Northumbria , at Ripon , and at Abercorn in the Pictish kingdom , but both were short @-@ lived . After Ecgfrith 's death , Theodore wrote to the new king of Northumbria , Aldfrith , and to Æthelred , king of Mercia and the Abbess of Whitby , Ælfflæd , suggesting that an agreement be made allowing Wilfrid 's return to Northumbria . Aldfrith agreed , Wilfrid returned to the north , and Bosa was removed from York . Wilfrid did not recover the whole of his previous bishopric however , as Hexham and Lindisfarne remained separate sees .
Wilfrid appears to have lived at Ripon , and for a time he acted as administrator of the see of Lindisfarne after Cuthbert 's death in 687 . In 691 , the subdivision issue arose once more , along with quarrels with King Aldfrith over lands , and attempts were made to make Wilfrid either give up all his lands or to stay confined to Ripon . A proposal to turn Ripon into a bishopric was also a source of dispute . When no compromise was possible Wilfrid left Northumbria for Mercia , and Bosa was returned to York .
Something of the reception to Wilfrid 's expulsion can be picked up in a Latin letter which has survived only in an incomplete quotation by William of Malmesbury in his Gesta pontificum Anglorum . We have it on William 's authority that the letter was written by Aldhelm of Malmesbury and addressed to Wilfrid 's abbots . In it , Aldhelm asks the clergymen to remember the exiled bishop " who , nourishing , teaching , reproving , raised you in fatherly love " and appealing to lay aristocratic ideals of loyalty , urges them not to abandon their superior . Neither William nor the citation itself gives a date , but the letter has been assigned to Wilfrid 's exile under Aldfrith in the 690s .
= = = Mercia = = =
During his stay in Mercia Wilfrid acted as bishop with the consent of King Æthelred . Information on Wilfrid 's life at this time is meagre , as the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says little of this period . He is generally considered to have been Bishop of Leicester until about 706 , when he is held to have been transferred to Hexham . Wilfrid became involved in the missionary efforts to the Frisians , which he had started in 678 during his stay in Frisia . Wilfrid helped the missionary efforts of Willibrord , which were more successful than his own earlier attempts . Willibrord was a monk of Ripon who was also a native of Northumbria .
Wilfrid was present at the exhumation of the body of Queen Æthelthryth at Ely Abbey in 695 . He had been her spiritual adviser in the 670s , and had helped the queen become a nun against the wishes of her husband King Ecgfrith of Northumbria . The queen had joined Ely Abbey , where she died in 679 . The ceremony in 695 found that her body had not decayed , which led to her being declared a saint . Wilfrid 's testimony as to the character and virginity of Æthelthryth was recorded by Bede .
In about 700 , Wilfrid appealed once more to Pope Sergius I over his expulsion from York , and the pope referred the issue back to a council in England . In 702 King Aldfrith held a council at Austerfield that upheld Wilfrid 's expulsion , and once more Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the pope . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi gives a speech , supposedly delivered by Wilfrid there , in defence of Wilfrid 's record over the previous 40 years . The council was presided over by Berhtwald , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , and the decision of the council was that Wilfrid should be deprived of all his monasteries but Ripon , and that he should cease to perform episcopal functions . When Wilfrid continued his appeal to the papacy , his opponents had him and his supporters excommunicated .
= = = Rome and final return to Northumbria = = =
On his way to Rome Wilfrid stopped in Frisia to visit Willibrord . Following Wilfrid 's arrival in Rome the pope held a council , which declared that the King of Northumbria should follow the earlier papal decrees restoring Wilfrid to his see . Wilfrid was disconcerted to find that the papal court spoke Greek , and his biographer noted that Wilfrid was displeased when the pope discussed the appeal with advisers in a language Wilfrid could not understand . The pope also ordered another council to be held in Britain to decide the issue , and ordered the attendance of Bosa , Berhtwald and Wilfrid . On his journey back to England Wilfrid had a seizure at Meaux , but he had returned to Kent by 705 .
Aldfrith died soon after Wilfrid 's arrival back in England . The new king , Eadwulf , had been considered one of Wilfrid 's friends , but after his accession to the throne he ordered Wilfrid to stay out of Northumbria . Eadwulf 's reign lasted only a few months however , before he was expelled to make way for Aldfrith 's son Osred , to whom Wilfrid acted as spiritual adviser . Wilfrid may have been one of Osred 's chief supporters , along with Oswiu 's daughter Abbess Ælfflæd of Whitby , and the nobleman Beornhæth . Once Osred was secure on the throne Wilfrid was restored to Ripon and Hexham in 706 . When Bosa of York died , however , Wilfrid did not contest the decision to appoint John of Beverley to York . This appointment meant John 's transfer from Hexham , leaving Wilfrid free to perform episcopal functions at Hexham , which he did until his death .
= = Other aspects = =
= = = Cult of St Oswald = = =
Sometime after the translation of the relics of Oswald of Northumbria to Bardney Abbey by Osthryth between 675 and 679 , Wilfrid , along with Hexham Abbey , began to encourage and promote the cult of the dead king . Barbara Yorke sees this advocacy as a major factor in the prominence given to Oswald in Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . Historian D. P. Kirby regards Wilfrid 's championing of Oswald as being a contributing factor in Wilfrid 's expulsion from York in 678 . Kirby believes that Ecgfrith felt Wilfrid was promoting Oswald 's branch of the Northumbrian royal family over his own . One of Wilfrid 's protégés , Willibrord , became a missionary to the Frisians in 695 , perhaps inspired by Wilfrid 's example . Willibrord may have felt it expedient to leave Northumbria , where he was known as one of Wilfrid 's followers .
= = = Monastic network = = =
Wilfrid 's network of monasteries extended across at least three of the kingdoms of England in his day . They included Hexham , Ripon , Selsey , and Oundle , as well as possibly Peterborough , Brixworth , Evesham , Wing , and Withington . At his monasteries and dioceses he built churches in a style akin to that of the continent and Rome , travelling between them with a large entourage of up to 120 followers . He made many contacts and friends , not only in Northumbria and the other English kingdoms , but also in Gaul , Frisia , and Italy . Nobles sent their sons to him for fostering , and Wilfrid was known to help his protégés , no matter if they became clerics or not . The historian Peter Brown speculated that one reason for Wilfrid 's exile in 678 was that he was overshadowing the king as a patron . His contacts extended to the Lombard kingdom in Italy , where they included King Perctarit and his son Cunipert .
Wilfrid was a prolific founder of churches , which he then controlled until his death , and was a great fundraiser , acquiring lands and money from many of the kings he was in contact with . He was also noted for his ability to attract support from powerful women , especially queens . Queen Eanflæd , his first patron , introduced him to a number of helpful contacts , and he later attracted the support of Queen Æthelthryth , who gave the endowment for Hexham Abbey . Ælfflæd , sister of King Aldfrith of Northumbria and daughter of Wilfrid 's old patron Queen Eanflæd , helped to persuade the Northumbrians to allow Wilfrid to return from his last exile .
= = = Builder and artistic patron = = =
Wilfrid built a church capable of accommodating a congregation of 2 @,@ 000 at Hexham , using stone from Hadrian 's Wall . The 12th @-@ century writer Ailred of Rievaulx , whose family helped restore Hexham , credited Wilfrid as the designer of a church beautifully embellished with paintings and sculpture . It appears that the churches at Hexham and Ripon ( which Wilfrid also built ) were aisled basilicas , of the type that was common on the continent . Ripon was the first church in Northumbria to incorporate a porticus , similar to those of churches in Kent . 12th @-@ century pilgrims ' accounts declared that the church at Hexham rivalled those of Rome . The crypts at both Ripon and Hexham are unusual , and perhaps were intended by Wilfrid to mimic the Roman catacombs which he had seen on his travels . They are still extant , although the fabric of Wilfrid 's churches above ground has been replaced by later structures . The churches were finished with glazed windows , made by glassmakers brought over from the continent .
As well as his building projects Wilfrid also commissioned works to embellish the churches , including altar cloths made of silk woven with gold threads , and a gospel book written on parchment dyed purple , with gold lettering . The gospels were then enclosed in a gold book cover set with gems . When the church he had built at Ripon was consecrated , a three @-@ day feast was held to accompany the ceremony .
= = Resignation and death = =
After his final return to Northumbria Wilfrid retired to the monastery at Ripon , where he lived until his death during a visit to Oundle , at the age of 75 . A little over a year before his death in either 709 or 710 Wilfrid suffered another stroke or seizure , which led him to make arrangements for the disposition of his monasteries and possessions . He was buried near the altar of his church in Ripon . Bede records the epitaph that was placed on the tomb . Wilfrid was succeeded at Hexham by Acca of Hexham , a protégé who had accompanied him to Rome in 703 . The monastery at Ripon celebrated the first anniversary of Wilfrid 's death with a commemoration service attended by all the abbots of his monasteries and a spectacular white arc was said to have appeared in the sky starting from the gables of the basilica where his bones were laid to rest .
Wilfrid left large sums of money to his monastic foundations , enabling them to purchase royal favour . Soon after his death a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , was written by Stephen of Ripon , a monk of Ripon . The first version appeared in about 715 followed by a later revision in the 730s , the first biography written by a contemporary to appear in England . It was commissioned by two of Wilfrid 's followers , Acca of Hexham , and the Abbot of Ripon , Tatbert . Stephen 's Vita is concerned with vindicating Wilfrid and making a case for his sainthood , and so is used with caution by historians , although it is nevertheless an invaluable source for Wilfrid 's life and the history of the time .
= = Legacy = =
Wilfrid 's feast day is 12 October or 24 April . Both dates were celebrated in early medieval England , but the April date appeared first in the liturgical calendars . The April date is the date when his relics were translated to a new shrine . Immediately after his death Wilfrid 's body was venerated as a cult object , and miracles were alleged to have happened at the spot where the water used to wash his body was discarded . A cult grew up at Ripon after his death and remained active until 948 , when King Eadred destroyed the church at Ripon ; after the destruction , Wilfrid 's relics were taken by Archbishop Oda of Canterbury , and held in Canterbury Cathedral . This account appears in a foreword written by Oda for Frithegod 's later poem on Wilfrid 's life . However , according to Byrhtferth 's Vita Sancti Oswaldi , or Life of Saint Oswald , Oda 's nephew , Oswald , Archbishop of York , preserved the relics at Ripon and restored the community there to care for them . The two differing accounts are not easily reconciled , but it is possible that Oswald collected secondary relics that had been overlooked by his uncle and installed those at Ripon . The relics that were held at Canterbury were originally placed in the High Altar in 948 , but after the fire at Canterbury Cathedral in 1067 , Wilfrid 's relics were placed in their own shrine .
After the Norman Conquest of England , devotion continued to be paid to Wilfrid , with 48 churches dedicated to him and relics distributed between 11 sites . During the 19th century , the feast of Wilfrid was celebrated on the Sunday following Lammas in the town of Ripon with a parade and horse racing , a tradition which continued until at least 1908 . Wilfrid is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion . He is usually depicted either as a bishop preaching and baptising or else as a robed bishop holding an episcopal staff .
Wilfrid was one of the first bishops to bring relics of saints back from Rome . The papacy was trying to prevent the removal of actual body parts from Rome , restricting collectors to things that had come in contact with the bodily remains such as dust and cloth . Wilfrid was known as an advocate of Benedictine monasticism , and regarded it as a tool in his efforts to " root out the poisonous weeds planted by the Scots " . He built at Ripon and Hexham , and lived a majestic lifestyle . As a result of his various exiles , he founded monastic communities that were widely scattered over the British Isles , over which he kept control until his death . These monastic foundations , especially Hexham , contributed to the blending of the Gaelic and Roman strains of Christianity in Northumbria , which inspired a great surge of learning and missionary activity ; Bede and Alcuin were among the scholars who emerged from Northumbrian monasteries influenced by Wilfrid . Missionaries inspired by his example went from Northumbria to the continent , where they converted pagans in Germany and elsewhere .
One commentator has said that Wilfrid " came into conflict with almost every prominent secular and ecclesiastical figure of the age " . Hindley , a historian of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , states that " Wilfrid would not win his sainthood through the Christian virtue of humility " . The historian Barbara Yorke said of him that " Wilfrid 's character was such that he seems to have been able to attract and infuriate in equal measure " . His contemporary , Bede , although a partisan of the Roman dating of Easter , was a monk and always treats Wilfrid a little uneasily , showing some concern about how Wilfrid conducted himself as a clergyman and as a bishop . The historian Eric John feels that it was Wilfrid 's devotion to monasticism that led him to believe that the only way for the Church to be improved was through monasticism . John traces Wilfrid 's many appeals to Rome to his motivation to hold together his monastic empire , rather than to self @-@ interest . John also challenges the belief that Wilfrid was fond of pomp , pointing out that the comparison between the Irish missionaries who walked and Wilfrid who rode ignores the reality that the quickest method of travel in the Middle Ages was on horseback .
The historian Peter Hunter Blair summarises Wilfrid 's life as follows : " Wilfrid left a distinctive mark on the character of the English church in the seventh century . He was not a humble man , nor , so far as we can see , was he a man greatly interested in learning , and perhaps he would have been more at home as a member of the Gallo @-@ Roman episcopate where the wealth which gave him enemies in England would have passed unnoticed and where his interference in matters of state would have been less likely to take him to prison . " R. W. Southern , another modern historian , says that Wilfrid was " the greatest papal enthusiast of the century " . James Campbell , a historian specialising in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , said of him " He was certainly one of the greatest ecclesiastics of his day . Ascetic , deemed a saint by some , the founder of several monasteries according to the rule of St Benedict , he established Christianity in Sussex and attempted to do so in Frisia . At the same time , his life and conduct were in some respects like those of a great Anglo @-@ Saxon nobleman . "
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= Chitinozoan =
Chitinozoa ( singular : chitinozoan , plural : chitinozoans ) are a taxon of flask @-@ shaped , organic walled marine microfossils produced by an as yet unknown animal . Common from the Ordovician to Devonian periods ( i.e. the mid @-@ Paleozoic ) , the millimetre @-@ scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of marine sediment across the globe . This wide distribution , and their rapid pace of evolution , makes them valuable biostratigraphic markers .
Their bizarre form has made classification and ecological reconstruction difficult . Since their discovery in 1931 , suggestions of protist , plant , and fungal affinities have all been entertained . The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure , and there is mounting evidence to suggest that they represent either the eggs or juvenile stage of a marine animal .
The ecology of chitinozoa is also open to speculation ; some may have floated in the water column , where others may have attached themselves to other organisms . Most species were particular about their living conditions , and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments . Their abundance also varied with the seasons .
= = Appearance = =
Chitinozoa range in length from around 50 to 2000 micrometres . They appear dark to almost opaque when viewed under an optical microscope . External ornamentation is often preserved on the surface of the fossils , in the form of hairs , loops or protrusions , which are sometimes as large as the chamber itself . The range and complexity of ornament increased with time , against a backdrop of decreasing organism size . The earliest Ordovician species were large and smooth @-@ walled ; by the mid @-@ Ordovician a large and expanding variety of ornament , and of hollow appendages , was evident . While shorter appendages are generally solid , larger protrusions tend to be hollow , with some of the largest displaying a spongy internal structure . However , even hollow appendages leave no mark on the inner wall of the organisms : this may suggest that they were secreted or attached from the outside . There is some debate about the number of layers present in the organisms ' walls : up to three layers have been reported , with the internal wall often ornamented ; some specimens only appear to display one . The multitude of walls may indeed reflect the construction of the organism , but could be a result of the preservational process .
" Immature " or juvenile examples of Chitinozoans have not been found ; this may suggest that they didn 't " grow " , that they were moults ( unlikely ) , or that the fossilisable parts of the organism only formed after the developmental process was complete .
Most chitinozoans are found as isolated fossils , but chains of multiple tests , joined from aperture to base , have been reported from all genera . Very long chains tend to take the form of a spring . Occasionally , clusters or condensed chains are found , packed in an organic " cocoon " .
= = Classification = =
Alfred Eisenack 's original description of the Chitinozoans placed them in three families , spanning seven genera , based on morphological grounds . Further genera were identified , at first on an annual basis , as time progressed . Since its publication in 1931 , Eisenack 's original classification has been much honed by these additional discoveries , as well as advances in microscopy . The advent of the scanning electron microscope in the 1970s allowed the improved detection of surface ornamentation which is hugely important in identification - as can be appreciated by a comparison of the images on this page . Even the light microscope image here is of far greater quality than could have been achieved earlier in the century , using poorly preserved specimens and less advanced microscopes . The original three families proposed by Eisenack represented the best classification possible with available data , based largely on the presence or absence of chains of organisms and the chamber 's shape . The orders were subsequently revised to conform better to Linnean taxonomy , placing related organisms more closely together . This was made possible as scientific advances permitted the identification of distinctive traits in organisms across Eisenack 's groups . Features of the base and neck , the presence of spines , and perforations or connections are now considered the most useful diagnostic features .
= = Relationships = =
= = = Amoebæ = = =
Alfred Eisenack 's original guess was that the Chitinozoa were of the rhizopod order Testacea , since similar chitin @-@ based tests were produced by the extant members of this group . However , the chemistry of these tests differs from that of the fossils , and modern Testacea are almost exclusively fresh @-@ water - an extremely different environment . Within a year , he had abandoned this initial idea .
= = = Photosynthesisers = = =
Arguments put forwards by Obut ( 1973 ) proposed that the organisms were one @-@ celled " plants " similar to the dinoflagellates , which would now be grouped into the chromalveolata . However , as mentioned previously , spines and appendages are attached from the exterior of the vessel : only animals have the cellular machinery necessary to perform such a feat . Further , no analogy for the cocoon envelope can be found in this kingdom .
= = = Young graptolites = = =
The graptolites are colonial organic walled fossils which also occurred from the Ordovician to the Devonian ; only part of their life cycle is known and it is not clear how they reproduced . It has been suggested that the Chitinozoa may represent the pre @-@ sicula stages of graptolites - the period between the colony 's sexual reproduction , and the formation of a new colony . This hypothesis appears to be supported by the co @-@ occurrence of graptolite and chitinozoan fossils , whose abundances appear to mirror one another . The similar chemical composition of the fossils has been seized by both sides of the argument . Proponents suggest that the use of the same chemical framework is an indicator that the two may be related . However , this factor means that situations favouring the preservation of one will also tend to preserve the other - and the preparation techniques used to extract the fossils will also favour or disfavour the two groups equally . Therefore , the apparent co @-@ occurrence of the two fossils may merely be an artifact of their similar composition . The hypothesis struggles to explain the continuing abundance of chitinozoans after the middle Devonian , when graptolites became increasingly rare .
= = = Tintinnids = = =
The cyst forms of a particular group of ciliates , the tintinnids have been suggested to be affiliated to Chitinozoans .
= = = Eggs = = =
The test of the Chitinozoa was fixed - there was no scope for any parts of it to move or rotate . This makes it seem likely that the tests were containers , to protect whatever was inside - whether that was a " hibernating " or encysted organism , or a clutch of hatching eggs . There are several arguments behind an association of the chitinozoans with annelids or gastropods , and it is not impossible that the chitinozoans are a convergent phenomenon laid by both groups . In fact , the spirally coiled nature of chitinozoan chains has been used to suggest that they were laid by a spirally coiled organism , such as the gastropods ; were this inference true , uncoiled chains could be to be attributed to the ( straight ) annelid worms or other organisms .
Recent excavations of the Soom Shale , an Ordovician konservat @-@ lagerstätten in South Africa , have yielded chitinozoans alongside a wide range of other organisms . It has been suggested that if whatever organism created the Chitinozoa was fossilisable , it would be present in the Soom biota — from which gastropods and graptolites are notable in their absence . Most organisms present in the shale can be ruled out for a variety of reasons , but polychaete worms , Promissum conodonts and orthocone cephalopods remain as likely candidates . However , further evidence connecting chitinozoans to any of these groups is circumstantial at best .
= = Ecology = =
It is not immediately clear what mode of life was occupied by these improbably shaped fossils , and an answer only becomes apparent after following several lines of reasoning .
The fossils ' restriction to marine sediments can be taken as sound evidence that the organisms dwelt in the Palæozoic seas - which presents three main modes of life :
Infaunal — living within the sediment - the " burrowers "
Benthic — dwelling upon the sea floor , perhaps anchored in place - the " sitters "
Pelagic — free @-@ floating in the water column - the " drifters "
An infaunal mode of life can be quickly ruled out , as the fossils are sometimes found in alignment with the depositing current ; as nothing attached them to the bottom , they must have fallen from the water column .
The ornament of the chitinozoans may cast light on the question . Whilst in some cases a defensive role - by making the vessel larger , and thus less digestible by would @-@ be predators - seems probable , it is not impossible that the protrusions may have anchored the organisms to the sea floor . However , their low @-@ density construction makes this unlikely : perhaps more plausible is that they acted to attach to other organisms . Longer spines also make the organisms more buoyant , by decreasing their Rayleigh number ( i.e. increasing the relative importance of water 's viscosity ) — it is therefore possible that at least the long @-@ spined chitinozoans were planktonic " floaters " . On the other hand , the walls of some chitinozoans were probably too thick and dense to allow them to float .
Whilst little is known about their interactions with other organisms , small holes in the tests of some chitinozoans are evidence that they were hosts to some parasites . Although some forms have been reinterpreted as " pock @-@ marks " caused by the disintegration of the diagenetic mineral pyrite , the clustering of cylindrical holes around the chamber — where the flesh of the organism was likely to be concentrated — is evidence for a biological cause .
Corals in Gotland with daily growth markings have been found in association with abundant chitinozoans , which allow the detection of seasonal variation in chitinozoan abundance . A peak in abundance during the late autumn months is observed , with the maxima for different species occurring on different dates . Such a pattern is also observed in modern @-@ day tropical zooplankton . The diversity of living habits is also reflected by the depth of water and distance from the shore . Different species are found in highest abundance at different depths . While deeper waters around 40 km from the shoreline are generally the optimal environment , some species appear to prefer very shallow water . On the whole , chitinozoans are less abundant in turbulent waters or reef environments , implying an aversion to such regimes when alive , if it is not an effect of sedimentary focusing . Chitinozoans also become rarer in shallower water - although the reverse is not necessarily true . They cannot survive freshwater input .
= = Stratigraphic application = =
Since Alfred Eisenack first recognised and named the group in 1930 , the Chitinozoa have proven incredibly useful as a stratigraphic markers in biostratigraphy during the Ordovician , Silurian and Devonian periods . Their utility is due to the rapidity of their morphological evolution , their abundance — the most productive samples bearing almost a thousand tests per gram — and the easy identification ( due largely to the large variation in shapes ) and short lifetimes ( < 10 million years ) of most species . They are also widely distributed and appear in a variety of marine depositional settings , making correlation easier ; better still , they can often be recognised in even quite strongly metamorphosed rocks . However , convergence of morphological form to similar environments sometimes leads to the mistaken identification of a species in several areas separated by vast differences in space and time , but sharing a similar depositional environment ; clearly , this can cause major problems if the organisms are interpreted as being the same species . Aside from the acritarchs , chitinozoans were the only reliable means of correlating palæozoic units until the late 1960s , when the detailed study of conodonts and graptolites fully unleashed their stratigraphic potential .
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= Music in early modern Scotland =
Music in early modern Scotland includes all forms of musical production in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century . In this period the court followed the European trend for instrumental accompaniment and playing . Scottish monarchs of the sixteenth century were patrons of religious and secular music , and some were accomplished musicians . In the sixteenth century the playing of a musical instrument and singing became an expected accomplishment of noble men and women . The departure of James VI to rule in London at the Union of Crowns in 1603 , meant that the Chapel Royal , Stirling Castle largely fell into disrepair and the major source of patronage was removed from the country . Important composers of the early sixteenth century included Robert Carver and David Peebles . The Lutheranism of the early Reformation was sympathetic to the incorporation of Catholic musical traditions and vernacular songs into worship , exemplified by The Gude and Godlie Ballatis ( 1567 ) . However , the Calvinism that came to dominate Scottish Protestantism led to the closure of song schools , disbanding of choirs , removal of organs and the destruction of music books and manuscripts . An emphasis was placed on the Psalms , resulting in the production of a series of Psalters and the creation of a tradition of unaccompanied singing .
Despite the attempts of the Kirk to limit the tradition of secular popular music , it continued . This period saw the adoption of the highland bagpipes and the fiddle . Ballads , some of which probably date from the Medieval period , existed as part of an distinctive oral tradition . Allan Ramsey advocated the creation of a national musical tradition and collaborated with Italian composer and cellist Lorenzo Bocchi on the first Scottish opera the Gentle Shepherd . A musical culture developed around Edinburgh and a number of composers began to produce collections of Lowland and Highland tunes grafted on to Italian musical forms . By the middle of the eighteenth century a number of Italian musicians and composers were resident in Scotland and Scottish composers of national significance had begun to emerge .
= = The court and noble households = =
In this era Scotland followed the trend of Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and playing . James V , as well as being a major patron of sacred music , was a talented lute player and introduced French chansons and consorts of viols to his court , although almost nothing of this secular chamber music survives . The return of Mary , Queen of Scots from France in 1561 to begin her personal reign , and her position as a Catholic , gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Chapel Royal , but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with trumpets , drums , fifes , bagpipes and tabors . Like her father she played the lute , virginals and ( unlike her father ) was a fine singer . She brought French musical influences with her , employing lutenists and viol players in her household .
James VI ( r . 1566 – 1625 ) was a major patron of the arts in general . He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry . He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment , as did other members of his family . When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I , he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland . The Chapel Royal now began to fall into disrepair , and the court in Westminster would be the only major source of royal musical patronage . Holyrood Abbey was remodelled as a chapel for Charles I 's royal visit in 1633 and reclaimed by Charles II after the Restoration , becoming a centre of worship again during the future James VII 's residency in the early 1680s , but was sacked by an anti @-@ papist mob during the Glorious Revolution in 1688 .
These fashions permeated noble households , where resident musicians were employed , including viol and lute players . As elsewhere in Europe , musical ability became one of the major achievements expected of a nobleman or woman . Musicians were clearly employed as teachers for the children of the household , both male and female . There is evidence for the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries of lessons being given in a variety of instruments and singing , and of the purchase of sheet music and instruments ( including the virginals and harpsichords ) . In the Highlands clan chiefs continued to employ harpists , and increasingly , pipers as fili and bards , whose prowess and ability to glorify their ancestors was a key element in underlying a clan 's status and heritage into the seventeenth century . The earliest printed collection of secular music in Scotland was by publisher John Forbes in Aberdeen in 1662 . Songs and Fancies : to Thre , Foure , or Five Partes , both Apt for Voices and Viols , known as Forbes ' Cantus , was printed three times in the next twenty years . It contained 77 songs , of which 25 were of Scottish origin .
= = Church music = =
The outstanding Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was Robert Carver ( c . 1488 – 1558 ) , a canon of Scone Abbey . His complex polyphonic music could only have been performed by a large and highly trained choir such as the one employed in the Scottish Chapel Royal . James V was also a patron to figures including David Peebles ( c . 1510 – 79 ? ) , whose best known work " Si quis diligit me " ( text from John 14 : 23 ) , is a motet for four voices . These were probably only two of many accomplished composers from this era , whose work has largely only survived in fragments . Much of what survives of church music from the first half of the sixteenth century is due to the diligent work of Thomas Wode ( d . 1590 ) , vicar of St Andrews , who compiled a part book from now lost sources , which was continued by unknown hands after his death .
The Reformation had a severe impact on church music . The song schools of the abbeys , cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down , choirs disbanded , music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches . The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship , drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs . The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis ( 1567 ) , which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James , John and Robert Wedderburn . Never adopted by the kirk , they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s .
Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music , placing an emphasis on what was biblical , which meant the Psalms . The Scottish Psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church . It drew on the work of French musician Clément Marot , Calvin 's contributions to the Strasbourg Psalter of 1539 and English writers , particularly the 1561 edition of the Psalter produced by William Whittingham for the English congregation in Geneva . The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm , but of 150 psalms , 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century , common tunes , which could be used for psalms with the same metre , became more frequent . Because whole congregations would now sing these psalms , unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns , there was a need for simplicity and most church compositions were confined to homophonic settings .
During his personal reign James VI attempted to revive the song schools , with an act of parliament passed in 1579 , demanding that councils of the largest burghs set up " ane sang scuill with ane maister sufficient and able for insturctioun of the yowth in the said science of musik " . Five new schools were opened within four years of the act and by 1633 there were at least twenty @-@ five . Most of those without song schools made provision within their grammar schools . Polyphony was incorporated into editions of the Psalter from 1625 , but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra @-@ tenor , treble and bass parts . However , the triumph of the Presbyterians in the National Covenant of 1638 led to and end of polyphony and a new psalter in common metre , but without tunes , was published in 1650 . In 1666 The Twelve Tunes for the Church of Scotland , composed in Four Parts ( which actually contained 14 tunes ) , designed for use with the 1650 Psalter , was first published in Aberdeen . It would go through five editions by 1720 . By the late seventeenth century these two works had become the basic corpus of the psalmody sung in the kirk .
= = Popular music = =
The secular popular tradition of music continued , despite attempts by the Kirk , particularly in the Lowlands , to suppress dancing and events like penny weddings at which tunes were played . Large numbers of musicians continued to perform , including the fiddler Pattie Birnie and the piper Habbie Simpson ( 1550 – 1620 ) .
The first clear reference to the use of the Highland bagpipes is from a French history , which mentions their use at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 . George Buchanan claimed that they had replaced the trumpet on the battlefield . This period saw the creation of the ceòl mór ( the great music ) of the bagpipe , which reflected its martial origins , with battle @-@ tunes , marches , gatherings , salutes and laments . The Highlands in the early seventeenth century saw the development of piping families including the MacCrimmonds , MacArthurs , MacGregors and the Mackays of Gairloch . There is also evidence of adoption of the fiddle in the Highlands with Martin Martin noting in his A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland ( 1703 ) that he knew of eighteen players in Lewis alone .
There is evidence of ballads from this period . Some may date back to the late Medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but for which we do not have evidence until the eighteenth century . Scottish ballads are distinct , showing pre @-@ Christian influences in the inclusion of supernatural elements such as the fairies in the Scottish ballad " Tam Lin " . They remained an oral tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the eighteenth century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy to publish volumes of popular ballads . The oppression of secular music and dancing began to ease between about 1715 and 1725 and the level of musical activity was reflected in a flood of musical publications in broadsheets and compendiums of music such as the makar Allan Ramsay 's verse compendium The Tea Table Miscellany ( 1723 ) and William Thomson 's Orpheus Caledonius ( 1725 ) .
= = Classical music = =
From the late seventeenth music became less an accomplishment of the gentle classes and increasingly a skill pursued by professionals . It was enjoyed in otherwise silent concert rooms rather than as incidental entertainment in the houses of royalty and nobles . The German flute was probably introduced into Scotland towards the end of the seventeenth century . The Italian style of classical music was probably first brought to Scotland by the Italian cellist and composer Lorenzo Bocchi , who travelled to Scotland in the 1720s , introducing the cello to the country and then developing settings for Lowland Scots songs . He possibly had a hand in the first Scottish Opera , the pastoral The Gentle Shepherd , with libretto by Allan Ramsay . Music in Edinburgh prospered through the patronage of figures including the merchant Sir John Clerk of Penicuik , who was also a noted composer , violinist and harpiscordist . The growth of a musical culture in the capital was marked by the incorporation of the Musical Society of Edinburgh in 1728 .
A group of Scottish composers began to respond to Allan Ramsey 's call to " own and refine " their own musical tradition , creating what James Johnson has characterised as the " Scots drawing room style " , taking primarily Lowland Scottish tunes and adding simple figured basslines and other features from Italian music that made them acceptable to a middle class audience . It gained momentum when major Scottish composers like James Oswald and William McGibbon became involved around 1740 . Oswald 's Curious Collection of Scottish Songs ( 1740 ) was one of the first to include Gaelic tunes alongside Lowland ones , setting a fashion common by the middle of the century and helping to create a unified Scottish musical identity . However , with changing fashions there was a decline in the publication of collections of specifically Scottish collections of tunes , in favour of their incorporation into British collections . By the mid @-@ eighteenth century there were Italians resident in Scotland , acting as composers and performers . These included Nicolò Pasquali , Giusto Tenducci and Fransesco Barsanti . Thomas Erskine , 6th Earl of Kellie ( 1732 – 81 ) was one of the most important British composers of his era , and the first Scot known to have produced a symphony .
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= First Battle of Tikrit =
The First Battle of Tikrit was a battle for the Iraqi city of Tikrit following the city 's capture by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) and Ba 'athist Loyalists during the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive . The battle took place between 26 and 30 June 2014 .
In early June 2014 , ISIL took control of a number of cities in northern Iraq , including Tikrit . Tikrit has symbolic significance as the hometown of Saddam Hussein , and is also the administrative center of the Saladin Governorate . The Iraqi government responded on 26 June by launching an air assault operation to recapture the city . This initial attack was reinforced by a ground assault on 28 June . Fighting continued on 29 and 30 June , but the battle was an insurgent victory , with government forces retreating on 30 June . The defeat coincided with ISIL 's declaration of a worldwide caliphate on 29 June .
The Iraqi government made another attempt to retake the city on 15 July , but was again defeated . ISIL responded by attacking nearby Camp Speicher on 17 July . Tikrit remained under ISIL control until the Second Battle of Tikrit in March and April 2015 .
= = Background = =
In December 2013 , clashes involving tribal militias , Iraqi security forces , and the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) broke out throughout western Iraq . Then , in January 2014 , ISIL militants successfully took control of Fallujah and Ramadi , bringing much of Anbar Province under their control .
In early June , insurgents began advancing into the central and northern parts of Iraq . On 10 June , Mosul fell to ISIL , a devastating defeat given that there were 30 @,@ 000 Iraqi troops in the city facing approximately 1 @,@ 500 ISIL fighters . Most of the Iraqi Army soldiers refused to fight and fled .
On 11 June , ISIL captured Tikrit . The following day , they killed over a thousand Iraqi Air Force cadets at Camp Speicher , 8 miles northwest of Tikrit .
= = The battle = =
On 26 June , Iraqi government forces launched an airborne assault on Tikrit with three or four commando helicopters flown into a stadium at the University of Tikrit . One of the helicopters was shot down and crash @-@ landed at the stadium , while another had to conduct an emergency landing after suffering a mechanical failure . The crew of the second helicopter , which included a Lebanese pilot , was then captured by insurgents . Fierce fighting then ensued around the university compound , while army snipers positioned themselves on tall buildings in the university complex . In the early hours of the assault , a helicopter gunship struck the city 's hospital compound . By the next day , sporadic clashes continued at the university as Iranian @-@ trained Shiite militiamen were dispatched and managed to seize control of tall buildings in the university area .
On 28 June , helicopter gunships conducted dawn air strikes against insurgents who were attacking troops at the university campus . By this point , the city had been coming under continuous air strikes for three days , which included barrel bombs . An all @-@ out ground offensive was launched during the day in an attempt to capture the city . A column of troops started out from Samarra towards Tikrit to the north and by sundown had reached the edge of the city . According to Lt. Gen. Ahmed Abu Ragheef , another column was directed towards the Camp Speicher air base . There were initial claims by government sources of capturing Tikrit , but in fact Tikrit itself remained under insurgent control as heavy fighting continued to rage on the city outskirts during the night . In the evening , helicopters struck a gathering of people preparing for a wedding ceremony in the village of Al Bu Hayazi , east of Tikrit , killing four civilians .
The next day , troops pulled back away from Tikrit to the nearby town of Dijla , south of the city , in an attempt to regroup after meeting stiff resistance . Fighting also continued near the university and around the air base , which had reportedly come under army control . During the day 's battles , another Iraqi army helicopter was shot down over the city and crashed near a market , while the army sent tanks to join the fighting at the university . An Iraqi army spokesman claimed 70 militants had been killed in Tikrit in the previous 24 hours and that the government forces were in control of the university . Neither of the claims were independently confirmed . Later , fierce clashes were reported in an area about 20 kilometers from the city center , toward Samarra . Militants reportedly made an advance but were stopped about 10 kilometers south of Tikrit . That same day , ISIL declared itself a worldwide caliphate .
On 30 June , government forces attempted to move out of the air base and link up with troops at the university but failed after encountering heavy insurgent resistance in the al @-@ Deum area . A military spokesman said that government forces were massing in Samarra and would soon make another push to capture Tikrit . Meanwhile , south of Tikrit , the army managed to recapture the town of Mukayshifah in fighting that an army spokesman claimed killed 40 ISIS fighters .
= = Aftermath = =
On 3 July , an Iraqi Army spokesman claimed the military had regained control of the town of Al @-@ Awja , Saddam Hussein 's birthplace , near Tikrit . However , later in the day , two battlefield commanders contradicted him and stated fighting was still continuing on the town 's perimeter and in Al @-@ Awja itself .
During this time , troops retreated from the university complex .
On 15 July , the military launched a new assault on Tikrit from Al @-@ Awja . Soldiers and militiamen quickly entered the city , as militants were reportedly retreating , and seized the city 's hospital . Following this , the Iraqi government was preparing to declare victory in the battle for the city . However , ISIL militants sprung an ambush , with suicide bombers reportedly leaping from windows into groups of soldiers . Government troops retreated from the city before sunset four kilometers to the south under constant mortar and sniper fire . Several security force vehicles were seen abandoned , with at least one of them burnt out . 52 soldiers and 40 militants were killed in the fighting .
On 17 July , insurgents launched an assault on Camp Speicher , where an estimated 700 government soldiers and 150 Iranian or Iraqi Shiite militiamen were besieged following the failed attempt to send reinforcements to the air base . The assault included snipers and suicide bombers and the militants quickly managed to reach the runway , at which point Iraqi special forces joined the battle . The base was bombarded and mortared all night . By the next morning , according to various sources , the final pocket of government troops had collapsed , with all of the government forces either killed , executed or captured . At least 25 – 35 insurgents were also killed . Iraqi forces attempted to save the base 's aircraft by flying them out , but according to ISIL 8 – 9 helicopters were destroyed on the ground or shot down , with several armored vehicles destroyed as well . The Iraqi Army denied the alleged capture of the base with soldiers from the front line reporting that Speicher was still under their control , with only three soldiers being killed , one helicopter destroyed and two damaged . A Tikrit resident also reported continued fighting around the base . Two days later , the military reported that Iraqi special forces had re @-@ secured the base .
Though the United States participated in the battle on the Iraqi side , the Washington Post wrote that some Iranian groups accused the coalition of bombarding a pro @-@ government headquarters in the city . In response , the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad issued a statement denying the allegations .
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= Billy 's Bucket List =
" Billy 's Bucket List " is the final episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 17 , 2014 . The episode guest stars Lou Ferringo , Andy Samberg , and Mark Hamill ; Castuera herself also voiced a character .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn finds Billy 's ( voiced by Ferrigno ) bucket list and decides to complete the unfinished items , as a tribute toward the fallen hero . After completing most of the items , including giving Billy 's ex @-@ girlfriend Canyon ( voiced by Castuera ) one last motorcycle ride , and conquering his fear of the ocean , an apparition of Billy appears to Finn , telling him that Finn 's biological father is still alive .
The episode was the last to feature Castuera as a storyboard artist until her return to the series during the seventh season ; in the interim time , she focused on her art career . This episode also marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director ; he left to direct the animated mini @-@ series Over the Garden Wall . " Billy 's Bucket List " was met with critical acclaim , with one reviewer complimenting the episode 's cliffhanger and emotional growth . In addition , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 335 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
During a freestyle rap battle with Rap Bear , hosted by Party Pat ( voiced by Andy Samberg ) , Finn is approached by Billy 's ( voiced by Lou Ferrigno ) ex @-@ girlfriend , Canyon ( voiced by Ako Castuera ) . She delivers Billy 's loincloth to Finn , and Finn and she venture back to Billy 's lair to pay their respects and move on . At his cavern , Finn defeats a group of fairies and then discovers a bucket list penned by Billy . Canyon and Finn decide to complete it as a tribute to the fallen hero . The two go on a joy ride in a desert environment , and afterwards Canyon and Finn part ways . Finn soon discovers that the list contains one more item hidden at the bottom left corner reading : " Lie on my back in the ocean . Just float . "
Finn , terrified of the ocean , decides to do this final task for Billy , but the Fear Feaster ( voiced by Mark Hamill ) manifests and taunts him , until he knocks himself unconscious ; during this time , he has an intense dream of swimming through the ocean and being consumed by a whale . Eventually he wakes up , and — possibly involuntarily — uses his grass sword to slice through and destroy the Fear Feaster , ending Finn 's ocean fear for good . The spirit of Billy manifests itself before Finn in the sky , thanking him for completing his list . Before his spirit departs , he reveals to Finn that his human father is still alive , trapped in a mysterious place known only as the " Citadel " .
= = Production = =
" Billy 's Bucket List " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . This episode was the last to feature Castuera — who had been storyboarding on the show since the first season finale " Gut Grinder " — until her return to the series during the seventh season . According to Moynihan , Castuera left the show " to do something different and pursue other interests " as well as to " pursue a different path from television animation . " On September 29 , 2014 , however , Kent Osborne posted an image on Instagram , confirming that Castuera and Moynihan would again be partners for the seventh season . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was cohelmed by Nate Cash and Adam Muto . This episode marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director , as he later left the series to direct the animated mini @-@ series Over the Garden Wall .
Castuera herself voiced Canyon . The episode also features the return of Lou Ferringo as the hero Billy ; Ferringo had previously appeared in the first season episode " His Hero " and the fourth season finale " The Lich " . In addition , both comedian and rapper Andy Samberg , as well as actor Mark Hamill , reprise their roles as Party Pat and the Fear Feaster , respectively . Samberg had previously voiced the character in the second season episode " Belly of the Beast " , whereas Hamill had appeared in the first season episode , " Ocean of Fear " .
The rap battle music was scored by Moynihan , who made heavy use of orchestra hits . The instrumental was later uploaded to Soundcloud and shared by the official Adventure Time production blog . In one of the episode 's background art pieces , artist Derek Ballard inserted a buried car , homemade bombs , and a hole in the side of a cliff , additions that he claims were in honor of " one of America ’ s greatest film treasures : Tremors " .
= = Reception = =
" Billy 's Bucket List " first aired on Cartoon Network on March 17 , 2014 . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 335 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 5 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . Furthermore , the episode was the 43rd most @-@ watched cable program on the night it aired .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , arguing that it was an example of the series ' continued growth : he wrote , " as Finn grows , so does this series " . Sava opined that , " the final minute of “ Billy ’ s Bucket List ” drops a major plot @-@ bomb that gives the series an exciting direction for next season , and while the events leading up to the cliffhanger aren 't quite as provocative or substantial as the last few episodes , they represent all the things that make this show such a great 10 @-@ minute oasis at the beginning of the week . " Sava also noted that , " Trippy psychedelia is another major ingredient of this series , and ' Billy ’ s Bucket List ' delivers a heavy serving when Finn finds himself underwater . "
Andrea Reiher of Zap2it called the episode " a great ending to Season 5 " . Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode an " A " , noting that while the series " can do hilarious weirdness in its sleep , " this episode in particular " showcases its soulfulness " . He described the main plot as " oddly introspective " , and wrote that the end was " a surprise reveal — a mythology boost that could push the show in a radical new direction . "
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= LW5 / 7 =
LW5 / 7 is a standing para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing classification for skiers with upper extremity issues in both limbs that may include double amputation of both arms and hands or dysmelia of the upper limbs . The class has three subclasses defined by the location of the disability on the upper extremities . International classification is done by IPC Alpine Skiing and IPC Nordic Skiing . On the national level , classification is handled by national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada .
Skiers in this class use two skis and no ski poles in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic , though skiers can use mini @-@ ski poles provided they cannot hold a ski pole without the use of a prosthesis . Skiers develop techniques to ski that compensate for balance issues as a result of missing arms . A factoring system is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic to allow LW5 / 7 skiers to compete fairly against other skiers with disabilities . While this classification was not grouped with others at the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , it was grouped with other standing classes during events in the 1990s and 2000s .
= = Definition = =
LW5 / 7 is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . People in this class have upper extremity issues in both limbs and may include issue such as paralysis or dysmelia in both arms . The disability may be a result of double amputation of both arms and hands or dysmelia of the upper limbs .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ alpine as " Competitors with disabilities in both upper limbs skiing with two normal skis and without poles ... The disability shall be such that the functional use of poles is not possible . Typical disability profile of the class is double @-@ arm amputation . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , no poles , disability in both arms or hands . " The IPC defined this classification for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairment in both upper limbs without the use of prosthesis . The impairment must be such that the athlete is unable to use poles . " Cross Country Canada defined this classification for para @-@ Nordic as " Impairment in both upper limbs ( arms ) without the use of prosthesis . The impairment must be such that the athlete is unable to use poles . If the athlete is able to use a pole they must compete as LW6 or LW8 " in 2012 .
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered , including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical examination and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . If a skier in this classification has the ability to use a ski pole of some sort , they may do so but they need to changes classes and compete in LW6 / 8 .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 1 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Both arms amputated above the elbow , Short stumps , no elbow joints or forearms " .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 2 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " One arm amputated above the elbow , the other below the elbow " .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 3 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Both arms amputated or dysfunctional below the elbow , Both hands unable to hold or use ski poles " .
= = Equipment and technique = =
Skiers in this class use two skis and no ski poles in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic . While skiers are prohibited from using traditional ski poles , they may use mini poles so long as they are unable to hold a traditional ski pole without the use of a prostheses . Skiers are also allowed to use prostheses or orthoses in competition . FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class . Skiers in this class must wear a Slalom helmet in Slalom events and crash helmets during the Giant Slalom .
In the Slalom event , competitors are more likely to use a partial ski pole or a prosthetic to hold a ski pole that they may not use in other disciplines . Techniques to compensate for balance issues as a result of an upper limb disability may be corrected by using knee drives or hip motions .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position . Athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other , when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 79 % and percentage for free was 87 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 para @-@ Nordic ski seasons was 79 % for classic and 87 % for free technique . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 79 % for classic and 87 % for free . Each of the subclasses with in LW5 / 7 had their own factoring for the para @-@ Alpine 2011 / 2012 skiing season . The factoring for LW5 / 7 @.@ 1 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 982 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9777 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9851 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9809 for downhill , for LW5 / 7 @.@ 2 was 0 @.@ 9862 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9843 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9873 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9833 for downhill , and for LW5 / 7 @.@ 3 was 0 @.@ 9882 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9863 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9893 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9853 for downhill .
In disability skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the Slalom and Giant Slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last . In the biathlon , the skier is required to make sure " that the rifle touches the support in between the marked zone ( 5 cm in front of / behind the balance point ) . "
At times , skiers in this class have injured themselves while skiing . Such injuries have occurred for some in this class of the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team between 1994 and 2006 . One incident occurred in 1997 and was a femur @-@ fracture caused as a result of a fall while skiing . Another incident occurred at the 1998 Winter Paralympics when a skier injured themselves , resulting in a partial ACL rupture .
= = Events = =
While this classification was not grouped with others at the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , it was grouped during events in the 1990s and 2000s . At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and Giant Slalom , and was not grouped with others for medal events for men . At the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships in Lech , Austria , men 's LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped together for medal events . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were put into one group for medal events in para @-@ Alpine events . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , LW3 , LW5 / 7 and LW9 were grouped for the men 's downhill , Super @-@ G , Slalom and Giant Slalom events . On the women 's side of the 2002 Games programme , LW1 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes were combined for the downhill , Giant Slalom and Slalom events . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there was one male and one female from this class the standing downhill event .
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= Sanctified ( song ) =
" Sanctified " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Rick Ross , taken from his sixth studio album Mastermind ( 2014 ) . The song , produced by Kanye West , Mike Dean , and DJ Mustard , featuring guest appearances by rappers Kanye West and Big Sean . It was written by the aforementioned rappers and producers and Betty Wright sang the hook . " Sanctified " garnered critical acclaim from music critics , with most praising the production and Kanye West 's appearance . Despite not being released as a single , it is the highest charting song on Mastermind to date , debuting at number 25 on the UK R & B Chart , number 78 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 99 on the Canadian Hot 100 upon the album 's release .
= = Background and development = =
In February 2014 , a short preview of the song was released featuring the chorus , performed by Kanye West and Big Sean . Following the track list reveal for the album , on February 7 , 2014 , producer DJ Mustard revealed that he co @-@ produced " Sanctified " with Kanye West . The song was also produced by Mike Dean , along with being written by William Roberts , Sean Anderson , Kanye West , and Dijon McFarlane . Betty Wright lent her vocal talent to the song during a late night studio session she did as a favor to DJ Khaled in order for him to meet a deadline . She recorded the hook in fifteen minutes while sitting on a sofa In the song , West raps about how he feels about people playing up his earlier works and dismiss who he is now , before saying that he 's not going to worry about it . Then later he says , " Wipe my forehead with a handkerchief and wash my sins in the blood of Jesus , People sayin ' , ' Ye , we need another Yeezus . " This being a reference to his experimental sixth studio album .
Rick Ross stated that the song was one of his favorites featured on Mastermind . He said , " ' Sanctified ' was most definitely one of the favorites . It 's because how much time — Just watching Kanye put into this because it actually started as a sample . We did the sample maybe 10 different ways and then we ultimately went with a beautiful lady out of Miami , Ms. Betty Wright . She blessed us . So , just hearing that chorus . Just hearing the way it came out . All the time we put in it . It most definitely was dope . " Then after Ross ' sixth studio album Mastermind was released for free streaming on iTunes , the full version of " Sanctified " was released .
On March 6 , 2014 , Big Sean released his verse for the song that was cut from the album version of the song . Detailing the song 's recording process to MTV , Big Sean said , " Me and [ Kanye West ] was in the studio working on a whole bunch of ideas and [ Ross ] came in the conversation . And everybody know Rick Ross albums is events . So Ye pulled a track up , and I was telling him I think it 's a banger , it 's a smash , and he thought we should give it to Rozay . Me and him wrote our verses on the spot and we sent it to [ Ross ] and he did what he did to it . "
= = Live performance = =
On March 6 , 2014 , Rick Ross , Big Sean and Kanye West performed " Sanctified " on The Arsenio Hall Show backed by a live band . This was the first live performance of the song with all three rappers . West 's surprise appearance received a very large response from the audience .
= = Critical reception = =
" Sanctified " was met with critical acclaim from music critics , with most of them favoring West 's guest appearance than Ross himself . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times called it the album 's best song . Kevin Ritchie of Now named it the album 's best song , praised Betty Wright 's performance singing the hook and Kanye West 's production . Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly and Michael Madden of Consequence of Sound both considered the song one of the album 's best . Kellin Miller of AllHipHop stated that it " has a strong case for an early song of the year nomination . " Dan Rys of XXL praised the song 's production and called West 's appearance as show stealing . Jesse Cataldo of Slant Magazine said , " The album revives when Kanye West shows up to produce and guest on " Sanctified , " a revival song that pairs religious rebirth with monetary excess in a sort of frenzied ritual . "
Peter Cashmore of NME stated that it " is a glorious snail ’ s @-@ pace gush of braggadocio . In fact , if the album had wrapped up after " Sanctified " , rather than dribbling to a close with the weedy " Walkin ’ On Air " and " Thug Cry " , then Mastermind would be pretty much wall @-@ to @-@ wall bangers . " Craig Jenkins of Pitchfork Media gave this song the tag of " Best New Track " and stated , " ' Sanctified ' is an outstanding entry into Ross and Kanye ’ s catalogue of stunners , but it never feels like Ross ' song . " Christopher Weingarten of Rolling Stone said , the song " shines with guest singer Betty Wright 's powerful gospel rasp and Kanye West confessing his sins on a featured verse . Ross , meanwhile , ends up talking designer clothes and fellatio . " Ken Capobianco of the Boston Globe said that " Kanye West turns his host into an afterthought on the fine , gospel @-@ influenced " Sanctified " .
Sheldon Pearce of HipHopDX stated , " While Kanye is transposing himself with Muhammad Ali and washing his sins in the blood of Jesus and boldly second guessing God ’ s direct message the most grandiose thing Ross can muster is an ill @-@ fated ( and perhaps uninformed ) comparison to fallen Waco cult leader David Koresh . It feels tired and uninspired . " Nathan Slavik of DJBooth praised the song 's depth and said it featured " a rewind @-@ worthy verse from Kanye and a completely superfluous Big Sean . " Jesal Padania of RapReviews called the song riotously enjoyable , but said that Ross ' contribution did not add anything to the song .
Complex named it the second best song of the first @-@ half of 2014 . Writer Justin Charity commented saying , " While hardly their strongest verses of even the past couple years , Ross , Kanye , and Sean all come correct with the quotables here , from Sean 's opening mantra to Kanye 's aggressive confessional to post @-@ sex grilled cheese . The song 's weary gospel build @-@ up makes way for the minimal , rarefied ecstasy of that spaceship hangover melody . An arena confession I need to be shouting at the livest of live shows by year 's end : " All I wanted was a hundred million dollars and a bad bitch ! " Verdict : We need another Yeezus . " MySpace also named the song one of the 50 best songs of the same time period . A writer for them said , " ' Sanctified ' is a behemoth of a track , replete with an original vocal line from Bettye LaVette that plays like a gospel sample and an impeccable verse from ' Ye that makes up for Ross rapping , " Fellatio 's amazin ' , make grilled cheese for you , the best . " It 's simply the best gospel song masquerading as a rap jam this year . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Mastermind .
Rick Ross – lead vocals , songwriting
Kanye West – guest vocals , songwriting , production
Betty Wright – guest vocals
Big Sean – guest vocals , songwriting
DJ Mustard – co @-@ production / original production
Mike Dean – production
= = Chart performance = =
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