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= DJ Kool Herc =
Clive Campbell ( born 16 April 1955 ) , better known by his stage name DJ Kool Herc , is a Jamaican American DJ who is credited for originating hip hop music in the early 1970s in The Bronx , New York City . His playing of hard funk records of the sort typified by James Brown was an alternative both to the violent gang culture of the Bronx and to the nascent popularity of disco in the 1970s . Campbell began to isolate the instrumental portion of the record , which emphasized the drum beat — the " break " — and switch from one break to another .
Using the same two turntable set @-@ up of disco DJs , Campbell used two copies of the same record to elongate the break . This breakbeat DJing , using hard funk and records with Latin percussion , formed the basis of hip hop music . Campbell 's announcements and exhortations to dancers helped lead to the syncopated , rhymed spoken accompaniment now known as rapping . He called his dancers " break @-@ boys " and " break @-@ girls " , or simply b @-@ boys and b @-@ girls . Campbell 's DJ style was quickly taken up by figures such as Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash . Unlike them , he never made the move into commercially recorded hip hop in its earliest years .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Clive Campbell was the first of six children born to Keith and Nettie Campbell in Kingston , Jamaica . While growing up , he saw and heard the sound systems of neighbourhood parties called dancehalls , and the accompanying speech of their DJs , known as toasting . He emigrated with his family at the age of 12 to the Bronx , New York in November 1967 , where they lived at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue .
They encountered wide @-@ scale social disruption following the construction of the Cross Bronx Expressway by Robert Moses ( completed 1963 , with further construction continuing through to 1972 ) ; it had uprooted thousands in stable neighborhoods , displacing communities , and leading to " white flight " when property values dropped near the roadway . Many landlords resorted to arson to recoup money through insurance policies . A violent new street gang youth culture emerged around 1968 , and spread with increasing lawlessness across large parts of the Bronx by 1973 .
Campbell attended the Alfred E. Smith Career and Technical Education High School in the Bronx , where his height , frame , and demeanor on the basketball court prompted the other kids to nickname him " Hercules " . He began running with a graffiti crew called the Ex @-@ Vandals , taking the name Kool Herc . Herc recalls persuading his father to buy him a copy of " Sex Machine " by James Brown , a record that not a lot of his friends had , and which they would come to him to hear . He and his sister , Cindy , began hosting back @-@ to @-@ school parties in the recreation room of their building , 1520 Sedgwick Avenue . Herc 's first soundsystem consisted of two turntables connected to two amplifiers and a Shure " Vocal Master " PA system with 2 amazing speakers columns , on which he played records such as James Brown 's " Give It Up Or Turnit A Loose " , The Jimmy Castor Bunch 's " It 's Just Begun " and Booker T & the MG 's ' " Melting Pot " . With Bronx clubs ' struggling with street gangs , uptown DJs ' catering to an older disco crowd with different aspirations , and commercial radio also catering to a demographic distinct from teenagers in the Bronx , Herc 's parties had a ready @-@ made audience .
= = = The break = = =
DJ Kool Herc developed the style that was the blueprint for hip hop music . Herc used the record to focus on a short , heavily percussive part in it : the " break " . Since this part of the record was the one the dancers liked best , Herc isolated the break and prolonged it by changing between two record players . As one record reached the end of the break , he cued a second record back to the beginning of the break , which allowed him to extend a relatively short section of music into " five @-@ minute loop of fury " . This innovation had its roots in what Herc called " The Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round , " a technique by which the deejay switched from break to break at the height of the party . Herc told The New York Times that he first introduced the Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round into his sets in 1972 . The earliest known Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round involved playing James Brown 's " Give It Up or Turnit a Loose " ( with its refrain , " Now clap your hands ! Stomp your feet ! " ) , then switching from that record 's break into the break from a second record , " Bongo Rock " by The Incredible Bongo Band . From the " Bongo Rock " ' s break , Herc used a third record to switch to the break on " The Mexican " by the English rock band Babe Ruth . Kool Herc also contributed to developing the rhyming style of hip hop by punctuating the recorded music with slang phrases , announcing : " Rock on , my mellow ! " " B @-@ boys , b @-@ girls , are you ready ? keep on rock steady " " This is the joint ! Herc beat on the point " " To the beat , y 'all ! " " You don 't stop ! " For his contributions , Herc is called a " founding father of hip hop , " a " nascent cultural hero , " and an integral part of the beginnings of hip hop by Time .
On 11 August 1973 , DJ Kool Herc was a disc jockey and emcee at a party in the recreation room at Sedgwick Avenue . Specifically , DJ Kool Herc :
extended an instrumental beat ( breaking or scratching ) to let people dance longer ( break dancing ) and began MC 'ing ( rapping ) during the extended breakdancing . ... [ This ] helped lay the foundation for a cultural revolution .
= = = B @-@ boys and b @-@ girls = = =
The " b @-@ boys " and " b @-@ girls " were the dancers to Herc 's breaks , who were described as " breaking " . Herc has noted that " breaking " was also street slang of the time meaning " getting excited " , " acting energetically , " or " causing a disturbance " . Herc coined the terms " b @-@ boy " , " b @-@ girl , " and " breaking " which became part of the lexicon of what would be eventually called hip hop culture . Early Kool Herc b @-@ boy and later DJ innovator Grandmixer DXT describes the early evolution as follows :
" ... [ E ] verybody would form a circle and the B @-@ boys would go into the center . At first the dance was simple : touch your toes , hop , kick out your leg . Then some guy went down , spun around on all fours . Everybody said wow and went home to try to come up with something better . "
In the early 1980s , the media began to call this style " breakdance , " which in 1991 the New York Times wrote was " an art as demanding and inventive as mainstream dance forms like ballet and jazz . " Since this emerging culture was still without a name , participants often identified as " b @-@ boys , " a usage that included and went beyond the specific connection to dance , a usage that would persist in hip hop culture .
= = = Move to the streets = = =
With the mystique of his graffiti name , his physical stature , and the reputation of his small parties , Herc became a folk hero in the Bronx . He began to play at nearby clubs including the Twilight Zone Hevalo , Executive Playhouse , the PAL on 183rd Street , as well as at high schools such as Dodge and Taft . Rapping duties were delegated to Coke La Rock . Herc 's collective , known as The Herculoids , was augmented by Clark Kent and dancers The Nigga Twins . Herc took his soundsystem ( the herculords ) — still legendary for its sheer volume — to the streets and parks of the Bronx . Nelson George recalls a schoolyard party :
" The sun hadn 't gone down yet , and kids were just hanging out , waiting for something to happen . Van pulls up , a bunch of guys come out with a table , crates of records . They unscrew the base of the light pole , take their equipment , attach it to that , get the electricity – Boom ! We got a concert right here in the schoolyard and it 's this guy Kool Herc . And he 's just standing with the turntable , and the guys were studying his hands . There are people dancing , but there 's as many people standing , just watching what he 's doing . That was my first introduction to in @-@ the @-@ street , hip hop DJing . "
= = = Influence on artists = = =
In 1975 , the young Grandmaster Flash , to whom Kool Herc was , in his words , " a hero " , began DJing in Herc 's style . By 1976 , Flash and his MCs The Furious Five played to a packed Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan . Venue owners were often nervous of unruly young crowds , however , and soon sent hip hop back to the clubs , community centres and high school gymnasiums of the Bronx .
Afrika Bambaataa first heard Kool Herc in 1973 . Bambaataa , at that time a general in the notorious Black Spades gang of the Bronx , obtained his own soundsystem in 1975 and began to DJ in Herc 's style , converting his followers to the non @-@ violent Zulu Nation in the process . Kool Herc began using The Incredible Bongo Band 's " Apache " as a break in 1975 . It became a firm b @-@ boy favourite — " the Bronx national anthem " — and is still in use in hip hop today . Steven Hager wrote of this period :
" For over five years the Bronx had lived in constant terror of street gangs . Suddenly , in 1975 , they disappeared almost as quickly as they had arrived . This happened because something better came along to replace the gangs . That something was eventually called hip @-@ hop . "
In 1979 , the record company executive Sylvia Robinson assembled a group she called The Sugarhill Gang and recorded " Rapper 's Delight " . The hit song ushered in the era of commercially released hip hop . By that year 's end , Grandmaster Flash was recording for Enjoy Records . In 1980 , Afrika Bambaataa began recording for Winley . By this time , DJ Kool Herc 's star had faded .
Grandmaster Flash suggests that Herc may not have kept pace with developments in techniques of cueing ( lining up a record to play at a certain place on it ) . Developments changed techniques of cutting ( switching from one record to another ) and scratching ( moving the record by hand to and fro under the stylus for percussive effect ) in the late 1970s . Herc said he retreated from the scene after being stabbed at the Executive Playhouse while trying to intercede in a fight , and the burning down of one of his venues . In 1980 , Herc had stopped DJing and was working in a record shop in South Bronx .
= = = Later years = = =
Kool Herc appeared in Hollywood 's motion picture take on hip hop , Beat Street ( Orion , 1984 ) , as himself . In the mid @-@ 1980s , his father died , and he became addicted to crack cocaine . " I couldn 't cope , so I started medicating " , he says of this period .
In 1994 Herc performed on Terminator X & the Godfathers of Threatt 's album , Super Bad . In 2005 , he wrote the foreword to Jeff Chang 's book on hip hop , Can 't Stop Won 't Stop . In 2005 he appeared in the music video of " Top 5 ( Dead or Alive ) " by Jin from the album The Emcee 's Properganda . In 2006 , he became involved in getting Hip Hop commemorated at the Smithsonian Institution museums .
Since 2007 Herc has worked in a campaign to prevent 1520 Sedgwick Avenue from being sold to developers and withdrawn from its status as a Mitchell @-@ Lama affordable housing property . In the summer of 2007 , New York state officials declared 1520 Sedgwick Avenue the " birthplace of hip @-@ hop " , and nominated it to national and state historic registers . The city 's Department of Housing Preservation and Development ruled against the proposed sale in February 2008 , on the grounds that " the proposed purchase price is inconsistent with the use of property as a Mitchell @-@ Lama affordable housing development " . It is the first time they have so ruled in such a case .
= = = Serious illness = = =
According to a DJ Premier fan blog , The Source 's website and other sites , DJ Kool Herc fell gravely ill in early 2011 and was said to lack health insurance . He had surgery for kidney stones , with a stent placed to relieve the pressure . He needed follow @-@ up surgery but St. Barnabas Medical Center , the site that performed the previous surgery , has requested that he make a deposit toward the next surgery , because he has missed several follow @-@ up visits . The hospital said it would not turn away uninsured patients in the emergency room . DJ Kool Herc and his family set up an official website on which he describes his medical issue and the larger goal of establishing the DJ Kool Herc Fund to pioneer long @-@ term health care solutions . In April 2013 , Campbell recovered from surgery and moved into post @-@ medical care .
= = Discography = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
Terminator X - " Herc 's Message " from Super Bad ( 1994 )
The Chemical Brothers - " Elektrobank " from Dig Your Own Hole ( 1997 )
Substantial - " Sacrifice " from Sacrifice ( 2008 )
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= County Route 574 ( Erie County , New York ) =
County Route 574 ( CR 574 ) is an east – west county route north of East Aurora in Erie County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) and NY 78 in the town of Elma . Its eastern terminus is at Two Rod Road , a state @-@ maintained north – south highway in the town of Marilla . The entire length of CR 574 is named " Jamison Road " .
Parts of CR 574 carried a state highway designation as early as 1930 . By 1931 , the entirety of CR 574 was designated as New York State Route 422 . Ownership and maintenance of NY 422 was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County on April 1 , 1980 , and the NY 422 designation officially ceased to exist on September 25 , 1980 .
= = Route description = =
CR 574 begins at an intersection with NY 16 and NY 78 ( Seneca Street ) northwest of East Aurora in the town of Elma . The route heads eastward along Jamison Road , passing south of a predominantly residential neighborhood and north of a large industrial complex . The latter ends after 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , and CR 574 continues on to an interchange with the Aurora Expressway ( NY 400 ) . CR 574 intersects Bowen Road ( CR 242 ) and ( CR 361 ) just east of the expressway .
As CR 574 approaches the hamlet of East Elma , it meets Girdle Road ( CR 336 ) . In East Elma itself , Jamison Road intersects Creek Road ( CR 134 ) and Hemstreet Road ( CR 172 ) . Past East Elma , the land surrounding CR 574 becomes less developed and largely dominated by cultivated fields . CR 574 continues on through the open fields and into the town of Marilla , where it ends at a junction with Two Rod Road , a local arterial maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 954G , an unsigned reference route . Prior to 1982 , Two Rod Road was NY 358 .
= = History = =
The portion of Jamison Road from Bowen Road to Maple Road was originally designated as part of NY 78 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , the entirety of Jamison Road was designated as NY 422 . NY 78 was realigned c . 1932 to follow a new routing between East Aurora and Depew while its former routing from East Aurora to Lancaster was redesignated as NY 78A . The NY 78A designation , which overlapped NY 422 between Bowen Road and Maple Road , was removed c . 1938 .
On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 422 was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The NY 422 designation was removed on September 25 , 1980 , allowing Jamison Road to become CR 574 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
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= Toru Takemitsu =
Toru Takemitsu ( 武満 徹 , Takemitsu Tōru , October 8 , 1930 – February 20 , 1996 ) pronounced [ takeꜜmitsɯ toːɽɯ ] was a Japanese composer and writer on aesthetics and music theory . Largely self @-@ taught , Takemitsu possessed consummate skill in the subtle manipulation of instrumental and orchestral timbre . He is famed for combining elements of oriental and occident philosophy to create a sound uniquely his own , and for fusing opposites together such as sound with silence and tradition with innovation .
He composed several hundred independent works of music , scored more than ninety films and published twenty books . He was also a founding member of the Jikken Kobo ( experimental workshop ) in Japan , a group of avant @-@ garde artists who distanced themselves from academia and whose collaborative work is often regarded among the most influential of the 20th century .
His 1957 Requiem for string orchestra attracted international attention , led to several commissions from across the world and established his reputation as one of the leading 20th @-@ century Japanese composers . He was the recipient of numerous awards and honours and the Toru Takemitsu Composition Award is named after him .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Takemitsu was born in Tokyo on October 8 , 1930 ; a month later his family moved to Dalian in the Chinese province of Liaoning . He returned to Japan to attend elementary school , but his education was cut short by military conscription in 1944 . Takemitsu described his experience of military service at such a young age , under the Japanese Nationalist government , as " ... extremely bitter " . Takemitsu first became really conscious of Western classical music ( which was banned in Japan during the war ) during his term of military service , in the form of a popular French Song ( " Parlez @-@ moi d 'amour " ) which he listened to with colleagues in secret , played on a gramophone with a makeshift needle fashioned from bamboo .
During the post @-@ war U.S. occupation of Japan , Takemitsu worked for the U.S. Armed Forces , but was ill for a long period . Hospitalised and bed @-@ ridden , he took the opportunity to listen to as much Western music as he could on the U.S. Armed Forces network . While deeply affected by these experiences of Western music , he simultaneously felt a need to distance himself from the traditional music of his native Japan . He explained much later , in a lecture at the New York International Festival of the Arts , that for him Japanese traditional music " always recalled the bitter memories of war " .
Despite his almost complete lack of musical training , and taking inspiration from what little Western music he had heard , Takemitsu began to compose in earnest at the age of 16 : " ... I began [ writing ] music attracted to music itself as one human being . Being in music I found my raison d 'être as a man . After the war , music was the only thing . Choosing to be in music clarified my identity . " Though he studied briefly with Yasuji Kiyose beginning in 1948 , Takemitsu remained largely self @-@ taught throughout his musical career .
= = = Early development and Jikken Kōbō = = =
In 1948 , Takemitsu conceived the idea of electronic music technology , or in his own words , to " bring noise into tempered musical tones inside a busy small tube . " During the 1950s , Takemitsu had learned that in 1948 " a French [ engineer ] Pierre Schaeffer invented the method ( s ) of musique concrète based on the same idea as mine . I was pleased with this coincidence . "
In 1951 , Takemitsu was a founding member of the anti @-@ academic Jikken Kōbō ( 実験工房 , " experimental workshop " ) : an artistic group established for multidisciplinary collaboration on mixed @-@ media projects , who sought to avoid Japanese artistic tradition . The performances and works undertaken by the group introduced several contemporary Western composers to Japanese audiences . During this period he wrote Saegirarenai Kyūsoku I ( " Uninterrupted Rest I " , 1952 : a piano work , without a regular rhythmic pulse or barlines ) ; and by 1955 Takemitsu had begun to use electronic tape @-@ recording techniques in such works as Relief Statique ( 1955 ) and Vocalism A · I ( 1956 ) . Takemitsu also studied in the early 1950s with the composer Fumio Hayasaka , perhaps best known for the scores he wrote for films by Kenji Mizoguchi and Akira Kurosawa , the latter of whom Takemitsu would collaborate with decades later .
In the late 1950s chance brought Takemitsu international attention : his Requiem for string orchestra ( 1957 listen ) , written as an homage to Hayasaka , was heard by Igor Stravinsky in 1958 during his visit to Japan . ( The NHK had organised opportunities for Stravinsky to listen to some of the latest Japanese music ; when Takemitsu 's work was put on by mistake , Stravinsky insisted on hearing it to the end . ) At a press conference later , Stravinsky expressed his admiration for the work , praising its " sincerity " and " passionate " writing . Stravinsky subsequently invited Takemitsu to lunch ; and for Takemitsu this was an " unforgettable " experience . After Stravinsky returned to the U.S. , Takemitsu soon received a commission for a new work from the Koussevitsky Foundation which , he assumed , had come as a suggestion from Stravinsky to Aaron Copland . For this he composed Dorian Horizon , ( 1966 ) , which was premièred by the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Copland .
= = = Influence of Cage ; interest in traditional Japanese music = = =
During his time with Jikken Kōbō , Takemitsu came into contact with the experimental work of John Cage ; but when the composer Toshi Ichiyanagi returned from his studies in America in 1961 , he gave the first Japanese performance of Cage 's Concert for Piano and Orchestra . This left a " deep impression " on Takemitsu : he recalled the impact of hearing the work when writing an obituary for Cage , 31 years later . This encouraged Takemitsu in his use of indeterminate procedures and graphic @-@ score notation , for example in the graphic scores of Ring ( 1961 ) , Corona for pianist ( s ) and Corona II for string ( s ) ( both 1962 ) . In these works each performer is presented with cards printed with coloured circular patterns which are freely arranged by the performer to create " the score " .
Although the immediate influence of Cage 's procedures did not last in Takemitsu 's music — Coral Island , for example for soprano and orchestra ( 1962 ) shows significant departures from indeterminate procedures partly as a result of Takemitsu 's renewed interest in the music of Anton Webern — certain similarities between Cage 's philosophies and Takemitsu 's thought remained . For example , Cage 's emphasis on timbres within individual sound @-@ events , and his notion of silence " as plenum rather than vacuum " , can be aligned with Takemitsu 's interest in ma . Furthermore , Cage 's interest in Zen practice ( through his contact with Zen scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki ) seems to have resulted in a renewed interest in the East in general , and ultimately alerted Takemitsu to the potential for incorporating elements drawn from Japanese traditional music into his composition :
I must express my deep and sincere gratitude to John Cage . The reason for this is that in my own life , in my own development , for a long period I struggled to avoid being " Japanese " , to avoid " Japanese " qualities . It was largely through my contact with John Cage that I came to recognize the value of my own tradition .
For Takemitsu , as he explained later in a lecture in 1988 , one performance of Japanese traditional music stood out :
One day I chanced to see a performance of the Bunraku puppet theater and was very surprised by it . It was in the tone quality , the timbre , of the futazao shamisen , the wide @-@ necked shamisen used in Bunraku , that I first recognized the splendor of traditional Japanese music . I was very moved by it and I wondered why my attention had never been captured before by this Japanese music .
Thereafter , he resolved to study all types of traditional Japanese music , paying special attention to the differences between the two very different musical traditions , in a diligent attempt to " bring forth the sensibilities of Japanese music that had always been within [ him ] " . This was no easy task , since in the years following the war traditional music was largely overlooked and ignored : only one or two " masters " continued to keep their art alive , often meeting with public indifference . In conservatoria across the country , even students of traditional instruments were always required to learn the piano .
From the early 1960s , Takemitsu began to make use of traditional Japanese instruments in his music , and even took up playing the biwa — an instrument he used in his score for the film Seppuku ( 1962 ) . In 1967 , Takemitsu received a commission from the New York Philharmonic Orchestra , to commemorate the orchestra 's 125th anniversary , for which he wrote November Steps for biwa , shakuhachi , and orchestra . Initially , Takemitsu had great difficulty in uniting these instruments from such different musical cultures in one work . Eclipse for biwa and shakuhachi ( 1966 ) illustrates Takemitsu 's attempts to find a viable notational system for these instruments , which in normal circumstances neither sound together nor are used in works notated in any system of Western staff notation .
The first performance of November Steps was given in 1967 , under Seiji Ozawa . Despite the trials of writing such an ambitious work , Takemitsu maintained " that making the attempt was very worthwhile because what resulted somehow liberated music from a certain stagnation and brought to music something distinctly new and different " . The work was distributed widely in the West when it was coupled as the fourth side of an LP release of Messiaen 's Turangalîla Symphony .
In 1972 , Takemitsu , accompanied by Iannis Xenakis , Betsy Jolas , and others , heard Balinese gamelan music in Bali . The experience influenced the composer on a largely philosophical and theological level . For those accompanying Takemitsu on the expedition ( most of whom were French musicians ) , who " ... could not keep their composure as I did before this music : it was too foreign for them to be able to assess the resulting discrepancies with their logic " , the experience was without precedent . For Takemitsu , however , by now quite familiar with his own native musical tradition , there was a relationship between " the sounds of the gamelan , the tone of the kapachi , the unique scales and rhythms by which they are formed , and Japanese traditional music which had shaped such a large part of my sensitivity " . In his solo piano work For Away ( written for Roger Woodward in 1973 ) , a single , complex line is distributed between the pianist 's hands , which reflects the interlocking patterns between the metallophones of a gamelan orchestra .
A year later , Takemitsu returned to the instrumental combination of shakuhachi , biwa , and orchestra , in the less well known work Autumn ( 1973 ) . The significance of this work is revealed in its far greater integration of the traditional Japanese instruments into the orchestral discourse ; whereas in November Steps , the two contrasting instrumental ensembles perform largely in alternation , with only a few moments of contact . Takemitsu expressed this change in attitude :
But now my attitude is getting to be a little different , I think . Now my concern is mostly to find out what there is in common ... Autumn was written after November Steps . I really wanted to do something which I hadn 't done in November Steps , not to blend the instruments , but to integrate them .
= = = International status and the gradual shift in style = = =
By 1970 , Takemitsu 's reputation as a leading member of avant @-@ garde community was well established , and during his involvement with Expo ' 70 in Osaka , he was at last able to meet more of his Western colleagues , including Karlheinz Stockhausen . Also , during a contemporary music festival in April 1970 , produced by the Japanese composer himself ( " Iron and Steel Pavilion " ) , Takemitsu met among the participants Lukas Foss , Peter Sculthorpe , and Vinko Globokar . Later that year , as part of a commission from Paul Sacher and the Zurich Collegium Musicum , Takemitsu incorporated into his Eucalypts I parts for international performers : flautist Aurèle Nicolet , oboist Heinz Holliger , and harpist Ursula Holliger .
Critical examination of the complex instrumental works written during this period for the new generation of " contemporary soloists " reveals the level of his high @-@ profile engagement with the Western avant @-@ garde , in works such as Voice for solo flute ( 1971 ) , Waves for clarinet , horn , two trombones and bass drum ( 1976 ) , Quatrain for clarinet , violin , cello , piano and orchestra ( 1977 ) . Experiments and works that incorporated traditional Japanese musical ideas and language continued to appear in his output , and an increased interest in the traditional Japanese garden began to reflect itself in works such as In an Autumn Garden for gagaku orchestra ( 1973 ) , and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden for orchestra ( 1977 ) .
Throughout this apogee of avant @-@ garde work , Takemitsu 's musical style seems to have undergone a series of stylistic changes . Comparison of Green ( for orchestra , 1967 ) and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 ) quickly reveals the seeds of this change . The latter was composed according to a pre @-@ compositional scheme , in which pentatonic modes were superimposed over one central pentatonic scale ( the so @-@ called " black @-@ key pentatonic " ) around a central sustained central pitch ( F @-@ sharp ) , and an approach that is highly indicative of the sort of " pantonal " and modal pitch material seen gradually emerging in his works throughout the 1970s . The former , Green ( or November Steps II ) written 10 years earlier , is heavily influenced by Debussy , and is , in spite of its very dissonant language ( including momentary quarter @-@ tone clusters ) , largely constructed through a complex web of modal forms . These modal forms are largely audible , particularly in the momentary repose toward the end of the work . Thus in these works , it is possible to see both a continuity of approach , and the emergence of a simpler harmonic language that was to characterise the work of his later period .
His friend and colleague Jō Kondō said , " If his later works sound different from earlier pieces , it is due to his gradual refining of his basic style rather than any real alteration of it . "
= = = Later works : the sea of tonality = = =
In a Tokyo lecture given in 1984 , Takemitsu identified a melodic motive in his Far Calls . Coming Far ! ( for violin and orchestra , 1980 ) that would recur throughout his later works :
I wanted to plan a tonal " sea " . Here the " sea " is E @-@ flat [ Es in German nomenclature ] -E @-@ A , a three @-@ note ascending motive consisting of a half step and perfect fourth . [ ... In Far Calls ] this is extended upward from A with two major thirds and one minor third ... Using these patterns I set the " sea of tonality " from which many pantonal chords flow .
Takemitsu 's words here highlight his changing stylistic trends from the late 1970s into the 1980s , which have been described as " an increased use of diatonic material [ ... with ] references to tertian harmony and jazz voicing " , which do not , however , project a sense of " large @-@ scale tonality " . Many of the works from this period have titles that include a reference to water : Toward the Sea ( 1981 ) , Rain Tree and Rain Coming ( 1982 ) , riverrun and I Hear the Water Dreaming ( 1987 ) . Takemitsu wrote in his notes for the score of Rain Coming that " ... the complete collection [ is ] entitled " Waterscape " ... it was the composer 's intention to create a series of works , which like their subject , pass through various metamorphoses , culminating in a sea of tonality . " Throughout these works , the S @-@ E @-@ A motive ( discussed further below ) features prominently , and points to an increased emphasis on the melodic element in Takemitsu 's music that began during this later period .
His 1981 work for orchestra named Dreamtime was inspired by a visit to Groote Eylandt , off the coast of the Northern Territory of Australia , to witness a large gathering of Australian indigenous dancers , singers and story tellers . He was there at the invitation of the choreographer Jiří Kylián .
Pedal notes played an increasingly prominent role in Takemitsu 's music during this period , as in A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden . In Dream / Window , ( orchestra , 1985 ) a pedal D serves as anchor point , holding together statements of a striking four @-@ note motivic gesture which recurs in various instrumental and rhythmic guises throughout . Very occasionally , fully fledged references to diatonic tonality can be found , often in harmonic allusions to early- and pre @-@ 20th @-@ century composers — for example , Folios for guitar ( 1974 ) , which quotes from J. S. Bach 's St Matthew Passion , and Family Tree for narrator and orchestra ( 1984 ) , which invokes the musical language of Maurice Ravel and American popular song . ( He revered the St Matthew Passion , and would play through it on the piano before commencing a new work , as a form of " purificatory ritual " . )
By this time , Takemitsu 's incorporation of traditional Japanese ( and other Eastern ) musical traditions with his Western style had become much more integrated . Takemitsu commented , " There is no doubt ... the various countries and cultures of the world have begun a journey toward the geographic and historic unity of all peoples ... The old and new exist within me with equal weight . "
Toward the end of his life , Takemitsu had planned to complete an opera , a collaboration with the novelist Barry Gifford and the director Daniel Schmid , commissioned by the Opéra National de Lyon in France . He was in the process of publishing a plan of its musical and dramatic structure with Kenzaburō Ōe , but he was prevented from completing it by his death at 65 . He died of pneumonia on February 20 , 1996 , while undergoing treatment for bladder cancer .
= = = Legacy = = =
In a memorial issue of Contemporary Music Review , Jō Kondō wrote , " Needless to say , Takemitsu is among the most important composers in Japanese music history . He was also the first Japanese composer fully recognized in the west , and remained the guiding light for the younger generations of Japanese composers . "
Composer Peter Lieberson shared the following in his program note to the Ocean that has no East and West , written in memory of Takemitsu : " I spent the most time with Toru in Tokyo when I was invited to be a guest composer at his Music Today Festival in 1987 . Peter Serkin and composer Oliver Knussen were also there , as was cellist Fred Sherry . Though he was the senior of our group by many years , Toru stayed up with us every night and literally drank us under the table . I was confirmed in my impression of Toru as a person who lived his life like a traditional Zen poet . "
In the foreword to a selection of Takemitsu 's writings in English , conductor Seiji Ozawa writes : " I am very proud of my friend Toru Takemitsu . He is the first Japanese composer to write for a world audience and achieve international recognition . "
= = Music = =
Composers whom Takemitsu cited as influential in his early work include Claude Debussy , Anton Webern , Edgard Varèse , Arnold Schoenberg , and Olivier Messiaen . ( Messiaen was introduced to him by fellow composer Toshi Ichiyanagi , and remained a lifelong influence . ) Although Takemitsu 's wartime experiences of nationalism initially discouraged him from cultivating an interest in traditional Japanese music , he showed an early interest in " ... the Japanese Garden in color spacing and form ... " . The formal garden of the kaiyu @-@ shiki interested him in particular .
He expressed his unusual stance toward compositional theory early on , his lack of respect for the " trite rules of music , rules that are ... stifled by formulas and calculations " ; for Takemitsu it was of far greater importance that " sounds have the freedom to breathe . ... Just as one cannot plan his life , neither can he plan music " .
Takemitsu 's sensitivity to instrumental and orchestral timbre can be heard throughout his work , and is often made apparent by the unusual instrumental combinations he specified . This is evident in works such as November Steps , that combine traditional Japanese instruments , shakuhachi and biwa , with a conventional Western orchestra . It may also be discerned in his works for ensembles that make no use of traditional instruments , for example Quotation of Dream ( 1991 ) , Archipelago S. , for 21 players ( 1993 ) , and Arc I & II ( 1963 – 66 / 1976 ) . In these works , the more conventional orchestral forces are divided into unconventional " groups " . Even where these instrumental combinations were determined by the particular ensemble commissioning the work , " Takemitsu 's genius for instrumentation ( and genius it was , in my view ) ... " , in the words of Oliver Knussen , " ... creates the illusion that the instrumental restrictions are self @-@ imposed " .
= = = Influence of traditional Japanese music = = =
Takemitsu summed up his initial aversion to Japanese ( and all non @-@ Western ) traditional musical forms in his own words : " There may be folk music with strength and beauty , but I cannot be completely honest in this kind of music . I want a more active relationship to the present . ( Folk music in a ' contemporary style ' is nothing but a deception ) . " His dislike for the music traditions of his own country in particular were intensified by his experiences of the war , during which Japanese music became associated with militaristic and nationalistic cultural ideals .
Nevertheless , Takemitsu incorporated some idiomatic elements of Japanese music in his very earliest works , perhaps unconsciously . One unpublished set of pieces , Kakehi ( " Conduit " ) , written at the age of 17 , incorporates the ryō , ritsu and insen scales throughout . When Takemitsu discovered that these " nationalist " elements had somehow found their way into his music , he was so alarmed that he later destroyed the works . Further examples can be seen for example in the quarter @-@ tone glissandi of Masques I ( for two flutes , 1959 ) , which mirror the characteristic pitch bends of the shakuhachi , and for which he devised his own unique notation : a held note is tied to an enharmonic spelling of the same pitch class , with a portamento direction across the tie .
Other Japanese characteristics , including the further use of traditional pentatonic scales , continued to crop up elsewhere in his early works . In the opening bars of Litany , for Michael Vyner ( first movement ) , a reconstruction from memory by Takemitsu of Lento in Due Movimenti ( 1950 ; the original score was lost ) , pentatonicism is clearly visible in the upper voice , which opens the work on an unaccompanied anacrusis . The pitches of the opening melody combine to form the constituent notes of the ascending form of the Japanese in scale .
When , from the early 1960s , Takemitsu began to " consciously apprehend " the sounds of traditional Japanese music , he found that his creative process , " the logic of my compositional thought [ , ] was torn apart " , and nevertheless , " hogaku [ traditional Japanese music ... ] seized my heart and refuses to release it " . In particular , Takemitsu perceived that , for example , the sound of a single stroke of the biwa or single pitch breathed through the shakuhachi , could " so transport our reason because they are of extreme complexity ... already complete in themselves " . This fascination with the sounds produced in traditional Japanese music brought Takemitsu to his idea of ma ( usually translated as the space between two objects ) , which ultimately informed his understanding of the intense quality of traditional Japanese music as a whole :
Just one sound can be complete in itself , for its complexity lies in the formulation of ma , an unquantifiable metaphysical space ( duration ) of dynamically tensed absence of sound . For example , in the performance of nō , the ma of sound and silence does not have an organic relation for the purpose of artistic expression . Rather , these two elements contrast sharply with one another in an immaterial balance .
In 1970 , Takemitsu received a commission from the National Theatre of Japan to write a work for the gagaku ensemble of the Imperial Household ; this was fulfilled in 1973 , when he completed Shuteiga ( " In an Autumn Garden " , although he later incorporated the work , as the fourth movement , into his 50 minute long " In an Autumn Garden — Complete Version " ) . As well as being " ... the furthest removed from the West of any work he had written " , While it introduces certain Western musical ideas to the Japanese court ensemble , the work represents the deepest of Takemitsu 's investigations into Japanese musical tradition , the lasting effects of which are clearly reflected in his works for conventional Western ensemble formats that followed .
In Garden Rain ( 1974 , for brass ensemble ) , the limited and pitch @-@ specific harmonic vocabulary of the Japanese mouth organ , the shō ( see ex . 3 ) , and its specific timbres , are clearly emulated in Takemitsu 's writing for brass instruments ; even similarities of performance practice can be seen , ( the players are often required to hold notes to the limit of their breath capacity ) . In A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden , the characteristic timbres of the shō and its chords ( several of which are simultaneous soundings of traditional Japanese pentatonic scales ) are emulated in the opening held chords of the wind instruments ( the first chord is in fact an exact transposition of the shō 's chord , Jū ( i ) ; see ex . 3 ) ; meanwhile a solo oboe is assigned a melodic line that is similarly reminiscent of the lines played by the hichiriki in gagaku ensembles .
= = = Influence of Messiaen = = =
The influence of Olivier Messiaen on Takemitsu was already apparent in some of Takemitsu 's earliest published works . By the time he composed Lento in Due Movimenti , ( 1950 ) , Takemitsu had already come into possession of a copy of Messiaen 's 8 Préludes ( through Toshi Ichiyanagi ) , and the influence of Messiaen is clearly visible in the work , in the use of modes , the suspension of regular metre , and sensitivity to timbre . Throughout his career Takemitsu often made use of modes from which he derived his musical material , both melodic and harmonic among which Messiaen 's modes of limited transposition to appear with some frequency . In particular , the use of the octatonic , ( mode II , or the 8 – 28 collection ) , and mode VI ( 8 – 25 ) is particularly common . However , Takemitsu pointed out that he had used the octatonic collection in his music before ever coming across it in Messiaen 's music .
In 1975 , Takemitsu met Messiaen in New York , and during " what was to be a one @-@ hour ' lesson ' [ but which ] lasted three hours ... Messiaen played his Quartet for the End of Time for Takemitsu at the piano " , which , Takemitsu recalled , was like listening to an orchestral performance . Takemitsu responded to this with his homage to the French composer , Quatrain , for which he asked Messiaen 's permission to use the same instrumental combination for the main quartet , cello , violin , clarinet and piano ( which is accompanied by orchestra ) . As well as the obvious similarity of instrumentation , Takemitsu employs several melodic figures that appear to " mimic " certain musical examples given by Messiaen in his Technique de mon langage musical , ( see ex . 4 ) . In 1977 , Takemitsu reworked Quatrain for quartet alone , without orchestra , and titled the new work Quatrain II
On hearing of Messiaen 's death in 1992 , Takemitsu was interviewed by telephone , and still in shock , " blurted out , ' His death leaves a crisis in contemporary music ! ' " Then later , in an obituary written for the French composer in the same year , Takemitsu further expressed his sense of loss at Messiaen 's death : " Truly , he was my spiritual mentor ... Among the many things I learned from his music , the concept and experience of color and the form of time will be unforgettable . " The composition Rain Tree Sketch II , which was to be Takemitsu 's final piano piece , was also written that year and subtitled " In Memoriam Olivier Messiaen " .
= = = Influence of Debussy = = =
Takemitsu frequently expressed his indebtedness to Claude Debussy , referring to the French composer as his " great mentor " . As Arnold Whittall puts it :
Given the enthusiasm for the exotic and the Orient in these [ Debussy and Messiaen ] and other French composers , it is understandable that Takemitsu should have been attracted to the expressive and formal qualities of music in which flexibility of rhythm and richness of harmony count for so much .
For Takemitsu , Debussy 's " greatest contribution was his unique orchestration which emphasizes colour , light and shadow ... the orchestration of Debussy has many musical focuses . " He was fully aware of Debussy 's own interest in Japanese art , ( the cover of the first edition of La mer , for example , was famously adorned by Hokusai 's The Great Wave off Kanagawa ) . For Takemitsu , this interest in Japanese culture , combined with his unique personality , and perhaps most importantly , his lineage as a composer of the French musical tradition running from Rameau and Lully through Berlioz in which colour is given special attention , gave Debussy his unique style and sense of orchestration .
During the composition of Green ( November Steps II , for orchestra , 1967 : " steeped in the sound @-@ color world of the orchestral music of Claude Debussy " ) Takemitsu said he had taken the scores of Debussy 's Prélude à l 'Après @-@ midi d 'un Faune and Jeux to the mountain villa where both this work and November Steps I were composed . For Oliver Knussen , " the final appearance of the main theme irresistibly prompts the thought that Takemitsu may , quite unconsciously , have been attempting a latterday Japanese Après @-@ midi d 'un Faune " . Details of orchestration in Green , such as the prominent use of antique cymbals , and tremolandi harmonies in the strings , clearly point to the influence of Takemitsu 's compositional mentor , and of these works in particular .
In Quotation of Dream ( 1991 ) , direct quotations from Debussy 's La Mer and Takemitsu 's earlier works relating to the sea are incorporated into the musical flow ( " stylistic jolts were not intended " ) , depicting the landscape outside the Japanese garden of his own music .
= = = Motives = = =
Several recurring musical motives can be heard in Takemitsu 's works . In particular the pitch motive E ♭ -E @-@ A can be heard in many of his later works , whose titles refer to water in some form ( Toward the Sea , 1981 ; Rain Tree Sketch , 1982 ; I Hear the Water Dreaming , 1987 ) .
When spelt in German ( Es @-@ E @-@ A ) , the motive can be seen as a musical " transliteration " of the word " sea " . Takemitsu used this motive ( usually transposed ) to indicate the presence of water in his " musical landscapes " , even in works whose titles do not directly refer to water , such as A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 ; see ex . 5 ) .
= = = Musique concrète = = =
During Takemitsu 's years as a member of the Jikken Kōbō , he experimented with compositions of musique concrète ( and a very limited amount of electronic music , the most notable example being Stanza II for harp and tape written later in 1972 ) . In Water Music ( 1960 listen ) , Takemitsu 's source material consisted entirely of sounds produced by droplets of water . His manipulation of these sounds , through the use of highly percussive envelopes , often results in a resemblance to traditional Japanese instruments , such as the tsuzumi and nō ensembles .
= = = Aleatory techniques = = =
One aspect of John Cage 's compositional procedure that Takemitsu continued to use throughout his career , was the use of indeterminacy , in which performers are given a degree of choice in what to perform . As mentioned previously , this was particularly used in works such as November Steps , in which musicians playing traditional Japanese instruments were able to play in an orchestral setting with a certain degree of improvisational freedom . However , he also employed a technique that is sometimes called " aleatory counterpoint " in his well @-@ known orchestral work A Flock Descends Into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 , at [ J ] in the score listen ) , and in the score of Arc II : i Textures ( 1964 ) for piano and orchestra , in which sections of the orchestra are divided into groups , and required to repeat short passages of music at will . In these passages the overall sequence of events is , however , controlled by the conductor , who is instructed about the approximate durations for each section , and who indicates to the orchestra when to move from one section to next . The technique is commonly found in the work of Witold Lutosławski , who pioneered it in his Jeux vénitiens .
= = = Film music = = =
Takemitsu 's contribution to film music was considerable ; in under 40 years he composed music for over 100 films , some of which were written for purely financial reasons ( such as those written for Noboru Nakamura ) . However , as the composer attained financial independence , he grew more selective , often reading whole scripts before agreeing to compose the music , and later surveying the action on set , " breathing the atmosphere " whilst conceiving his musical ideas . One notable consideration in Takemitsu 's composition for film was his careful use of silence ( also important in many of his concert works ) , which often immediately intensifies the events on screen , and prevents any monotony through a continuous musical accompaniment . For the first battle scene of Akira Kurosawa 's Ran , Takemitsu provided an extended passage of intense elegiac quality that halts at the sound of a single gunshot , leaving the audience with the pure " sounds of battle : cries screams and neighing horses " .
Takemitsu attached the greatest importance to the director 's conception of the film ; in an interview with Max Tessier , he explained that , " everything depends on the film itself ... I try to concentrate as much as possible on the subject , so that I can express what the director feels himself . I try to extend his feelings with my music . "
= = Awards = =
Takemitsu won awards for composition , both in Japan and abroad , including the Prix Italia for his orchestral work Tableau noir in 1958 , the Otaka Prize in 1976 and 1981 , the Los Angeles Film Critics Award in 1987 ( for the film score Ran ) and the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1994 ( for Fantasma / Cantos ) . In Japan , he received the Film Awards of the Japanese Academy for outstanding achievement in music , for soundtracks to the following films :
1979 Ai no borei ( 愛の亡霊 )
1986 Ran ( 乱 )
1990 Rikyu ( 利休 )
1996 Sharaku ( 写楽 )
He was also invited to attend numerous international festivals throughout his career , and presented lectures and talks at academic institutions across the world . He was made an honorary member of the Akademie der Künste of the DDR in 1979 , and the American Institute of Arts and Letters in 1985 . He was admitted to the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1985 , and the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts in 1986 . He was the recipient of the 22nd Suntory Music Award ( 1990 ) . Takemitsu was posthumously awarded the fourth Glenn Gould Prize in Autumn , 1996 .
The Toru Takemitsu Composition Award , intended to " encourage a younger generation of composers who will shape the coming age through their new musical works " , is named after him .
= = Notable compositions = =
= = Literary works = =
Takemitsu , Toru ( 1995 ) . Confronting Silence . Fallen Leaf Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 914913 @-@ 36 @-@ 0 .
Takemitsu , Toru , with Cronin , Tania and Tann , Hilary , " Afterword " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 27 , no . 2 ( Summer , 1989 ) , 205 – 214 , accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 5 ]
Takemitsu , Tōru , ( trans . Adachi , Sumi with Reynolds , Roger ) , " Mirrors " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 30 no . 1 ( Winter , 1992 ) , 36 – 80 accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 6 ]
Takemitsu , Toru , ( trans . Hugh de Ferranti ) " One Sound " , Contemporary Music Review , vol . 8 , part 2 , ( Harwood , 1994 ) , 3 – 4 , accessible at informaworld ( subscription access ) [ 7 ]
Takemitsu , Tōru , " Contemporary Music in Japan " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 27 no . 2 ( Summer , 1989 ) , 198 – 204 accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 8 ]
= = Listening = =
Toru Takemitsu : Air , John McMurtery , flute
Toru Takemitsu : Voice , John McMurtery , flute
Toru Takemitsu : Guitar , Shin @-@ Ichi Fukuda , guitar
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= Saxbe fix =
The Saxbe fix / ˈsæks.biː / , or salary rollback , is a mechanism by which the President of the United States , in appointing a current or former member of the United States Congress whose elected term has not yet expired , can avoid the restriction of the United States Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause . That clause prohibits the President from appointing a current or former member of Congress to a civil office position that was created , or to a civil office position for which the pay or benefits ( collectively , " emoluments " ) were increased , during the term for which that member was elected until the term has expired . The rollback , first implemented by an Act of Congress in 1909 , reverts the emoluments of the office to the amount they were when that member began his or her elected term .
To prevent ethical conflicts , James Madison proposed language at the Constitutional Convention that was adopted as the Ineligibility Clause after debate and modification by other Founding Fathers . Historically , a number of approaches have been taken to address the problem posed by restriction ; these have included choosing another nominee , allowing the desired nominee 's elected term of office to expire , ignoring the clause entirely , or reducing the offending emoluments to the level prior to when the nominee took office . Although Congress passed the mechanism reducing emoluments in 1909 , the procedure was named " Saxbe fix " after Senator William Saxbe , who was confirmed as Attorney General in 1973 after Congress reduced the office 's salary to the level it had been before Saxbe 's term commenced . The Saxbe fix has subsequently become relevant as a successful — though not universally accepted — solution for appointments by presidents of both parties of sitting members of the United States Congress to the United States Cabinet . Members of Congress have been appointed to federal judgeships without any fix being enacted ; court challenges to such appointments have failed .
There were four Saxbe fixes for appointees of presidents prior to Barack Obama . The first two rollbacks concerned appointees of Republicans William Howard Taft and Richard Nixon , and the last two were implemented for appointees of Democrats Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton . Congress approved two more in the weeks preceding Obama 's presidency in preparation for his designated Cabinet nominees . Since the 1980s , Saxbe fixes have only been temporary , extending to the conclusion of the term for which the sitting member of Congress was elected . The Clause has received relatively little scholarly or judicial attention ; the sparse extant debate centers on whether the reduction of salary satisfies the Ineligibility Clause , or whether affected members of Congress are ineligible for appointment in spite of the reduction .
= = Background = =
In his notes of the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 , James Madison expressed the fear that members of Congress would create new federal jobs , or increase the salaries for existing jobs , and then take those jobs for themselves . Madison wrote that corrupt legislative actions , in the form of the unnecessary creation of offices and the increase of salaries for personal benefit , were one of his greatest concerns . The delegates who were present agreed that no member of Congress should be eligible to be appointed to an executive position while serving in Congress . Madison originally proposed a one @-@ year length on such a bar . However , Nathaniel Gorham , James Wilson , and Alexander Hamilton wanted no bar at all at the conclusion of congressional service . Eventually , Madison proposed a compromise : " that no office ought to be open to a member , which may be created or augmented while he is in the legislature " ; this led to extensive debate .
The delegates eliminated the prohibition on a member of Congress 's assuming holding state office based on the rationale that there might be times when it might be in the best interest of the nation to allow such service . They eliminated the one @-@ year ban because they judged it to be ineffective in protecting the Constitution . Charles Cotesworth Pinckney moved that the states vote and the prohibition carried by vote of 8 states to 3 . Robert Yates noted that the clause " which shall have been created , or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased " was an amendment passed in his absence , and that he did not place much faith in it as he felt unscrupulous politicians would circumvent it by creating new positions for persons who would subsequently place a member of Congress in a vacancy that they and not Congress created . Madison moved that the phrase " or the Emoluments whereof shall have been augmented by the legislature of the United States , during the time they were members thereof , and for one year thereafter . " This motion failed 2 – 8 , with one state divided . The clause was limited to " civil " offices so as not to restrict military service . Accordingly , the clause was passed in its current form without an explicit time consideration .
Article 1 , Section 6 , Clause 2 of the United States Constitution therefore prohibits self @-@ dealing legislation and is intended to protect the " separation of power " of the various branches of government . Corruption such as previously seen in the British Parliament was a consideration during debate by the framers of the Constitution . Legal scholars have accorded this clause little attention in their academic writings and there have been no cases which directly applied the clause , as no plaintiff has been able to establish legal standing . In fact , some general guides to Constitutional research , such as the clause @-@ by @-@ clause The Constitution of the United States : A Guide and Bibliography to Current Scholarly Research , do not discuss the Ineligibility clause . Most scholarly texts on the Constitution ignore the clause . Although the Saxbe fix is named for Nixon nominee William Saxbe , the device 's first intentional use predates him by several decades . As a matter of historical tradition , the Saxbe fix is considered sufficient to remove the disqualification of the Ineligibility Clause .
= = History = =
The Ineligibility Clause has interfered with appointments as far back as 1793 . President George Washington attempted to appoint William Paterson to the Supreme Court on February 27 , 1793 , after the resignation of Associate Justice Thomas Johnson . However , Paterson , who was serving as Governor of New Jersey , had previously been elected to serve a Senate term that would expire at noon on March 4 , 1793 . Washington withdrew the nomination and withheld it until the afternoon of March 4 , when the term for the disqualifying office had expired .
= = = 19th century = = =
In 1882 , a formal opinion by the Attorney General concluded that resignation from Congress does not free a member to be appointed to civil office because the Clause speaks to the term for which a member was elected , and that term still exists , even if a member resigns . Therefore , as in the Paterson matter nine decades earlier , Iowa Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood , who had resigned a Senate seat with a term that did not expire until March 1883 , was ineligible for appointment to the position of United States Tariff Commissioner . In 1896 , the Comptroller of the Treasury determined , after the fact , that former Senator Matthew Ransom 's appointment as Minister to Mexico was invalid , as that office 's salary had been increased during Ransom 's term ; the belated discovery precluded Ransom from drawing a salary .
The practice of barring members of Congress from serving in other civil offices was not without exception . Ransom , after all , was in fact appointed . In another case , there may have been an inadvertent Saxbe fix . Senator Lot M. Morrill began serving a six @-@ year term in 1871 , and in 1873 , as part of the Salary Grab Act , Congress increased Cabinet officers ' salaries from $ 8 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 ; it repealed the increase in 1874 , and two years later — before the end of his term — Morrill was appointed United States Secretary of the Treasury . The repeal of the " salary grab " was motivated by reaction to public outrage rather than concerns about a member 's eligibility for office , but Acting United States Attorney General Robert Bork would later cite the Morrill case in his opinion about the Saxbe appointment .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1909 , President @-@ elect Taft announced his intent to nominate Senator Philander C. Knox to be Secretary of State . Shortly after the announcement , the Clause emerged as a problem that caught those involved by surprise : Knox had been elected to serve a term that would not end until 1911 , and during that term Congress had voted to increase executive branch pay . Members of Congress considered reverting the fix after the appointed nominee had resigned and assumed the post so that Knox would not have to forgo any emoluments . Members of Congress also discussed reverting the salaries of all United States Cabinet members . At the suggestion of the Senate Judiciary Committee , Congress passed a bill reducing only the Secretary of State 's salary to the level it had been at before Knox 's term began , believing this would cure the problem . The Senate passed the bill unanimously , but there was much more opposition in the U.S. House of Representatives , where the same measure failed to get a required two @-@ thirds vote under a motion to suspend the rules and pass , a procedure normally reserved for uncontroversial matters . After a different procedural rule was applied , it passed by a 173 – 115 majority vote and President Roosevelt subsequently signed the bill . On March 4 , the first Saxbe fix became effective when the salary of the Secretary of State ( but not that of other Cabinet members ) was reverted from $ 12 @,@ 000 to $ 8 @,@ 000 . The Senate confirmed all of Taft 's Cabinet appointees on March 5 , and Knox took office on March 6 .
In 1922 , the boundaries of the Clause were further defined when Senator William S. Kenyon was allowed to accept an appointment by President Warren G. Harding as circuit judge for the Eighth Circuit . Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty concluded that no disqualifying event had occurred because the increase in emoluments to that office had occurred in a term prior to the one Kenyon was serving at the time of the nomination . ( Daugherty 's opinion would later be reaffirmed by the Clinton administration when Representative Bill Richardson was nominated as U.N. Ambassador . ) No rollback was attempted when Senator Hugo Black was appointed to the Supreme Court , and in Ex parte Levitt , the court rejected , for lack of legal standing , an attempt to prevent Black from taking his seat based on Ineligibility Clause objections . The movant in the Black case , Albert Levitt , only had an interest in the case as a United States Citizen and a member of the Supreme Court bar , which the Court found to be insufficient .
The Nixon administration skirted the Ineligibility Clause during its first year , when Nixon named Representative Donald Rumsfeld as Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1969 . Although the salary for that office had been increased to $ 42 @,@ 500 during Rumsfeld 's term in Congress , Rumsfeld was not paid a salary for the position . Rather , Rumsfeld was dually employed as Assistant to the President at the same $ 42 @,@ 500 salary , a position presumably outside the scope of the Clause .
The rollback device gained its name when President Richard Nixon sought to appoint Senator William Saxbe as Attorney General following the Saturday Night Massacre . Elliot Richardson resigned on October 20 , 1973 and Nixon nominated Saxbe on November 1 . Saxbe was chosen in large part because , despite the confrontations of the ongoing Watergate scandal , Nixon felt the Senate would want to confirm one of their own . Saxbe had been a senator in 1969 when the Congress passed a pay increase from $ 35 @,@ 000 to $ 60 @,@ 000 for Cabinet members . According to 2 U.S.C. § 358 , " After considering the report and recommendations of the Commission submitted under section 357 of this title , the President shall transmit to Congress his recommendations with respect to the exact rates of pay , for offices and positions within the purview of subparagraphs ( A ) , ( B ) , ( C ) , and ( D ) of section 356 of this title , which the President considers to be fair and reasonable … " The President transmitted " Salary Recommendations For 1969 Increases " to Congress on January 15 , 1969 following the first Commission Report submitted to him under Pub.L. 90 – 206 in December 1968 . ( 34 F.R. 2241 ; 83 Stat . 863 ) . Saxbe had become a Senator on January 3 , 1969 and on February 14 the legislation became law when Congress took no action to veto the proposal that raised the salary of top executive branch officials , the judicial branch and members of Congress .
As with the Knox instance , the Clause complication caught both Saxbe and the Nixon administration by surprise after the nomination had been announced . In early November 1973 Nixon requested a reduction in emoluments to pre @-@ 1969 levels as a remedy to the problem . The Senate Judiciary Committee held several days of hearings on how to properly interpret the Ineligibility Clause , with conflicting opinions being given by constitutional law professors about whether the proposed remedy was constitutional . The Senate then acted upon the advice of acting Attorney General Robert Bork that reducing the Attorney General 's salary to its pre @-@ 1969 level by enacting H.R. 11710 ( Pub.L. 93 – 178 ) would cure the ineligibility . S. 2673 passed in the Senate by a 75 – 16 roll @-@ call vote on November 28 after it was approved by the Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee and sharply criticized by the Senate Judiciary Committee .
Although passage in the House was less controversial than it was in the Senate because the constitutional issues did not dominate consideration , the bill met with other procedural obstacles . At the time , Congress was under siege for what was widely perceived as abuse of members ' franking privileges . In April , the House had approved H.R. 3180 to clarify what was and was not proper use of franking , and the Senate amended the bill on October 11 . The House requested a conference , but the Senate delayed . Supposedly , Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee Chairman Gale McGee was delaying the franking bill until the Senate @-@ passed post card voter registration bill ( S. 352 ) was put to a House vote . Thus , at first the House inserted franking language in its Saxbe fix bill . On December 3 , it suspended its rules to pass the bill 261 – 129 . The Senate then passed the Saxbe fix bill ( H.R. 11710 ) on December 6 without the franking language . The House agreed to the amended bill on December 7 . On December 10 , Nixon officially submitted the Saxbe nomination . The Judiciary Committee approved Saxbe on December 13 and the full senate confirmed him on December 17 by a 75 – 10 vote . Ten Democratic senators cited constitutional concerns in opposing this move . Senator Robert C. Byrd , who felt the bar was not avoidable by legislation , explained his position at the time : " [ The Clause is ] so clear that it can 't be waived … . We should not delude the American people into thinking a way can be found around the constitutional obstacle . " Saxbe did not resign his Senate seat until January 4 , 1974 , when his wife became eligible for survivor benefits after the completion of his fifth year of service . This delayed his transition to the Cabinet because the Clause expressly prohibits dual service . Saxbe later wrote that although he needed the additional salary he lost ( he was earning $ 42 @,@ 500 per year as a senator ) , he was still willing to serve as Attorney General and would get by financially . His biggest fear was that the fix would be ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court several months after he had been in office , and he would have to repay salary already spent .
Subsequently , Jimmy Carter became the first Democratic president to use a Saxbe fix when he appointed Senator Edmund Muskie as his Secretary of State . Cyrus Vance had resigned on April 28 , 1980 . ( Ironically , Muskie had been one of the ten senators voting against Saxbe 's confirmation . ) Carter nominated Muskie on April 29 , and the Senate confirmed Muskie on May 7 by a 94 – 2 vote . Unlike the Knox and Saxbe fixes , the salary reduction to allow Muskie 's appointment was temporary , reducing the salary only for the duration of Muskie 's tenure . When Carter appointed Representative Abner Mikva to the D.C. Circuit , a lawsuit challenging the appointment based on Ineligibility Clause objections again failed for lack of standing .
Upon the retirement of Supreme Court Justice Lewis F. Powell , Jr. in 1987 , President Ronald Reagan considered appointing Senator Orrin Hatch to fill his seat . But Congress had , during the term which he was still serving , enacted a salary increase for the judiciary . In July 1987 , Bork was nominated instead , although it is not clear how important a role the Ineligibility Clause issue played in the selection . Two months later , Assistant Attorney General Charles J. Cooper rejected the Saxbe fix in a written opinion , concluding that it did not resolve the Ineligibility Clause issue . ( The Bork nomination was rejected by the Senate , and the seat ultimately went to Anthony Kennedy . ) According to Jan Crawford Greenberg , the Justice Department had previously done the same to Senator Hatch the year prior when Hatch put forth his name as a replacement for retiring Chief Justice Warren Burger . According to Greenburg , Michael Carvin used the Ineligibility Clause as a pretext to allow the White House to quietly say no to Hatch .
On January 5 , 1993 , S.J.Res. 1 , a bill to reduce the salary of the Treasury Secretary from $ 148 @,@ 400 to $ 99 @,@ 500 ( the pre @-@ 1989 level ) , passed by a voice vote in the Senate and by the House on January 6 . On January 19 , President George H.W. Bush signed a bill enacting a temporary Saxbe fix so that Senator Lloyd Bentsen could move from the Senate to take the job of Treasury Secretary during the newly elected Clinton administration . S.J. RES . 1 ( 1993 ) , which canceled emolument increases for the remainder of Bentsen 's term , a term set to expire at noon on January 3 , 1995 , had been passed by both Houses without objection . However , in a law review article , University of Minnesota Law School Professor Michael Stokes Paulson rejected the Bentsen fix as unconstitutional . In 1994 , President Bill Clinton received approval to use a Saxbe fix to appoint United States Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell to the Supreme Court , but Mitchell withdrew his name from consideration for reasons unrelated to his eligibility .
= = = 21st century = = =
The term " Saxbe fix " reentered the public lexicon in 2008 with the speculation that Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton was President @-@ elect Barack Obama 's preferred nominee to be Secretary of State , fueled by Obama 's confirmation of his intent to nominate Clinton December 1 , 2008 . Clinton 's relevant Senate term began with the seating of the 110th United States Congress on January 3 , 2007 , following her 2006 re @-@ election . During that time , United States Cabinet salaries were increased from $ 186 @,@ 600 to $ 191 @,@ 300 in January 2008 , and to $ 196 @,@ 700 in January 2009 . These pay raises were by executive order in accordance with cost of living adjustment statutes , as noted by legal scholar Eugene Volokh on his blog , The Volokh Conspiracy . Before the January 2009 pay increases , secretaries made $ 191 @,@ 300 compared to Members of Congress who earned $ 169 @,@ 300 .
Without a Saxbe fix , Clinton would have been ineligible to serve in the Cabinet until the conclusion of the 112th United States Congress in January 2013 , near the end of Obama 's elected term . The Senate passed Saxbe @-@ fix legislation on December 10 , 2008 , acting by unanimous consent to reduce the Secretary of State 's salary back to its January 1 , 2007 level of $ 186 @,@ 000 , taking effect at 12 : 00 noon on January 20 , 2009 . President George W. Bush signed the resolution into law on December 19 , cancelling all emolument increases made or to be made during Clinton 's Senate term between noon of January 3 , 2007 , and noon of January 3 , 2013 .
The conservative advocacy group Judicial Watch announced after the nomination that it believed a Saxbe fix was unconstitutional and that Clinton could not become Secretary of State until 2013 at the earliest . After the Saxbe fix was passed , Judicial Watch said it might seek to halt Clinton 's appointment via litigation . On January 29 , 2009 , a week after Clinton had been sworn into the position , Judicial Watch filed the lawsuit Rodearmel v. Clinton in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia , on behalf of David Rodearmel , a U.S. Foreign Service Officer and State Department employee . The suit claims that Clinton is " constitutionally ineligible " to serve as Secretary of State due to the Ineligibility Clause and that Rodearmel cannot be forced to serve under her , as it would violate the oath he took as a Foreign Service Officer in 1991 to " support and defend " and " bear true faith and allegiance " to the U.S. Constitution . On February 6 , a panel of three judges was appointed to hear the case . On May 20 , the Obama administration Office of Legal Counsel filed an opinion with the district court saying that Clinton 's appointment did not violate the Ineligibility Clause , and that an " on net " view of the Clause " presents an entirely natural interpretation of the [ Constitution 's ] language . " On October 30 , 2009 , the District Court dismissed the case , stating " Because Rodearmel has failed to allege that Clinton has taken any action — much less an action that has aggrieved him — he does not come within the ' zone of interests ' protected by the Secretary of State Emoluments Act . "
Senator Ken Salazar , the Secretary of the Interior , also required a Saxbe fix by the 111th United States Congress . Salazar was given a temporary Saxbe fix on January 6 , 2009 as part of S.J.Res. 3 . This resolution rolled back the salary of the Secretary of the Interior to the January 1 , 2005 level , effective January 20 , 2009 . The resolution canceled all emolument increases for this office made or to be made between noon of January 3 , 2005 , and ending at noon of January 3 , 2011 . The bill was sponsored by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , was introduced on January 6 , 2009 , and became the first public law enacted by the 111th Congress ( Pub.L. 111 – 1 ) . There are currently three Cabinet members serving who were sitting members of the House or Senate when appointed , two of whom ( Clinton and Salazar ) have required Saxbe fixes . The May 2009 Office of Legal Counsel brief also asserted the constitutionality of Salazar 's appointment .
= = Legality = =
Over time , the Saxbe fix has become politically uncontroversial . Both Democratic and Republican Presidents have used the fix , and indeed Republican outgoing President George H. W. Bush helped Democratic incoming President Bill Clinton execute the fix by signing it into law on the eve of Clinton 's inauguration . The fixes that have been enacted for Obama 's cabinet have passed in both the House and the Senate without amendment and by unanimous consent . Outgoing Republican President George W. Bush signed the Saxbe fixes for both Hillary Clinton and Ken Salazar into law for the incoming Democratic Obama administration .
The constitutionality of the fix has been much debated , however , and the U.S. Supreme Court has never directly ruled on it . Critical review of the clause begins with a study of the terms in the plain language of the clause : " No Senator or Representative shall , during the Time for which he was elected , be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States , which shall have been created , or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time .... " All of the terms have been at issue in past controversies and many of the terms have been well @-@ settled . Historically , the excluded class of individuals affected by the clause has not been an issue : all scholars have agreed that the clause refers exclusively to all members of Congress . The clause uses the verb " elected " . If a senator serving under an appointment to fill a vacancy in an unexpired term accepted a nomination to federal office before the expiration of his or her term , this might be an issue .
The phrase " During the time for which he was elected " has not been controversial . Justice Joseph Story has expounded in his Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States that the disqualifying event expires at the conclusion of the elected term in which it occurred . This view is commonly accepted . Moreover , Department of Justice memoranda , outlining official opinions by United States Attorney General , hold that " the Ineligibility Clause covers only increases during the term that a Member of Congress is [ or would be ] currently serving " . This principle was applied , for example , to the question of whether President Clinton could appoint Representative Bill Richardson as Ambassador to the United Nations despite a salary increase prior to his current term , and whether President Harding could appoint Senator William Kenyon as a Judge despite the Congressional increase of judicial salaries during his previous term . Opinions issued by the Clinton administration Office of Legal Counsel often presupposed the application of the clause , and conceded that " [ t ] he tradition of interpreting the Clause has been ' formalistic ' rather than ' functional ' " . Another clarification came in 1969 , when newly re @-@ elected Representative Melvin Laird was President @-@ elect Nixon 's choice for Secretary of Defense and Congress was expected to raise the pay of Cabinet members in the new term . Attorney General Ramsey Clark gave an official opinion , which Laird followed , that Laird could be sworn in and serve in the new term from January 3 to January 20 ( when Nixon would take office ) without running afoul of the Clause , as long as he joined the cabinet before the pay raise went into effect .
= = = Arguments for its constitutionality = = =
One way to interpret the clause is by the intentionalist view . As stated by University of North Carolina School of Law professor Michael J. Gerhardt , this is the position that " the critical inquiry is not whether the letter of the law has been broken ( it has ) but rather whether the problem that the clause exists to preclude — conflicts of interest in nominating a member of Congress who has been able to vote himself or herself a raise — has been avoided " . The commonly used term for this spirit of the law argument is " net increases " . According to conservative constitutional law attorney Bruce Fein , " The so @-@ called fix fits the purpose of the clause like a glove . "
If the Saxbe fix is a solution for the primary problem of self @-@ dealing , a relevant fact is that Congress has not voted to increase any Cabinet salary or benefits since the 1990s , when it granted that power to the president in the form of an across @-@ the @-@ board cost of living adjustment by executive order . However , the Ineligibility Clause does not distinguish between increases in emoluments by legislation , and increases by executive order . Perhaps the most lenient interpretation of self @-@ dealing was made during the 1973 Saxbe hearings by Duke University School of Law professor William Van Alstyne , who argued that the ineligibility clause only applied to new offices created during a congressional term , not to appointments to existing offices .
Some scholars think that the phrase " shall have been increased during such time " is ambiguous and allows different interpretations . For instance , it could be interpreted as meaning either " shall have been increased at least once " or " shall have been increased on net " . In the latter case the Saxbe fix would be constitutional .
= = = Arguments against its constitutionality = = =
Another way to interpret the clause is through the lens of textualism , that is , giving primary consideration to what the law says rather than to its purpose . Most legal scholars who take this view argue that the Saxbe fix does not address the constitutional problem . Because to textualism believers the language of the rule is an absolute prohibition , law professor and textualist Michael Paulsen has said , a " ' fix ' can rescind the salary , ... but it cannot repeal historical events . The emoluments of the office had been increased . The rule specified in the text still controls . " Most textualists agree that the spirit of the Ineligibility Clause would be addressed by a Saxbe fix , but they dispute that a clause 's " spirit " overrides its text .
This view is not confined to textualists ; for example , law professors Jack Balkin and Mark Tushnet share it , with Tushnet observing that the Saxbe fix " smacks of clever manipulation " and does not adequately address the issue because " rescinding the increase does not mean that the salary ' shall not have been increased ' ; it simply means that the salary shall have been both increased and reduced during the term . " Some intentionalists interpret the Ineligibility Clause as a safeguard against escalation of the size and scope of the federal government and its corresponding budget , in addition to being a safeguard against self @-@ enrichment . They argue that reverting salary increases does not prevent members of congress from engaging in conduct that would bloat the government .
Another argument presented during the Saxbe nomination hearings was that the constitutional framers wrote the Ineligibility Clause to prevent Congress from enacting laws to benefit one of its own members . Any Saxbe fix is such a law and should be disallowed based on this fact alone .
= = = Challenges = = =
Once Congress approves a salary reduction and the nominee is confirmed , legal experts conclude that in practice it is unlikely that an appointment would be successfully challenged in the courts . The most likely claimant would be an individual who has been adversely affected by a discretionary decision under the nominee 's authority — for example someone denied a passport . It is unlikely that anyone would be found to have standing to contest the appointment . The Supreme Court has become less solicitous of standing since retreating from the most expansive level of United States v. SCRAP . In particular , it has been unwilling to grant standing for a generalized constitutional injury other than to a plaintiff who is protected by a statute or when a statute grants standing .
It has already proven difficult to be recognized as having standing when a fix is not used for a controversial appointment . The courts have dismissed suits contesting the appointments of Justice Hugo Black ( Ex parte Levitt , 302 U.S. 633 ( 1937 ) ) and Judge Abner Mikva ( McClure v. Carter , 454 U.S. 1025 ( 1981 ) ) , each a member of Congress ( Black of the Senate , Mikva of the House of Representatives ) prior to appointment and each appointed without a Saxbe fix , due to failure to establish legal standing . Other than these cases , most attempts to gain standing have been considered frivolous lawsuits brought by fringe groups .
= = = Precedents = = =
There are several nuances to the Ineligibility Clause that determine the necessity of fixes in specific situations :
It applies to those members who have actually taken their seats , not to those who were elected but not yet sworn in .
According to Marbury v. Madison , " appointed " means at the moment of nomination for civil office , not at the time of approval . Although Chief Justice John Marshall stated that appointments by the President are completely voluntary , there are restrictions on his statutory authority . For example , the duty to commission officers of the United States is enjoined by the constitution and he must nominate with the advice and consent of the Senate .
The bar cannot be evaded by resignation from Congress . In a written opinion of Attorney General Benjamin H. Brewster , the clause applies for the term " for which he was elected , " not the time during which the member actually holds office .
According to United States v. Hartwell , " Civil office " is one in which the appointee exercises an authoritative role . It does not apply to temporary , honorific , advisory , or occasional postings . The terms civil office and civil officer are used only once each in the Constitution and civil office is never defined therein .
According to McLean v. United States , " Emoluments " means not only salary , but also includes other benefits such as forage and rations .
Under Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter , the United States Department of Justice determined that it did not matter when Congress passed legislation increasing the salary for an office , so long as the former member of Congress was nominated before the salary increase went into effect .
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= Sinclair Scientific =
The Sinclair Scientific calculator was a 12 @-@ function , pocket @-@ sized scientific calculator introduced in 1974 , dramatically undercutting in price other calculators available at the time . The Sinclair Scientific Programmable , released a year later , was advertised as the first budget programmable calculator .
Significant modifications to the algorithms used meant that a chipset intended for a four @-@ function calculator was able to process scientific functions , but at the cost of reduced speed and accuracy . Compared to contemporary scientific calculators , some functions were slow to execute , and others had limited accuracy or gave the wrong answer , but the cost of the Sinclair was a fraction of the cost of competing calculators .
= = History = =
In 1972 , Hewlett @-@ Packard launched the HP @-@ 35 , the world 's first handheld scientific calculator . Despite market research suggesting that it was too expensive for there to be any real demand , production went ahead . It cost US $ 395 ( about GB £ 165 ) , but despite the price , over 300 @,@ 000 were sold in the three and a half years for which it was produced .
From 1971 Texas Instruments had been making available the building block for a simple calculator on a single chip and the TMS0803 chipset appeared in a number of Sinclair calculators . Clive Sinclair wanted to design a calculator to compete with the HP @-@ 35 using this series of chips . Despite scepticism about the feasibility of the project from Texas Instruments engineers , Nigel Searle was able to design algorithms that sacrificed some speed and accuracy in order to implement scientific functions on the TMS0805 variation .
The Sinclair Scientific first appeared in a case derived from that of the Sinclair Cambridge , but it was not part of the same range . The initial retail price was GB £ 49 @.@ 95 in the UK , and in the US for US $ 99 @.@ 95 as a kit or US $ 139 @.@ 95 fully assembled . By July 1976 , however , it was possible to purchase one for GB £ 7 .
The Sinclair Scientific Programmable was introduced in August 1975 , and was larger than the Sinclair Scientific , at 73 by 155 by 34 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 9 in × 6 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 3 in ) . It was advertised as " the first ... calculator to offer a ... programming facility ... at a price within the reach of the general public , " but was limited by having only 24 program steps .
Both the Sinclair Scientific and the Sinclair Scientific Programmable were manufactured in England , like all other Sinclair calculators except the Sinclair President .
= = Design = =
= = = Sinclair Scientific = = =
The HP @-@ 35 used five chips , and had a been developed by twenty engineers at a cost of a million dollars , leading the Texas Instruments engineers to think that Sinclair 's aim to build a scientific calculator around the TMS0805 chip , which could barely handle four @-@ function arithmetic , was impossible . However , by sacrificing some speed and accuracy , Sinclair used clever algorithms to run scientific operations on a chip with room for just 320 instructions . Constants , rather than being stored in the calculator , were printed under the screen .
It displays only in scientific notation , with a five digit mantissa and a two digit exponent , although a sixth digit of the mantissa was stored internally . Because of the way the processor was designed , it uses Reverse Polish notation ( RPN ) for inputting calculations . RPN meant that the difficult implementation of brackets , and the associated recursive logic , was not necessary to implement in the hardware , but the effort was instead offloaded to the user . Instead of an " Equals " button , there is an " Enter " button that tells the calculator when a value has been entered , and then the operators are entered in after the operands . For example , on some devices to evaluate " ( 1 + 2 ) x 3 " , the sequence entered would be " 3 enter 2 enter 1 + x . " The Sinclair Scientific entry procedure is slightly different as it lacks an enter key and has a limited number of internal registers .
To fit the program into the 320 words available on the chip , some significant modification was used . By not using regular floating point numbers , which require lots of instructions to keep the decimal point in the right place , some space was freed up . Trigonometric functions were implemented in about 40 instructions , and inverse trigonometric functions are almost 30 more instructions . Logarithms are about 40 instructions , with anti @-@ log about 20 on top of that . The code to normalize and display the computed values are roughly the same in both the TI and Sinclair programs .
The design of the algorithms meant that some calculations , such as arccos0.2 , could take up to 15 seconds , whereas the HP @-@ 35 was designed to complete calculations in under a second . Accuracy in scientific functions was also limited to around three digits at most , and there were a number of bugs and limitations .
Ken Shirriff , an employee of Google , reverse engineered a Sinclair Scientific and built a simulator using the original algorithms .
= = = = Assembly kit = = = =
The assembly kit consisted of eight groups of components , plus a carry case . The build time was advertised as being around three hours , and required a soldering iron and a pair of cutters . In January 1975 , the kit was available for US $ 49 @.@ 95 , half the price at the time of introduction a year earlier , and in December 1975 it was available for GB £ 9 @.@ 95 , less than a quarter of the introductory price .
= = = = Giant Scientific = = = =
A version of the Scientific , with all the same functionality , was made to be 30 by 68 centimetres ( 12 in × 27 in ) , and was known as the Giant Scientific . It was powered by 240V AC , and used discrete LEDs for its display .
= = = Sinclair Scientific Programmable = = =
The Sinclair Scientific Programmable was introduced in 1975 , with the same case as the Sinclair Oxford . It was larger than the Scientific , at 73 by 155 by 34 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 9 in × 6 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and used a larger PP3 battery , but could also be powered by mains electricity .
It had 24 @-@ step programming abilities , which meant it was highly limited for many purposes . It also lacked functions for the natural logarithm and exponential function . Constants used in programs were required to be integers , and the programming was wasteful , with start and end quotes needed to use a constant in a program .
However , included with the calculator was a library of over 120 programs that that performed common operations in mathematics , geometry , statistics , finance , physics , electronics , engineering , as well as fluid mechanics and materials science . The full library of standard programs contained over 400 programs in the Sinclair Program Library .
= = = Calculations Using the Sinclair Scientific = = =
The Sinclair used a slightly different Reverse Polish Notation method ; lacking an enter key , the operation keys enter a number into the appropriate register and the calculation is performed . For example , " ( 1 + 2 ) * 3 " could be calculated as : C 1 + 2 + 3 × to give the result of 9 @.@ 0000 00 ( 9 @.@ 0000 × 100 , or 9 ) . The " C " key performs a clear ; pressing it sets the calculator to a state with zero in the internal registers . Pressing " C " followed by number keys then " + " effectively adds the number entered to the zero and stores it internally to be worked on in subsequent calculations . If the " - " key is pressed instead , the number is subtracted from zero , effectively entering a negative number .
All numbers are entered in scientific notation . After entering the mantissa part of the number the " E " exponent key is pressed prior to entering the integer exponent of the number . Respect for the order of operations is placed on the user , and there are no bracket keys . The display shows only five digits , but six digits can be entered . As an example 12 @.@ 3 * ( -123.4 + 123 @.@ 456 ) could be entered as C 1 2 3 4 E 2 - 1 2 3 4 5 6 E 2 + 1 2 3 E 1 × for a displayed result of 6 @.@ 8880 -01 ( representing 6 @.@ 8880 × 10 − 1 , or 0 @.@ 68880 ) .
Four constants are printed on the calculator case for easy reference . For converting to and from base 10 logarithms and natural logarithms the natural logarithm of 10 ( 2 @.@ 30259 ) and e ( 2 @.@ 71828 ) are printed on the case . Pi ( 3 @.@ 14159 ) and 57 @.@ 2958 ( 180 / Pi ) are also on the case for trigonometry calculations . There was not enough internal memory to store these constants internally . Angles are computed using radians ; degree values must be converted to radians by dividing by 57 @.@ 2958 . As an example , to calculate 25 sin ( 600 * 0 @.@ 05 ° ) one would enter C 6 E 2 + 0 0 5 × 5 7 2 9 5 8 E 1 ÷ ▲ + 2 5 E 1 × to get a result of 1 @.@ 2500 01 ( representing 12 @.@ 5 which is equal to 25 sin ( 30 ° ) ) . Sine is selected with the combination of the " ▲ " key followed by the " + " key . The " ▼ " ( down ) and " ▲ " ( up ) arrow keys are function select keys . The four operation keys ( " - , + , ÷ and × " ) all have two other function activated by using one of the arrow keys . The function available are Sine , Arcsine , Cosine , Arccosine , Tangent , Arctangent , Logarithm and Antilogarithm .
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= Ratanakiri Province =
Ratanakiri ( Khmer : រតនគិរី IPA : [ ˌreə ̯ ̆ ʔ taʔ ˈnaʔ ki ˈriː ] " Mountain of Jewels " ) is a province ( khaet ) of Cambodia located in the remote northeast . It borders the provinces of Mondulkiri to the south and Stung Treng to the west and the countries of Laos and Vietnam to the north and east , respectively . The province extends from the mountains of the Annamite Range in the north , across a hilly plateau between the Tonle San and Tonle Srepok rivers , to tropical deciduous forests in the south . In recent years , logging and mining have scarred Ratanakiri 's environment , long known for its beauty .
For over a millennium , Ratanakiri has been occupied by the highland Khmer Loeu people , who are a minority elsewhere in Cambodia . During the region 's early history , its Khmer Loeu inhabitants were exploited as slaves by neighboring empires . The slave trade economy ended during the French colonial era , but a harsh Khmerization campaign after Cambodia 's independence again threatened Khmer Loeu ways of life . The Khmer Rouge built its headquarters in the province in the 1960s , and bombing during the Vietnam War devastated the region . Today , rapid development in the province is altering traditional ways of life .
Ratanakiri is sparsely populated ; its 150 @,@ 000 residents make up just over 1 % of the country 's total population . Residents generally live in villages of 20 to 60 families and engage in subsistence shifting agriculture . Ratanakiri is among the least developed provinces of Cambodia . Its infrastructure is poor , and the local government is weak . Health indicators in Ratanakiri are extremely poor ; men 's life expectancy is 39 years , and women 's is 43 years . Education levels are also low , with just under half of the population illiterate .
= = History = =
Present @-@ day Ratanakiri has been occupied since at least the Stone or Bronze Age , and trade between the region 's highlanders and towns along the Gulf of Thailand dates to at least the 4th century A.D. The region was invaded by Annamites , the Cham , the Khmer , and the Thai during its early history , but no empire ever brought the area under centralized control . From the 13th century or earlier until the 19th century , highland villages were often raided by Khmer , Lao , and Thai slave traders . The region was conquered by local Laotian rulers in the 18th century and then by the Thai in the 19th century . The area was incorporated into French Indochina in 1893 , and colonial rule replaced slave trading . The French built huge rubber plantations , especially in Labansiek ( present @-@ day Banlung ) ; indigenous workers were used for construction and rubber harvesting . While under French control , the land comprising present @-@ day Ratanakiri was transferred from Siam ( Thailand ) to Laos and then to Cambodia . Although highland groups initially resisted their colonial rulers , by the end of the colonial era in 1953 they had been subdued .
Ratanakiri Province was created in 1959 from land that had been the eastern area of Stung Treng Province . The name Ratanakiri ( រតនគិរី ) is formed from the Khmer words រតនៈ ( ratana " gem " from Sanskrit ratna ) and គិរី ( kiri " mountain " from Sanskrit giri ) , describing two features for which the province is known . During the 1950s and 1960s , Norodom Sihanouk instituted a development and Khmerization campaign in northeast Cambodia that was designed to bring villages under government control , limit the influence of insurgents in the area , and " modernize " indigenous communities . Some Khmer Loeu were forcibly moved to the lowlands to be educated in Khmer language and culture , ethnic Khmer from elsewhere in Cambodia were moved into the province , and roads and large rubber plantations were built . After facing harsh working conditions and sometimes involuntary labor on the plantations , many Khmer Loeu left their traditional homes and moved farther from provincial towns . In 1968 , tensions led to an uprising by the Brao in which several Khmer were killed . The government responded harshly , torching settlements and killing hundreds of villagers .
In the 1960s , the ascendant Khmer Rouge forged an alliance with ethnic minorities in Ratanakiri , exploiting Khmer Loeu resentment of the central government . The Communist Party of Kampuchea headquarters was moved to Ratanakiri in 1966 , and hundreds of Khmer Loeu joined CPK units . During this period , there was also extensive Vietnamese activity in Ratanakiri . Vietnamese communists had operated in Ratanakiri since the 1940s ; at a June 1969 press conference , Sihanouk said that Ratanakiri was " practically North Vietnamese territory " . Between March 1969 and May 1970 , the United States undertook a massive covert bombing campaign in the region , aiming to disrupt sanctuaries for communist Vietnamese troops . Villagers were forced outside of main towns to escape the bombings , foraging for food and living on the run with the Khmer Rouge . In June 1970 , the central government withdrew its troops from Ratanakiri , abandoning the area to Khmer Rouge control . The Khmer Rouge regime , which had not initially been harsh in Ratanakiri , became increasingly oppressive . The Khmer Loeu were forbidden from speaking their native languages or practicing their traditional customs and religion , which were seen as incompatible with communism . Communal living became compulsory , and the province 's few schools were closed . Purges of ethnic minorities increased in frequency , and thousands of refugees fled to Vietnam and Laos . Preliminary studies indicate that bodies accounting for approximately 5 % of Ratanakiri 's residents were deposited in mass graves , a significantly lower rate than elsewhere in Cambodia .
After the Vietnamese defeated the Khmer Rouge in 1979 , government policy toward Ratanakiri became one of benign neglect . The Khmer Loeu were permitted to return to their traditional livelihoods , but the government provided little infrastructure in the province . Under the Vietnamese , there was little contact between the provincial government and many local communities . Long after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime , however , Khmer Rouge rebels remained in the forests of Ratanakiri . Rebels largely surrendered their arms in the 1990s , though attacks along provincial roads continued until 2002 .
Ratanakiri 's recent history has been characterized by development and attendant challenges to traditional ways of life . The national government has built roads , encouraged tourism and agriculture , and facilitated rapid immigration of lowland Khmers into Ratanakiri . Road improvements and political stability have increased land prices , and land alienation in Ratanakiri has been a major problem . Despite a 2001 law allowing indigenous communities to obtain collective title to traditional lands , some villages have been left nearly landless . The national government has granted concessions over land traditionally possessed by Ratanakiri 's indigenous peoples , and even land " sales " have often involved bribes to officials , coercion , threats , or misinformation . Following the involvement of several international non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , land alienation had decreased in frequency as of 2006 . In the 2000s , Ratanakiri also received hundreds of Degar ( Montagnard ) refugees fleeing unrest in neighboring Vietnam ; the Cambodian government was criticized for its forcible repatriation of many refugees .
= = Geography and climate = =
The geography of Ratanakiri Province is diverse , encompassing rolling hills , mountains , plateaus , lowland watersheds , and crater lakes . Two major rivers , Tonle San and Tonle Srepok , flow from east to west across the province . The province is known for its lush forests ; as of 1997 , 70 – 80 % of the province was forested , either with old @-@ growth forest or with secondary forest regrown after shifting cultivation . In the far north of the province are mountains of the Annamite Range ; the area is characterized by dense broadleaf evergreen forests , relatively poor soil , and abundant wildlife . In the highlands between Tonle San and Tonle Srepok , the home of the vast majority of Ratanakiri 's population , a hilly basalt plateau provides fertile red soils . Secondary forests dominate this region . South of the Srepok River is a flat area of tropical deciduous forests .
Like other areas of Cambodia , Ratanakiri has a monsoonal climate with a rainy season from June to October , a cool season from November to January , and a hot season from March to May . Ratanakiri tends to be cooler than elsewhere in Cambodia . The average daily high temperature in the province is 34 @.@ 0 ° C ( 93 @.@ 2 ° F ) , and the average daily low temperature is 22 @.@ 1 ° C ( 71 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Annual precipitation is approximately 2 @,@ 200 millimetres ( 87 in ) . Flooding often occurs during the rainy season and has been exacerbated by the recently built Yali Falls Dam .
Ratanakiri has some of the most biologically diverse lowland tropical rainforest and montane forest ecosystems in mainland Southeast Asia . One 1996 survey of two sites in Ratanakiri and one site in neighboring Mondulkiri recorded 44 mammal species , 76 bird species , and 9 reptile species . A 2007 survey of Ratanakiri 's Virachey National Park recorded 30 ant species , 19 katydid species , 37 fish species , 35 reptile species , 26 amphibian species , and 15 mammal species , including several species never before observed . Wildlife in Ratanakiri includes Asian elephants , gaur , and monkeys . Ratanakiri is an important site for the conservation of endangered birds , including the giant ibis and the greater adjutant . The province 's forests contain a wide variety of flora ; one half @-@ hectare forest inventory identified 189 species of trees and 320 species of ground flora and saplings .
Nearly half of Ratanakiri has been set aside in protected areas , which include Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary and Virachey National Park . Even these protected areas , however , are subject to illegal logging , poaching , and mineral extraction . Though the province has been known for its relatively pristine environment , recent development has spawned environmental problems . The unspoiled image of the province often conflicts with the reality on the ground : visitors " expecting to find pristine forests teeming with wildlife are increasingly disappointed to find lifeless patches of freshly cut tree stumps " . Land use patterns are changing as population growth has accelerated and agriculture and logging have intensified . Soil erosion is increasing , and microclimates are being altered . Habitat loss and unsustainable hunting have contributed to the province 's decreasing biodiversity .
= = Government and administrative divisions = =
Government in Ratanakiri is weak , largely due to the province 's remoteness , ethnic diversity , and recent history of Khmer Rouge dominance . The provincial legal framework is poor , and the rule of law is even weaker in Ratanakiri than elsewhere in Cambodia . Furthermore , government services are ineffective and insufficient to meet the needs of the province . The Cambodian government has traditionally accepted substantial support from NGOs in the region .
Thon Saron is the provincial governor . Commune councils in Ratanakiri are composed of 223 members representing the CPP , 30 members representing the Sam Rainsy Party , and 7 members representing the Funcinpec Party . Political scientist Caroline Hughes has suggested that the CPP 's overwhelming dominance in rural areas such as Ratanakiri stems from the central government 's ability to suppress collective action , which in urban areas is offset by international donors and NGOs that provide support for opposition parties . Fifty @-@ one commune council members in Ratanakiri ( 20 % ) are women , and 98 % of Ratanakiri 's government staff was Khmer as of 2006 . Bou Lam , a member of the CPP , represents Ratanakiri in the National Assembly of Cambodia .
Village government in Ratanakiri has both traditional and administrative components . Traditional forms of government , namely village elders and other indigenous institutions , are dominant . Members of each village designate one or more community elders to manage village affairs , mediate conflicts , and ensure that villagers follow customary laws , particularly about land and resource use . Elders do not play an autocratic role , and are instead primarily respected advisors and consensus builders . Village elders are generally male , but women also play a role in the management of the community and its resources . A village may also have a village chief , i.e. , a local government person who is appointed by a higher governmental official . The village chief serves as a liaison between the village and outside government officials , but lacks traditional authority . The role of the village chief in village governance may be poorly defined ; in one Kreung village , residents told a researcher that they were " very unclear exactly what the work of the village chief entailed . "
The province is subdivided into nine districts , as follows :
= = Economy and transportation = =
The vast majority of workers in Ratanakiri are employed in agriculture . Most of the indigenous residents of Ratanakiri are subsistence farmers , practicing slash and burn shifting cultivation . ( See Culture below for more information on traditional subsistence practices . ) Many families are beginning to shift production to cash crops such as cashews , mangoes , and tobacco , a trend that has accelerated in recent years . Ratanakiri villagers have traditionally had little contact with the cash economy . Barter exchange remains widespread , and Khmer Loeu villagers tended to visit markets only once per year until quite recently . As of 2005 , monetary income in the province averaged US $ 5 per month per person ; purchased possessions such as motorcycles , televisions , and karaoke sets have become extremely desirable .
Larger @-@ scale agriculture occurs on rubber and cashew plantations . Other economic activities in the province include gem mining and commercial logging . The most abundant gem in Ratanakiri is blue zircon . Small quantities of amethyst , peridot , and black opal are also produced . Gems are generally mined using traditional methods , with individuals digging holes and tunnels and manually removing the gems ; recently , however , commercial mining operations have been moving into the province . Logging , particularly illegal logging , has been a problem both for environmental reasons and because of land alienation . This illegal logging has been undertaken by the Cambodian military and by Vietnamese loggers . In 1997 , an estimated 300 @,@ 000 cubic meters of logs were exported illegally from Ratanakiri to Vietnam , compared to a legal limit of 36 @,@ 000 cubic meters . John Dennis , a researcher for the Asian Development Bank , described the logging in Ratanakiri as a " human rights emergency " .
Ratanakiri 's tourist industry has rapidly expanded in recent years : visits to the province increased from 6 @,@ 000 in 2002 to 105 @,@ 000 in 2008 and 118 @,@ 000 in 2011 . The region 's tourism development strategy focuses on encouraging ecotourism . Increasing tourism in Ratanakiri has been problematic because local communities receive very little income from tourism and because guides sometimes bring tourists to villages without residents ' consent , disrupting traditional ways of life . A few initiatives have sought to address these issues : a provincial tourism steering committee aims to ensure that tourism is non @-@ destructive , and some programs provide English and tourism skills to indigenous people .
Ox @-@ cart and motorcycle are common means of transportation in Ratanakiri . The provincial road system is better than in some parts of the country , but remains in somewhat bad condition . National Road 78 between Banlung and the Vietnam border was built between 2007 and 2010 ; the road was expected to increase trade between Cambodia and Vietnam . There is a small airport in Banlung , but commercial flights to Ratanakiri have long been discontinued .
= = Demographics and towns = =
As of 2013 , Ratanakiri Province had a population of approximately 184 @,@ 000 . Its population nearly doubled between 1998 and 2013 , largely due to internal migration . In 2013 , Ratanakiri made up 1 @.@ 3 % of Cambodia 's total population ; its population density of 17 @.@ 0 residents per square kilometer was just over one fifth the national average . About 70 % of the province 's population lives in the highlands ; of the other 30 % , approximately half live in more urbanized towns , and half live along rivers and in the lowlands , where they practice wetland rice cultivation and engage in market activities . Banlung , the provincial capital located in the central highlands , is by far the province 's largest town , with a population of approximately 25 @,@ 000 . Other significant towns include Veun Sai in the north and Lomphat in the south , with populations of 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 respectively .
In 2013 , 37 % of Ratanakiri residents were under age 15 , 52 % were age 15 to 49 , 7 % were age 50 to 64 , and 3 % were aged 65 or older ; 49 @.@ 7 % of residents were male , and 50 @.@ 3 % were female . Each household had an average of 4 @.@ 9 members , and most households ( 85 @.@ 6 % ) were headed by men .
While highland peoples have inhabited Ratanakiri for well over a millennium , lowland peoples have migrated to the province in the last 200 years . As of 2013 , various highland groups collectively called Khmer Loeu made up approximately half of Ratanakiri 's population , ethnic Khmers made up 36 % , and ethnic Lao made up 10 % . Within the Khmer Loeu population , 35 % were Tampuan as of 1998 , 24 % were Jarai , 23 % were Kreung , 11 % were Brou , 3 % were Kachok , and 3 % were Kavet , with other groups making up the remaining one percent . There are also very small Vietnamese , Cham , and Chinese minorities . Though the official language of Ratanakiri ( like all of Cambodia ) is Khmer , each indigenous group speaks its own language . Less than 10 % of Ratanakiri 's indigenous population can speak Khmer fluently .
= = Health , education , and development = =
Health indicators in Ratanakiri are the worst in Cambodia . Life expectancy is 39 years for men and 43 years for women . Malaria , tuberculosis , intestinal parasites , cholera , diarrhea , and vaccine @-@ preventable diseases are endemic . Ratanakiri has very high rates of maternal and child mortality ; in Ratanakiri and neighboring Mondulkiri ( whose figures were combined in the most recent survey ) , over 10 % of children die before the age of five . Ratanakiri also has the country 's highest rates of severe malnutrition . Ratanakiri residents ' poor health can be attributed to a variety of factors , including poverty , remoteness of villages , poor quality medical services , and language and cultural barriers that prevent Khmer Loeu from obtaining medical care . The province has one referral hospital , 10 health centers , and 17 health posts . Medical equipment and supplies are minimal , and most health facilities are staffed by nurses or midwives , who are often poorly trained and irregularly paid .
As of 1998 , Ratanakiri had 76 primary schools , one junior high school , and one high school . Education levels , particularly among Khmer Loeu , are very low . A 2002 survey of residents in six villages found that fewer than 10 % of respondents had attended any primary school . Access to education is limited because of the expense of books , distance to schools , children 's need to contribute to their families ' livelihood , frequent absence of teachers , and instruction that is culturally inappropriate and in a language foreign to most students . Only 55 % of Ratanakiri adults were literate as of 2013 ( compared to 80 % in Cambodia overall ) . Bilingual education initiatives , in which students begin instruction in native languages and gradually transition to instruction in Khmer , began in Ratanakiri in 2002 and appear to have been successful . The programs aim to make education more accessible to speakers of indigenous languages , as well as to give Khmer Loeu access to national political and economic affairs by providing Khmer language skills .
Ratanakiri is one of the least developed provinces in Cambodia . As of 2013 , the average home had 1 @.@ 9 rooms , and only 14 @.@ 9 % of buildings in the province had permanent roofs , walls , and flooring . Relatively few households ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) had toilet facilities . The largest share of households ( 38 @.@ 0 % ) obtained water from springs , streams , ponds , or rain ; much of the remainder obtained water from protected ( 23 @.@ 9 % ) or unprotected ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) dug wells . Only 21 @.@ 6 % of Ratanakiri residents obtained water from sources that are considered safe ( purchased water , piped water , or tube / piped wells ) . Household water sources were within the home for 28 @.@ 0 % of households , near the home for 39 @.@ 1 % , and away from the home for 32 @.@ 9 % . The most common source of light was battery power ( 39 @.@ 5 % ) , followed by government @-@ provided power ( 25 @.@ 5 % ) , and kerosene ( 16 @.@ 5 % ) . Most households ( 85 % ) used firewood as the main fuel for cooking . A variety of NGOs , including Oxfam and Health Unlimited , work to improve health and living conditions in the province .
= = Culture = =
Khmer Loeu typically practice subsistence slash and burn shifting cultivation in small villages of between 20 and 60 nuclear families . Each village collectively owns and governs a forest territory whose boundaries are known though not marked . Within this land , each family is allocated , on average , 1 – 2 hectares ( 2 @.@ 5 – 5 acres ) of actively cultivated land and 5 – 6 hectares ( 12 @.@ 5 – 15 acres ) of fallow land . The ecologically sustainable cultivation cycle practiced by the Khmer Loeu generally lasts 10 to 15 years . Villagers supplement their agricultural livelihood with low @-@ intensity hunting , fishing , and gathering over a large area .
Khmer Loeu diets in Ratanakiri are largely dictated by the food that is available for harvesting or gathering . Numerous food taboos also limit food choice , particularly among pregnant women , children , and the sick . The primary staple grain is rice , though most families experience rice shortages during the six months before harvest time . Some families have begun to plant maize to alleviate this problem ; other sources of grain include potatoes , cassava , and taro . Most Khmer Loeu diets are low in protein , which is limited in availability . Wild game and fish are major protein sources , and smaller animals such as rats , wild chickens , and insects are also sometimes eaten . Domestic animals such as pigs , cows , and buffaloes are only eaten when sacrifices are made . In the rainy season , many varieties of vegetables and leaves are gathered from the forest . ( Vegetables are generally not cultivated . ) Commonly eaten fruits include bananas , jackfruit , papayas , and mangoes .
Houses in rural Ratanakiri are made from bamboo , rattan , wood , saek , and kanma leaves , all of which are collected from nearby forests ; they typically last for around three years . Village spatial organization varies by ethnic group . Kreung villages are constructed in a circular manner , with houses facing inwards toward a central meeting house . In Jarai villages , vast longhouses are inhabited by all extended families , with the inner house divided into smaller compartments . Tampuan villages may follow either pattern .
Nearly all Khmer Loeu are animist , and their cosmologies are intertwined with the natural world . Some forests are believed to be inhabited by local spirits , and local taboos forbid cutting in those areas . Within spirit forests , certain natural features such as rock formations , waterfalls , pools , and vegetation are sacred . Major sacrificial festivals in Ratanakiri occur during March and April , when fields are selected and prepared for the new planting season . Christian missionaries are present in the province , and some Khmer Loeu have converted to Christianity . The region 's ethnic Khmer are Buddhist . There is also a small Muslim community , consisting mainly of ethnic Cham .
Because of the province 's high prevalence of malaria and its distance from regional centers , Ratanakiri was isolated from Western influences until the late 20th century . Major cultural shifts have occurred in recent years however , particularly in villages near roads and district towns ; these changes have been attributed to contact with internal immigrants , government officials , and NGO workers . Clothing and diets are becoming more standardized , and traditional music is being displaced by Khmer music . Many villagers have also observed a loss of respect for elders and a growing divide between the young and the old . Young people have begun to refuse to abide by traditional rules and have stopped believing in spirits .
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= Carl Berners plass ( station ) =
Carl Berners plass is an underground rapid transit station located on the Grorud Line of the Oslo Metro , and a tram stop on the Sinsen Line of the Oslo Tramway . The square also has a bus stop for lines 20 , 21 , 31 , 33 and 57 . Located at Grünerløkka in Oslo , Norway , the area has a mixture of apartment buildings and small businesses . The station is the first metro station on the Grorud Line after it branches off from the shared Common Tunnel . North of the station , the Ring Line branches off from the Grorud Line . The station is served by lines 5 and 6 of the metro and Line 17 of the tramway , with eight and four hourly departures during regular hours . The tram operates every 10 minutes during regular hours .
The square was taken into use as a tram stop on 1 February 1923 . The station took the name after the square , which is again named for the 18th and early 19th @-@ century politician Carl Berner . From 6 February 1949 , Line 20 of the Oslo trolleybus started serving the square . From 2 January 1955 , the Rodeløkka Line of the tramway was rerouted to run via Carl Berners plass , although it was closed again on 1961 . The underground metro station opened on 16 October 1966 , and the trolleybus service was replaced by diesel buses in 1968 . From 20 August 2006 , the metro station also started serving the Ring Line ( Line 6 ) .
= = Facilities = =
Carl Berners plass is a combined metro , tram and bus station located at the square Carl Berners plass , from which it takes its name . The underground station is actually located a couple of hundred meters off the square , with ground @-@ level entrances on either side of the heavily trafficked Grenseveien as that road ascends from the square towards the east . The underground metro station is on the Grorud Line , and is located 3 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) from Stortinget in the city center . The tracks are 50 @.@ 3 meters ( 165 ft ) above sea level . The area around the station is mostly dense residential and small businesses . South of the station is Tøyen Park .
= = Service = =
The rapid transit station is served by lines 5 and 6 of the Oslo Metro . The lines have a 7 @.@ 5 and 15 @-@ minute headway respectively during the day , with reduced frequency in the late evenings . Heading south towards the city center , both lines operate through the Common Tunnel — Line 5 continues along the Ring Line and Line 6 along the Kolsås Line . Northwards , the line splits with Line 6 continuing to Sinsen and the Ring Line , while Line 5 continues to Hasle and the Grorud Line . The metro is operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
The tram stop is served by Line 17 of the Oslo Tramway . It has a ten @-@ minute headway during the day , with half the frequency during evenings and in the weekends . Travel time to Jernbanetorget in the city center is nine minutes , while it is five minutes northwards to Grefsen Station . The service is provided using SL95 trams operated by Oslo Sporvognsdrift on contract with Ruter . Carl Berners plass is one of eight transfer points between the tramway and the metro .
The bus stop serves three full @-@ time services , no . 20 , 21 and 31 , and two reduced @-@ time services , no . 33 and 57 . The latter serves as a shuttle bus to the Løren area . The bus services are operated by private contractors on contract with Ruter .
= = History = =
Carl Berners plass became a public transport station on 1 February 1923 , when the then single @-@ track Sinsen Line of the tramway opened as a branch of the Rodeløkka Line . The station took its name from the square it was located at , Carl Berners plass , which is again named for the politician Carl Berner . The station was served by the newly created Line 13 that operated through the city center and ran every twelve minutes , and since 29 June 1924 every fifteen minutes . The line was built by Kristiania Sporveisselskap , but they were taken over by the municipality in 1924 , and the line became part of Oslo Sporveier . On 28 June 1938 , the line was rebuilt to double track . From 19 December 1939 , the line was extended along Trondheimsveien to Sinsen ; this section was built with double track . In 1948 , the tracks at Carl Berners plass was rebuilt to run through the roundabouts at both ends of the square . The station was served by various services numbers along the Sinsen Line , including 1 , 3 , 7 , 13 and 17 , although not all at the same time . At the most , three services operated to the station , giving a five @-@ minute headway .
On 6 February 1949 , Oslo trolleybus lines were installed to cross the tram lines at Carl Berners plass to allow Line 20 to be electrically operated . The original Rodeløkka Line was closed in 1949 , but new branch line to Rodeløkka was opened on 2 January 1955 , because the tram gave lower operating costs than the bus . The line ran from Carl Berners plass down Dælenengata . From 1959 , the Rodeløkka Line was reduced to a rush @-@ hour only service and was terminated on 23 April 1961 . The tracks were removed from 1962 to 1964 . The metro station at Carl Berners plass was opened along with the Grorud Line on 16 October 1966 . The metro station was designed by Per Qvam . In 1968 , the trolleybus lines were removed from Carl Berners plass and Line 20 to a diesel service .
The Sinsen Line was among those proposed for closure in 2002 when the tram company attempted to save money by transferring the traffic to buses . A city grant of 25 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) saved the line along with several others . The metro station was for many years in bad need of rehabilitation , with dim lighting at the platforms , grimy walls , and broken roof tiles leaving piping and wiring exposed . Architect Reiulf Ramstad , who was in charge of the renewal project , compared the station to the scenery of a horror movie . The 2006 renovation involved making the station brighter lit , and a new entrance was built which attempted to make the station more visible from outside . Upgrading of the station included letting parts of sculpture exhibitions by the Norwegian Sculpturer Society be placed inside the station area . From 20 August 2006 , Carl Berners plass also started serving the Ring Line of the metro . The line branches off from the Grorud Line north of Carl Berners plass , and the station thereby became the transfer station between the Ring Line and the Grorud Line . From 2008 , the square itself was rebuilt to become more pedestrian @-@ friendly .
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= Burney Relief =
The Burney Relief ( also known as the Queen of the Night relief ) is a Mesopotamian terracotta plaque in high relief of the Isin @-@ Larsa- or Old @-@ Babylonian period , depicting a winged , nude , goddess @-@ like figure with bird 's talons , flanked by owls , and perched upon two lions . The relief is displayed in the British Museum in London , which has dated it between 1800 and 1750 BCE . It originates from southern Iraq , but the exact find @-@ site is unknown . Apart from its distinctive iconography , the piece is noted for its high relief and relatively large size , which suggest that it was used as a cult relief , making it a very rare survival from the period . However , whether it represents Lilitu , Inanna / Ishtar , or Ereshkigal , is under debate . The authenticity of the object has been questioned from its first appearance in the 1930s , but opinion has generally moved in its favour over the subsequent decades .
= = Provenance = =
Initially in the possession of a Syrian dealer , who may have acquired the plaque in southern Iraq in 1924 , the relief was deposited at the British Museum in London and analysed by Dr. H.J. Plenderleith in 1933 . However , the Museum declined to purchase it in 1935 , whereupon the plaque passed to the London antique dealer Sidney Burney ; it subsequently became known as the " Burney Relief " . The relief was first brought to public attention with a full @-@ page reproduction in The Illustrated London News , in 1936 . From Burney , it passed to the collection of Norman Colville , after whose death it was acquired at auction by the Japanese collector Goro Sakamoto . British authorities , however , denied him an export licence . The piece was loaned to the British Museum for display between 1980 and 1991 , and in 2003 the relief was purchased by the Museum for the sum of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 as part of its 250th anniversary celebrations . The Museum also renamed the plaque the " Queen of the Night Relief " . Since then , the object has toured museums around Britain .
Unfortunately , its original provenance remains unknown . The relief was not archaeologically excavated , and thus we have no further information where it came from , or in which context it was discovered . An interpretation of the relief thus relies on stylistic comparisons with other objects for which the date and place of origin have been established , on an analysis of the iconography , and on the interpretation of textual sources from Mesopotamian mythology and religion .
= = Description = =
Detailed descriptions were published by Henri Frankfort ( 1936 ) , by Pauline Albenda ( 2005 ) , and in a monograph by Dominique Collon , curator at the British Museum , where the plaque is now housed . The composition as a whole is unique among works of art from Mesopotamia , even though many elements have interesting counterparts in other images from that time .
= = = Physical aspect = = =
The relief is a terracotta ( fired clay ) plaque , 50 by 37 centimetres ( 20 in × 15 in ) large , 2 to 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick , with the head of the figure projecting 4 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) from the surface . To manufacture the relief , clay with small calcareous inclusions was mixed with chaff ; visible folds and fissures suggest the material was quite stiff when being worked . The British Museum 's Department of Scientific Research reports , " it would seem likely that the whole plaque was moulded " with subsequent modelling of some details and addition of others , such as the rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols , the tresses of hair and the eyes of the owls . The relief was then burnished and polished , and further details were incised with a pointed tool . Firing burned out the chaff , leaving characteristic voids and the pitted surface we see now ; Curtis and Collon believe the surface would have appeared smoothed by ochre paint in antiquity .
In its dimensions , the unique plaque is larger than the mass @-@ produced terracotta plaques – popular art or devotional items – of which many were excavated in house ruins of the Isin @-@ Larsa and Old Babylonian periods .
Overall , the relief is in excellent condition . It was originally received in three pieces and some fragments by the British Museum ; after repair , some cracks are still apparent , in particular a triangular piece missing on the right edge , but the main features of the deity and the animals are intact . The figure 's face has damage to its left side , the left side of the nose and the neck region . The headdress has some damage to its front and right hand side , but the overall shape can be inferred from symmetry . Half of the necklace is missing and the symbol of the figure held in her right hand ; the owls ' beaks are lost and a piece of a lion 's tail . A comparison of images from 1936 and 2005 shows that some modern damage has been sustained as well : the right hand side of the crown has now lost its top tier , and at the lower left corner a piece of the mountain patterning has chipped off and the owl has lost its right @-@ side toes . However , in all major aspects , the relief has survived intact for more than 3 @,@ 500 years .
Traces of red pigment still remain on the figure 's body that was originally painted red overall . The feathers of her wings and the owls ' feathers were also colored red , alternating with black and white . By Raman spectroscopy the red pigment is identified as red ochre , the black pigment , amorphous carbon ( " lamp black " ) and the white pigment gypsum . Black pigment is also found on the background of the plaque , the hair and eyebrows , and on the lions ' manes . The pubic triangle and the areola appear accentuated with red pigment but were not separately painted black . The lions ' bodies were painted white . The British Museum curators assume that the horns of the headdress and part of the necklace were originally colored yellow , just as they are on a very similar clay figure from Ur . They surmise that the bracelets and rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols might also have been painted yellow . However , no traces of yellow pigment now remain on the relief .
= = = The female figure = = =
The nude female figure is realistically sculpted in high @-@ relief . Her eyes , beneath distinct , joined eyebrows , are hollow , presumably to accept some inlaying material – a feature common in stone , alabaster , and bronze sculptures of the time , but not seen in other Mesopotamian clay sculptures . Her full lips are slightly upturned at the corners . She is adorned with a four @-@ tiered headdress of horns , topped by a disk . Her head is framed by two braids of hair , with the bulk of her hair in a bun in the back and two wedge @-@ shaped braids extending onto her breasts .
The stylized treatment of her hair could represent a ceremonial wig . She wears a single broad necklace , composed of squares that are structured with horizontal and vertical lines , possibly depicting beads , four to each square . This necklace is virtually identical to the necklace of the god found at Ur , except that the latter 's necklace has three lines to a square . Around both wrists she wears bracelets which appear composed of three rings . Both hands are symmetrically lifted up , palms turned towards the viewer and detailed with visible life- , head- and heart lines , holding two rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols of which only the one in the left hand is well preserved . Two wings with clearly defined , stylized feathers in three registers extend down from above her shoulders . The feathers in the top register are shown as overlapping scales ( coverts ) , the lower two registers have long , staggered flight feathers that appear drawn with a ruler and end in a convex trailing edge . The feathers have smooth surfaces ; no barbs were drawn . The wings are similar but not entirely symmetrical , differing both in the number of the flight feathers and in the details of the coloring scheme .
Her wings are spread to a triangular shape but not fully extended . The breasts are full and high , but without separately modelled nipples . Her body has been sculpted with attention to naturalistic detail : the deep navel , structured abdomen , " softly modeled pubic area " the recurve of the outline of the hips beneath the iliac crest , and the bony structure of the legs with distinct knee caps all suggest " an artistic skill that is almost certainly derived from observed study " . A spur @-@ like protrusion , fold , or tuft extends from her calves just below the knee , which Collon interprets as dewclaws . Below the shin , the figure 's legs change into those of a bird . The bird @-@ feet are detailed , with three long , well @-@ separated toes of approximately equal length . Lines have been scratched into the surface of the ankle and toes to depict the scutes , and all visible toes have prominent talons . Her toes are extended down , without perspective foreshortening ; they do not appear to rest upon a ground line and thus give the figure an impression of being dissociated from the background , as if hovering .
= = = The animals and background = = =
The two lions have a male mane , patterned with dense , short lines ; the manes continue beneath the body . Distinctly patterned tufts of hair grow from the lion 's ears and on their shoulders , emanating from a central disk @-@ shaped whorl . They lie prone , their heads are sculpted with attention to detail , but with a degree of artistic liberty in their form , e.g. , regarding their rounded shapes . Both lions look towards the viewer , and both have their mouths closed .
The owls shown are recognizable , but not sculpted naturalistically : the shape of the beak , the length of the legs , and details of plumage deviate from those of the owls that are indigenous to the region . Their plumage is colored like the deity 's wings in red , black and white ; it is bilaterally similar but not perfectly symmetrical . Both owls have one more feather on the right @-@ hand side of their plumage than on the left @-@ hand side . The legs , feet and talons are red .
The group is placed on a pattern of scales , painted black . This is the way mountain ranges were commonly symbolized in Mesopotamian art .
= = Context = =
= = = Date and place of origin = = =
Stylistic comparisons place the relief at the earliest into the Isin – Larsa period , or slightly later , to the beginning of the Old Babylonian period . Frankfort especially notes the stylistic similarity with the sculpted head of a male deity found at Ur , which Collon finds to be " so close to the Queen of the Night in quality , workmanship and iconographical details , that it could well have come from the same workshop . " Therefore , Ur is one possible city of origin for the relief , but not the only one : Edith Porada points out the virtual identity in style that the lion 's tufts of hair have with the same detail seen on two fragments of clay plaques excavated at Nippur . And Agnès Spycket reported on a similar necklace on a fragment found in Isin .
= = = Geopolitical context = = =
A creation date at the beginning of the second millennium BCE places the relief into a region and time in which the political situation was unsteady , marked by the waxing and waning influence of the city states of Isin and Larsa , an invasion by the Elamites , and finally the conquest by Hammurabi in the unification in the Babylonian empire in 1762 BCE .
300 to 500 years earlier , the population for the whole of Mesopotamia was at its all @-@ time high of about 300 @,@ 000 . Elamite invaders then toppled the third Dynasty of Ur and the population declined to about 200 @,@ 000 ; it had stabilized at that number at the time the relief was made . Cities like Nippur and Isin would have had on the order of 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants and Larsa maybe 40 @,@ 000 ; Hammurabi 's Babylon grew to 60 @,@ 000 by 1700 BCE . A well @-@ developed infrastructure and complex division of labour is required to sustain cities of that size . The fabrication of religious imagery might have been done by specialized artisans : large numbers of smaller , devotional plaques have been excavated that were fabricated in molds .
Even though the fertile crescent civilizations are considered the oldest in history , at the time the Burney Relief was made other late bronze age civilizations were equally in full bloom . Travel and cultural exchange were not commonplace , but nevertheless possible . To the east , Elam with its capital Susa was in frequent military conflict with Isin , Larsa and later Babylon . Even further , the Indus Valley Civilization was already past its peak , and in China , the Erlitou culture blossomed . To the southwest , Egypt was ruled by the 12th dynasty , further to the west the Minoan civilization , centred on Crete with the Old Palace in Knossos , dominated the Mediterranean . To the north of Mesopotamia , the Anatolian Hittites were establishing their Old Kingdom over the Hattians ; they brought an end to Babylon 's empire with the sack of the city in 1531 BCE . Indeed , Collon mentions this raid as possibly being the reason for the damage to the right @-@ hand side of the relief .
= = = Religion = = =
The size of the plaque suggests it would have belonged in a shrine , possibly as an object of worship ; it was probably set into a mud @-@ brick wall . Such a shrine might have been a dedicated space in a large private home or other house , but not the main focus of worship in one of the cities ' temples , which would have contained representations of gods sculpted in the round . Mesopotamian temples at the time had a rectangular cella often with niches to both sides . According to Thorkild Jacobsen , that shrine could have been located inside a brothel ( see below ) .
= = = Art history = = =
Compared with how important religious practice was in Mesopotamia , and compared to the number of temples that existed , very few cult figures at all have been preserved . This is certainly not due to a lack of artistic skill : the " Ram in a Thicket " ( see image below ) shows how elaborate such sculptures could have been , even 600 to 800 years earlier . It is also not due to a lack of interest in religious sculpture : deities and myths are ubiquitous on cylinder seals and the few steles , kudurrus , and reliefs that have been preserved . Rather , it seems plausible that the main figures of worship in temples and shrines were made of materials so valuable they could not escape looting during the many shifts of power that the region saw . The Burney Relief is comparatively plain , and so survived . In fact , the relief is one of only two existing large , figurative representations from the Old Babylonian period . The other one is the top part of the Code of Hammurabi , which was actually discovered in Elamite Susa , where it had been brought as booty ( see image ) .
A static , frontal image is typical of religious images intended for worship . Symmetric compositions are common in Mesopotamian art when the context is not narrative . Many examples have been found on cylinder seals . Three @-@ part arrangements of a god and two other figures are common , but five @-@ part arrangements exist as well . In this respect , the relief follows established conventions . In terms of representation , the deity is sculpted with a naturalistic but " modest " nudity , reminiscent of Egyptian goddess sculptures , which are sculpted with a well @-@ defined navel and pubic region but no details ; there , the lower hemline of a dress indicates that some covering is intended , even if it does not conceal . In a typical statue of the genre , Pharao Menkaura and two goddesses , Hathor and Bat are shown in human form and sculpted naturalistically , just as in the Burney Relief ; in fact , Hathor has been given the features of Queen Khamerernebty II ( see image and article ) . Depicting an anthropomorphic god as a naturalistic human is an innovative artistic idea that may well have diffused from Egypt to Mesopotamia , just like a number of concepts of religious rites , architecture , the " banquet plaques " , and other artistic innovations previously . In this respect , the Burney Relief shows a clear departure from the schematic style of the worshiping men and women that were found in temples from periods about 500 years earlier ( see image ) . It is also distinct from the next major style in the region : Assyrian art , with its rigid , detailed representations , mostly of scenes of war and hunting ( see image ) .
The extraordinary survival of the figure type , though interpretations and cult context shifted over the intervening centuries , is expressed by the cast terracotta funerary figure of the 1st century BCE , from Myrina on the coast of Mysia in Asia Minor , where it was excavated by the French School at Athens , 1883 ; the terracotta is conserved in the Musée du Louvre ( illustrated left ) .
Comparisons
Compared to visual artworks from the same time , the relief fits quite well with its style of representation and its rich iconography . The images below show earlier , contemporary , and somewhat later examples of woman and goddess depictions .
Contemporaries
= = = Iconography = = =
Mesopotamian religion recognizes literally thousands of deities , and distinct iconographies have been identified for about a dozen . Less frequently , gods are identified by a written label or dedication ; such labels would only have been intended for the literate elites . In creating a religious object , the sculptor was not free to create novel images : the representation of deities , their attributes and context were as much part of the religion as the rituals and the mythology . Indeed , innovation and deviation from an accepted canon could be considered a cultic offense . The large degree of similarity that is found in plaques and seals suggests that detailed iconographies could have been based on famous cult statues ; they established the visual tradition for such derivative works but have now been lost . It appears , though , that the Burney Relief was the product of such a tradition , not its source , since its composition is unique .
= = = = Frontal nudity = = = =
The frontal presentation of the deity is appropriate for a plaque of worship , since it is not just a " pictorial reference to a god " but " a symbol of his presence " . Since the relief is the only existing plaque intended for worship , we do not know whether this is generally true . But this particular depiction of a goddess represents a specific motif : a nude goddess with wings and bird 's feet . Similar images have been found on a number of plaques , on a vase from Larsa , and on at least one cylinder seal ; they are all from approximately the same time period . In all instances but one , the frontal view , nudity , wings , and the horned crown are features that occur together ; thus , these images are iconographically linked in their representation of a particular goddess . Moreover , examples of this motif are the only existing examples of a nude god or goddess ; all other representations of gods are clothed . The bird 's feet have not always been well preserved , but there are no counter @-@ examples of a nude , winged goddess with human feet .
= = = = Horned crown = = = =
The horned crown – usually four @-@ tiered – is the most general symbol of a deity in Mesopotamian art . Male and female gods alike wear it . In some instances , " lesser " gods wear crowns with only one pair of horns , but the number of horns is not generally a symbol of " rank " or importance . The form we see here is a style popular in Neo @-@ Sumerian times and later ; earlier representations show horns projecting out from a conical headpiece .
= = = = Wings = = = =
Winged gods , other mythological creatures , and birds are frequently depicted on cylinder seals and steles from the 3rd millennium all the way to the Assyrians . Both two @-@ winged and four @-@ winged figures are known and the wings are most often extended to the side . Spread wings are part of one type of representation for Ishtar . However , the specific depiction of the hanging wings of the nude goddess may have evolved from what was originally a cape .
= = = = Rod and ring symbol = = = =
This symbol may depict the measuring tools of a builder or architect or a token representation of these tools . It is frequently depicted on cylinder seals and steles , where it is always held by a god – usually either Shamash , Ishtar , and in later Babylonian images also Marduk – and often extended to a king .
= = = = Lions = = = =
Lions are chiefly associated with Ishtar or with the male gods Shamash or Ningirsu . In Mesopotamian art , lions are nearly always depicted with open jaws . H. Frankfort suggests that The Burney Relief shows a modification of the normal canon that is due to the fact that the lions are turned towards the worshipper : the lions might appear inappropriately threatening if their mouths were open .
= = = = Owls = = = =
No other examples of owls in an iconographic context exist in Mesopotamian art , nor are there textual references that directly associate owls with a particular god or goddess .
= = = = Mountains = = = =
A god standing on or seated on a pattern of scales is a typical scenery for the depiction of a theophany . It is associated with gods who have some connection with mountains but not restricted to any one deity in particular .
= = Identification = =
The figure has initially been identified as a depiction of Ishtar ( Inanna ) but almost immediately other arguments have been put forward :
= = = Lilitu = = =
The identification of the relief as depicting " Lilith " has become a staple of popular writing on that subject . Raphael Patai ( 1990 ) believes the relief to be the only extant depiction of a Sumerian female demon called lilitu and thus to define lilitu 's iconography . Citations regarding this assertion lead back to Henri Frankfort ( 1936 ) . Frankfort himself based his interpretation of the deity as the demon Lilith on the presence of wings , the birds ' feet and the representation of owls . He cites the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh as a source that such " creatures are inhabitants of the land of the dead " . In that text Enkidu 's appearance is partially changed to that of a feathered being , and he is led to the nether world where creatures dwell that are " birdlike , wearing a feather garment " . This passage reflects the Sumerians ' belief in the nether world , and Frankfort cites evidence that Nergal , the ruler of the underworld , is depicted with bird 's feet and wrapped in a feathered gown .
However Frankfort did not himself make the identification of the figure with Lilith ; rather he cites Emil Kraeling ( 1937 ) instead . Kraeling believes that the figure " is a superhuman being of a lower order " ; he does not explain exactly why . He then goes on to state " Wings [ ... ] regularly suggest a demon associated with the wind " and " owls may well indicate the nocturnal habits of this female demon " . He excludes Lamashtu and Pazuzu as candidate demons and states : " Perhaps we have here a third representation of a demon . If so , it must be Lilîtu [ ... ] the demon of an evil wind " , named ki @-@ sikil @-@ lil @-@ la ( literally " wind @-@ maiden " or " phantom @-@ maiden " , not " beautiful maiden " , as Kraeling asserts ( see below ) ) . This ki @-@ sikil @-@ lil is an antagonist of Inanna ( Ishtar ) in a brief episode of the epic of Gilgamesh , which is cited by both Kraeling and Frankfort as further evidence for the identification as Lilith , though this appendix too is now disputed . In this episode , Inanna 's holy Huluppu tree is invaded by malevolent spirits . Frankfort quotes a preliminary translation by Gadd ( 1933 ) : " in the midst Lilith had built a house , the shrieking maid , the joyful , the bright queen of Heaven " . However modern translations have instead : " In its trunk , the phantom maid built herself a dwelling , the maid who laughs with a joyful heart . But holy Inanna cried . " The earlier translation implies an association of the demon Lilith with a shrieking owl and at the same time asserts her god @-@ like nature ; the modern translation supports neither of these attributes . In fact , Cyril J. Gadd ( 1933 ) , the first translator , writes : " ardat lili ( kisikil @-@ lil ) is never associated with owls in Babylonian mythology " and " the Jewish traditions concerning Lilith in this form seem to be late and of no great authority " . This single line of evidence was taken as virtual proof of the identification of the Burney Relief with " Lilith " may have been motivated by later associations of " Lilith " in later Jewish sources .
The association of Lilith with owls in later Jewish literature such as the Songs of the Sage ( 1st century BCE ) and Babylonian Talmud ( 5th century CE ) is derived from a reference to a liliyth among a list of wilderness birds and animals in Isaiah ( 7th century BCE ) , though some scholars , such as Blair ( 2009 ) consider the pre @-@ Talmudic Isaiah reference to be non @-@ supernatural , and this is reflected in some modern Bible translations :
Isaiah 34 : 13 Thorns shall grow over its strongholds , nettles and thistles in its fortresses . It shall be the haunt of jackals , an abode for ostriches . 14 And wild animals shall meet with hyenas ; the wild goat shall cry to his fellow ; indeed , there the night bird ( lilit or lilith ) settles and finds for herself a resting place . 15 There the owl nests and lays and hatches and gathers her young in her shadow ; indeed , there the hawks are gathered , each one with her mate . ( ESV )
Today , the identification of the Burney Relief with Lilith is questioned , and the figure is now generally identified as the goddess of love and war .
= = = Ishtar = = =
50 years later , Thorkild Jacobsen substantially revised this interpretation and identified the figure as Inanna ( Akkadian : Ishtar ) in an analysis that is primarily based on textual evidence . According to Jacobsen :
The hypothesis that this tablet was created for worship makes it unlikely that a demon was depicted . Demons had no cult in Mesopotamian religious practice since demons " know no food , know no drink , eat no flour offering and drink no libation . " Therefore , " no relationship of giving and taking could be established with them " ;
The horned crown is a symbol of divinity , and the fact that it is four @-@ tiered suggests one of the principal gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon ;
Inanna was the only goddess that was associated with lions , for example a hymn by En @-@ hedu @-@ ana specifically mentions " Inanna , seated on crossed ( or harnessed ) lions "
The goddess is depicted standing on mountains . According to text sources , Inanna 's home was on Kur @-@ mùsh , the mountain crests . Iconographically , other gods were depicted on mountain scales as well , but there are examples in which Inanna is shown on a mountain pattern and another god is not , i.e. the pattern was indeed sometimes used to identify Inanna . ;
The rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol , her necklace and her wig are all attributes that are explicitly referred to in the myth of Inanna 's descent into the nether world .
Jacobsen quotes textual evidence that the Akkadian word eššebu ( owl ) corresponds to the Sumerian word ninna , and that the Sumerian Dnin @-@ ninna ( Divine lady ninna ) corresponds to the Akkadian Ishtar . The Sumerian ninna can also be translated as the Akkadian kilili , which is also a name or epithet for Ishtar . Inanna / Ishtar as harlot or goddess of harlots was a well known theme in Mesopotamian mythology and in one text , Inanna is called kar @-@ kid ( harlot ) and ab @-@ ba- [ šú ] -šú , which in Akkadian would be rendered kilili . Thus there appears to be a cluster of metaphors linking prostitute and owl and the goddess Inanna / Ishtar ; this could match the most enigmatic component of the relief to a well known aspect of Ishtar . Jacobsen concludes that this link would be sufficient to explain talons and wings , and adds that nudity could indicate the relief was originally the house @-@ altar of a bordello .
= = = Ereshkigal = = =
In contrast , the British Museum does acknowledge the possibility that the relief depicts either Lilith or Ishtar , but prefers a third identification : Ishtar 's antagonist and sister Ereshkigal , the goddess of the underworld . This interpretation is based on the fact that the wings are not outspread and that the background of the relief was originally painted black . If this were the correct identification , it would make the relief ( and by implication the smaller plaques of nude , winged goddesses ) the only known figurative representations of Ereshkigal . Edith Porada , the first to propose this identification , associates hanging wings with demons and then states : " If the suggested provenience of the Burney Relief at Nippur proves to be correct , the imposing demonic figure depicted on it may have to be identified with the female ruler of the dead or with some other major figure of the Old Babylonian pantheon which was occasionally associated with death . " No further supporting evidence was given by Porada , but another analysis published in 2002 comes to the same conclusion . E. von der Osten @-@ Sacken describes evidence for a weakly developed but nevertheless existing cult for Ereshkigal ; she cites aspects of similarity between the goddesses Ishtar and Ereshkigal from textual sources – for example they are called " sisters " in the myth of " Inanna 's descent into the nether world " – and she finally explains the unique doubled rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol in the following way : " Ereshkigal would be shown here at the peak of her power , when she had taken the divine symbols from her sister and perhaps also her identifying lions " .
= = Authenticity = =
The 1936 London Illustrated News feature had " no doubt of the authenticity " of the object which had " been subjected to exhaustive chemical examination " and showed traces of bitumen " dried out in a way which is only possible in the course of many centuries " . But stylistic doubts were published only a few months later by D. Opitz who noted the " absolutely unique " nature of the owls with no comparables in all of Babylonian figurative artefacts . In a back @-@ to @-@ back article , E. Douglas Van Buren examined examples of Sumerian [ sic ] art , which had been excavated and provenanced and she presented examples : Ishtar with two lions , the Louvre plaque ( AO 6501 ) of a nude , bird @-@ footed goddess standing on two Ibexes and similar plaques , and even a small haematite owl , although the owl is an isolated piece and not in an iconographical context .
A year later Frankfort ( 1937 ) acknowledged Van Buren 's examples , added some of his own and concluded " that the relief is genuine " . Opitz ( 1937 ) concurred with this opinion , but reasserted that the iconography is not consistent with other examples , especially regarding the rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol . These symbols were the focus of a communication by Pauline Albenda ( 1970 ) who again questioned the relief 's authenticity . Subsequently the British Museum performed thermoluminescence dating which was consistent with the relief being fired in antiquity ; but the method is imprecise when samples of the surrounding soil are not available for estimation of background radiation levels . A rebuttal to Albenda by Curtis and Collon ( 1996 ) published the scientific analysis ; the British Museum was sufficiently convinced of the relief to purchase it in 2003 . The discourse continued however : in her extensive reanalysis of stylistic features , Albenda once again called the relief " a pastiche of artistic features " and " continue [ d ] to be unconvinced of its antiquity " .
Her arguments were rebutted in a rejoinder by Collon ( 2007 ) , noting in particular that the whole relief was created in one unit , i.e. there is no possibility that a modern figure or parts of one might have been added to an antique background ; she also reviewed the iconographic links to provenanced pieces . In concluding Collon states : " [ Edith Porada ] believed that , with time , a forgery would look worse and worse , whereas a genuine object would grow better and better . [ ... ] Over the years [ the Queen of the Night ] has indeed grown better and better , and more and more interesting . For me she is a real work of art of the Old Babylonian period . "
In 2008 / 9 the relief was included in exhibitions on Babylon at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin , the Louvre in Paris , and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York .
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= Southworth House ( Cleveland , Ohio ) =
The Southworth House is a Classical Revival and Italianate house in Cleveland , Ohio , United States that was built in 1879 . Named for its first owner , W.P. Southworth , a leading resident of late nineteenth @-@ century Cleveland , the house has been used for a variety of commercial purposes in recent decades . One of many historic sites in its eastside neighborhood , it has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1984 .
= = Construction = =
The house was built in 1879 by William Palmer Southworth , a Cleveland businessman who established W.P. Southworth Co . , a leading Cleveland grocery , in the 1850s . He and his wife Louise were prominent in Cleveland society ; while she was a leader of the women 's suffrage movement , his store ( located in Public Square downtown ) was significant enough that its destruction by fire in 1882 prompted a front @-@ page story in the New York Times .
The house is built on a stone foundation with a basement , with walls of brick ; the architect 's name is not known . Its three floors were divided into nineteen rooms , and by 1904 Southworth had installed an elevator . The elevator remains today .
= = After Southworth = =
In August 1906 , a group of Cleveland Baptists incorporated an organization , the Baptist Home of Northern Ohio , to establish a retirement home for elderly Baptists . Ten months later , Southworth sold his house to the organization , which was supported financially by industrialist and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller , who was a Baptist . With the aid of local churches , the home was opened on October 16 , 1907 . According to the 1910 census , the Baptist Home served fourteen residents at the end of 1910 , at which time the entire property was worth $ 15 @,@ 000 . The former Southworth residence was not long a retirement home : the Baptist Home moved to a new location in 1919 and sold the Southworth House in the same year . Since that time , the house has been used for a wide range of purposes .
During the 1950s and 1960s , various businesses had offices in the house , which was then called the " Edelmar Building " or the " Accountants Building . " In 1973 , the Southworth House was purchased by Pi Sigma Tau Alpha , a fraternity based at the nearby Cleveland State University ; it later served as the fraternity house for Cleveland State 's chapter of Delta Sigma Phi . The house has changed hands several times since its fraternity days . In 1997 , a health care company bought it ; in 2005 , after the company was found to be fraudulent and the owner imprisoned , a historic preservation company bought the property at auction , and it too has since sold the house . Currently , the Southworth House is the location of offices for organizations such as an actual health care company and a local of the Laborers ' International Union of North America .
= = Preservation = =
The Southworth House is recognized as a landmark both locally and nationally . Along with many other properties along Prospect Avenue , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 1 , 1984 as part of the " Upper Prospect Multiple Resource Area . " It was included both for its distinctive combination of Classical Revival and Italianate architecture and for its association with Southworth . As the " Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity House , " it has been designated a Cleveland Landmark by the city of Cleveland . Since being listed on the Register in 1984 , the Southworth House has been the focus of both publicly funded and privately funded historic preservation efforts . In late 1996 , as Sunrise Home Health Care prepared to buy the Southworth House , Cleveland City Council provided over $ 250 @,@ 000 to help purchase and renovate the property . Architects Scott and Analia Dimit began a restoration of the house for developer Michael Chesler , and continued to guide its restoration when it was purchased by Laborers Union Local 860 in 2005 . The construction workers made it their union hall , completing the work in October 2007 . In October 2009 , the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the restoration with its Honor Award . Today , the house features wrought ironwork and a distinctive Italianate facade .
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= Armed Forces Special Weapons Project =
The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) was a United States military agency responsible for those aspects of nuclear weapons remaining under military control after the Manhattan Project was succeeded by the Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . These responsibilities included the maintenance , storage , surveillance , security and handling of nuclear weapons , as well as supporting nuclear testing . The AFSWP was a joint organization , staffed by the United States Army , United States Navy and United States Air Force ; its chief was supported by deputies from the other two services . Major General Leslie R. Groves , the former head of the Manhattan Project , was its first chief .
The early nuclear weapons were large , complex and cumbersome . They were stored as components rather than complete devices and required expert knowledge to assemble . The short life of their lead @-@ acid batteries and modulated neutron initiators , and the heat generated by the fissile cores , precluded storing them assembled . The large quantity of conventional explosive in each weapon demanded special care be taken in handling . Groves hand @-@ picked a team of regular Army officers , who were trained in the assembly and handling of the weapons . They in turn trained the enlisted soldiers , and the Army teams then trained teams from the Navy and Air Force .
As nuclear weapons development proceeded , the weapons became mass @-@ produced , smaller , lighter , and easier to store , handle and maintain . They also required less effort to assemble . The AFSWP gradually shifted its emphasis away from training assembly teams , and became more involved in stockpile management and providing administrative , technical and logistical support . It supported nuclear weapons testing , although after Operation Sandstone in 1948 , this was increasingly in a planning and training capacity rather than a field role . In 1958 , the AFSWP became the Defense Atomic Support Agency ( DASA ) , a field agency of the Department of Defense .
= = Origins = =
Nuclear weapons were developed during World War II by the Manhattan Project , a major research and development effort led by the United States , with participation from the United Kingdom and Canada . From 1942 to 1946 , it was under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , of the US Army Corps of Engineers . It created a network of production facilities , most notably for uranium enrichment at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , plutonium production at Hanford , Washington and weapons research and design at the Los Alamos Laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . The nuclear weapons that were developed were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 .
After the war ended , the Manhattan Project supported the nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads in 1946 . One of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal 's aides , Lewis Strauss proposed this series of tests to refute " loose talk to the effect that the fleet is obsolete in the face of this new weapon . " The nuclear weapons were handmade devices , and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly , safety , reliability and storage before they were ready for production . There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended , but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development .
Groves 's biggest concern was about people . Soldiers and scientists wanted to return to their peacetime pursuits , and there was a danger that wartime knowledge would be lost , leaving no one who knew how to handle and maintain nuclear weapons , much less how to improve the weapons and processes . The military side of the Manhattan Project had relied heavily on reservists , all of whom were eligible for separation . To replace them , Groves asked for fifty West Point graduates from the top ten percent of their classes to man bomb assembly teams at Sandia Base , where the assembly staff and facilities had been moved from Los Alamos and Wendover Field in September and October 1945 . He felt that only such high quality personnel would be able to work with the scientists who were currently doing the job . They were also urgently required for many other jobs in the postwar Army . When General Thomas T. Handy turned down his request , Groves raised the matter with the Chief of Staff of the Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , who similarly did not approve it . Groves then went over his head too , and took it to the Secretary of War , Robert P. Patterson , who agreed with Groves . The personnel manned the 2761st Engineer Battalion ( Special ) , which became a field unit under the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) .
Groves hoped that a new , permanent agency would be created to take over the responsibilities of the wartime Manhattan Project in 1945 , but passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 through Congress took much longer than expected , and involved considerable debate about the proper role of the military with respect to the development , production and control of nuclear weapons . The act that was signed by President Harry S. Truman on 1 August 1946 created a civilian agency , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project , but the commissioners were not appointed until October , and AEC did not assume its role until 1 January 1947 . In the meantime , the Military Appropriation Act of 1946 gave the Manhattan Project $ 72 @.@ 4 million for research and development , and $ 19 million for housing and utilities at Los Alamos and Oak Ridge .
The Atomic Energy Act provided for a Military Liaison Committee to advise the AEC on military matters , so Patterson appointed Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton , who became chairman , along with Major General Lunsford E. Oliver and Colonel John H. Hinds as Army members of the Military Liaison Committee ; Forrestal appointed Rear Admirals Thorvald A. Solberg , Ralph A. Ofstie and William S. Parsons as its naval members .
= = Organization = =
Chiefs of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
Patterson asked Groves to create a new agency to take over responsibility for the aspects of nuclear weapons that still remained under the military . It was to be jointly staffed by the Army and Navy , and on 29 January 1947 , Patterson and Forrestal issued a memorandum that formally established the AFSWP . Its chief would be appointed jointly by the Chief of Staff of the Army and the Chief of Naval Operations , along with a deputy from the opposite service . Both would be members of the Military Liaison Committee , because the Atomic Energy Act stipulated that the Military Liaison Committee was the sole military body that dealt with the AEC . In February 1947 , Eisenhower and Chief of Naval Operations Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz appointed Groves as head of the AFSWP , with Parsons as his deputy . Accordingly , Groves was appointed to the Military Liaison Committee , although the newly appointed AEC chairman , David E. Lilienthal , told Patterson that he did not think that it was a good idea , because Groves had run the Manhattan Project by himself for four years , and was not used to having to compromise .
Groves and Parsons drafted a proposed organization and charter for the AFSWP , which they sent to Eisenhower and Nimitz for approval in July 1947 . Groves did not get everything that he asked for ; he wanted a status equal to that of a deputy to the Chief of Staff and Chief of Naval Operations , but the most that Eisenhower and Nimitz would allow was a status equal to that of the heads of a technical service , although Groves still reported directly to them . They also characterized his role as a staff post rather than a command , although Groves was already exercising the functions of a commander at Sandia . After the National Security Act of 1947 created an independent Air Force , Groves reported to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force as well , and was given a second deputy chief from the Air Force , Major General Roscoe C. Wilson , who had worked on the Silverplate project during the war .
Groves initially established the headquarters of the AFSWP in the old offices of the Manhattan Project on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building in Washington , DC , but on 15 April 1947 it moved to the Pentagon . As AFSWP headquarters expanded , it filled up its original accommodation , and began using office space in other parts of the building , which was not satisfactory from a security point of view . In August 1949 , it moved to 18 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m2 ) of new offices inside the Pentagon . This included space for a soundproof conference room , a darkroom , and vaults where its records and films were stored .
The 2761st Engineer Battalion ( Special ) at Sandia was commanded by Colonel Gilbert M. Dorland , and consisted of a headquarters company , a security company ( Company A ) , a bomb assembly company ( Company B ) and a radiological monitoring company ( Company C ) , although Company C was never fully formed . For training purposes , Company B was initially divided into command , electrical , mechanical and nuclear groups , but the intention was to create three integrated 36 @-@ man bomb assembly teams . To free the bomb assembly teams from having to train newcomers , a Technical Training Group ( TTG ) was created under Lieutenant Colonel John A. Ord , a Signal Corps officer with a Doctor of Science degree from Carnegie Institute of Technology who had directed the training of thousands of radar technicians at the Southern Signal Corps School during the war . The battalion was redesignated the 38th Engineer Battalion ( Special ) in April 1947 , and in July it became part of the newly created AFSWP Field Command , under the command of Brigadier General Robert M. Montague . The TTG was soon reporting directly to Montague as well .
The first bomb assembly team was formed in August 1947 , followed by a second in December and a third in March 1948 . Experience with assembling the bombs convincingly demonstrated the requirement , in Sandia if not in Washington , for a much larger unit . Groves reluctantly approved a 109 @-@ man special weapons unit , and Montague converted the three lettered companies of the 38th Engineer Battalion into special weapons units . In 1948 , they began training a Navy special weapons unit , as the Navy foresaw delivery of nuclear weapons with its new North American AJ Savage bombers from its Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers . This unit became the 471st Naval Special Weapons Unit on its certification in August 1948 . Two Air Force units were created in September and December 1948 , which became the 502d and 508th Aviation Squadrons . An additional Army special weapons unit was created in May 1948 , and in December , the 38th Engineer Battalion ( Special ) became the 8460th Special Weapons Group , with all seven special weapons units under its command . The four Army units were then renamed the 111th , 122d , 133d and 144th Special Weapons Units . During the late 1940s the Air Force gradually became the major user of nuclear weapons , and by the end of 1949 , it had twelve assembly units , and another three in training , while the Army had only four , and the Navy three , one for each of the three Midway @-@ class carriers .
In March 1948 , the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Carl Spaatz , proposed that the Air Force take over the AFSWP , on the grounds that the Key West Agreement had given it responsibility for strategic bombing . This would have simplified command of the AFSWP , as it would have been answerable to only one service chief instead of three The Army cautiously supported the proposal , but the Navy was strongly opposed , fearing that the Air Force 's confusion of atomic bombing and strategic bombing would impede or even prevent the Navy from having access to nuclear weapons , which it felt was necessary to accomplish its primary maritime mission . Another series of talks was held at the Naval War College in Newport , Rhode Island , from 20 to 22 August 1948 , which resulted in the Newport Agreement , under which the Navy agreed to drop its opposition to the AFSWP being placed under the Air Force temporarily , in return for the Air Force recognizing the Navy 's requirement for nuclear weapons . When the Air Force moved to make the temporary arrangement permanent in September 1948 , the Army and Navy objected , and the Military Liaison Committee directed that the AFSWP should remain a tri @-@ service organization answerable to the three service chiefs .
= = Field operations = =
Groves and the wartime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Robert Oppenheimer , had begun the move of ordnance functions to Sandia in late 1945 . The laboratory 's ordnance engineering division , known as Z Division , after its first director , Jerrold R. Zacharias , was split between Los Alamos and Sandia . Between March and July 1946 , Z Division relocated to Sandia , except for its mechanical engineering ( Z @-@ 4 ) section , which followed in February 1947 . Z Division worked on improving the mechanical and electrical reliability of the Mark 3 Fat Man bomb , but this work was disrupted by the Crossroads tests .
The 1947 nuclear stockpile consisted of nuclear weapons components , not weapons . Meeting with Truman in April 1947 , Lilienthal informed him that not only were there no assembled weapons , but there were only a few sets of components , and no fully trained bomb assembly teams . By August 1946 , Sandia Base held electrical and mechanical assemblies for about 50 Fat Man bombs , but there were only nine fissile cores in storage . The stockpile of cores grew to 13 in 1947 , and 53 in 1948 . Oppenheimer noted that the bombs were " still largely the haywire contraptions that were slapped together in 1945 . " With a half @-@ life of only 140 days , the polonium @-@ beryllium modulated neutron initiators had to be periodically removed from the plutonium pits , tested , and , if necessary , replaced . The cores had to be stored separately from the high explosive blocks that would surround them in the bomb because they generated enough heat to melt the plastic explosive over time . The heat could also affect the cores themselves , provoking a phase transition to a different allotrope of plutonium . They had to be periodically inspected by technicians wearing gloves and respirators . The bomb 's electrical power for its radar fuzes and detonators came from a pair of lead @-@ acid batteries similar to those used in cars . These had to be charged 24 hours before use . After a few days , the bomb had to be partially disassembled so that they could be re @-@ charged ; and three days after that the batteries had to be replaced .
The 38th Engineer Battalion 's electrical group studied the batteries , the electrical firing systems and the radar fuzes which detonated the bomb at the required altitude . The mechanical group dealt with the exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators and the explosive lenses . The nuclear group moved to Los Alamos to study the cores and initiators . As part of their training , they attended lectures by Edward Teller , Hans Bethe , Lise Meitner and Enrico Fermi . The electrical and mechanical groups at Sandia , although not the nuclear group , completed their training around the end of October 1946 and spent the next month devising the best methods of assembling a Fat Man , drawing up detailed checklists so that later bomb assembly teams could be trained . They also drew up a proposed table of organization and equipment for an assembly team . It took two weeks for them to assemble their first bomb in December 1946 .
Most of 1947 was spent planning for a field exercise in which a bomb team would deploy to a base and assemble weapons under field conditions . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) portable building was acquired and outfitted as field workshops that could be loaded onto a C @-@ 54 or C @-@ 97 transport aircraft . In November 1947 , the 38th Engineer Battalion carried out its first major field exercise , Operation Ajax . It drew bomb components , except for fissile cores , from the AEC , and deployed by air to Wendover Field , Utah . This was the home of the 509th Bombardment Group , which was the only unit operating Silverplate B @-@ 29 bombers , and therefore the only B @-@ 29 group capable of delivering nuclear weapons . To simulate operational conditions , they took a roundabout route via New England and Seattle . Over the following ten days , they assembled bombs and flew training missions with them , including a live drop at the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California .
This was followed by other exercises . In one exercise in March 1948 , the base personnel successfully fought off an " attack " by 250 paratroopers from Fort Hood , Texas . In another exercise in November 1948 , the 471st Special Weapons Unit flew to Norfolk , Virginia , and practiced bomb assembly on board the Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers .
= = Nuclear testing = =
In addition to assembly of weapons , the AFSWP supported nuclear weapons testing . For Operation Sandstone in 1948 , Groves ordered Dorland to fill every possible job with his men . He did this so well that Strauss , now an AEC commissioner , became disturbed at the number of AFSWP personnel who were participating , and feared that the Soviet Union might launch a sneak attack on Enewetak to wipe out the nation 's ability to assemble nuclear weapons . The successful testing in Operation Sandstone was a major leap forward . The new Mark 4 nuclear bomb that the AEC began delivering in 1949 was a production design that was much easier to assemble and maintain , and enabled a bomb assembly team to be reduced to just 46 men . Kenneth D. Nichols , the wartime commander of the Manhattan District , now " recommended that we should be thinking in terms of thousands of weapons rather than hundreds . "
After Operation Sandstone , only relatively small numbers of AFSWP personnel were involved in nuclear testing . The AFSWP was heavily involved in the planning , preparation and coordination of tests , but it had limited participation in the tests themselves , where the bomb assembly function was usually undertaken by scientists . During Operation Buster @-@ Jangle , AFSWP personnel showed films and gave lectures to 2 @,@ 800 military personnel who had been selected to witness the test , explaining what would occur and the procedures to be followed . This was expanded to cater for the more than 7 @,@ 000 personnel who were involved in Operation Upshot @-@ Knothole in 1953 .
= = Custody of nuclear weapons = =
When the AEC was formed in 1947 it acquired custody of nuclear components from the Manhattan Project on the understanding that the matter would be reviewed . In November 1947 , the Military Liaison Committee requested that custody of the nuclear stockpile be transferred to the military , but Lilienthal believed that AEC custody of the stockpile was an important aspect of civilian control of nuclear weapons . He was disturbed that the AFSWP had not informed the AEC in advance of Operation Ajax . For his part , Groves suspected that the AEC was not keeping bomb components in the condition in which the military wanted to receive them , and Operation Ajax only confirmed his suspicions . Reviewing the exercise , Montague reported that " under the existing law , with the AEC charged with procurement and custody of all atomic weapons , there was no adequate logistic support for the weapon . " He recommended a larger role for the military , a recommendation with which Groves concurred , but was powerless to implement .
Groves retired at the end of February 1948 , and Nichols was designated as his successor with the rank of major general . At the same time , Forrestal , now the Secretary of Defense , reorganized the Military Liaison Committee . A civilian , Donald F. Carpenter , replaced Brereton as chairman , and there were now two members from each of the three services . On 11 March , Truman summoned Lilienthal , Nichols and Secretary of the Army Kenneth C. Royall to his office , and told them that he expected the AFSWP and the AEC to cooperate .
Nichols 's position was the same as Groves 's and Montague 's : that nuclear weapons needed to be available in an emergency , and the men who had to use them in battle needed to have experience with their maintenance , storage and handling . Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in December 1945 , argued that rapid transfer could be accomplished by improved procedures and that the other difficulties could best be resolved by further development , mostly from the scientists . Forrestal and Carpenter took the matter up with Truman , who issued his decision on 21 July 1948 : " I regard the continued control of all aspects of the atomic energy program , including research , development and the custody of atomic weapons as the proper functions of the civil authorities . "
With the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 , air transport resources were put under great strain , and it was decided to reduce the requirement for it by pre @-@ positioning non @-@ nuclear components at locations in Europe and the Pacific . That way , in an emergency , only the nuclear components would have to be flown out . In June , Truman ordered the transfer of 90 sets of non @-@ nuclear Mark 4 components to the AFSWP for training purposes . In December , he authorized the carriage of non @-@ nuclear components on board the Midway @-@ class carriers . In April 1951 , the AEC released nine Mark 4 weapons to the Air Force in case the Soviet Union intervened in the war in Korea . These were flown to Guam , where they were maintained by the Air Force special weapons unit there . Thus , at the end of 1951 , there were 429 weapons in AEC custody and nine held by the Department of Defense .
In the light of this , a new AEC @-@ AFSWP agreement on " Responsibilities of Stockpile Operations " was drawn up in August 1951 , but in December , the Joint Chiefs of Staff began a new push for weapons to be permanently assigned to the armed forces , so as to ensure a greater degree of flexibility and a higher state of readiness . On 20 June 1953 , Eisenhower , now as president , approved the deployment of nuclear components in equal numbers to non @-@ nuclear components , and the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 amended the sections of the old act that gave exclusive custody to the AEC . By 1959 , the nuclear stockpile had grown to 12 @,@ 305 weapons of which 3 @,@ 968 were in AEC custody and the remaining 8 @,@ 337 were held by the Department of Defense . The total yield of the stockpile was now in excess of 19 @,@ 000 megatons of TNT ( 79 @,@ 000 PJ ) .
As Bradbury had promised , with research and development , nuclear weapons became smaller , simpler and lighter . They also became easier to store , assemble , test and maintain . Thus , while under Eisenhower 's New Look policy the Armed Forces became more heavily involved with aspects of nuclear weapons than ever , the role of the AFSWP diminished . It began moving away from training assembly teams , which were increasingly not required , as its primary mission , and became more involved in the management of the rapidly growing nuclear stockpile , and providing technical advice and logistical support . In 1953 , the AFSWP Field Command had 10 @,@ 250 personnel . On 16 October 1953 , the Secretary of Defense charged the AFSWP with responsibility for " a centralized system of reporting and accounting to ensure that the current status and location " of all nuclear weapons " will be known at all times " . The Atomic Warfare Status Center was created within the AFSWP to handle this mission .
= = Conversion to Defense Atomic Support Agency = =
In April 1958 , Eisenhower asked Congress for legislation to overhaul the Department of Defense . Over a decade had passed since the legislation which had established it , and he was concerned about the degree of inter @-@ service rivalry , duplication and mismanagement that was evident in many programs . In ballistic missile development , the Soviet Sputnik program had demonstrated that country 's technological lead over the United States . The Army and Air Force had rival programs , PGM @-@ 19 Jupiter and PGM @-@ 17 Thor respectively , and the additional cost to the taxpayers of developing two systems instead of one was estimated at $ 500 million .
The Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 was signed by Eisenhower in August 1958 . It increased the authority of the Secretary of Defense , who was authorized to establish such defense agencies as he thought necessary " to provide for more effective , efficient and economical administration and operation " . The first field agency established under the act was the Defense Atomic Support Agency ( DASA ) , which replaced the AFSWP on 1 May 1959 . The new agency reported to the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and was given responsibility for the supervision of all Department of Defense nuclear testing , which had hitherto been handled by the individual services . Otherwise , its role and organization remained much the same , and its commander , Rear Admiral Edward N. Parker , remained as its first director . Eisenhower 's proposed nuclear testing moratorium ultimately fundamentally changed DASA 's mission , as nuclear testing was phased out , Cold War tensions eased , and nuclear disarmament became a prospect .
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= 2001 – 02 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2001 – 02 season was the 104th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . Having ended the previous season as FA Cup finalists and league runners @-@ up to Manchester United , the club went one better in this campaign , by completing the domestic double – their second in four years and third overall . Arsenal won the Premier League by a seven @-@ point margin , were unbeaten away from home and managed the unique feat of scoring in every league game . They lost only three times in the division , all of which at home . At the Millennium Stadium , Arsenal beat Chelsea 2 – 0 to win the 2002 FA Cup Final . In Europe however , they fared poorly as they were eliminated in the second group stage of the UEFA Champions League .
In the transfer window , Arsenal sold several fringe players , notably Nelson Vivas to Internazionale and Sylvinho to Celta Vigo ; goalkeeper John Lukic was released following his decision to retire . Goalkeeper Richard Wright was signed as an earmarked understudy to David Seaman , while midfielder Giovanni van Bronckhorst and striker Francis Jeffers were purchased in big money moves from Rangers and Everton respectively . Perhaps the marked signing for Arsenal was the acquisition of defender Sol Campbell , who moved from local rivals Tottenham Hotspur on a free transfer .
Manager Arsène Wenger was named Barclaycard Manager of the Year and midfielder Fredrik Ljungberg received the player equivalent – the Barclaycard Player of the Year , in recognition of the team 's achievement . Winger Robert Pirès was given the accolade of being the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year , while Thierry Henry ended the campaign as club and the league 's top goalscorer , the latter for which he was awarded the Premier League Golden Boot . At the end of the season , club captain Tony Adams announced his retirement from football ; he was followed by fellow defender Lee Dixon and club goalkeeping coach Bob Wilson .
= = Background = =
In the 2000 – 01 season , Arsenal finished second in the Premier League for the third consecutive season – this time ten points behind Manchester United . The title race was as good as over by February , when Arsenal lost 6 – 1 to United at Old Trafford . The season gave priority to cups , with the best chance of ending their three @-@ year wait for a trophy being in the FA Cup ; Arsenal beat Tottenham Hotspur in the semi @-@ finals and met Liverpool in the final . Although they dominated most of the match and went a goal up , they succumbed to two late Michael Owen goals and lost 2 – 1 .
= = = Transfers = = =
The cup final defeat prompted manager Arsène Wenger to admit new players would be brought in during the transfer window . To fill the seemingly void left by Emmanuel Petit in the centre of midfield , Giovanni van Bronckhorst was signed from Rangers for £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Teenager Francis Jeffers was purchased from Everton in an initial £ 8 million deal . Junichi Inamoto and Richard Wright were also recruited , with Nelson Vivas and Sylvinho departing the club . After a protracted transfer saga , which involved him questioning Arsenal 's ambitions and being linked to a move with Manchester United , midfielder Patrick Vieira remained at the club .
Perhaps the marked signing of the summer was defender Sol Campbell , who moved from rivals Tottenham Hotspur on a Bosman ruling . The player 's wage demands seemed to have extinguished Arsenal 's chances of signing the player at one point . Campbell was unveiled at a midday news conference on 3 July 2001 , which journalists " presumed had been called to announce goalkeeper Richard Wright 's arrival from Ipswich . " Wenger described Campbell as the " best " , adding : " I felt we could not compete on financial basis with the top clubs but we could give him a football challenge . "
= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal 's league campaign started on 18 August 2001 , with an away fixture at Middlesbrough . Thierry Henry scored the opening goal in the 43rd minute , before teammate Ray Parlour was sent off in the second half for a second bookable offence . In spite of the man disadvantage , Arsenal was awarded a late penalty which was converted in by Robert Pirès – it was conceded by Ugo Ehiogu for a trip on Ashley Cole , who subsequently was sent off . Substitute Dennis Bergkamp added two goals in two minutes , in what finished a 4 – 0 victory . At home to Leeds United , Arsenal conceded within the half @-@ hour after Ian Harte ’ s " low , left @-@ footed free @-@ kick " beat goalkeeper Seaman . Although Sylvain Wiltord equalised moments after , striker Mark Viduka in the second half collected a pass from Harry Kewell and used his strength to beat Tony Adams and score for the visitors . In spite of an attacking formation change and Leeds going down to nine men , as Danny Mills and Lee Bowyer were dismissed , Arsenal was unable to break down their defence . Goals from Ljungberg , Wiltord , Henry and Kanu against Leicester City moved Arsenal into third place , a point behind joint @-@ leaders Everton and Leeds .
The team could only manage a draw against Chelsea on 8 September 2001 , in a game described by The Guardian writer David Lacey as one where " the teams simply battered away at each other until one cracked . " Henry scored the winning goal away to newly promoted outfit Fulham ; the 3 – 1 victory moved Arsenal to the top of the league for the first time in the campaign . Against Bolton Wanderers , Arsenal was held to a 1 – 1 draw after Jeffers goal was cancelled out by Michael Ricketts . A win at Derby County , where Henry scored two goals was followed by an identical scoreline against Southampton at the new St. Mary 's Stadium . At home to Blackburn Rovers , midfielder Keith Gillespie gave the visitors the lead , before Pirès equalised and Bergkamp put Arsenal in front . A mistake by Lauren presented David Dunn the chance to shoot " from 25 yards " and score . Henry 's controlled effort looked to have been the winner for Arsenal , until a pass by Tugay caused goalkeeper Wright to " race out of his goal " – the loose ball was collected by Dunn who shot into the empty net . Although Wenger was disappointed with the manner of the defeat , he saw some encouragement : " What 's positive for everyone is that Manchester United are dropping points as well . But we need to rectify the fact we concede goals at home . " October ended with a draw against Sunderland , where notably former Arsenal player Stefan Schwarz equalised for the home side and Patrick Vieira missed a penalty .
= = = November – February = = =
Arsenal 's first fixture of November was at home to Charlton Athletic . The team conceded four goals in 20 minutes and blew several chances to " kill the game " , in what was the club 's biggest home defeat in the league under Wenger . An away trip to local rivals Tottenham Hostpur became magnified with interest , given it marked the return of Campbell following his move to Arsenal . An 81st @-@ minute goal scored by Pirès put Arsenal into the lead , before a lapse by Wright in goal allowed Gus Poyet ‘ s shot to squirm from his grasp and enter the goalnet . Arsenal then faced league champions Manchester United and in spite of conceding inside 14 minutes through a Paul Scholes ’ strike , Ljungberg equalised for them " with a wonderful chipped finish , following Gary Neville 's wretched error . " Arsenal improved in the second half but scored in unforeseen fashion : United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez passed the ball directly into the feet of Henry , who profited from the error and scored . Five minutes later , Barthez 's failure to grasp the ball presented Henry the chance to score his second , which he did . Both Henry and Wenger defended the opposition goalkeeper , with the former , his international teammate saying : " Of course I was happy to score the goals but it was strange . He 's my good friend and I feel sorry for him ; I would rather have got them another way . "
Arsenal beat Ipswich Town on 1 December 2001 to put the club second in the league table . A week later the team played Aston Villa , . Goals from ex @-@ Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson and Steve Stone gave the visitors a deserved lead before Arsenal produced an " enthralling " fight back , capped off by Henry , who scored the winner in stoppage time . The team drew 1 – 1 at West Ham United and lost more ground at the top of the league table following a comprehensive home defeat to Newcastle United . Arsenal began the Christmas period with a fixture against Liverpool and the team were without Vieira , who was suspended . Striker Michael Owen thought he had scored his 100th goal for Liverpool , which was acrobatically cleared off the line by Cole . Vieira 's replacement Giovanni van Bronckhorst was sent off in the 35th minute for a dive but the man disadvantage did not stop Arsenal " catching their opponents on the break " . The team scored the first goal of the match – a penalty , converted by Henry minutes before the interval and " uncharacteristic slackness " by Steven Gerrard allowed Pirès to beat his defender and cross the ball from the left @-@ hand side ; it was met by Ljungberg , who nipped in at the far post to double Arsenal 's lead . Jari Litmanen pulled a goal back for Liverpool but Arsenal hung on to record their first win at Anfield in Wenger 's tenure . On Boxing Day Arsenal recorded a win against Chelsea and two days after , earned three points at home to Middlesbrough , courtesy of a headed winner by Cole .
In their first league match of 2002 , Arsenal hosted Liverpool at Highbury . The match brought " little but frustration " for the home side as Liverpool scored an equaliser six minutes after Ljungberg gave Arsenal the lead . More ground was lost and the initiative was handed to Manchester United , following a second successive stalemate in the league , this time away to Leeds on 20 January 2002 . With results going in Arsenal 's favour that midweek however , the club moved second in the table after a 3 – 1 win against Leicester City . Victory away to Blackburn Rovers , where Oleg Luzhny was sent off in the second half and his defensive partner Campbell " provided the sort of display usually described as sterling " , kept Arsenal in @-@ touch of Manchester United .
A Jo Tessem equaliser for Southampton earned the visitors a point against Arsenal on 2 February 2002 ; in hindsight this proved to be the last time they dropped points in the league season . Wiltord scored the winning goal against Everton and Arsenal moved back to second place , which was obtained by Liverpool , following a 4 – 1 win at home to Fulham .
= = = March – May = = =
Arsenal recorded a 2 – 0 win against Newcastle United on 2 March 2002 . The opening goal scored by Bergkamp was described as a " really clever goal " by opposition manager Sir Bobby Robson . The move involved the striker receiving a low pass from Pirès and under pressure from his marker Nikos Dabizas , he controlled the ball with one flick and went around before placing the ball into the right @-@ hand corner . Arsenal moved to the top of the table three days after , as they beat Derby County by one goal to nil . They were displaced by Manchester United the following night , albeit with the reigning champions having played a game more . An inspired performance by Pirès against Aston Villa on 17 March 2002 kept a point behind top spot ; the win was followed up by a comprehensive defeat of Sunderland , where all three Arsenal goals were scored in the first half .
Henry scored a brace against Charlton Athletic to move Arsenal back to first spot , one clear of Liverpool with a game @-@ in @-@ hand . They then played Tottenham Hotspur on 6 April 2002 and took the lead in the opening half through Ljungberg , via a deflection off goalkeeper Kasey Keller . Teddy Sheringham equalised for Spurs from the penalty spot , before Arsenal was awarded a spot kick when Henry was adjusted to have been fouled by Dean Richards . With Henry receiving treatment and normal penalty takers Edu and Bergkamp substituted , Lauren stepped up to take the responsibility and scored what was the winner . Victory against Ipswich Town and five days later at home against West Ham United , where Ljungberg and Kanu scored meant Arsenal was two wins away from securing the title . The team beat Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium , which mathematically ruled out Liverpool 's chances of winning the league and meant Manchester United needed to beat Arsenal the following game to have any chance of retaining it . Ruud van Nistelrooy was surprisingly named on the bench for Sir Alex Ferguson 's side , with Arsenal missing Adams and Henry . Having withstood pressure from the home side in the first half , Wiltord scored for Arsenal in the second half , receiving a pass from Ljungberg in the build up . The win secured the double for the second time in four seasons and prompted Wenger to acclaim a " shift of power " in the league . On the final day of the season , Arsenal beat Everton by four goals to three , in a match where defender Lee Dixon and goalkeeping coach Bob Wilson received warm send @-@ offs from the crowd .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A |
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D |
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W |
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round , in which they were drawn to play Watford of the First Division . They took the lead in the eighth minute , where good play by Kanu allowed Henry to round goalkeeper Alec Chamberlain and tap the ball into the net . The lead was doubled two minutes later : Kanu again found Henry , who " unselfishly squared the ball to midfielder Freddie Ljungberg for another tap @-@ in . " Gifton Noel @-@ Williams moments afterwards halved the lead , when Arsenal failed to deal with a corner ; Noel @-@ Williams headed the ball in from a Gary Fisken cross . After squandering numerous chances to increase their lead , Arsenal added a late third and fourth goal from Kanu and Bergkamp before Marcus Gayle scored what was a mere consolation for Watford in stoppage time . Arsenal faced cup holders Liverppol the following round , whom they lost to in the 2001 FA Cup Final . A solitary goal scored by Bergkamp in the 27th minute was enough for Arsenal to progress , in a match layered with controversy : Martin Keown , Bergkamp and Liverpool 's Jamie Carragher were sent off in the space of ten minutes – the latter footballer for hurling back a coin at the crowd . Against Gillingham in the fifth round , Arsenal twice had their lead cancelled out , before Adams , making his long awaited return , scored the match @-@ winning goal .
Arsenal played league challengers Newcastle United in the sixth round , on 9 March 2002 . The timing of the game , influenced by the television schedulers , angered Wenger , who threatened to field a weakened side , to prioritise on their Champions League progress : " The BBC have put us in this position of playing at 5.35pm on Saturday night instead of a noon kick @-@ off . I don 't know whether Newcastle would have played the game earlier on the Saturday but what can I do about the BBC ? I feel it 's being very unfair as we are the only side left in all three competitions . " It was the second meeting between both teams in a week , and in spite of Arsenal winning the first fixture and scoring the opener in the cup tie , Newcastle found " new reserves of energy and determination " to draw level and created numerous opportunities to win the game outright . With the game ending in a draw , a replay was scheduled two weeks later . Arsenal won 3 @-@ 0 , but more concerningly lost Pirès , who was carried off and subsequently ruled out for the remainder of the season with medial knee ligament damage . An own goal by Middlesbrough 's Gianluca Festa , from an Henry free @-@ kick in the semi @-@ finals was enough to send Arsenal to their 15th FA Cup final .
= = = Final = = =
Arsenal contested the final against Chelsea on 4 May 2002 . Wenger recalled Seaman in goal from the previous fixture , in place of Wright while Campbell was paired up with Adams in central defence . For Chelsea , Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink and Graeme Le Saux passed late fitness tests and were named in the first team ; John Terry filled the substitutes bench , having woken up with a virus . Chelsea threatened early with goal efforts from Le Saux and midfielder Frank Lampard , before Bergkamp fashioned the first real chance of the match – he headed the ball over the top , which caught goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini off his line . In the 70th minute Arsenal took the lead : Adams found Wiltord in space , who in turn passed the ball towards Parlour – he kicked " from just beyond the arc " , which flew into the top right corner . Ten minutes after , Ljungberg increased the lead , running from the half @-@ way line and shrung off a late challenge by Terry to curl the ball past Cudicini . The win meant Arsenal completed one half of an expected double ; Wenger was pleased with the team 's performance , adding : " We were very frustrated last year . We have shown a lot of strength to come back here – beating Liverpool and Newcastle on the way . "
= = Football League Cup = =
In the third round of the Football League Cup , Arsenal faced Manchester United at Highbury . With both managers making several first team changes to give their younger and fringe players game time , it was Arsenal who came out on top , with Wiltord scoring a hat @-@ trick . A 2 – 0 win against First Division outfit Grimsby Town , who knocked out competition holders Liverpool in the previous round followed , but Arsenal was eliminated in the fifth round , losing 4 – 0 to Blackburn Rovers on 11 December 2001 . Wenger shrugged off the significance of the defeat and suggested that a spot in Europe , given to the winners of the competition , should instead be allocated to the Premier League : " I would give one more place to the championship because it 's more difficult to play in the championship . But , as long as there is a European place at stake , we will play in the competition . "
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal 's qualification into the UEFA Champions League was ensured as league runners @-@ up the previous season . The club were drawn in Group B , along with German opposition Schalke 04 , Panathinaikos of Greece and Spain 's Mallorca . In the opening match against Mallorca on 11 September 2001 , Cole was handed a straight red card , as he was adjudged to have brought down striker Albert Luque in the penalty box . Vicente Engonga scored from the resulting penalty , which proved to be the winning goal , in spite of Wenger making attacking substitutions that threatened to go close . A 3 – 2 victory against Schalke 04 , where Henry scored two goals was followed by a defeat away to Panathinaikos . In the reverse fixture , Arsenal held on to win 2 – 1 and secured their passage to the second group stage with victory over Mallorca . With nothing to play for , Wenger fielded an understrength Arsenal team against Schalke 04 , who " ... produced next to nothing in attack , looked poor in defence and were beaten by the time Sylvain Wiltord scored from Ray Parlour 's cross . "
= = = Second group stage = = =
First half goals scored by Roy Makaay and Diego Tristan inflicted defeat for Arsenal in their opening group game against Deportivo La Coruña . The team responded with a 3 – 1 win against Italian champions Juventus ; Ljungberg 's second goal of the match and Arsenal 's third involved a " wonderful piece of individual skill " by Bergkamp , as he held off two markers , before twisting and turning to find the Swede . What looked to be a priceless win against Bayer Leverkusen at the BayArena as Arsenal for much of the second half were down to ten men , in fact turned into a draw , as Ulf Kirsten scored in stoppage time to cancel out Pirès 56th @-@ minute goal . In spite of winning the reverse fixture , defeat at home to Deportivo La Coruña and away at Juventus meant Arsenal finished third in the group with seven points .
= = Awards = =
In recognition of the team 's achievement , Wenger was awarded the Barclaycard Manager of the Year , in addition to being named the League Managers Association Manager of the Year . Ljungberg , who scored in five of Arsenal 's last eight league matches , as well as the second goal in the cup final , was given the Barclaycard Player of the Year accolade . Pirès was named the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year , with five votes separating himself from Ruud van Nistelrooy ; he said it was " a great honour " to receive the award , adding : " Times have been difficult with my injury , but this has given me something to smile about . "
For his goal against Newcastle United , Bergkamp received the Goal of the Season award , as voted by viewers of ITV 's The Premiership . Henry earned the Premier League Golden Boot , scoring 24 league goals – one more than van Nistelrooy , while Paul Burgess was named " Premier League Groundsman of the Year " .
= = Player statistics = =
[ R ] – Reserve team player [ L ] – Out on loan [ S ] – Sold
Source :
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= New York State Route 12E =
New York State Route 12E ( NY 12E ) is a state highway located entirely within the northwestern part of Jefferson County in northern New York in the United States . Officially , the southern terminus of NY 12E is at NY 12 in the city of Watertown ; however , its signed terminus is at NY 12F in the village of Brownville . Its northern terminus , both signed and official , is at NY 12 in the village of Clayton . While NY 12 follows a direct north – south routing between Watertown and Clayton , NY 12E diverges westward to follow the shoreline of Lake Ontario . The portion of NY 12E north of its junction with NY 180 is part of the Seaway Trail , a National Scenic Byway .
Most of modern NY 12E was originally designated as part of NY 3 in 1924 . NY 3 was moved onto its current alignment east of Watertown as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , at which time its former routing between Watertown and Clayton became NY 12E . From Watertown to Limerick , what is now NY 12E was originally NY 12F . The alignments of the two routes were flipped in the late 1930s . In 1980 , Jefferson County assumed maintenance of NY 12E between the Watertown city line and Brownville as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state . This section is now county @-@ maintained as County Route 190 ( CR 190 ) .
= = Route description = =
= = = Watertown and Brownville = = =
NY 12E begins at the intersection of West Main and Bradley ( NY 12 ) streets in the city of Watertown . It initially proceeds northwest on West Main Street as a four @-@ lane residential and commercial street ; however , it becomes a two @-@ lane divided highway at a CSX Transportation railroad overpass just six blocks from NY 12 . Past the crossing , the road follows the Black River across the city line and into the town of Pamelia , where it becomes co @-@ designated as CR 190 . The highway soon passes under Interstate 81 and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road before turning westward into the riverside village of Glen Park . It retains its Main Street name through the community , following a two @-@ lane residential street through the village center and eventually into the adjacent village of Brownville .
In Brownville , the route intersects with the northern terminus of Bridge Street ( unsigned NY 971H ) , a short north – south connector leading to NY 12F on the south bank of the Black River . At this point , the CR 190 co @-@ designation ends and maintenance of the route becomes the responsibility of the state . Through Brownville , NY 12E remains a two @-@ lane residential and commercial street , intersecting with the southern terminus of CR 54 ( Brown Boulevard ) near the Brownville Hotel , a National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed ( NRHP ) property . At the western edge of the village , NY 12E passes Brownville Cemetery before leaving for the surrounding town of Brownville and losing the Main Street name . The highway parallels a former railroad right @-@ of @-@ way as it heads through the town of Brownville , becoming a two @-@ lane rural highway and gradually bending northeastward away from the riverbank .
About 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the center of Brownville , NY 12E intersects with CR 53 ( Cemetery Road ) , an east – west highway linking the state route to the nearby village of Dexter . NY 12E continues on , passing just east of Dexter Cemetery and traversing an undeveloped rural area to reach the hamlet of Limerick . Within the community , it serves mostly residential areas and remains two lanes wide . In the center of the hamlet , the highway intersects with NY 180 , a road leading to Dexter in the south and the Thousand Islands region in the north . Also present at the junction is the Seaway Trail , a National Scenic Byway that enters from the south on NY 180 and exits to the west on NY 12E . NY 12E leaves Limerick after this junction and continues through the town of Brownville , bending slightly to the northeast at a junction with CR 59 ( North Shore Road ) 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Limerick at the Brownville – Lyme town line .
= = = Lyme and Cape Vincent = = =
After this junction , NY 12E crosses Guffin Creek on its way into the village of Chaumont . Here , NY 12E becomes Main Street again as it transitions from a rural highway back to a residential street . In the southern part of Chaumont , the route connects to CR 125 , at which point NY 12E begins to pass by a mix of commercial and residential properties . It crosses over a small creek leading away from Chaumont Bay before turning slightly westward and entering the Chaumont Historic District . Just past the district , the route intersects with CR 179 ( Evans Street ) , formerly part of NY 179 . After this junction , NY 12E crosses over the Chaumont River and leaves the village limits at a junction with CR 8 ( Johnny Cake Road ) .
Through the surrounding town of Lyme , NY 12E reverts to a two @-@ lane rural highway as it proceeds west into the hamlet of Herrick Grove , located 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Chaumont . Here , the highway heads along a short commercial strip and intersects with the southern terminus of CR 5 ( Depot and Church streets ) off the shore of Chaumont Bay . After leaving Herrick Grove , NY 12E enters the nearby hamlet of Three Mile Bay , which comprises a few homes and a junction with CR 57 ( Carrying Road ) . Past Three Mile Bay , the route makes a gradual bend to the northwest , leaving Lyme for the town of Cape Vincent , where NY 12E intersects with Bedford Corners Road ( former CR 56 ) roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town line . Heading northwest through the rural town , the route crosses over Kents Creek and intersects with CR 4 on its way into the village of Cape Vincent , located at the point where Lake Ontario meets the St. Lawrence River .
Inside the village limits , NY 12E becomes known as Market Street . It heads north as a two @-@ lane residential street , passing the NRHP @-@ listed John Borland House on its way to the south bank of the St. Lawrence River . Here , it intersects with Broadway , an east – west village street connecting to CR 6 west of the village . NY 12E turns northeastward on Broadway , passing through the Broadway Historic District and serving the NRHP @-@ listed Vincent LeRay House . Two blocks from Market Street , NY 12E intersects with James Street , which leads to Wolfe Island via Horne 's Ferry . At its north end , the ferry connects to what was once Highway 95 in Ontario , Canada . Past James Street , NY 12E follows Broadway through a commercial area that continues to the eastern village limits .
= = = St. Lawrence River corridor = = =
Outside of the village of Cape Vincent , NY 12E loses the Broadway moniker , passing St. Vincent of Paul Cemetery and a mobile home park as it runs northeastward along the St. Lawrence River . About 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the village , the route passes an intersection with Carleton Drive , which serves a ferry linking Carleton Island to the river 's south bank . After Carleton Drive , the route continues northeast through the town of Cape Vincent , passing another mobile home park and Burnham Point State Park . The route continues on , entering the adjacent hamlets of Sunnybank and Millins Bay . In the latter , NY 12E intersects with CR 7 , a riverside highway serving a small community located between the river and NY 12E .
At the northern end of Millins Bay , CR 7 merges back into NY 12E , and the latter highway continues along the St. Lawrence River through the northern reaches of the town . Not far from the eastern town line , the route intersects with CR 9 ( Sand Bay Road ) and passes the Cape Vincent Correctional Facility and Cedar Point State Park , located on opposite sides of the highway . After the correctional facility , NY 12E crosses into the town of Clayton , where the route remains a two @-@ lane rural riverside highway . Roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) into the town , the route bends slightly to the east and intersects with the northern terminus of CR 4 ( Fish Pond Road ) , which intersected NY 12E back in the town of Cape Vincent .
Past the junction with CR 4 , NY 12E bends back to the northeast , passing more riverside residences and a handful of farms before entering the village of Clayton . In the village , NY 12E becomes known as State Street as it crosses over an inlet from the St. Lawrence River . The bridge over the waterway brings the route into Clayton 's downtown portion , where it intersects with NY 12 ( James Street ) . This intersection serves as the northern terminus of NY 12E , as State Street continues northeastward as part of NY 12 .
= = History = =
In 1924 , NY 3 was assigned to the New York portion of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , an auto trail that extended from Portland , Maine , to Portland , Oregon . In New York , it connected North Tonawanda ( near Niagara Falls ) in the west to Plattsburgh in the east via Rochester and Watertown . In Jefferson County , the trail and NY 3 entered Watertown on modern U.S. Route 11 and exited on what is now NY 12F . At Dexter , NY 3 turned north to follow current NY 180 and NY 12E to Clayton , where it continued eastward on modern NY 12 .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was rerouted to exit Watertown to the east on its modern alignment . The former alignment of NY 3 from Watertown to Clayton was redesignated as NY 12E . At the same time , an alternate route of NY 12E extending from the modern junction of NY 12E and NY 180 to downtown Watertown along the northern bank of the Black River was designated as NY 12F . The alignments of NY 12E and NY 12F east of what is now NY 180 were swapped c . 1939 , placing both routes on their current alignments .
On August 1 , 1979 , maintenance of NY 12E between Bridge Street in Brownville and the Watertown city line was transferred from the state of New York to Jefferson County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the state assumed maintenance of Bridge Street in Brownsville and the town of Hounsfield , among other highways . Following the swap , the segment of NY 12E between Bridge Street and the Watertown city limits became concurrent with CR 190 while Bridge Street became NY 971H , an unsigned reference route . The section of NY 12E within the city of Watertown is locally maintained .
Current signage along NY 12E indicates that the route has been rerouted east of Bridge Street to follow NY 971H across the Black River to a terminus at NY 12F . However , the 2012 New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) description of routes in New York and the 2008 NYSDOT Traffic Data Report both indicate that NY 12E 's southern terminus is still located at NY 12 in downtown Watertown .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jefferson County .
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= New Zealand Labour Party leadership election , 2011 =
The New Zealand Labour Party leadership election , 2011 was held on 13 December 2011 to choose the thirteenth leader of the New Zealand Labour Party . A deputy leader and a senior and a junior whip were also elected . Following the Labour Party 's loss in the 2011 general election , leader Phil Goff and deputy leader Annette King resigned , prompting the leadership election , which was conducted as a secret ballot of the Labour caucus .
David Cunliffe , David Shearer and David Parker stood for the leadership , and Nanaia Mahuta and Grant Robertson contested the deputy position . Cunliffe and Mahuta ran as a ticket . During the campaign Parker pulled out of the race and endorsed Shearer . Shearer and Robertson won the votes for their respective positions . Chris Hipkins and Darien Fenton were chosen as the senior and junior whips , respectively .
= = Background = =
At the 2008 general election , the Fifth Labour Government , led by Helen Clark , was defeated by John Key 's National Party . Following Clark 's election @-@ night resignation , Phil Goff was unanimously elected as the party 's leader , with Annette King as deputy , and Darren Hughes and Steve Chadwick as the senior and junior whips , respectively . The party lost more support in the 26 November 2011 general election ; its popular vote dipped to 27 % – its worst @-@ ever result under the mixed @-@ member proportional representation system – and its number of MPs was reduced from forty @-@ three to thirty @-@ four . On 29 November 2011 , Goff and King announced their resignations , effective 13 December . New whips also had to be chosen because Rick Barker ( who replaced Hughes as the senior whip in April 2011 , following Hughes leaving Parliament ) and Chadwick were not re @-@ elected to Parliament .
= = Candidates = =
Former Cabinet ministers David Cunliffe ( MP for New Lynn ) and Nanaia Mahuta ( Hauraki @-@ Waikato ) ran as a ticket for the leadership and deputy leadership , respectively . Former minister and list MP David Parker and Mount Albert by @-@ election , 2009 winner David Shearer were candidates for the party leadership , and Wellington Central representative Grant Robertson sought the deputy leadership . Shane Jones considered standing for the deputy leadership , but in the end did not run . Parker stated his preference for Robertson as deputy leader . Shearer did not indicate a preferred deputy .
Shearer was viewed as unlikely to win the election ; Claire Trevett of The New Zealand Herald originally expected that only Cunliffe and Parker would run for the leader 's role , and The Dominion Post 's Vernon Small wrote that " Mr Shearer 's bid is seen as a way to lift his profile " . Political commentator Bryce Edwards said that Cunliffe was the more appealing candidate to the public , and described Parker and Robertson as " sort of Phil Goff clones " .
= = Campaign = =
Labour Party president Moira Coatsworth stated that the leadership contest would be a " robust contest of ideas " , and suggested to the party 's caucus that a series of meetings with party members be held around New Zealand . These were held from 6 to 11 December in six major cities — Hamilton , Palmerston North , Wellington , Christchurch , Dunedin and Auckland . The party membership was then encouraged to give feedback to the party caucus , who would vote in the election . On 30 November Cunliffe , Parker and Shearer were interviewed by Mark Sainsbury on the current affairs programme Close Up . The television show held a text message poll in which viewers voted for their preferred leader of the party . Over 7 @,@ 500 people took part ; Shearer received 50 % of the support , Cunliffe 31 % and Parker 19 % . The following day , Parker pulled out of the leadership race and put his support behind Shearer . Shearer and Cunliffe were interviewed by Guyon Espiner on political talkshow Q + A on 4 December . During the interview , both candidates indicated their support for the introduction of a capital gains tax , which was a key part of Labour 's tax policy during the 2011 general election campaign . Both also disagreed with the 2008 Employment Relations Amendment Act ( 90 @-@ day workplace trial ) , and wanted New Zealand to invest further in research and development ; Shearer mentioned striving for a more green economy . On 9 December , Horizon Research released a demographically @-@ weighted survey which found that 35 @.@ 4 % of adult New Zealanders supported Shearer 's bid for the leadership , and 19 @.@ 9 % backed Cunliffe .
= = Outcome and aftermath = =
The election took place on 13 December 2011 and comprised a secret ballot of the thirty @-@ four Labour caucus members , meaning a candidate had to receive the support of eighteen MPs to win . Shearer was elected the party leader , Robertson the deputy leader , Chris Hipkins the senior whip and Darien Fenton the junior whip . Upon election , Shearer stated , " I am a fresh face for Labour and I represent a fresh start for New Zealand . " Espiner reported that Shearer received about twenty @-@ two of the thirty @-@ four votes for the leadership position , and a 3 News source claimed a similar number ; however , Coatsworth stipulated that the election was secret and that she was the only person who had access to the ballot papers , which were destroyed . Robertson and Jacinda Ardern publicly supported Shearer , and Carmel Sepuloni backed Cunliffe .
On 19 December , Shearer announced a reshuffle of the Labour front bench — Parker replaced Cunliffe in the finance portfolio and number three ranking , Ardern took the number four spot as social development spokesperson , while Cunliffe moved down to number five and gained the economic development portfolio . Clayton Cosgrove ( number six ) became responsible for state owned enterprises and commerce , Jones ( number seven ) took regional development and fisheries and Mahuta ( number eight ) picked up education . Shearer himself took the science and innovation portfolio , while Robertson was made environment spokesperson .
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= M @-@ 189 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 189 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It serves as the continuation of Highway 139 ( WIS 139 ) from Wisconsin into Michigan , connecting to US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) in Iron River . M @-@ 189 has been largely unchanged since being designated in the 1930s , although a new bridge over the Brule River at the state line was built in 1988 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 189 starts at the Wisconsin state line in the middle of a bridge crossing the Brule River that connects to WIS 139 . The highway runs to the northeast away from the river through forests . The trunkline turns north and curving to the east to run past Laurel Lake . The highway forks at the junction with Caspian Cutoff Road ( County Road 651 ) ; M @-@ 189 takes the northwesterly fork and runs around the west side of Caspian . The roadway passes the Iron River County Club as the highway begins to parallel the Iron River . M @-@ 189 follows Selden Road north through the southside of the city of Iron River , continuing as 4th Street into downtown . The trunkline ends at a junction with US 2 ( Adams Street ) in the middle of town .
No part of M @-@ 189 is listed on the National Highway System . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Transportation conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway , reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . The department determined that 892 vehicles a day used the highway near the state line while 5 @,@ 308 vehicles used the central section through Caspian . The northernmost segment near US 2 had an AADT of 4 @,@ 079 vehicles .
= = History = =
The Michigan State Highway Department designated M @-@ 189 as a state trunkline highway in late 1932 or early 1933 . During the latter half of 1936 , the department paved the highway in its entirety . The route has remained the same since . The current bridge across the Brule River was built in 1988 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Iron County .
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= Blackburn Olympic F.C. =
Blackburn Olympic Football Club was an English football club based in Blackburn , Lancashire in the late 19th century . Although the club was only in existence for just over a decade , it is significant in the history of football in England as the first club from the north of the country and the first from a working @-@ class background to win the country 's leading competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( FA Cup ) . The cup had previously been won only by teams of wealthy amateurs from the Home counties , and Olympic 's victory marked a turning point in the sport 's transition from a pastime for upper @-@ class gentlemen to a professional sport .
The club was formed in 1878 and initially took part only in minor local competitions . In 1880 , the club entered the FA Cup for the first time , and three years later defeated Old Etonians at Kennington Oval to win the trophy . Olympic , however , proved unable to compete with wealthier and better @-@ supported clubs in the new professional era , and folded in 1889 .
Most of Olympic 's home matches took place at the Hole @-@ i ' -th @-@ Wall stadium , named after an adjacent public house . From 1880 onwards , the club 's first @-@ choice colours consisted of light blue shirts and white shorts . One Olympic player , James Ward , was selected for the England team and six other former or future England internationals played for the club , including Jack Hunter , who was the club 's coach at the time of Olympic 's FA Cup win .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years = = =
Association football was first codified in the 1860s in the south of England and played by teams of upper @-@ class former public school pupils and Oxbridge graduates . However , the game spread to the industrial towns of the north by the following decade . The town of Blackburn in Lancashire had more than a dozen active football clubs by 1877 , with Blackburn Rovers , founded in 1875 , generally viewed as the leading team . Blackburn Olympic F.C. was founded in February 1878 when two of these clubs , Black Star and James Street , opted to merge . The name was chosen by James Edmondson , the club 's first treasurer , and is believed to have been inspired by the recent excavation of Olympia , site of the ancient Olympic Games . The new club 's first match was a friendly played on 9 February 1878 which resulted in a 2 – 0 win over local team St. John 's . In April , the club entered its first competition , the Livesey United Cup . Olympic beat St. Mark 's in the final to win the tournament , and , as the competition was not held again , the club retained the trophy in perpetuity . Over the next two seasons the club continued to play friendly matches and also entered the Blackburn Association Challenge Cup , a knock @-@ out tournament open to all local clubs set up by the organisation which governed football within the town . Olympic won the cup in both 1879 and 1880 , after which the competition was discontinued when the Blackburn Association was absorbed into the larger Lancashire County Football Association . As with the Livesey United Cup , the trophy remained in Olympic 's possession for the remainder of the club 's existence .
In 1880 the club 's committee decided that Olympic should compete for greater prizes , and opted to enter two further competitions , the Lancashire Senior Cup and the Football Association Challenge Cup ( FA Cup ) , the country 's premier football competition . In the club 's first FA Cup match , the " Light Blues " were defeated 5 – 4 by Sheffield , and the following season the team again lost in the first round , away to Darwen . The club 's reputation within its home area was growing , however , and matches were now being arranged with teams from further afield , such as Sheffield Wednesday , Nottingham Forest , and even Scottish clubs such as Cowlairs and Hibernian . The club 's increasing expenses were met with the help of Sydney Yates , a local iron foundry owner , who invested a large amount of money and continued to bankroll the club for most of its existence . At the end of the 1881 – 82 season , Olympic defeated Blackburn Rovers to win the East Lancashire Charity Cup .
= = = Success = = =
In the 1882 – 83 FA Cup , Olympic defeated four other Lancashire clubs , Accrington , Lower Darwen , Darwen Ramblers , and Church , to reach the fifth round . At this stage the " Light Blues " were drawn to play Welsh team Druids . Olympic defeated the Ruabon @-@ based team 4 – 1 to progress to the semi @-@ final stage , where for the first time they faced opponents from the south of England — Old Carthusians . The Carthusians , the team for former pupils of Charterhouse School , had won the cup two years earlier and even the local newspapers in Blackburn considered them strong favourites to reach the final again . Olympic , however , won 4 – 0 in a match played at a neutral venue in Whalley Range , Manchester , to set up a match with another of the great amateur teams , Old Etonians , in the final at Kennington Oval . The Etonians had defeated Olympic 's close rivals Blackburn Rovers in the final a year earlier , the first time a northern team had reached the final .
Before the final , former England player Jack Hunter , who had joined the club in 1882 in the twin roles of player and coach , arranged to take the team to Blackpool for several days ' special training . Such an undertaking had never before been made by a club , and it was considered an extremely novel idea .
The Etonians took the lead in the final when Harry Goodhart scored during the first half , however Arthur Matthews equalised for Olympic in the second half . Soon afterwards , Arthur Dunn was injured and forced to leave the field , reducing the Etonians to ten men for the rest of the match . The scores remained level at the end of the regulation ninety minutes . Under the regulations of the FA Cup , thirty minutes of extra time could be played in the event of a draw , at the referee 's discretion , and in response to the fervent mood of the crowd the captains asked to play on to try to secure a result . During the extra period , Olympic 's superior stamina began to show . Around twenty minutes into extra time , Jimmy Costley received a pass from John Yates and kicked the ball past Etonian goalkeeper John Rawlinson to score the winning goal . Upon the team 's return to Blackburn , the players took part in a celebratory parade and received a civic reception at which team captain Albert Warburton reportedly proclaimed " The Cup is very welcome to Lancashire . It 'll have a good home and it 'll never go back to London . "
In the south , however , Olympic 's victory over one of the great amateur teams provoked consternation . At the time , The Football Association ( the FA ) , the sport 's governing body , prohibited clubs from paying their players . Despite this , working @-@ class clubs , especially those based in Lancashire , had been widely suspected of making illicit payments to players since at least 1876 . In the wake of Olympic 's high @-@ profile victory , journalists and officials affiliated with southern amateur clubs intensified their calls for the FA to investigate the finances of northern clubs . They focussed in particular on Olympic 's training excursion to Blackpool , suggesting that the players would not have been able to take so much time off work unless the club was paying them some form of wage . Questions were also asked about players who had relocated from one town to another seemingly for the sole purpose of playing for a new football team . In Olympic 's case Jack Hunter had moved from Sheffield to join the club . Ultimately no action was taken against Olympic , although punishments were imposed on other clubs , including Preston North End , who were expelled from the FA Cup . This in turn prompted the northern clubs to make plans to break away from the FA and form a rival governing body which would not impose the so @-@ called " amateur ideal " on clubs .
= = = Decline and collapse = = =
The following season , Olympic again reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , as did Blackburn Rovers . When the draw for the semi @-@ finals was made , the club was paired with Queen 's Park in one match and Rovers with Notts County in the other , setting up the possibility of the two teams meeting in the final . The Olympic team , however , were outclassed and defeated 4 – 0 by their Scottish opponents . The club lodged an appeal with the FA based on the encroachment onto the pitch of some of the 16 @,@ 000 spectators , but to no avail . Rovers went on to defeat Queen 's Park in the final .
The club was never again able to achieve this level of success . In the 1884 – 85 season , Olympic lost in the second round of the FA Cup to rivals Rovers , who went on to cement their position as the town 's leading team by winning the competition for the second consecutive season . The threat of a schism within the sport was averted in 1885 when the FA agreed to legalise professionalism . In a town the size of Blackburn , however , Olympic found it hard to compete for spectators and sponsors with the longer @-@ established and more successful Rovers , and as a result could not pay wages on a par with those offered by that club or by other professional clubs in Lancashire . In 1886 the club 's committee was forced to reduce the players ' wages to a quarter of what was being offered by Preston North End . Many of the team 's key players walked out in response and were quickly signed by wealthier clubs .
The Football League , the world 's first association football league , was formed in 1888 by the leading clubs of the Midlands and North . Aston Villa chairman William McGregor , the driving force behind the new competition , put in place a rule stating that only one club from each town or city could join , and chose Rovers , rather than Olympic , to be Blackburn 's entrant . Some of the clubs not invited to join the League , including Olympic , formed The Combination , but this was a poorly organised competition which attracted only small crowds and collapsed before the end of the 1888 – 89 season . Beset by heavy debts , the club 's committee announced in early 1889 that all professional players were being released from their contracts with immediate effect and that henceforth the club would employ only amateur players . This desperate measure came too late to save the club , which closed down in September 1889 . Blackburn Olympic 's last match was a defeat away to Everton .
= = Stadia and supporters = =
Olympic 's first match took place on a pitch owned by the Blackburn Cricket Club , situated in open countryside at Higher Oozebooth . For the first eighteen months of the club 's existence , Olympic played home matches at various sites in Blackburn , including Roe Lee and Cob Wall . In 1879 the club 's committee secured the lease on a pitch adjacent to the Hole @-@ i ' -th ' -Wall public house , at the top of the Shear Brow hill . The site had previously been used by another club , Queen 's Own , but had been left vacant when that club folded after most of its players defected to Blackburn Rovers .
The playing surface sloped downwards and was initially known for being exceptionally muddy , but in 1880 the club 's committee spent £ 100 improving the drainage . Facilities were minimal and most spectators simply stood around the perimeter of the pitch , as was the case at most football grounds at the time . A grandstand was erected behind one goal in 1881 , but it was severely damaged in a storm in 1884 and was replaced by a more elaborate structure along one of the long sides of the playing area . At the same time several other shelters were erected to give spectators in other areas cover from the elements . The largest crowd registered at Hole @-@ i ' -th ' -Wall was approximately 10 @,@ 000 for a match against Preston North End in November 1884 , but crowds of between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 spectators were the norm at Olympic matches . After the club 's demise the pitch was taken over by the Blackburn Railway Clerks Club . It is now the site of St. Mary 's College .
= = Colours = =
At the start of the club 's existence , the players usually wore magenta shirts , although the rules regarding kits were less rigid at the time , and half @-@ back Tommy Gibson insisted on wearing a supposedly lucky amber and black hooped shirt , a practice later copied by team @-@ mate Alf Astley . When the club entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1880 , competition regulations meant that all the players in the team had to wear matching colours , and a new combination of light blue shirts and white shorts was chosen . When there was a clash of colours with the opposition and Olympic were the team obliged to change , the players wore dark blue shirts and white shorts . There is no record of the club having a badge or crest , although photographs of the FA Cup @-@ winning team show several players with the crest of the Lancashire FA sewn onto their shirts , indicating that they had represented Lancashire in inter @-@ county matches .
= = Players = =
The club 's FA Cup winning team of 1883 comprised eleven players born in England , the first time an all @-@ English XI had won the competition . The team lined up as follows :
James Ward was the only player to be selected for the England team while on the books of the club . He won one cap , against Wales in 1885 . Tommy Dewhurst was originally chosen for an international match in 1884 , but was deselected after he was involved in a fight with an opposition player during a match between Olympic and Northwich Victoria . Six other Olympic players represented England either before or after their time with the club : Joe Beverley , Edgar Chadwick , Jack Hunter , Jack Southworth , William Townley and John Yates .
= = Officials = =
The concept of a football manager did not exist in the 19th century , although some modern sources identify Jack Hunter as having been the team 's manager . Hunter 's main responsibility was for the coaching of the players , although in the club 's later years he also took charge of seeking out and signing promising amateur players . The club 's benefactor , Sydney Yates , held the post of president and his brother Fred served as chairman of the club 's committee . The majority of the administration of the club was handled by the secretary , a post held for most of the club 's existence by Bill Bramham .
= = Honours = =
The club won the following trophies :
FA Cup
1883
East Lancashire Charity Cup
1882
Blackburn Association Challenge Cup
1879 , 1880
Livesey United Cup
1878
The only competition the club entered but never won , other than the unfinished Combination , was the Lancashire Senior Cup .
= = Rivalries = =
Blackburn Olympic 's chief rivalry was with Blackburn Rovers . The first match between the two clubs was a game in February 1879 , which resulted in a 3 – 1 win for Olympic . The clubs played each other forty times , but Olympic won only six of these matches . The rivalry became especially fierce in September 1884 , when , amid accusations that the clubs were using underhand tactics in attempts to " poach " each other 's star players , the Rovers ' secretary sent a telegram to his opposite number stating that his club would play no matches against Olympic in the 1884 – 85 season . In December , however , the clubs were drawn against each other in the FA Cup , and matches between the rivals resumed later that season . Their final meeting was a benefit match for Olympic in February 1889 , which Rovers won 6 – 1 . Rovers agreed to allow the financially embarrassed Olympic to keep all available gate money , instead of sharing it .
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= Wolf : The Journey Home =
Wolf : The Journey Home , originally titled Hungry for Home : A Wolf Odyssey , is a 1997 American young @-@ adult novel written by ' Asta Bowen . Originally published by Simon & Schuster with line drawings by Jane Hart Meyer , it was retitled and reprinted without illustrations in 2006 by Bloomsbury Publishing . Based on true accounts of the Pleasant Valley , Montana , wolf pack , the novel traces the life of a female alpha wolf named Marta after the forced relocation of her pack in 1989 to an unfamiliar territory . Terrified , Marta abandons her pack and begins a journey in search of her home ; she eventually arrives in Ninemile Valley , where she finds a new mate with whom she starts a new pack .
Bowen was prompted to write the story of the relocated wolves after becoming outraged over the continued poaching of wolves in the protected areas of Ninemile Valley . She spent four years researching wolves while working on the novel . In recounting the fates of the animals at the end , she expresses hope in the ideals behind efforts to restore wolf populations . Nominated for a 2006 Teens ' Top Ten award by the American Library Association , the novel was praised by critics . Two praised Bowen 's ability to avoid anthropomorphism while capturing the essence of wolf behavior and life . Another also praised the story 's highlighting of the difficulties in wolf relocation programs .
= = Plot = =
Marta , a black gray wolf , is alpha female in a small pack in Pleasant Valley , Montana , that consists of her mate , Calef , their three pups Rann , Sula , and Annie , and a seven @-@ year @-@ old wolf named Oldtooth . One morning Calef is killed by poachers , leaving Marta and Oldtooth to try to feed and raise the pups on their own . Though an experienced hunter , Oldtooth is unable to bring down large game as he lost most of his teeth chewing a steel leg trap off his leg years ago . Once the cubs are old enough to be left alone for short periods of time , Marta takes over the bulk of the hunting . Though it is difficult , the two adults successfully keep all three cubs alive and begin weaning them and teaching them the ways of the wolf . In the summer , traps begin appearing in the area as human populations increase . Annie and Sula are caught and are taken away by humans , but reappear a few days later , locked in cages . Marta tries to free her pups but is unsuccessful ; however humans come regularly to keep them fed and ensure they have water . Oldtooth is later captured , while Marta is tranquilized from a helicopter . Rann escapes and is not seen again .
The wolves are kept in a human facility for a couple of months to be examined , and a wound on Oldtooth 's paw is treated . In early winter , the wolves are sedated again and awaken to find themselves in a strange high place with radio collars around their necks . Still groggy from the tranquilizer , the strangeness of the events and the smell of grizzly bear in the area triggers Marta 's flight instincts and she runs blindly downward , leaving Oldtooth and the cubs behind . When Oldtooth awakens , he quietly abandons Annie and Sula , following Marta 's trail , but at a much slower pace .
Marta continues running in the direction she believes will lead back to Pleasant Valley , swimming across Middle Fork River , crossing the nearby highway and railroad tracks , and running through various woodlands in between . Pausing only to drink water and tend her paws , she crosses Pyramid Peak and swims across the Hungry Horse Reservoir , before a week without food and exhaustion cause her to collapse on the shore . After resting , she continues her run , though hunger now spurs her to pause to hunt when she can but she eventually collapses by Flathead Lake , where she remains unconscious for days . Meanwhile , unskilled at hunting and without the adults to teach them how to survive , Annie and Sula slowly starve to death . Oldtooth reaches Middle Fork Valley , where illness and his lame foot drive him to hunt local livestock . He is shot and killed by a human .
When Marta recovers , her instincts to return home are dulled and she begins traveling more slowly . She makes her way through Swan Valley to cross the Swan Range and Mission Mountains . As winter settles in , she makes a winter home around Lindbergh Lake , where hunting is good and humans few . Near the end of winter , she meets another lone wolf , Greatfoot , a large male . Initially they maintain their distance from one another , until Greatfoot hunts the elk herd in Marta 's range , specifically the aging leader that Marta favored and refused to hunt herself . She stops the other wolf 's hunt , and after a brief skirmish they forget the elk and become friendly . They form a pack of two and leave the area , heading south . After mating , their travels become more urgent to find a home to raise young .
They settle in Ninemile Valley , a large forested region that while inhabited by humans , has few roads and homes . Several weeks after they make their den , Marta gives birth to seven pups , though one dies shortly after birth . As spring arrives , the pups grow well under their parents care and begin making their first explorations outside of the den . In early summer , Marta leaves the den to hunt and is killed by a poacher . Greatfoot is left as the sole provider for the pups . Though they were not fully weaned , they soon learn to eat the meat their father provides and he slowly begins teaching them how to avoid humans and how to survive . The only human the pack ignores is a human scent they frequently find on their trails , as no human ever appears with it , only the occasional sound of a truck nearby .
Near the end of summer , Greatfoot is run over and killed while crossing a freeway during a hunt . The pups begin hearing a strange wolf howl , but when they track it they find a fresh kill and the familiar human scent . New kills appear every few days as the young wolves grow larger and stronger . One night when they hear the unusual howl , they are closer than usual to it and reach the kill in time to meet their benefactor , a human male . The pack stares at the man , before disappearing back into the forest , ignoring his howl . As he goes to leave , however , the six return to the edge of the clearing and howl .
= = Development and publication = =
According to Bowen , she was " not a wolf person " before penning Wolf : The Journey Home . A language arts teacher at Flathead High School in northwest Montana and a former op @-@ ed columnist for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , she stated that she read news reports about the Pleasant Valley wolf pack in the Daily Inter Lake , but it was the death of one of the Ninemile pups that spurred her to write the novel . In her words , it was " one death too many " from the many non @-@ accidental deaths of the wolves , and she felt the " story needed to be told " . She spent four years studying wolves in preparation for writing the novel , particularly the lives of a pack of wolves that were part of the federal wolf relocation program and who were documented in records kept by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . The pack formed in the spring of 1989 in Pleasant Valley , Montana . As in the novel , the alpha male was killed , mistaken for a dog by a rancher , and the rest of the pack was trapped , except the one pup that escaped . They were held in Kalispell until they could be transferred to Glacier Park . Using radio collars , biologists were able to track the pack members from their release to their eventual fates , as depicted in the novel . The pups born to Marta and Greatfoot were born in Spring 1990 in Ninemile Valley , an area near Missoula . When they stopped receiving a signal for Marta , authorities searched for her body for weeks until her broken radio collar was found in a creek . Mike Jimenez , then a wildlife biologist and the Wyoming Wolf Recovery Project Leader , was the man in the blue truck who tracked and monitored the pack in the novel and fed the pups after the death of Greatfoot .
The novel , then titled Hungry for Home : A Wolf Odyssey , was first published by Simon & Schuster in hardback format on January 13 , 1997 . The first edition included ink illustrations by Jane Hart Meyer . The novel was reprinted in paperback format on January 30 , 1998 . The novel later went out of print , after enjoying modest success in the Netherlands . A few years later , Bowen 's attorney convinced her to rework the novel for young @-@ adult readers , and on December 27 , 2005 , Bloomsbury USA reprinted the edited novel with the new title of Wolf : The Journey Home in hardback format , without the illustrations of the previous edition and with a new photographic cover . The new edition of the novel has been translated and reprinted in China .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Jimenez stopped feeding the pups after Thanksgiving that same year . Though the pups learned to hunt , Silver and Pikuni left the pack and the other four began killing livestock . They were captured to be relocated , much as their parents had been . One , Camas , escaped after waking up from the tranquilizer early . Chinook was killed for continuing to hunt livestock and Timber was killed by a poacher . Tenino , who also continued hunting livestock , was recaptured and sent to Wolf Haven International , a sanctuary in Washington State , where he lived until his death in 2001 . The fates of the other cubs , as well as Rann , the cub who escaped the initial relocation , are unknown . In the epilogue of the novel , Bowen expresses hope that they survived and bred , enabling the bloodlines started with Marta and Greatfoot to continue in the wolf packs that now inhabit the area . Jimenez continued working as the Wyoming Wolf Recovery Project Leader for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service until 2008 , when he was selected to be the Wyoming Game and Fish Department 's Wolf Program Coordinator .
= = Reception = =
Wolf : The Journey Home was nominated for the 2006 Teens ' Top Ten award by the American Library Association . Publishers Weekly 's Sybil Steinberg called it a " powerful first novel " and a " genuinely eye @-@ opening tale " . She praised Bowen for " striving to inhabit the wild psyche of Marta with a minimum of anthropomorphic sentimentality , " and felt the author conveyed " both a reverence for the ways of the wild and a realistic grasp of wolves ' fear of humans . " Reviewing the title for The Detroit Free Press , Judy Rose considered it a " fact @-@ and @-@ fiction book " written " with a wolf 's @-@ eye view " . She praised the work 's factual basis and Bowen 's extensive research into the topic , and felt the novel 's release was " well @-@ timed " , coinciding with growing interest in wolf research and the reintroduction programs , particularly those at Yellowstone Park . While noting the novel is not for everyone , she felt it would be enjoyable to " wildlife lovers " and that readers will " howl with [ the wolves ] pain " . David Seideman of the Chicago Tribune considered the novel to be in the same " vein [ as ] the classic The Incredible Journey " , praising the author 's " faithfully [ capturing of ] their indomitable spirit " . He thought that " Bowen 's first @-@ rate skills as a nature writer keep her from falling off the edge into anthropomorphism " , though he criticized the scenes in which Marta refuses to hunt and even defends an old buck , feeling that she allowed " her sympathies to distort reality " and contradicted her own assertion that wolves are " always looking for an easy meal . " Jennifer Henderson , of the Booklist , found it to be a " memorable tale " that highlights the difficulties in reintroducing wolves even to protected areas . Calling it a " beautifully told wolf story " with a " tragic outcome " , she recommended the novel for teenage readers who love animals . In Gentle Reads : Great Books to Warm Hearts and Lift Spirits , Deanna McDaniel recommends the novel in her list of 500 inspiring stories for young adults , considering it to be an engaging and " vivid " tale of survival that contains a " strong message of hope " in the legacy Marta leaves behind .
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= Bad Day ( Daniel Powter song ) =
" Bad Day " is a pop song from Canadian singer Daniel Powter 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 2005 ) . It was written by Powter and produced by Jeff Dawson and Mitchell Froom . Powter and Dawson recorded the song in 2002 but could not find a record label to release it at first . The song was first used in a French Coca @-@ Cola television advertisement in Christmas 2004 before its official release . Tom Whalley , Warner Bros. Records ' chairman and CEO , offered Powter a contract after hearing a demo tape of it . This track ended up being released as the lead single in Europe in early 2005 .
Although " Bad Day " received mixed critical reviews , with some music critics finding a " universal appeal " and others claiming a lack of depth in its lyrics , it was a commercial success . In 2005 , the single charted in the top five in more than ten countries worldwide , and became the most played song on European radio . After its European success , it was released in the United States where it topped Billboard 's Hot 100 , Pop 100 , Adult Top 40 , and Adult Contemporary charts . In 2006 , it became the first song ever to sell two million digital copies in the United States . After another million were sold , it was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2009 . It was certified platinum in Australia and Canada , gold in Denmark , Germany and the United Kingdom , and also received a certification in France and Japan .
The accompanying music video for " Bad Day " was directed by Marc Webb and reached 9 @.@ 8 million views in 2006 . The video depicts two downcast people sharing a similar routine until they meet each other at the end of the video . The song was used for advertisements and television programs , most prominently as American Idol 's elimination song . Different shows and artists covered and parodied " Bad Day " , including Saturday Night Live and Alvin and the Chipmunks . Powter has also performed the song on television shows including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and during his concert tours in North America and Europe . The song 's success made it Powter 's " anthem " and would be included on his later compilation albums B @-@ Sides ( 2007 ) and Best of Me ( 2010 ) .
= = Background and writing = =
After leaving MacEwan University in Edmonton at 20 , Powter moved to Vancouver , British Columbia where he played keyboards before he started composing songs . In 1997 , he partnered with music producer Jeff Dawson ; they recorded " Bad Day " in 2002 . For two weeks , Powter had a melody that " wouldn 't go away " from his mind . Thinking of a lyric that would fit the melody , he thought an " up and poppy " lyric would make it " the cheesiest song of all time " . He then thought " bad day " would be a good choice for the chorus , and wrote the lyrics partly based on his life as " a struggling musician " . It was the last song to be composed for his album , with Powter writing it in an hour during a ferry journey between Victoria and Vancouver . Powter said it was not a lyrically elaborate song , but that : " mostly it 's about phonics . It 's about words that sing great . I was mumbling something , and those words came out . "
Dawson and Powter included the song on a disc that was offered to record labels that asked Powter to audition in New York ; but his lack of stage presence led to the labels turning him down . Disappointed , he returned to Vancouver to move on because : " once a record company says no , it 's difficult to come around again " . After this failure , his new representative , Gary Stamler , played a demo tape for Tom Whalley , chairman and CEO of Warner Bros. Records . Whalley offered Powter a contract but he was reluctant to sign it because he considered himself primarily a songwriter . He accepted the offer in April 2003 and , along with Dawson and producer Mitchell Froom , worked on his album and the song in Los Angeles , California . The album was originally recorded in Powter 's Vancouver apartment but Warner Bros. asked that it be rerecorded . However , because Froom wanted to keep its " original feel [ ing ] " , in Powter 's words it was just " touch [ ed ] up " .
= = Composition = =
" Bad Day " is a " midtempo pop " power ballad , performed in a moderate groove and accompanied by a piano . The song is composed in the key E ♭ major , and uses syncopated 16th @-@ note rhythms . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Warner Bros. , Powter 's vocals range from the note of E ♭ 4 and D ♭ 6 . Its instrumentation differs from " the scores of adolescent thrust @-@ rockers " and includes , as Powter referred to it , " aggressive " drums . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said it is : " addressed to anyone who 's feeling depressed ... but [ in contrast ] its grand , panoramic arrangement wants to pump you up " . Simon Donohue of the Manchester Evening News commented its sound " seagues [ sic ] from boy band banality to Foo Fighters @-@ style raucous rock " . According to Winston Kung of PopMatters , it is " in tune with the zeitgeist " .
The lyrics of " Bad Day " were said to have a universal appeal by Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine as they have an " everyman breeziness " because the song 's subject can be any person going through a bad daytime . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as : " a loping , sunny tune that pretty much has the opposite sentiment of its title " . Although About.com 's Bill Lamb described its lyrics as having a " reassuring , comforting " tone , Powter said the song " mak [ es ] fun of self @-@ absorbed and narcissistic people who bitch and gripe " . He also affirmed : " It 's not literally about having a bad day , it 's more about not taking yourself too seriously and complaining about trivial things " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed reviews by commentators ; some reviewers praised it for its composition , while other critics felt that the lyrics were not profound . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor called the song " instantly memorable " and praised its instrumentation for being different " from the scores of adolescent thrust @-@ rockers currently dominating the scene . " Dubbing it " elegant , timeless pop / rock " , Taylor qualified it as " one of the great discoveries of the year " , while Pete Waterman , writing for The Guardian in 2007 , stated it was " one of [ his ] favourite songs of recent years " . Eric R. Danton from the Hartford Courant classified it as the best track on the album , while Erlewine called it " the template for the rest of his debut " . In contrast , Wilson Kung said the song " pales in comparison to some of the truly strong songs " on the album Daniel Powter . Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine said it is a typical sentimental song but that in " Bad Day " ' s case " there 's even less detail " . He said the song " is so low on the specifics , there are some couplets that feel like they 've been translated from a foreign language , possibly by a computer " . A writer for The Daily Edge called it " a song so sweet it gave you a toothache " , while a reviewer from The Scotsman called it a " horrible song " . Bill Lamb said it " feels genuine " but " if you are looking for depth , this is not your song " , Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times said the song is " baleful but soulful " , and People commented : " ' Bad Day ' may be catchy enough to overcome its trite lyrics " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Bad Day " won an award from the Society of Composers , Authors and Music Publishers of Canada as one of six Canadian pop songs with the most radio airplay in 2005 . In 2006 , it won the Tokio Hot 100 Award for Best Song , and guaranteed Powter the Canadian Radio Music Award for Best New Group or Solo Artist — Mainstream AC . In the following year , the song won a BMI Pop Award , and shared the 2007 Japan Gold Disc Award for the most @-@ downloaded international song with " You Raise Me Up " by Celtic Woman and " Dani California " by Red Hot Chili Peppers . The song was nominated for Hot 100 Single of the Year at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards losing to Nelly Furtado 's " Promiscuous " . At the APRA Music Awards of 2006 , it was nominated for Most Performed Foreign Work but lost to Rob Thomas 's " Lonely No More " . In 2007 , it was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards but John Mayer 's performance on " Waiting on the World to Change " won him the award . It received a nomination for Best Song at the 2007 Kids ' Choice Awards but lost to Beyoncé 's " Irreplaceable " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bad Day " topped Nielsen Music Control 's Pan European Airplay 100 as the most played song on European radio stations in 2005 . It was also the third most downloaded song that year in Europe . On Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles it peaked at number two on the weekly chart , while it placed seventh on its year @-@ end chart . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart issue dated August 6 , 2005 , at number two , its peak position , spending 38 weeks on the chart . " Bad Day " was the eleventh best @-@ selling single and the third most downloaded song in the UK in 2005 . It was the most played song on UK radio during the period 2003 – 08 . The song debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number 13 on July 28 , 2005 , and topped it for three weeks , spending 19 weeks on the chart . The song peaked at number three on the French Singles Chart , and was the most played song on French radio in 2005 . It was the most played song on the German Airplay Chart in 2005 . It sold 143 @,@ 600 copies and was certified silver in France , and in Germany it was certified gold for the shipment of over 150 @,@ 000 copies . It peaked at number one in the Czech Republic , at number three in Italy , at number 5 in Denmark , and reached the top 10 on the singles chart in eight other European territories .
" Bad Day " debuted at number 55 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated February 25 , 2006 . On March 30 , 2006 it reached the top spot on the chart . A week before , the song had reached the top of the Hot Digital Songs chart . In the following weeks , it reached number one on the Pop 100 and the Adult Top 40 . It topped the Adult Top 40 for 12 weeks , the longest period a song by a lead male artist had spent on the chart . It remained at number one on the Adult Contemporary chart for 19 weeks , making it the song that spent the most time on the Adult Contemporary chart that year , tying Phil Collins ' " You 'll Be in My Heart " as the longest @-@ running number @-@ one song by a solo male artist to that date . " Bad Day " became the first song to sell two million digital copies in the United States in December 2006 , and was the best @-@ selling " digital track " and " digital song " for 2006 . " Bad Day " received a three @-@ times platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for digital sales of over 3 million in September 2009 . It was the seventh most played song on the American radio in 2006 , and was the number one song of 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also performed well on other year @-@ end charts , ranking first on Hot Digital Songs , second on Hot Adult Pop Songs , and third on Hot Adult Contemporary Songs . Media considered its exposure on American Idol as a major factor in its success in the United States .
In Canada , the song was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for the sale 20 @,@ 000 downloads . " Bad Day " peaked at number seven on the Canadian Singles Chart and at number six on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart . In Japan , a ringtone version was certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipment of over one million copies . Its full @-@ length ringtone version was certified platinum for shipment of over 250 @,@ 000 copies , while its single track version was certified double platinum for shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . " Bad Day " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted at number 21 on the ARIA Charts issue dated July 4 , 2005 , peaked at number three on the issue dated August 15 , 2005 , and spent 20 weeks on the chart . It was the 18th top single of 2005 in the year @-@ end ARIA Charts , and was the second most @-@ played song in the country in 2006 . It peaked at number 7 in New Zealand appearing for 23 weeks , and was on Venezuela 's Pop Rock chart for 19 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Marc Webb and premiered on Yahoo ! ' s website in early 2005 . As of August 2005 , it had been streamed over a million times . It was released on VH1.com on April 28 , 2005 , and at the iTunes Store for digital download on December 13 , 2005 . It debuted on television channel VH1 on January 23 of the following year , reaching the Top 20 Countdown for two weeks in March . It was subsequently put on heavy rotation in April 2006 , when it was played more than 50 times a week , reduced to 30 weekly airings in May . The video was the eighth most @-@ watched music video on the Internet , with over 9 @.@ 8 million views in 2006 . Warner Bros. Records released the video on YouTube on October 26 , 2009 .
The music video accompanying " Bad Day " features a man ( Jason Adelman ) and a woman ( Samaire Armstrong ) going about their daily routines over a three @-@ day period . Parts of the video are shown in split screen as they do exactly the same thing at different times , sometimes in the same location . The central point of the video occurs when they paint separately on the same billboard . Armstrong character shows her negativeness by adding rain and a car running through puddle of water while Adelman adds an umbrella and a man with a coat to protect the woman in the billboard . At some point , he draws half a heart and she completes it . At the end of the video , they finally meet when the man offers the woman an umbrella during a rain shower as a taxi cab stops for them . Throughout the video , Powter is shown playing a piano while wearing a tuque — a type of knitted hat .
Chuck Taylor said the video is " strikingly good " and " brings emotion and clarity to an artist that we are meeting for the first time " . The Daily Edge disagreed calling the video " drippy " . VH1 ranked it 17th on its Top 40 Videos of the Year in 2006 . It was nominated for the MuchMoreMusic Award at the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards , but lost to Michael Bublé 's " Save the Last Dance for Me " . It was nominated for Best Male Video at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , but " Age Age Every Knight " by DJ Ozma was the winner .
= = Usage in other media = =
" Bad Day " was much @-@ used in the media to the point where Powter declared he felt " quite detached from th [ e ] song . It 's more like it 's everybody 's song . " According to Alan Connor : " ... turning off the radio isn 't enough to escape the tune . It can be heard everywhere from in shops , on mobiles and especially on TV . " During Christmas 2004 , the song was used in a Coca @-@ Cola advertisement which played in France for two weeks . It was also featured in a television advertisement for Right Guard deodorant in the United Kingdom .
The fifth season of American Idol used " Bad Day " to underscore a montage of each contestant shown when they were eliminated . Although it was not his decision to have it on the show , Powter said : " I need every opportunity that I can to get the music out there " . " Bad Day " was subsequently used in other shows , including the Brazilian series Malhação in 2005 , and TV Asahi 's 2006 Japanese drama Regatta : Kimi to Ita Eien . It was featured in Veronica Mars episode " The Bitch Is Back " in 2007 , and in a 2012 episode of the German show Danni Lowinski . In 2014 , the song was used as a ringtone for Sherlock Holmes and Joan Watson in an episode of Elementary titled " The One Percent Solution " . A FX promotional trailer for Fargo featured a muzak version of " Bad Day " .
" Weird Al " Yankovic wanted to record a parody of the song in 2006 but Powter refused his proposal . Later , Powter decided to give him permission to record the parody , which was to have been called " You Had a Bad Date " , but was told by Yankovic told that " the train had left the station " ; he had recorded " White & Nerdy " the day before instead . In April 2006 , " Bad Day " was parodied on an episode of the television series Saturday Night Live , featuring a montage of former member of the United States House of Representatives Tom DeLay . The Daily Show used the song for an American Idol @-@ based montage satirizing the June 2006 death of Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi , leader of Al @-@ Qaeda in Iraq . It was parodied by comedy group Moron Life titled " Overplayed " and was released on MySpace in August 2006 . " Bad Day " was also covered by the fictional music group Alvin and the Chipmunks for their 2007 film Alvin and the Chipmunks . Their version made the charts in January 2008 , peaking at number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Live performances = =
Powter performed " Bad Day " during the Live 8 concert in Berlin on July 2 , 2005 , at the Siegessäule . He also performed the song at the MTV Asia Awards 2006 on May 6 at the Siam Paragon in Bangkok . During the penultimate episode of American Idol on May 23 , 2006 , Powter performed " Bad Day " at the Kodak Theatre . On May 26 , 2007 , he performed the song at the Saitama Super Arena during the MTV Video Music Awards Japan . Powter performed it in a duo with Japanese singer Ayaka on November 26 , 2008 , at Astro Hall in Harajuku , Japan .
Powter has performed the song on several television shows , including CD USA in February 2006 , and Total Request Live on April 6 , 2006 . On April 14 , he sang it during the The Today Show at the Rockfeller Center in the morning , and , at night , on the Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . He sang it on Live with Regis and Kelly on April 18 , on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on April 24 and , on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on April 27 . He performed again on Leno 's and DeGeneres 's shows on June 1 and on July 7 respectively , and appeared on The CBS Early Show to sing it on August 9 .
The song was included on the set lists for Powter 's European tour , in the United Kingdom , and in the United States to promote its parent album . In a performance in Chicago 's Park West venue during the American tour , Andy Downing of the Chicago Tribune called the song " a high point " of the show , and said the slower version was prettier than the original record but that it was " the spartan arrangement " that saved it from " montage hell .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Daniel Powter .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Process = = =
" Bad Day " was first released to three French radio stations — RTL , NRJ , and Europe 2 — in early 2005 . On February 8 , Barnes & Noble released it on an exclusive extended play ( EP ) , which also contained " Free Loop " , " Lie to Me " , and " Song 6 " . In the United States it was digitally released on February 22 , 2005 . In 2005 , Warner Bros. Records released it as a CD single in Switzerland on March 4 , in France on March 22 , in Italy on May 18 , in Germany on May 30 , in Australia on June 27 , in the United Kingdom on July 25 , and in Canada on July 28 . The Swiss and Canadian release also included " Stupid Like This " , a non @-@ album track , while the Italian , German , and Australian versions included " Stupid Like This " and " Lost on The Stoop " . In France and the United Kingdom , both versions were released , and the British release also contained the music video for " Bad Day " . A live @-@ recorded version for Austrian radio station Hitradio Ö3 was included on the 2005 EP Free Loop . On August 6 , 2008 an EP live from Tokyo was released exclusively on iTunes and it included " Song 6 " , " Free Loop " , " Best of Me " , " Love You Lately " and " Bad Day " . " Bad Day " was also included on Powter 's compilation albums B @-@ Sides ( 2007 ) and Best of Me ( 2010 ) .
= = = History = = =
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= Hurricane Doreen ( 1977 ) =
Hurricane Doreen was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect California in 32 years . The tenth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the otherwise inactive 1977 Pacific hurricane season , it developed on August 13 . The depression tracked northwestward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Doreen later that day . Further strengthening occurred over the subsequent days , and Doreen attained its peak as a minimal hurricane early on August 15 . Executing a turn towards the north @-@ northwest , Doreen made its first landfall as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale near Puerto San Carlos . Drifting offshore , Doreen made a second and final landfall near the northern portion of the Baja California as a tropical storm before rapidly weakening to a tropical depression . The tropical depression dissipated south of southern California on August 18 .
Hurricane Doreen and its remnants caused severe flooding in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States . In Mexico , heavy rainfall was reported on both Baja California and the mainland of Mexico . Flooding left 2 @,@ 000 people homeless in Mexicali along the United States @-@ Mexico border , in addition , 325 homes and businesses were destroyed in southern California . Several highways were also flooded during the passage of the storm , most notably , lanes on Interstate 8 and Interstate 15 were washed out . In San Diego and Imperial County , the total damage to agricultural interests was $ 25 million ( 1977 USD ) . In addition , eight fatalities were reported in California . Elsewhere , impact from Doreen was relatively light .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Doreen were a tropical disturbance which formed 115 mi ( 185 km ) west of Acapulco , on August 11 . Over the next two days , the system drifted westward at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . By 0000 UTC August 13 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression Ten , centered 460 mi ( 740 km ) west of Acapulco , Mexico . Immediately after developing , the depression curved northwestward , and began slowly intensifying over sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) . By 1800 UTC , winds increased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , and the depression was then upgraded to Tropical Storm Doreen , which was centered about 530 mi ( 850 km ) west @-@ northwest of Acapulco . Air Force reconnaissance began investigating Doreen late on August 14 , and located the center about 185 mi ( 298 km ) south of the tip of Baja California . Another flight into the storm shortly thereafter confirmed that Doreen had intensified into a hurricane at 1800 UTC .
At that time , the eye of Doreen was around 17 mi ( 27 km ) in diameter . After becoming a hurricane , Doreen re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northwest as it sped up slightly to 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) . Doreen approached the Baja California Peninsula , as it maintained minimal hurricane status . By August 18 at 1800 UTC , Doreen was centered only 17 mi ( 27 km ) when it curved northwestward . Late on August 18 , the storm made landfall on the western coast of Baja California as a minimal hurricane . Unlike Hurricane Kathleen in 1976 which accelerated inland , Doreen moved slowly and re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean , over SST 's of less than 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) . As a result , Doreen weakened to a tropical storm before making another landfall on the Port Eugenia Peninsula on August 16 shortly after 0600 UTC . Once again , Doreen quickly re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean over the Bay of Sebastian Vizcaino . Due to SST 's as low as 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) , Doreen continued to weaken , and was downgraded to a tropical depression early on August 17 . After satellite imagery noted a poorly @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation , the final advisory was issued on Doreen , which was centered about 29 miles ( 47 km ) west of San Clemente Island , California at 0000 UTC on August 18 . The remnants of the storm tracked into the Southwestern United States and dissipated over the Colorado River Valley .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Hurricane Doreen dropped heavy rainfall along the western portions of Mexico and the Southwestern Region of the United States . In Mexico , Doreen produced heaviest precipitation along the Baja California peninsula , where rainfall peaked at 14 @.@ 80 in ( 376 mm ) in the Los Cabos Area . The mainland of Mexico also received heavy rainfall , especially in the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains . In the city of Mexicali , the storm left more than 2 @,@ 000 people homeless , many of which were shanty @-@ style homes .
= = = California = = =
In anticipation of the storm , flash flood warnings were issued in the Colorado River Valley area , and were extended into southern California on August 16 , including places such as Santa Barbara County , the mountains of San Diego County , Riverside County , and portions of the Mohave Desert . Heavy rainfall fell in southern California on August 16 . An average of 2 – 4 in ( 51 – 102 mm ) of rain fell over low @-@ lying areas of southern California for a period of three days . Heavier precipitation was reported in the mountainous areas , where rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 45 in ( 189 mm ) on San Jacinto Peak . Several other locations also reported heavy rainfall ; 3 @.@ 78 in ( 96 mm ) was reported in Calexico and 6 in ( 150 mm ) fell at Mitchell Caverns . At Edwards Air Force Base , the launch of Space Shuttle Enterprise on August 31 was delayed to September 7 after rainfall from Doreen flooded the runway of the previous flight .
In addition to heavy rain , high winds were reported . In Palm Springs , wind gusts were reported as high as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . As a result , several trees were felled and power outages occurred . Highway 88 and 111 were under water from Brawley , near the Mexican border to the Salton Sea . California State Route 98 was also flooded from Brawly to Blythe . Two of the four lanes on Interstate 15 were washed out from Los Angeles to Las Vegas , stranding thousands of gamblers in places like Barstow . Ocotillo , a town that was devastated during Hurricane Kathleen in 1976 , was flooded again . Buses were sent to evacuate the townspeople , but the residents declined to evacuate . Overall , damage totaled $ 25 million , mostly in agricultural losses in San Diego and Imperial Counties . Eight deaths were reported . Six children were swept away in the Los Angeles River . Five of them were rescued , but the sixth was later presumed dead .
= = = Arizona = = =
Doreen also produced heavy rainfall in a small area of southwestern Arizona , limited to the Yuma area . Along the border of Arizona , California , and Mexico , rainfall was recorded between 2 and 7 in ( 51 and 178 mm ) . Rainfall in the state of Arizona had peaked at 7 @.@ 01 in ( 178 mm ) in that area . Light to moderate rainfall was also occurred in other areas of the state , such as Nogales , where 3 @.@ 10 in ( 79 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . Damage to roads , levees , houses , dikes were reported throughout the state , especially in the Bullhead City area .
While surveying damage in southwestern Arizona , a request was made to then @-@ Governor Raul Hector Castro for $ 750 @,@ 000 in emergency services funds . The American Red Cross had been in the area and spent $ 12 @,@ 000 to assist families that were left homeless after the flood .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
Further west , larger swaths of rainfall occurred in Nevada , though precipitation was generally light with many areas experiencing less than 3 in ( 76 mm ) . Rainfall in Nevada had peaked at 4 @.@ 14 in ( 105 mm ) in Avaden , making Doreen the wettest tropical cyclone for the state of Nevada as of 2011 . In Las Vegas , major intersections were flooded due to precipitation amounts of about 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) . In addition to street flooding , some roofs of houses and buildings collapsed .
In New Mexico , lesser amounts of rainfall were reported , and precipitation was limited to the northeastern and southwestern portions of the state . Much it the rainfall was between 1 to 2 in ( 25 to 51 mm ) , and precipitation with the state peaked at 2 @.@ 05 in ( 52 mm ) in the city of Florida . Rainfall was also minimal in the state of Utah , with only a few isolated areas reporting light precipitation , and generally did not exceed 3 in ( 76 mm ) . However , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 31 in ( 109 mm ) in Logan .
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= Book of the Dead =
The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text , used from the beginning of the New Kingdom ( around 1550 BCE ) to around 50 BCE . The original Egyptian name for the text , transliterated rw nw prt m hrw is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day . Another translation would be Book of emerging forth into the Light . " Book " is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person 's journey through the Duat , or underworld , and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1000 years .
The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects , not papyrus . Some of the spells included were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE . Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history , dating to the Third Intermediate Period ( 11th to 7th centuries BCE ) . A number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as had always been the spells from which they originated . The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased .
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration . Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife . The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll , and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife .
= = Development = =
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty , around 2400 BCE . These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids , and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh ( and , from the 6th dynasty , the Queen ) . The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style ; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated , most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh . The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead King take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky , rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . Towards the end of the Old Kingdom , the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege , and were adopted by regional governors and other high @-@ ranking officials .
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged , the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language , new spells , and included illustrations for the first time . The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins , though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri . The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals , vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife ; a process which has been described as the " democratization of the afterlife " .
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE . The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 13th dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts . Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance ; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record .
By the 17th dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family , but courtiers and other officials as well . At this stage , the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead , though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus .
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further . The famous Spell 125 , the ' Weighing of the Heart ' , is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c.1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll , and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th dynasty in particular , the vignettes tended to be lavish , sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text .
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script , as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics . The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version , lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning , and were produced on smaller papyri . At the same time , many burials used additional funerary texts , for instance the Amduat .
During the 25th and 26th dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated , revised and standardised . Spells were consistently ordered and numbered for the first time . This standardised version is known today as the ' Saite recension ' , after the Saite ( 26th ) dynasty . In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead remained based on the Saite recension , though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period . New funerary texts appeared , including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE , though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times .
= = Spells = =
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations . Most sub @-@ texts begin with the word ro , which can mean mouth , speech , a chapter of a book , spell , utterance , or incantation . This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power . In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either " chapter " or " spell " . In this article , the word " spell " is used .
At present , some 192 spells are known , though no single manuscript contains them all . They served a range of purposes . Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife , or perhaps to identify them with the gods : for instance , Spell 17 , is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person 's being were preserved and reunited , and to give the deceased control over the world around him . Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces , or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles . Famously , two spells also deal with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual .
Such spells as 26 @-@ 30 , and sometimes spells 6 and 126 relate to the heart , and were inscribed on scarabs .
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious . Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods , even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves . Indeed , there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice . The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word . The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation ; there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing . The magical power of words extended to the written word . Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful . Written words conveyed the full force of a spell . This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted , as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls , particularly if the accompanying images were present . The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it ; thus , the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife , giving him power over them .
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life . A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm . In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus , these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy . Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers . Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb , such as headrests , were also considered to have amuletic value . A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva .
= = = Organization = = =
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique , containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available . For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure . In fact , until Paul Barguet 's 1967 " pioneering study " of common themes between texts , Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all . It is only from the Saite period ( 26th dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order .
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections :
Chapters 1 – 16 * The deceased enters the tomb , descends to the underworld , and the body regains its powers of movement and speech .
Chapters 17 – 63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places , the deceased are made to live again so that they may arise , reborn , with the morning sun .
Chapters 64 – 129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed dead . In the evening , the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris .
Chapters 130 – 189 Having been vindicated , the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods . This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets , provision of food , and important places .
= = Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife = =
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife . The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area .
= = = Preservation = = =
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence . Funerary rituals served to re @-@ integrate these different aspects of being . Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects ; the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased , which may have been recited during the process of mummification . The heart , which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory , was also protected with spells , and in case anything happened to the physical heart , it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement . The ka , or life @-@ force , remained in the tomb with the dead body , and required sustenance from offerings of food , water and incense . In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings , Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied . The name of the dead person , which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence , was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name . The ba was a free @-@ ranging spirit aspect of the deceased . It was the ba , depicted as a human @-@ headed bird , which could " go forth by day " from the tomb into the world ; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it . Finally , the shut , or shadow of the deceased , was preserved by spells 91 , 92 and 188 . If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved , remembered , and satiated , then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods .
= = = Afterlife = = =
The nature of the afterlife which the dead person enjoyed is difficult to define , because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion . In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun @-@ barque , and help him fight off Apep . As well as joining the Gods , the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ' , a paradisiac likeness of the real world . The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush , plentiful version of the Egypt of the living . There are fields , crops , oxen , people and waterways . The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods , as well as his or her own parents . While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful , it is also clear that manual labour is required . For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell , also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner 's duty in the afterlife . It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived , but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves . In many occasions , the deceased is mentioned as " The Osiris - [ Name ] " in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one . The deceased was required to pass a series of gates , caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures . These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms , typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts . Their names — for instance , " He who lives on snakes " or " He who dances in blood " — are equally grotesque . These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat , and could even extend their protection to the dead person . Another breed of supernatural creatures was ' slaughterers ' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris ; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions . As well as these supernatural entities , there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals , including crocodiles , snakes , and beetles .
= = = Judgment = = =
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated , the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual , depicted in Spell 125 . The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris . There , the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , reciting a text known as the " Negative Confession " . Then the dead person 's heart was weighed on a pair of scales , against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice . Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather , the hieroglyphic sign for her name . At this point , there was a risk that the deceased 's heart would bear witness , owning up to sins committed in life ; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality . If the scales balanced , this meant the deceased had led a good life . Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife , becoming maa @-@ kheru , meaning " vindicated " or " true of voice " . If the heart was out of balance with Maat , then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer , stood ready to eat it and put the dead person 's afterlife to an early and unpleasant end .
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content . The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society . For every " I have not ... " in the Negative Confession , it is possible to read an unexpressed " Thou shalt not " . While the Ten Commandments of Judeo @-@ Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation , the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality . Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute , with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife . John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality ; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths , it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure . Ogden Goelet says " without an exemplary and moral existence , there was no hope for a successful afterlife " , while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons , and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased 's moral behaviour .
= = Producing a Book of the Dead = =
A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by scribes . They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral , or by the relatives of someone recently deceased . They were expensive items ; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver , perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer . Papyrus itself was evidently costly , as there are many instances of its re @-@ use in everyday documents , creating palimpsests . In one case , a Book of the Dead was written on second @-@ hand papyrus .
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite ; they were initially reserved for the royal family , but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes , priests and officials . Most owners were men , and generally the vignettes included the owner 's wife as well . Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every one for a woman . However , during the Third Intermediate Period , 2 / 3 were for women ; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic paypri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods .
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely ; the longest is 40m long while some are as short as 1m . They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together , the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm . The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts ; care was taken to frame the text within margins , and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets . The words peret em heru , or ' coming forth by day ' sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin , perhaps acting as a label .
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops , with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later . For instance , in the Papyrus of Ani , the name " Ani " appears at the top or bottom of a column , or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text ; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript , and in some places is mis @-@ spelt or omitted entirely .
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right , but also sometimes from right to left . The hieroglyphs were in columns , which were separated by black lines - a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments . Illustrations were put in frames above , below , or between the columns of text . The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus .
From the 21st Dynasty onward , more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script . The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom ; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns ( often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up ) . Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic .
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink , regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script . Most of the text was in black , with red ink used for the titles of spells , opening and closing sections of spells , the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals , and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water .
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely . Some contain lavish colour illustrations , even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings , or one simple illustration at the opening .
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together . It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript , even when the manuscript is a shorter one . The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes ; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty .
= = Discovery , translation , interpretation and preservation = =
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood . Since it was found in tombs , it was evidently a document of a religious nature , and this led to the widespread misapprehension that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur 'an . They didn 't recognize them as a funerary ritual .
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead " . He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use , identifying 165 different spells . Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts . This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886 , producing a three @-@ volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with , the more significant variations of the text for every spell , and commentary . In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation . In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny .
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch 's successor at the British Museum , is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out @-@ of @-@ date . More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen ( 1974 ) and Raymond O. Faulkner ( 1972 ) . As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified , and the total now stands at 192 .
In the 1970s , Ursula Rößler @-@ Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts . This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia and the German Research Foundation , in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts . Today the Book of the Dead Project , as it is called , maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80 % of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts , and provides current services to Egyptologists . It is housed at the University of Bonn , with much material available online . Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies , the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves , Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag . Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs , Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis , synoptic comparison , and textual criticism .
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts . Initially , these were copied out by hand , with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid @-@ 19th century , hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible . In the present day , hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this , combined with digital print technology , means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced . However , a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished .
= = = Chronology = = =
c . 3150 BCE - First preserved hieroglyphs , on small labels in the tomb of a king buried ( in tomb U @-@ j ) at Abydos
c . 3000 BCE - The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
'c . 2345 BCE - First royal pyramid , of King Unas , to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors ( intended only for the king ) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
c . 2100 BCE - First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners . Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
c . 1600 BCE - Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , a descendent of kings from the New Kingdom
c . 1550 BCE - From this time onward to the beginning of the New kingdom , papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
c . 600 BCE - Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
2nd Century CE - Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced , but it is a poorly documented era of history
313 CE - Christianity spreads to Egypt
1798 - Napoleon 's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt ; 1799 , Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
1805 - J. Marc Cadet makes the first publication , on 18 plates , of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d 'un Roleau de Papyrus trouvé à Thèbes dans un Thombeau des Rois , accompagnèe d 'une notice descriptive , Paris , Levrault
1822 - J. François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing , subsequently developed in his later publications , the most extensive after his death in 1832
1842 - C.R. Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters , and brings the name ' Book of the Dead ' into general circulation
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= Thor : The Dark World =
Thor : The Dark World is a 2013 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Thor , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the sequel to 2011 's Thor and the eighth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Alan Taylor , with a screenplay by Christopher Yost and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely . It stars Chris Hemsworth , Natalie Portman , Tom Hiddleston , Anthony Hopkins , Stellan Skarsgård , Idris Elba , Christopher Eccleston , Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje , Kat Dennings , Ray Stevenson , Zachary Levi , Tadanobu Asano , Jaimie Alexander , and Rene Russo . In Thor : The Dark World , Thor teams up with Loki to save the Nine Realms from the Dark Elves led by the vengeful Malekith , who intends to plunge the universe into darkness .
Development of Thor : The Dark World began in April 2011 , when producer Kevin Feige announced plans for a sequel to follow the crossover film The Avengers . In July 2011 , Kenneth Branagh , the director of Thor , withdrew from the project . Brian Kirk and Patty Jenkins were considered to direct the film before Taylor was hired in January 2012 . The supporting cast filled out in August 2012 , with the hiring of Eccleston , Dennings , and Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje . Principal photography began in September 2012 in Surrey , England with filming continuing in Iceland and London , before wrapping up in December 2012 . Thor : The Dark World was converted to 3D in post @-@ production .
Thor : The Dark World premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22 , 2013 . It was released internationally on October 30 , 2013 , and on November 8 , 2013 , in the United States . The film received mixed reviews , but was a commercial success , grossing over $ 644 million worldwide . A third film , Thor : Ragnarok , is set for release on November 3 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
Eons ago , Bor , father of Odin , clashes with the Dark Elf Malekith , who seeks to unleash a weapon known as the Aether on the nine realms . After conquering Malekith 's forces , including enhanced warriors called the Kursed , on their home world of Svartalfheim , Bor safeguards the Aether within a stone column . Unbeknownst to Bor , Malekith , his lieutenant Algrim , and a handful of Dark Elves escape into suspended animation .
In present @-@ day Asgard , Loki stands imprisoned for his war crimes on Earth.1 Meanwhile , Thor , alongside warriors Fandral , Volstagg , and Sif , repel marauders on Vanaheim , home of their comrade Hogun ; it is the final battle in a war to pacify the Nine Realms following the reconstruction of the Bifröst , the " Rainbow Bridge " between realms , which had been destroyed two years earlier.2 The Asgardians soon learn that the Convergence , a rare alignment of the Nine Realms , is imminent ; as the event approaches , portals linking the worlds appear at random .
In London , astrophysicist Dr. Jane Foster and her intern Darcy Lewis travel to an abandoned factory where such portals have appeared , disrupting the laws of physics around them . Separating from the group , Jane is teleported to another world , where she is infected by the Aether . Heimdall alerts Thor that Jane has moved beyond his near all @-@ seeing vision , leading Thor to Earth . When Thor finds Jane , she inadvertently releases an unearthly force , and Thor returns with her to Asgard . Odin , recognizing the Aether , warns that the Aether will not only kill Jane , but that its return heralds a catastrophic prophecy .
Malekith , awakened by the Aether 's release , turns Algrim into a Kursed and attacks Asgard . During the battle , Malekith and Algrim search for Jane , sensing that she contains the Aether . Thor 's mother Frigga is killed protecting Jane , and Malekith and Algrim are forced to flee without Jane . Despite Odin 's orders not to leave Asgard , Thor reluctantly enlists the help of Loki , who knows of a secret portal to Svartalfheim , where they will use Jane to lure and confront Malekith , away from Asgard . In return , Thor promises Loki vengeance on Malekith for killing their mother . With Volstagg and Sif stalling Asgardian soldiers and Fandral assisting their escape , Thor , Loki , and Jane head to Svartalfheim .
There , Loki tricks Malekith into drawing the Aether out of Jane , but Thor 's attempt to destroy the exposed substance fails . Malekith merges with the Aether and leaves in his ship as Loki is fatally wounded while killing Algrim . Thor , cradling Loki in his arms , promises to tell their father of his sacrifice . Afterwards , Thor and Jane discover another portal in a nearby cave and reunite in London with Darcy and Jane 's mentor Dr. Erik Selvig — who was briefly institutionalized due to the mental trauma he suffered during Loki 's attack on Earth . They learn that Malekith plans to restore the Dark Elves to dominance by unleashing the Aether at the center of the Convergence in Greenwich . Thor battles Malekith through various portals and across multiple worlds until one portal separates them , leaving Malekith unopposed on Earth . Thor returns in time to help his mortal comrades use their scientific equipment to transport Malekith to Svartalfheim , where he is crushed by his own damaged ship .
Thor returns to Asgard , where he declines Odin 's offer to take the throne and tells Odin of Loki 's sacrifice . As he leaves , Odin 's form transforms into Loki , who is alive and impersonating Odin .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Volstagg and Sif visit the Collector and entrust the Aether to his care , commenting that with the Tesseract already in Asgard , having two Infinity Stones so close together would be dangerous . As they leave , the Collector remarks , " One down , five to go . " In a post @-@ credits scene , Jane and Thor reunite on Earth while somewhere in London a frost monster from Jotunheim , accidentally transported to Earth during the final battle , continues to run amok .
= = Cast = =
Chris Hemsworth as Thor :
The crown prince of Asgard , based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name . Hemsworth stated that the film addresses unresolved issues regarding Thor 's relationships from previous films , " For Thor and Jane , there are some unanswered questions now , since obviously he didn 't stop in and catch up with her in The Avengers . Thor might have some explaining to do in this one . And with Loki , we get down to the major bones of our conflict with everything that 's come from Thor to Avengers to now . " Hemsworth added , " Thor 's journey I think picks more so up from where we left the first one — About to take on the throne ... and now coming to the realization of what responsibility comes with that . Also , Alan [ Taylor ] keeps talking about the dark side of that responsibility , and the secrets of being king or becoming sort of very political about what people need to know and what they want to know . " Hemsworth especially enjoyed the role of Thor in this film as he was able to , " ... break him down and find his human qualities and his vulnerable side . "
Natalie Portman as Jane Foster :
An astrophysicist and Thor 's love interest , who is brought from Earth to Asgard by Thor after she is infected with a mysterious energy . Producer Kevin Feige said , " [ W ] hile Thor was a fish out of water on Earth in the first two films ( Thor and The Avengers ) , this time Jane is very much a fish out of water in Asgard . " Portman added , " It was a whole different adventure this time . Because Jane is the fish out of water . I didn 't want to make it like Bill & Ted , or like a valley girl dumped into Shakespeareland . " Portman also said the film finds Jane at a different place in her life , " Jane has moved , so she 's now in London , not in Santa Fe anymore . Obviously she has gone through missing Thor and also being upset at him because he didn 't come knock on her door when he was on her planet . She 's definitely been getting over that and trying to move on . " Hemsworth 's wife Elsa Pataky stood in for Portman during the final kissing scene due to a scheduling conflict .
Tom Hiddleston as Loki :
Thor 's adoptive brother and nemesis , based on the deity of the same name , who forms an uneasy alliance with Thor against the Dark Elves . On where he wished to take the character in the film , Hiddleston said , " I 'd like to take [ Loki ] to his absolute rock bottom . I 'd like to see him yield , essentially , to his darkest instincts . Then , having hit rock bottom , maybe come back up . I think the fascination for me about playing Loki is that , in the history of the mythology and the comic books and the Scandinavian myths , is he 's constantly dancing on this fault line of the dark side and redemption . " Hiddleston recalled , " When I met Alan [ Taylor ] , he asked me how I thought I could do Loki again without repeating myself and I remembered talking with Kevin Feige when we were on the Avengers promotional tour . I said , ' OK , you 've seen Thor and Loki be antagonistic for two films now . It would be amazing to see them fight side by side . I 've been the bad guy now twice , so I can 't be again , or otherwise I shouldn 't be in the film . So we have to find a new role for me to play . "
Anthony Hopkins as Odin :
The king of Asgard , father of Thor , and adoptive father of Loki , based on the deity of the same name , who disapproves of Jane Foster being in Asgard . Regarding Thor 's relationship with his father , Hemsworth said , " [ T ] he conflict between Thor and Odin was so great in the first one ... so , certainly they disagree as I think they always will at times but there 's a far greater respect from each other . So it becomes , I guess , a more mature conversation , but there 's more at stake this time , too . It 's not sort of just their individual egos , the whole universe is at stake . " As to his approach Hopkins said , " I just play Odin like a human being , with maybe a little more dimension . I grow a beard , look hopefully impressive and keep it as real as possible . "
Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig :
Foster 's mentor and colleague . Skarsgård said , the film finds Selvig in a " disrupted mode " explaining , " Having a god in your head for a while creates some psychological problems " , referring to the character 's ordeal following The Avengers .
Idris Elba as Heimdall :
The all @-@ seeing , all @-@ hearing Asgardian sentry of the Bifröst Bridge , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Elba said he has a larger role in the sequel , " In the new film we 're going to get to know Heimdall the Asgardian a bit better , and we 're going to get to know Asgard a bit better . I can 't say too much , but the expansion of Thor in his world is going to be huge . My part was very small and functional in the first film " .
Christopher Eccleston as Malekith :
The ruler of the Dark Elves of Svartalfheim . About Malekith 's motivation , Eccleston said , " There is a kind of tragic quality to his quest . Because he 's lost his wife , he 's lost his children . He 's lost everything . And he returns for revenge . And the agent for his revenge is the Aether . If he gets hold of that , he is omnipotent . " Eccleston continued , " What I thought about a great deal was revenge — there 's huge amounts of revenge . One quote is : ' When you seek revenge , be sure to dig two graves . ' I did a film called Revengers Tragedy where I played a guy called Vindici — from the word ' vindictive ' — and he is the distillation of revenge . So , in a way , that was what I had to think of : how revenge can make you absolutely monomaniacal — though you 're still trying to make it recognizably motive @-@ led . It 's just the personification of movie evil . " However Taylor stated that a lot of scenes involving Malekith 's backstory had to be cut from the film to make it more efficient . Eccleston revealed that he speaks an invented language for the film explaining , " The Elvish language is definitely based on European languages . I think there ’ s probably some Finnish in there . It does have its logic and its rhythms . It also has many syllables and it 's very difficult to do while remaining naturalistic . It 's been a particular challenge for us but hopefully it gives the film some complexity and variety . " Eccleston also said the role required six hours of make @-@ up and 45 minutes in wardrobe .
Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as Algrim / Kurse :
A Dark Elf , and Malekith 's trusted and loyal lieutenant , who is transformed into a monstrous creature in order to destroy Thor . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje described Kurse as " an amalgamation of a bull and a lava @-@ like creature . He has very animalistic tendencies but with this insatiable and unstoppable power . As an actor , that 's one of the hardest things to embody . You have to realize you are probably the most powerful thing you could imagine . And you have to be that . You can 't pretend , so that when you face Thor , it 's real . " Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje stated the role required three hours of make @-@ up a day and had to put on heavy duty prosthetics explaining , " The outfit weighed about 40 pounds . I 'm sure there will be a certain amount of CGI but a good 80 % was me in that suit . " About the character Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje said , " I suppose Algrim and Kurse would be the quintessential baddies , but in reality they are what I perceive as the scorn and the victims of the story . They are the elves who have basically lost their planet and their race to another race , the Asgardians . Here is a man / alien who places a noble objective beyond his own life and I think there is something extremely inspiring about that because he looks at the bigger picture and sees himself as a means to that end . " Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje added , " I worked with director Alan Taylor in trying to maintain Algrim 's humanity all the way throughout Kurse 's transformation , so that even when you see Kurse the beast , you can still relate to him as being Algrim inside . And symbolically we did that by keeping the same piercing blue eyes throughout . "
Kat Dennings as Darcy Lewis :
A political science major who is interning for Foster . Her role in the film was expanded from the comic relief sidekick role she played in the first Thor film . Dennings said her character is " really bad at real science in this first movie . In the second movie , she 's more interested , but she still doesn 't know anything about it . She loves Jane , she really wants Jane and Thor to be together . It 's almost like her own little soap opera that she watches . "
Ray Stevenson as Volstagg :
A member of the Warriors Three ; a group of three Asgardian adventurers who are among Thor 's closest comrades , known for both his hearty appetite and wide girth . About the character Stevenson said , " He 's got a heart the size of a planet that he wears on his sleeve , so he 's like a big kid . " Regarding Volstagg 's role in this film , Stevenson said , " Volstagg is struggling , he has a brood , they [ the Warriors Three ] are fighting for hearth and home as much as for the idea of Asgard itself . That 's where he has trouble . " Explaining , " He 's all too aware of how potentially threatening this new enemy is on both the home front and the battlefield . "
Zachary Levi as Fandral :
A member of the Warriors Three , characterized as an irrepressible swashbuckler and romantic . Levi replaced Joshua Dallas in the role due to his commitment on Once Upon a Time . Levi had been up for the role in the first film , but bowed out due to his commitment on Chuck . Levi compared the character to Flynn Rider , the character he played in the animated feature , Tangled , " Fandral is a little similar to Rider in some ways ... He 's like this Lothario . He 's like Errol Flynn . He loves ladies , as do I " . Regarding the dynamic of the Warriors Three , Levi said , " The Warriors Three are here to support Thor . We are his confidants , his best friends . We 've all grown up together in a lot of ways and fought many a battle together , escaped death . To me it 's the way best friends ought to be — they 're there when you need to talk and they 're there if you don 't want to talk , and they 're there if you need to escape from your father 's place in a flying skiff ! "
Tadanobu Asano as Hogun :
A member of the Warriors Three , a native of Vanaheim primarily identified by his grim demeanor .
Jaimie Alexander as Sif :
An Asgardian warrior , Thor 's childhood friend and Jane Foster 's romantic rival , based on the deity of the same name . Alexander said there is more character development for Sif and the film explores the Sif @-@ Thor relationship . Alexander elaborated , " I really tried to bring a little bit more vulnerability in this film . Sif is very much in love with Thor and very much cares about his well @-@ being . So she kicks a lot of butt in this movie but she also opens her heart a lot . " Alexander suffered a severe back injury while on the set . About the injury , she said , " It was raining , it was dark outside , it was like 5 in the morning — and I went down a metal staircase and slipped and slipped a disc in my thoracic spine and chipped 11 of my vertebrae . I knocked my left shoulder out of place and tore my rhomboid on my right side ... It took me out of filming for a month " .
Rene Russo as Frigga :
The wife of Odin , queen of Asgard , mother of Thor and adoptive mother of Loki , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Russo said that her role was expanded and explores Frigga 's relationship with Loki , " You know , they cut me [ down ] in the first film . Kenneth Branagh sent me a nice note , because he understood , he 's an actor . You move on , what are you going to do ? But I think they 're going to need a good mom in the next film . Loki needs his mom . I have a lot of compassion for [ Loki ] . But we might have to have a conversation about what he just did " .
Additionally , Alice Krige portrays Eir , an Asgardian physician . Chris O 'Dowd was cast as Richard , a suitor of Jane Foster 's . Benicio del Toro , who plays the Collector in Marvel Studios ' Guardians of the Galaxy , appears in a mid @-@ credits scene with Ophelia Lovibond , who plays his aide Carina . Jonathan Howard plays Ian Boothby , Darcy 's intern . Tony Curran plays Bor , Odin 's father , based on the deity of the same name . Clive Russell plays Tyr , based on the deity of the same name . Richard Brake portrays a captain in the Einherjar . Chris Evans makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Loki masquerading as Captain America , while Thor co @-@ creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a patient in a mental ward .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 2011 before the release of Thor ( 2011 ) , Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige stated that following The Avengers ( 2012 ) , " Thor will go off into a new adventure . " Kenneth Branagh , director of Thor , responded to his comments , saying , " It is kind of news to me . Here 's what I would say to that : It 's that I 'm thrilled they 're that confident . I shall wait for the audience to tell us whether there should be a second one , and then if that 's a nice conversation to be had [ among ] all of us , that 'd be thrilling . But I 've got too much Irish superstitious blood in me to assume that Thor 2 will happen . But if Marvel says so , then I guess it must be true " . Feige later explained that Marvel Studios would gauge how well Thor did at the box office before announcing sequels , but stated , " Don Payne is working on story ideas for a part two . We 've got various options with Ken [ Branagh ] to discuss coming back , but right now the focus is on the first one . Don is , slowly but surely , thinking about where to take the character next should we be so lucky " .
In June 2011 , Walt Disney Studios set a July 26 , 2013 , release date for the Thor sequel with Chris Hemsworth reprising his role as the title hero . It was also reported that Branagh would not be returning as director but would likely be involved in a producing capacity . The Los Angeles Times cited the long commitment necessary for a special effects @-@ heavy epic and the pressure to start the script process right away as reasons for Branagh 's departure , although he was initially enthused by the chance to direct the sequel . Branagh noted , " It was a long time [ making the first film ] and they were way too quick for me to get straight back into another , [ but ] it was a pleasurable experience and a film I 'm very proud of . " The following day , Marvel formally hired Payne , one of the credited writers of the first film , to script the sequel . In August , Brian Kirk entered early negotiations to direct the Thor sequel . The film would have marked Kirk 's first time directing a big @-@ budget motion picture , after having directed television series for HBO , Showtime and the BBC , including Game of Thrones .
In September 2011 , Tom Hiddleston confirmed he would return in the sequel , speculating that in the film , " [ Loki will ] have to take responsibility for what he 's done " . Patty Jenkins , the director of Monster and the pilot episode of AMC 's The Killing , entered early negotiations with Marvel Studios and Disney to direct the film , after Kirk had passed due to contractual sticking points that arose during negotiations . Later in the month , Feige stated the sequel would " take Thor literally to other worlds " and would " primarily be the journey of that character , of he and Jane Foster and how the new dynamic with his father is working out , as well as what are the broader stakes for The Nine Worlds " . On October 13 , 2011 , Marvel confirmed that Jenkins would direct the sequel and Natalie Portman would return to star . Disney also moved the release date for the film to November 15 , 2013 .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In December 2011 , Jenkins exited the project , citing " creative differences " . She stated , " I have had a great time working at Marvel . We parted on very good terms , and I look forward to working with them again . " Three days later , The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel was looking at Alan Taylor and Daniel Minahan as prospective directors to replace Jenkins . THR also reported that Marvel was in the midst of hiring a writer to rewrite Don Payne 's script and the shortlist of possible writers consists of John Collee , Robert Rodat , and Roger Avary . At the end of the month , Alan Taylor , best known for directing episodes of the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones , was chosen to direct the sequel . Feige mentioned Taylor 's work on the series Mad Men , Boardwalk Empire and Game of Thrones as reasons for his hiring , saying " With Alan 's direction we got a few more layers of patina , of texture , of reality into our golden realm . "
By January 10 , Marvel Studios had commissioned screenwriter Robert Rodat to rewrite the sequel and Hiddleston stated that filming was expected to begin in London in the summer of 2012 . Hemsworth later confirmed that filming was scheduled to begin in August . Hemsworth also revealed that the film would have a more Viking @-@ influenced feel , elaborating " I think the science fiction element to Thor … the danger is it falls a little bit into the world of it 's ' tough to throw a light to . ' I think of big waterfalls and mountains and a Viking influence , where the Norse mythology kind of grew from . Having that in Asgard is going to make it all the more special and that 's what Alan [ Taylor ] wants to bring to it . " Feige said " while the relationship between Loki and Thor certainly has changed [ after the events of the movie The Avengers ] and has progressed , a lot of Thor 2 is picking up where it left off in terms of Jane , who you just saw for a moment on a computer monitor , and also what 's been going on in the nine realms without the Asgardians being able to use the Bifrost . " Feige also said that while Loki has a part , " there will be a different villain , another big villain " .
In May 2012 , Mads Mikkelsen began talks to play one of the villains in the film and Anthony Hopkins , who played Odin in the first film , committed to returning in the sequel . At the end of the month , Disney moved up the release date for the film a week ahead of the previous date to November 8 , 2013 .
By June 2012 , much of the first film 's supporting cast was confirmed to return , including Idris Elba , Jaimie Alexander , Ray Stevenson and Stellan Skarsgård . Also in June , Joshua Dallas announced that he would not be reprising the role of Fandral . Dallas had initially intended to return , but had to bow out due to his commitment on the television show , Once Upon a Time , and Zachary Levi was cast in his place . Levi was originally up for the role in the first film but scheduling conflicts with Chuck forced him to drop out .
In July 2012 , Mikkelsen stated he would not be appearing in the sequel due to prior commitments , " That 's not happening unfortunately . I had a meeting with [ the filmmakers ] , but it was a bit too late and then Hannibal came in ... It 's just not happening " . At the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , it was announced that the film would be titled Thor : The Dark World . At the end of the month , residents near Bourne Wood in Surrey , England were notified that a film going by the working title , Thursday Mourning would be filming in the area .
In August of that year , Christopher Eccleston entered final negotiations to play Malekith the Accursed , and the film was scheduled to shoot in Iceland , where Taylor shot parts of Game of Thrones . By August 22 , Kat Dennings was hired to reprise her role as Darcy Lewis and Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje was cast as Algrim . At the end of the month , film crews for Thursday Mourning began set construction at Stonehenge near Amesbury , England .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on September 10 , 2012 , in Bourne Wood , Surrey , England . A few weeks later , Clive Russell was cast as Tyr , and Richard Brake was cast as an Einherjar captain . At the end of the month , Jaimie Alexander was injured on the London film set , after she slipped while walking in the rain . On October 12 , 2012 , production moved to Iceland with filming taking place in Dómadalur , Skógafoss , Fjaðrárgljúfur and Skeiðarársandur . Iceland Review described the shoot as being among the most extensive film projects to have ever taken place in Iceland . Three days later , Disney announced that the film would be released in 3D . In late October , filming commenced at the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich , London . Filming also took place at Shepperton Studios and Longcross Studios in Surrey between October and December 2012 . Other filming locations included Wembley , Borough Market , Hayes and Stonehenge . Alexander tweeted that principal photography wrapped on December 14 , 2012 . Disney spent $ 237 @.@ 6 million on Thor : The Dark World but $ 37 million of this was offset by payments from the UK tax authority .
Kramer Morgenthau , who worked with Taylor on Game of Thrones , was brought in as the director of photography . Morgenthau said , " We wanted a grittier , boots @-@ on @-@ the @-@ ground feeling , inspired by what Alan and I had done on Game of Thrones . We wanted the realms to feel grounded , like a real place , while at the same time respecting the magical ' planet of the Gods ' feeling and theme . " Thor : The Dark World was Morgenthau 's first time shooting a feature film digitally . For the film , Morgenthau chose the Arri Alexa Plus , although he tested with the Sony F65 but found the Alexa to be more pleasing . In addition to the Alexa , Red Epic and Canon EOS 5D Mark II cameras were used for second unit filming . With the Alexa , Morgenthau used Panavision anamorphic lenses . Morgenthau said , " The lenses brought some of the magic and mystery of photochemical back to digital , that big @-@ movie look . " Morgenthau also stated that Thor : The Dark World was easily the most technically complex project that he has worked but said , " It 's all the same concept and the same principles as in a smaller film . You just scale it up . You do a lot more prep . We had three months of prep and loads of time to pre @-@ rig stages . Part of it is having a really good crew — it 's definitely not a one @-@ man show . "
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In July 2013 , Dennings told reporters that the film was about to head into reshoots . In August , Taylor said he shot extra scenes with Hiddleston and was about to shoot more with Hopkins . Taylor explained that it was all a part of the " Marvel process " saying , " We 're doing full scenes , scenes that were not in the movie before . We 're adding scenes , creating scenes , writing scenes for the first time . The one [ involving Loki ] was a fun connective scene ... We realised how well Loki was working in the movie , and we wanted to do more with him . So it was that kind of thing , it was like , ' Oh , we could do this , we could jam this in here ' because he 's such a wonderful guy to watch do his stuff . " Also in August , IMAX Corporation and Marvel Entertainment announced that the film would be digitally re @-@ mastered into the IMAX 3D format and released into IMAX 3D theatres internationally beginning October 30 , 2013 .
Taylor said Marvel 's The Avengers writer / director Joss Whedon rewrote several scenes in the film explaining , " Joss came in to save our lives a couple of times . We had a major scene that was not working on the page at all in London , and he basically got airlifted in , like a SWAT team or something . He came down , rewrote the scene , and before he got back to his plane I sort of grabbed him and said , ' And this scene and this scene ? ' And he rewrote two other scenes that I thought had problems . " In October 2013 , Tony Curran tweeted that he would be portraying Odin 's father , Bor , in a flashback sequence . In November 2013 , Feige stated that the film was intended to be the conclusion of the " Loki trilogy " , which examined the relationship of Thor and Loki throughout Thor , The Avengers and this film . The film 's mid @-@ credits scene was directed by James Gunn , the director of Marvel Studios ' Guardians of the Galaxy .
The film 's visual effects were completed by seven special effects studios , including Double Negative and Luma Pictures . Blur Studio was the lead studio behind the film 's prologue sequence taking place 5 @,@ 000 years before the start of the film , on the Dark Elves homeworld of Svartalfheim . The sequence consisted mostly of computer graphics with live @-@ action shots interwoven throughout . The use of CG allowed for greater freedom of movement by the characters as the live @-@ action costumes were too constrictive .
Taylor wanted Asgard in this film to have a more natural look than its predecessor . To achieve this , crews filmed the coast of Norway with an Arri Alexa camera for three days in a helicopter , capturing six hours of footage . Double Negative then embedded their CG rendering of Asgard on shots of the natural landscape . Double Negative visual effects supervisor Alex Wuttke said , " The benefit of that is that you have some real world terrain to work with – so you have buildings that have to convey natural features . Then from there we went in there populating the terrain with different buildings . " For scenes taking place on Svartalfheim , production filmed in Iceland with Double Negative adding ruins , mountains , Dark Elf ships , and skies .
For the shot of the levitating truck , which was used in the film to demonstrate the strange phenomena brought on by the coming of the alignment of the worlds , filmmakers attached a cement truck to a large hydraulic rig , which could be programmed to change speed and movement . In order to create Algrim 's transformation into Kurse , Double Negative morphed live action performances of Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as both Algrim and Kurse . Double Negative then added in smoke and lava @-@ like effects .
The film 's climatic battle sequence takes place through the nine worlds by the use of portals . Visual effects supervisor Jake Morrison said , " We ended up calling this ' time toffee ' , so as you punch through from one realm to another it 's almost like cling film or a slightly gelatinous membrane you have to pass through . It bends a little bit then rips and spits the person out . The other thing we wanted to do was to make sure it was quite fast from an editorial point of view . In the fight scenes there are times when Thor and Malekith are portaling all over the place , quite frankly . We made sure we always kept up the momentum and never stopped the fight . It was a way of making sure the audience weren 't conscious there was an effect going on . "
= = Music = =
In August 2012 , Patrick Doyle said that he had discussions with the director about potentially returning to score the film . By April 2013 , Carter Burwell had been hired to compose the score , but by the following month he left the film over creative differences . In June 2013 , Marvel hired Brian Tyler , who scored Iron Man 3 , to replace Burwell . Tyler said the previous film had an " attitude and [ was ] grounded in limitations " whereas the Thor film allowed for " all @-@ out regal themes that could be as epic as I could make them . " The composer described The Dark World as " science fiction meeting classic medieval war " , leading to a score that drew from works of both genres such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings . Azam Ali is a featured vocalist on the score . The soundtrack was released digitally on October 28 , 2013 .
= = Release = =
The world premiere of Thor : The Dark World took place on October 22 , 2013 , at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . The film was released theatrically in the UK eight days later , on October 30 . The film held its North American premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , and was released into U.S. theaters on November 7 , 2013 .
= = = Marketing = = =
In March 2013 , Marvel announced the release of a two @-@ issue comic book prelude by writers Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost and artist Scot Eaton in June 2013 . In April 2013 , Marvel released the first trailer for Thor : The Dark World . Forbes said , " This trailer fits nicely into that larger marketing push for Marvel 's brand . It puts all of the recognizable characters from the first film front and center , presents the action as a team event reminiscent of the Avengers , and once again Loki — who was quite popular with audiences — makes an appearance . " The Los Angeles Times said , " Evident throughout the trailer is director Alan Taylor 's influence ; the Game of Thrones director 's hand can be seen in the battle sequences , and Asgard — a bright and shiny kingdom under Thor director Kenneth Branagh — seems grittier in the sequel . " In July at the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Hiddleston introduced footage from the film to audiences in character as Loki . Also in July , Gameloft announced that a mobile video game titled , Thor the Dark World : The Official Game , would be released in conjunction with the release of the film in November .
The theatrical poster for the film was released in early August 2013 . Kirsten Acuna of Business Insider criticized the poster for its lack of originality , noting its similarities to one of the posters of Iron Man 3 , both of which included the female lead clinging to the male lead , with both looking in opposite directions , antagonists prominently displayed in the background and supporting characters featured " on the side " . Additionally , Marvel released a second trailer for the film as part of YouTube 's Geek Week . Forbes said , " this 150 @-@ second trailer is basically just an extended version of last April 's 106 @-@ second teaser " and that " this trailer fails to showcase what 's new this time around ... making audiences question if they really don 't have much else to offer . " The Los Angeles Times said , that the trailer suggests " an ominous , epic scale for the sequel " and that " the collaboration between Thor and Loki promises to be especially interesting . " Later in the month , producer Kevin Feige and cast members Tom Hiddleston , Natalie Portman and Anthony Hopkins presented additional footage at Disney 's D23 Expo .
Also in August 2013 , Disney announced plans to promote the film with an attraction at Disneyland . The attraction called Thor : Treasures of Asgard , located next to the Stark Industries exhibit inside Innoventions in Tomorrowland , opened on November 1 , 2013 and features displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin 's throne room , where they are greeted by Thor . The eighth episode of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , titled " The Well " , takes place in the aftermath of the events of Thor : The Dark World . It first aired on November 19 , 2013 . Jaimie Alexander reprised her role as Sif in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode " Yes Men " , which aired on March 11 , 2014 .
= = = Home media = = =
Thor : The Dark World was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment for digital download on February 4 , 2014 , and on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on February 25 , 2014 . The physical media release includes deleted scenes , extended scenes , a gag reel , audio commentary by the cast and crew , and a Marvel One @-@ Shot short film entitled All Hail the King , featuring Ben Kingsley reprising his role as Trevor Slattery from Iron Man 3 .
The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Thor : The Dark World earned $ 206 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 438 @.@ 2 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 644 @.@ 6 million . It surpassed the gross of its predecessor after just 19 days of its release . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $ 139 @.@ 4 million , when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film .
= = = = North America = = = =
Thor : The Dark World made an estimated $ 7 @.@ 1 million in Thursday night showings , more than double the midnight gross of its predecessor . On Friday , November 7 , 2013 , the film topped the box office with $ 31 @.@ 9 million ( including Thursday night earnings ) , which is 25 % higher than the original film 's opening @-@ day gross . Through Sunday , the film remained at the No. 1 spot with $ 85 @.@ 7 million , which is a 30 % increase over its predecessor 's opening weekend . This was the largest November opening for a film distributed by Disney , surpassing The Incredibles . Thor : The Dark World topped the box office in North America during its first two weekends , before being overtaken by The Hunger Games : Catching Fire in its third weekend .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
On its midweek opening day of Wednesday , October 30 , 2013 , Thor : The Dark World earned $ 8 @.@ 2 million from 33 territories , including the UK and France , where it opened higher than its predecessor . During its first three days , the film earned $ 45 @.@ 2 million , and by the end of the weekend , after expanding into three more territories , it totaled $ 109 @.@ 4 million over five days , finishing in first place in all 36 countries . Its largest openings were recorded in China ( $ 21 @.@ 0 million ) , the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 13 @.@ 8 million ) and France and the Maghreb region ( $ 9 @.@ 94 million ) . It topped the box office outside North America on its first three weekends of release . In total earnings , its largest markets are China ( $ 55 @.@ 3 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 35 @.@ 4 million ) and the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 31 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 67 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 based on 245 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " It may not be the finest film to come from the Marvel Universe , but Thor : The Dark World still offers plenty of the humor and high @-@ stakes action that fans have come to expect . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 54 out of 100 based on 44 reviews , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an " A- " average , based on a grading scale ranging from A + to F.
Ben Child of The Guardian said , " Thanks to Hiddleston and Hemsworth 's impressive collective charisma , Thor : The Dark World is far from a franchise killer . " Justin Chang of Variety wrote , " This robust , impersonal visual @-@ effects showpiece proves buoyant and unpretentious enough to offset its stew of otherwise derivative fantasy / action elements . " Alonso Duralde of The Wrap said , " Thor : The Dark World delivers the goods — action , otherworldly grandiosity , romance , humor — above and beyond its predecessor " . Simon Abrams , writing for RogerEbert.com said , " There 's just enough tension and humor in Thor : The Dark World to make the film 's otherwise listless proceedings worth watching , but only just . " Echoing other critics ' sentiments , Frank Lovece of Film Journal International wrote , " Is it wrong that the best relationship in Thor : The Dark World is between the titular Norse @-@ god superhero and his adoptive brother Loki ? To take nothing away from Oscar @-@ winner Natalie Portman , ... it 's the complicated love @-@ hate between Thor and the trickster god Loki that you can 't turn your eyes from . "
Conversely , Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph said , " It feels entirely made by committee — the definition of house style , without a personal stamp in sight . " Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter said , " Although director Alan Taylor manages to get things going properly for the final battle in London , the long stretches before that on Asgard and the other branches of Yggdrasil are a drag , like filler episodes of Game of Thrones but without the narrative complexity , mythical heft or all @-@ pervading sexiness . " Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times described Thor : The Dark World as having the " same old threats of galaxy annihilation spiced with fairly entertaining fish @-@ out @-@ of @-@ water jokes " . Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times said , " the battle scenes are as lacking in heat and coherence as the central love story " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences placed Thor : The Dark World on its shortlist of potential nominees for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects but ultimately did not nominate it for the award .
= = Sequel = =
Thor : Ragnarok is scheduled to be released on November 3 , 2017 , directed by Taika Waititi . Stephany Folsom will write the screenplay , with Kevin Feige again producing . Hemsworth , Hiddleston , Alexander , Hopkins and Elba will reprise their roles as Thor , Loki , Sif , Odin , and Heimdall , respectively , while Mark Ruffalo will appear as Bruce Banner / Hulk reprising his role from previous MCU films . Cate Blanchett , Tessa Thompson , Jeff Goldblum and Karl Urban join the cast as Hela , Valkyrie , Grandmaster , and Skurge , respectively .
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= Curt Roberts =
Curtis " Curt " Benjamin Roberts ( August 16 , 1929 – November 14 , 1969 ) was an American baseball second baseman who played three seasons for the Pittsburgh Pirates in Major League Baseball from 1954 to 1956 . He was signed by the Boston Braves as an amateur free agent before the 1951 season , and obtained by Pittsburgh a year later . After two seasons in the Pirates farm system , Roberts was the first black Major League player for the Pirates . After becoming the starting second baseman for the Pirates in his rookie year , Roberts ' playing time decreased and he was out of the Majors within three seasons . He played for multiple teams in the minor leagues before retiring from professional baseball in 1963 .
A native of Pineland , Texas , but raised in Oakland , California , Roberts was considered short by Major League standards , standing 5 ft 8 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) . Roberts was a skilled defensive player who could not hit with enough proficiency to remain in the major leagues . Roberts died when an automobile struck him while he was changing a tire on his car . His former Pirates teammates only learned of his death 20 years later when being interviewed for a newspaper article . Although Roberts ' career was short , it paved the way for other black players to debut for the Pirates , the most notable of whom was future Baseball Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente .
= = Early professional career = =
Roberts was born in Pineland , Texas but grew up in Oakland , California . He attended McClymonds High School in West Oakland , the same high school future professional athletes Frank Robinson , Vada Pinson , Bill Russell and Curt Flood all went to within a few years of each other . Soon after finishing high school at the age of 17 , Roberts began his professional career with the Kansas City Monarchs in the Negro Leagues . He played four seasons ( 1947 – 1950 ) with the Monarchs , where his teammates included Satchel Paige , Hilton Smith , Buck O 'Neil and Elston Howard . Roberts was signed by the Boston Braves in 1951 by the recommendation of scout Andy Cohen , who saw him play in the Mexican League during the 1950 off @-@ season . They sent Roberts to their minor leagues affiliate in the Western League , the Denver Bears where Cohen was the manager . Prior to the 1952 season , the Bears became an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates , and as part of a working agreement between the Braves and the Pirates , Roberts became a member of the Pirates organization for a $ 10 @,@ 000 sum . Originally a shortstop in the Negro Leagues , he became a second baseman during his tenure with the Bears , and started to build a reputation as an excellent fielder , leading all minor league second basemen in fielding percentage in 1953 . He stayed with the Bears for the next two seasons , playing a combined total of 280 games with 15 home runs and a .285 batting average .
= = Major League career = =
Prior to the 1954 Pittsburgh Pirates season , the local black community in Pittsburgh pressurized the team to integrate their roster , as other teams such as the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants had done . To speed up the integration , the black community began to protest against the Pirates and boycotted Pirate home games . The general manager of the Pirates at the time was Branch Rickey , who seven years earlier as general manager of the Dodgers signed Jackie Robinson , the first black Major League Baseball player . After playing two years in the Pirates minor league system , Roberts made his major league debut on April 13 , 1954 at Forbes Field , against the Philadelphia Phillies to become the first black player in Pirates ' history . Prior to the game Rickey gave a speech to Roberts and his wife that was similar to that he gave to Robinson before his first game in 1947 . In the speech , Rickey explained to Roberts that he needed to have a " very even temper " in order to succeed in the Major Leagues as racial abuse from the spectators was a common occurrence . Rickey later said that he selected Roberts to become the Pirates first black player owing to his skills and calm demeanor . In his first major league at bat , Roberts tripled against starting pitcher Robin Roberts . He also had a double in the game . Roberts hit his only career home run off St. Louis Cardinals starter Joe Presko in an 8 – 5 win on June 11 . He scored three runs , including the winning run in an August 6 game against the Cincinnati Reds . On September 8 , Roberts ' two errors against the Milwaukee Braves proved costly , as the Braves won their 10th game in a row . Roberts finished the 1954 season as the primary starter at second base , batting .232 with one home run and 36 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 134 games .
Roberts started the 1955 season in a slump . In his first six games , Roberts only had two hits in 18 at @-@ bats for a batting average of .118 . On April 17 , in one of the few games he started that season , Roberts ' wild throw to third base led to a Brooklyn Dodgers run , the decisive factor in a 3 – 2 Pirates loss . It was thought that the racial pressure on Roberts was affecting his ability , so to help him , Dodgers second baseman Jackie Robinson wrote a letter to Roberts discussing how to handle his emotions and offering words of encouragement . However , Roberts was soon demoted back to the minor leagues and spent the rest of the 1955 season with the Hollywood Stars in the Pacific Coast League . While with the Stars Roberts broke the Pacific Coast League record for most consecutive games without an error at second base with 40 . He also missed playing time after suffering a concussion when he was hit by a pitch delivered by Bubba Church .
Roberts and teammate Johnny O 'Brien competed for the second base job prior to the 1956 season . Roberts played 31 games at the beginning of the year , hitting .177 with four runs batted in , mostly in a backup role , before losing his job to future Baseball Hall of Famer Bill Mazeroski . On May 1 , Roberts succeeded in getting a game @-@ winning , two @-@ RBI , ninth @-@ inning double off " Vinegar Bend " Mitzell of the St. Louis Cardinals . Two days later , Roberts made his last career RBI , a double in the fourth inning in a 5 – 1 victory over the Cincinnati Reds .
= = Later career = =
Roberts was traded to the Kansas City Athletics with pitcher Jack McMahan for Spook Jacobs and $ 5 @,@ 000 cash . He never played a game with the Athletics , who soon sent him to the Columbus Jets of the International League in late June 1956 . Neither Jacobs nor McMahan lasted beyond the 1956 season in the Majors . After being traded to the Athletics , Pittsburgh 's main black newspaper , the Pittsburgh Courier , protested that Roberts never had a real chance in the Majors . However , Pirates general manager Joe L. Brown replied that Roberts was a " fine young man , but a marginal Major Leaguer " . On August 28 , Roberts hit four home runs in one game against the Havana Sugar Kings , becoming only the fifth player in International League history to do so . He had struck only four home runs in 69 previous games with the Jets . Prior to the 1957 season , Roberts was traded to the New York Yankees as the player to be named later in a trade that sent former American League Most Valuable Player Bobby Shantz to the Yankees . In 1957 Roberts played with the New York Yankees minor league affiliate in Denver . At the end of the season , Roberts received several votes in the final tally for Most Valuable Player of the American Association , finishing behind Carl Willey of the Wichita Braves . Roberts never again reached the Majors , becoming a journeyman in the minor leagues and at one point played baseball in Nicaragua .
Roberts played with the Montreal Royals of the International League in 1959 , where he led the league in fielding percentage with .987 and was named the Royals Most Valuable Player . He was also selected to the International League All @-@ Star game that season . In 1960 , Roberts was acquired by the Spokane Indians , a Dodger affiliate after he was made expandable by the Royals when they acquired Chico Carrasquel . He was selected to the Pacific Coast League All @-@ Star squad in 1961 . One week later Roberts suffered a broken leg after colliding with teammate Duke Carmel on the field during a game , practically ending his career . He played two more seasons in the minors , but his playing ability was diminished by the injury and Roberts retired from baseball after the 1963 season .
= = Post @-@ baseball and death = =
Roberts was married with six children . When his baseball career ended , he worked as a security guard for the University of California , Berkeley . He died at the age of 40 in Oakland , California when he was hit by a drunk driver while changing a flat tire on his car . A major piece written by Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette journalist Ed Bouchette discussed Roberts ' career and struggles , calling him a " forgotten pioneer " . Prior to the piece , most of Roberts ' old teammates were unaware that Roberts had died nearly 20 years earlier . His son Curt Roberts Jr. supposedly was working on a book about his father 's life in 1987 .
= = Playing style and statistics = =
Roberts was considered by critics to be an excellent fielder . By 1960 , Roberts was considered to be one of the best second baseman in the minor leagues , primary because he was a " slick fielder " . Former teammate Nellie King called Roberts the best handler of " chopper [ s ] " ( a slang for a ground out ) he had ever seen . According to King , the main reason why Roberts had a short career in the Majors is that the Pirates " didn 't gave him enough time " to develop his skills .
Roberts could not hit with enough proficiency to remain in the Major Leagues . He had a reputation of not " hitting the big @-@ league curve " . In his three seasons with the Pirates , Roberts had a career .223 batting average ( 128 @-@ for @-@ 575 ) with one home run , four runs batted in , 54 runs scored , and an on @-@ base percentage of .299 . In his 164 appearances at second base , he handled 856 out of 883 total chances successfully for a fielding percentage of .969 , a little lower than the league average during his era .
= = Legacy = =
Despite Roberts ' short major league career , he paved the way for other black players to debut for the Pirates , the most notable of whom was future Baseball Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente . He befriended Clemente , teaching him how to handle the racial abuse and the huge pressure that Roberts had suffered with the Pirates . That helped Clemente ease his transition from the Dodgers minor league system , in which they had a decent number of black and Hispanic players , to the main roster of the Pittsburgh Pirates , in which only he , Roberts and third baseman Gene Baker were black . Journalist Tom Singer of MLB.com mentioned that Roberts ' legacy arose mainly from his unsuccessful career with the Pirates . Singer claimed because Roberts was a " flop " , it showed that the public perception of black players having to be a " superstar " to be a member of a Major League club was incorrect , thus making the integration process more " humanized " and easier for black players . With the eight previous players who broke the color barrier for their respective teams , four were later elected to the Hall of Fame , and the other four were stars in their own right .
In 1997 , 28 years after his death , the Pittsburgh Pirates honored Roberts as part of the festivities for Jackie Robinson Day . Roberts was honored again in 2006 for the opening of the Pirates Highmark Legacy Square Negro League exhibit in PNC Park . The families of several Negro League players , including Roberts attended the ceremony . A park in his hometown of Pineland , Texas was dedicated in his honor in 2007 .
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= Bramhope Tunnel =
The Bramhope Tunnel is a railway tunnel 2 @.@ 138 miles ( 3 @.@ 441 km ) long , owned by Network Rail on a route currently operated mainly by Northern Rail . It was constructed during 1845 – 1849 on the Harrogate Line , carrying rural and commuter passengers between Horsforth and Arthington in West Yorkshire , England . It is notable for its length , for its crenellated north portal , which is Grade II listed , and for the deaths of 24 men during its construction , commemorated in Otley churchyard with a castellated replica of the north portal .
It was constructed by Thomas Grainger , engineer and James Bray , overseer , who set up two sighting towers and then twenty shafts along the line of the tunnel . Men dug horizontally from these shafts until the diggings joined up in 1848 . Thousands of navvies lived locally in bothies with their families , and dug in dangerous and wet conditions to facilitate the grand opening in 1849 .
= = History = =
The tunnel was first proposed in 1843 with an estimate of £ 800 @,@ 000 approved in 1845 , though the final cost by 1849 was £ 2 @,@ 150 @,@ 313 and the lives of 24 men . Thomas Grainger was the engineer and James Bray was the contracted overseer in 1845 for the construction of the Horsforth – Arthington tunnel under Bramhope and the ridge between Airedale and Wharfedale . Bray was a Leeds iron and brass founder , and previously constructed the Thackley Tunnel , Bradford .
Two sighting towers were built for the engineers to keep the line true , then from 20 October 1845 twenty shafts were sunk to enable access for tunnelling . Tunnelling started after the foundation stone was laid at the bottom of No. 1 airshaft in July 1846 . The separate diggings first joined up into one long tunnel on 27 November 1848 , and it was completed in summer 1849 .
The southern entrance or portal is usually described as plain , but is admired by some . The north portal is castellated , and after it was finished was lived in for a while by railway workers . The north portal was listed Grade II in 1988 . The finished tunnel is 2 miles , 243 yd or 2 @.@ 138 miles ( 3 @.@ 441 km ) long ; 25 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) wide by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high . It is a double track tunnel , with a gradient of 1 in 94 ( 0 @.@ 01 % ) down from Horsforth to Arthington and at its deepest point , just to the north of Breary Lane , it is 290 feet ( 88 m ) below the surface . The construction was for the Leeds Northern Railway and the East and West Yorkshire Junction Railway , which together later became the North Eastern Railway . The grand opening was 9 July 1849 , but the first train went through on 31 May in the same year , full of Leeds and Thirsk railway officials , and pulled by Bray 's locomotive Stephenson .
= = = Working conditions = = =
There were possibly up to 2 @,@ 300 navvies plus their families , with 400 horses brought in for the work . That is said to include 188 quarrymen , 102 stonemasons , 732 tunnel men , 738 labourers and 18 carpenters . For four years they lived in 200 wooden bothies with their families in a field opposite Bramhope cemetery , alongside offices and workshops . There were 100 more bothies elsewhere along the line of the tunnel . Day – and night – shifters were said to take turns to use the beds , as was normal for sailors of the time . However , sailors had their own bedding to unroll onto the bare bunk or hammock , whereas many navvies may have had little of their own . This tunnel was built at the height of the Hungry Years , and many poor Irish refugees were working on the railways .
Many of the navvies were farm labourers from the Yorkshire Dales , North East England , East Anglia and the Fenlands as well as from Scotland and Ireland . Men were lowered by bucket down the airshafts to dig by candlelight . They were paid £ 1 @.@ 50 per week to shovel 20 tons ( 20 @.@ 32 tonnes ) of rock and earth per 12 – hour shift , seven days a week . Conditions were constantly wet , with foul air and gunpowder fumes plus the danger of roof – collapse . This was because the tunnel cuts through hard sandstone , shale and clay , and there are seven major faults in the rock near the centre point . Metal sheets had to be used to divert water inside the tunnel . A public waterworks scheme with reservoirs and aqueduct was proposed but not implemented .
= = = Human cost = = =
The work was dangerous because the rock at the Horsforth end was difficult to blast , and there was frequent flooding and subsidence . It is suggested that up to 1 @,@ 563 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 gallons ( 7 @,@ 107 @,@ 580 @,@ 080 litres ) of water were pumped out between 1845 and 1849 . Five men died in 1846 ; 12 died in 1847 ; seven more had died by 1849 , making 24 in total . In Otley churchyard is a monument in the shape of the north portal , dedicated to the 24 men who lost their lives . Records of death and injury were kept from 1847 to 1849 , and Leeds Infirmary had a special spring cart to ferry the injured to hospital from the site to Leeds .
The sadness of the harsh conditions of those days is captured by the simple epitaph on the gravestone of James Myers who is buried in the Methodist Cemetery at Yeadon behind the Town Hall . James was a married man just 22 years old who ' died by an accident in the Bramhope Tunnel on the 14th day of April , 1848 ' . Next to him lies the body of his 3 years old daughter who died two weeks later of some unspecified illness . Cllr Philip Sunderland
= = = Alcohol and water = = =
Drunkenness and fighting was such that Jos Midgeley , a railway police inspector , was hired for £ 1 @.@ 25 per week to keep order . At one time he was attacked by a group of men , and at another there was a riot at Wescoe Hill in which a man died , all because the contractors tried to cut off the beer supply .
Water was taken at first from Bramhope 's town well , opposite St Giles Church , but the excessive demand diminished the supply and spoiled the quality . The tunnellers ' water was then pumped from a site near the Dyneley Arms crossroads . But at the same time the tunnel itself was draining away the local farmers ' natural irrigation , and the source of Bramhope town well . Litigation on this subject continued for some years .
= = = Education and religion = = =
The number of workers ' children overwhelmed that of the local children in Bramhope 's school – however this was before the Elementary Education Act 1870 which provided for education for all , up to the age of 12 years . Poor children would have been educated at the parochial school in Eastgate , where the memorial gardens are now . The workers and their families attended St Ronans Methodist chapel at Bramhope , and the Methodist chapel at Pool @-@ in @-@ Wharfedale . The Leeds Mission spread Bibles and tracts in the shanty – town .
= = What is visible today = =
Four of the twenty shafts remain as ventilation shafts . These are : the first to the north of the Leeds – Otley A660 near the Scout hut in Bramhope ; the second behind Park House , Bramhope ; the third opposite Camp House Farm and the fourth near Cookridge and Horsforth . The ventilation shafts measure 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) – wider than the tunnel itself . One of the two sighting towers remains , in the field opposite Bramhope cemetery . It is a tall , cylindrical structure , two metres in diameter with four vertical slits near the top and flat coping stones . The coursed sandstone tower is a grade II listed structure . The other one , now demolished , was behind Dyneley Hall . 250 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spoil still lies along the line of the tunnel . One of a number of tips is in an area around the scout hut to the north of the Leeds – Otley road ; a second is the Knoll near to Parklands and on to the field facing Bramhope cemetery ; a third is on land adjacent to None – Go – Byes Farm .
= = = North and south portals = = =
The listed southern portal is a plain sandstone horseshoe @-@ shaped arch with rusticated voussoirs below a cornice and parapet . It is approached by a slightly curved 300 @-@ metre cutting faced with retaining walls of sandstone . The listed walls have a concave batter , slightly @-@ projecting piers at regular intervals and are topped with square coping stones .
The Gothic north portal was said to have been built to please the landowner William Rhodes , who wanted to use one of the towers as a belvedere . It is built of rock – faced sandstone and has three side towers with turrets , and a horseshoe – shaped archway . The keystone features a portrait of a bearded man who is said to resemble the aforesaid landowner . There is a crenellated parapet with a carved cartouche in the centre featuring a wheatsheaf , fleece and fish .
Both portals are on Network Rail land with no public access .
= = Accident = =
A southbound passenger train and a pilot engine left Arthington station on 19 September 1854 heading for Leeds . A pilot engine had travelled northbound through the tunnel earlier the same day with no problems but this time the train ran into a pile of stone debris and was derailed when it was three @-@ quarters of the way into the tunnel . The debris was from a roof fall that affected both tracks . The train engine collided with the pilot engine tender causing considerable damage .
= = Recent repairs = =
Trains have been cancelled or delayed frequently in recent years , due to flooding in the Bramhope Tunnel . Water still runs fast into the tunnel , and in the 1960s a train was derailed by a 3 @-@ ton ( 3 @.@ 3 tonne ) icicle . Major repair work was done in 2003 and 2006 , with the Victorian drainage culvert replaced , and the track lowered to allow larger passenger and freight stock , costing £ 10 million . The sixteen closed airshafts were deteriorating and had to be re @-@ capped . In 2003 the excavated material from the works was recycled to shore up the railway embankment near Castley .
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= Bookwheel =
The bookwheel ( also written book wheel and sometimes called a reading wheel ) is a type of rotating bookcase designed to allow one person to read a variety of heavy books in one location with ease . The books are rotated vertically similar to the motion of a water wheel , as opposed to rotating on a flat table surface . The design for the bookwheel originally appeared in a 16th @-@ century illustration by Agostino Ramelli , at a time when large books posed practical problems for readers . Ramelli 's design influenced other engineers and , though now obsolete , inspires modern artists and historians .
= = History and design = =
The bookwheel , in its most commonly seen form , was invented by Italian military engineer Agostino Ramelli in 1588 , presented as one of the 195 designs in Le diverse et artificiose machine del Capitano Agostino Ramelli ( The various and ingenious machines of Captain Agostino Ramelli ) . To ensure that the books remained at a constant angle , Ramelli incorporated an epicyclic gearing arrangement , a complex device that had only previously been used in astronomical clocks . Ramelli 's design is unnecessarily elaborate , as he likely understood that gravity could have worked just as effectively ( as it does with a Ferris wheel , invented centuries later ) , but the gearing system allowed him to display his mathematical prowess . While other people would go on to build bookwheels based on Ramelli 's design , Ramelli did not in fact ever construct his own .
To what extent bookwheels were appreciated for their convenience versus their aesthetic qualities remains a matter of speculation according to modern American engineer Henry Petroski . Ramelli himself described the bookwheel as a " beautiful and ingenious machine , very useful and convenient for anybody who takes pleasure in study , especially for those who are indisposed and tormented by gout . " Ramelli 's reference to gout , a condition that impairs mobility , demonstrates the appeal of a device that allows access to several books while seated . However , Petroski notes that Ramelli 's illustration lacks space for writing and other scholarly work , and that the " fanciful wheel " may not have been appropriate for any activity beyond reading .
While the design of the bookwheel is commonly credited to Ramelli , some historians dispute that he was the first to invent such a device . Joseph Needham , a historian of Chinese technology , stated that revolving bookcases , though not vertically oriented , had their origins in China " perhaps a thousand years before Ramelli 's design was taken there . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
The bookwheel was an early attempt to solve the problem of managing increasingly numerous printed works , which were typically large and heavy in Ramelli 's time . It has been called one of the earliest " information retrieval " devices , and has been considered a precursor to modern technologies , such as hypertext and e @-@ readers , that allow readers to store and cross @-@ reference large amounts of information . Other inventors , such as French inventor Nicolas Grollier de Servière ( 1596 – 1689 ) , proposed their own variations on Ramelli 's design .
In contemporary times , the bookwheel is valued for its historical importance , decorative appeal , and symbolic significance . Ramelli 's design has been recreated by artists such as Daniel Libeskind , and inspired the name of the Smithsonian Library 's blog " Turning the Book Wheel " .
The mechanical concept of the epicyclic gears used to keep each book level as it rotates was later used for the Falkirk Wheel boat lift , although its designer claims to have found it independently .
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= Meteorite ( song ) =
" Meteorite " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) . It was composed by Carey and Q @-@ Tip . A disco track , it contains a sample of the recording " Goin ' Up in Smoke " written by Allan Felder , Norman Harris , and Ron Tyson , all of whom received songwriting credits for " Meteorite " as a result . It also quotes an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve fame for 15 minutes . " Meteorite " garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the disco influence and highlighted it as one of the album 's best tracks . The song peaked at number 70 on the international download chart in South Korea . Carey performed " Meteorite " at the 2014 World Music Awards , for which she was criticized for arriving over an hour late , and included it on the set list of her 2014 tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show .
= = Production and composition = =
In an interview with Fuse in August 2012 , Q @-@ Tip confirmed that he was working with Carey on material for her fourteenth studio album . In April 2014 , Carey confirmed that she and Q @-@ Tip had worked together on a song which was yet to be mixed in an interview with Radio.com. Of the collaboration , Carey said " He 's angry with me because he thinks that I didn 't allow him to do his mix , but really it 's okay . He loves me , we 're going to make this work . And that 's good because it 's one of my favorite songs . I 'm going to call him soon ... I think we need to get that ready . " She also stated that it was the first time they had worked together since composing " Honey " for Carey 's sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) .
" Meteorite " was written and produced by Carey and Q @-@ Tip . It was recorded by Brian Garten and Blair Wells at several locations , including Rapture Studios in Bel Air , Metrocity Studios and Jungle City Studios in New York City , and Pon de Islands Studio in Antigua . Rob Sucheck served as the assistant during the recording sessions . Manny Marroquin mixed the song at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , and was assisted by Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers . " Meteorite " is a disco song with influences of dance music and 1980s style pop music , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 59 seconds . Mike Wass of Idolator noted that Carey has dabbled with disco music since the release of " Fantasy " in 1995 , but " never as faithfully " as she does on " Meteorite " and another album track " You Don 't Know What to Do " . The song begins with an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve 15 minutes of fame which is followed by a rocket launch blast off sound effect .
Instrumentation consists of bass performed by Louis Cato , keyboards by Ray Angry and Q @-@ Tip , and Chris Sholar on guitar . Lewis Corner for Digital Spy noted that is also makes use of a " rattling " percussion and a 1970s style " cosmic " synth line . Carey provided her own background vocals . Courtesy of permission granted by Motown Records , the song incorporates a sample of Eddie Kendricks ' 1976 song " Goin ' Up in Smoke " , written by Allan Felder , Norman Harris and Ron Tyson ; all three received songwriting credits for " Meteorite " as a result . Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse was available to stream for free on iTunes prior to its release . During this time , an alternate version of the song called the " Meteorite Q @-@ Tip Remix " was released by Q @-@ Tip on May 23 , 2014 to stream on Spotify . It features a different arrangement and mix to that of the version included on the album , and has a " galloping beat " according to Rap @-@ Up .
= = Critical reception = =
" Meteorite " received mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that " Meteorite " , along with " You Don 't Know What to Do " , are two of Carey 's " most serious @-@ minded performances " on the album , describing them as " galaxies away " from her 2008 single " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " . Of " Meteorite " , he wrote " The chugging midnight soul train to gorgeous ' Meteorite ' burns bright on the still @-@ potent embers of Eddie Kendricks 's urgent masterpiece ' Goin ' Up in Smoke ' " . PopMatters writer Devone Jones complimented Carey taking " a brave step into untouched territory " in recording a 1980s style song . Labeling the track a " breezy banger " and an album highlight , Corner wrote that the song embodies an " oddly other @-@ worldly " feel .
Fashion designer Donatella Versace and friend of Carey 's told Vogue that " Meteorite " is " upbeat " and " has the power to lift your mood " . Jim Farber of New York Daily News complimented the track , writing that the disco beat and the Warhol quote was reminiscent of Studio 54 . John Sargent for Pitchfork Media was less impressed with the song , simply commenting that the song " is a gloopy scoop of Cher schmaltz " . AXS writer John Shetler was critical of " Meteorite " and included it on his four worst songs list from the album , writing " ' Meteorite ' gets bonus points for opening with an Andy Warhol quote , but that ’ s not enough to save the non @-@ descript dance track with a grating , repetitive chorus and unimaginative lyrics about shooting stars and burning up the night sky . "
= = Live performances = =
Carey opened the 2014 World Music Awards with " Meteorite " in May 2014 . In addition to performing , she was attending the event to collect a Pop Icon award for having sold 200 million records worldwide and for having the most number one songs for a solo artist in the United States . Carey was criticized for arriving at the ceremony over an hour late and delaying the show . Carey performed underneath disco balls while dancers skated around her on roller skates . Both Rap @-@ Up and Vibe described the performance as " dazzling " , with the former writing that " Carey [ lit ] up the stage " . The show was due to air on NBC and was later cancelled by the network , though the ceremony later aired on August 3 through 4Music . " Meteorite " was included on Carey 's 2014 tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show .
= = Charts = =
" Meteorite " debuted at number 70 on the South Korea International Download Singles Chart for the week ending May 31 , 2014 , with sales of 3 @,@ 088 units .
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= Hjúki and Bil =
In Norse mythology , Hjúki ( Old Norse , possibly meaning " the one returning to health " ) and Bil ( Old Norse , literally " instant " ) are a brother and sister pair of children who follow the personified moon , Máni , across the heavens . Both Hjúki and Bil are solely attested in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholarly theories that surround the two concern their nature , their role as potential personifications of the craters on the moon or its phases , and their relation to later folklore in Germanic Europe . Bil has been identified with the Bilwis , an agriculture @-@ associated figure that is frequently attested in the folklore of German @-@ speaking areas of Europe .
= = Attestations = =
In chapter 11 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High states that two children by the names of Hjúki and Bil were fathered by Viðfinnr . Once while the two were walking from the well Byrgir ( Old Norse " Hider of Something " ) — both of them carrying on their shoulders the pole Simul ( Old Norse , possibly meaning " eternal " ) that held the pail Sæg between them — Máni took them from the earth , and they now follow Máni in the heavens , " as can be seen from the earth " .
Hjúki is otherwise unmentioned , but Bil receives recognition . In chapter 35 of Gylfaginning , at the end of a listing of numerous other goddesses in Norse mythology , both Sól ( the personified sun ) and Bil are listed together as goddesses " whose nature has already been described " . Bil appears twice more in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál . In chapter 75 , Bil appears within another list of goddesses , and her name appears in chapter 47 in a kenning for " woman " .
= = Theories = =
= = = Identification and representation = = =
As the two are otherwise unattested outside of Snorri 's Prose Edda , suggestions have been made that Hjúki and Bil may have been of minor mythic significance , or that they were made up outright by Snorri , while Anne Holtsmark ( 1945 ) posits that Snorri may have known or had access to a now lost verse source wherein Hjúki and Bil personified the waxing and waning moon . Holtsmark further theorizes that Bil may have been a dís ( a type of female deity ) .
Scholars have theorized that Hjúki and Bil may represent lunar activity , including that they may represent the phases of the moon or may represent the craters of the moon . 19th century scholar Jacob Grimm rejects the suggestion that Hjúki and Bil represent the phases of the moon , and states that Hjúki and Bil rather represent the craters on the moon seen from the earth . Grimm says that the evidence for this " is plain from the figure itself . No change of the moon could suggest the image of two children with a pail slung over their shoulders . Moreover , to this day the Swedish people see in the spots of the moon two persons carrying a big bucket on a pole . " Grimm adds that :
What is most important for us , out of the heathen fancy of a kidnapping man of the moon , which , apart from Scandinavia , was doubtless in vogue all over Teutondom , if not farther , there has evolved itself since a Christian adaptation . They say the man in the moon is a wood @-@ stealer , who during church time on the holy sabbath committed a trespass in the wood , and was then transported to the moon as a punishment ; there he may be seen with the axe on his back and the bundle of brushwood ( dornwelle ) in his hand . Plainly enough the water @-@ pole of the heathen story has been transformed into the axe 's shaft , and the carried pail into the thornbrush ; the general idea of theft was retained , but special stress laid on the keeping of the christian holiday ; the man suffers punishment not so much for cutting firewood , as because he did it on Sunday .
Grimm gives further examples from Germanic folklore until the time of his writing ( the 19th century ) and notes a potential connection between the German word wadel ( meaning the full moon ) and the dialectal employment of the word for " brushwood , twigs tied up in a bundle , esp [ ecially ] fir @-@ twigs , wadeln to tie up brushwood " , and the practice of cutting wood out in the full moon . Benjamin Thorpe agrees with the theory of Hjúki and Bil as the personified shapes of moon craters .
Rudolf Simek states that the obscurity of the names of the objects in the tale of Hjúki and Bil may indicate that Snorri derived them from a folktale , and that the form of the tale of the Man in the Moon ( featuring a man with a pole and a woman with a bushel ) is also found in modern folklore in Scandinavia , England , and Northern Germany .
In both the story Hjúki and Bil found in the Icelandic Prose Edda and the English nursery rhyme " Jack and Jill " , two children , one male and one female , fetch a pail of water , and the pairs have names that have been perceived as phonetically similar . These elements have resulted in theories connecting the two , and the notion has had some influence , appearing in school books for children from the 19th century and into the 20th century . A traditional form of the rhyme reads :
Jack and Jill went up the hill
to fetch a pail of water
Jack fell down and broke his crown
and Jill came tumbling after .
Up Jack got and home did trot
as fast as he could caper .
He went to bed to mind his head
with vinegar and brown paper .
= = = Bilwis = = =
A figure by the name of Bilwis is attested in various parts of German @-@ speaking Europe starting in the 13th century . Scholar Leander Petzoldt writes that the figure seems to stem from the goddess and over time saw many changes , later developing " an elfin , dwarfish aspect and the ability to cripple people or cattle with the shot of an arrow " ( such as in Wolfram von Eschenbach 's 13th century poem " Willehalm " ) . Petzoldt further surveys the development of the figure :
During the course of the thirteenth century , the Bilwis is less and less frequently treated as the personification of a supernatural power but becomes increasingly identified as a malevolent human being , a witch . Still later , with the rise of the witch persecution at the end of the Middle Ages , the Bilwis was demonized ; she becomes an incarnation of the devil for the witch and sorcerer . A final development has taken place since the sixteenth century , especially in northeast Germany , the Bilwis has been conceived of as a grain spirit bringing wealth ; yet this latest manifestation of the Bilwis has its harmful side , the Bilwis @-@ cutter , who is blamed for the unexplained patterns that are formed among the rows of standing grain . The cutter is a sorcerer or witch that cuts down the corn with sickles that are fastened to its feet . He is classified as an essentially malevolent Corn Spirit . Thus , the Bilwis is exceedingly polymorphous , taking on many appearances and meaning in all German @-@ speaking areas throughout the Middle Ages . The Bilwis is one of the strangest and most mysterious beings in all folklore ; its varying forms reflect the concerns of a farm culture , and it serves to explain the eerie appearance of turned @-@ down rows of plants in cornfields .
= = = Toponyms = = =
The village of Bilsby in Lincolnshire , England ( from which the English surname Billing derives ) has been proposed as having been named after Bil .
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= Mythmaker =
Mythmaker is the tenth studio album by industrial group Skinny Puppy . It was released on January 30 , 2007 .
Lead vocalist Nivek Ogre said the band took a simplified approach , but that it was a difficult record to make . It charted on a number of billboard charts , and received mostly positive reviews , with critics focusing on whether it was stylistically similar to previous albums .
Tracks from the album were featured in the Saw V soundtrack and Jackass video game . The band supported the album with the Mythrus Tour later the same year it was released .
= = Background = =
Nivek Ogre stated that making the album was very difficult due to dealing with a personal relationship and other events in Los Angeles during the time the album was being made , but that those events were incorporated into the album itself. cEvin Key , while acknowledging Ogre 's personal difficulties , said that while the extended writing process of the album could make one feel " stranded within your head space " , having more time to write , and writing more songs than usual , helped the album .
Ogre called style of the music on Mythmaker " simplified " and said the band " stayed truer to cEvin 's compositions " . He continued that the album had a new sound , but also retained elements of the " archetypal " Skinny Puppy sound , and the production was superior to previous albums . Key stated that he would write songs , and then send them to Mark Walk , who would make changes and send them back . Key said that it " open [ ed ] a door for me to hear it differently " . Ogre said that album 's themes were control and mythology .
Mythmaker marks the third occasion on which a Skinny Puppy album cover was created by an artist other than long @-@ time collaborator Steven R. Gilmore , though he continues to do the sleeve design and layout for the band . The cover uses a painting by Manuel Ocampo entitled " Why I Hate Europeans " , which has been altered for the cover .
= = Release = =
Mythmaker was released on January 30 , 2007 . The album barely broke into the Billboard 200 at No. 200 , but charted in three other Billboard charts , reaching No. 4 on the Independent Albums Chart , No. 5 on the Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , and No. 17 on the Heatseekers Chart . It peaked in all four charts in the same week of February 17 , 2007 .
The soundtrack for the 2008 movie Saw V featured the song " Ugli " . It is the third time a Skinny Puppy song has been used on a soundtrack for a Saw film , with Saw II and Saw IV previously including tracks by the band . The song " politkiL " was featured in the Jackass video game .
The " Mythrus Tour " , the title of the Skinny Puppy tour in support of Mythmaker , took place in 2007 in North America and Europe . The live band consisted of Ogre ( vocals and theatrics ) , Key ( keyboards and electronics ) , and Justin Bennett ( percussion ) . " Mythrus " was originally intended to be spelled " Myth @-@ R @-@ Us " , according to Ogre , who stated " the word Mythrus ; I wanted it ' Myth @-@ R @-@ Us , ' like ' Toys @-@ R @-@ Us . ' That idea got shot down , though . " He also said that while the tour was going to be more intimate rather than a spectacle , he still wanted it to be theatrical .
= = Critical reception = =
Opinions about the album varied between claims of both little and significant change from previous work . Greg Prato of Allmusic said of Mythmaker , " Skinny Puppy always aligned themselves more with electro @-@ dance , and they continue to do so . " He goes on to say that " Nivek Ogre and cEvin Key obviously know what their following wants to hear , " and finishes by reiterating , " Not a lot has changed in the world of Skinny Puppy circa Mythmaker . "
Christa Titus of Billboard said , " ... Mythmaker radiates impending doom . " She notes that certain elements leave the listener " to appreciate how beautiful Skinny Puppy can be when it follows a more emotive , ambient trail , " but comments that there are some " industrial chargers " as well .
Ilker Yücel of ReGen Magazine said " Mythmaker certainly continues along the path paved by The Greater Wrong of the Right , representing an embrace of modern electronic music and pushing it to its limits . " Discussing individual songs , he said the first track , " Maginifishit " , was " a testament to Mark Walk 's impressive abilities to use Ogre 's voice as an instrument unto itself . " Yücel stated that " Jaher " is " full of dark atmosphere that is at once soothing and nightmarish " and called it " arguably the best track " on the album . He called " Politikil " " a somewhat more rock & roll type of track " with " chugs and churns of overdriven synths and guitar @-@ like tones , and a rocking rhythm " that is " sure to be a highlight when played live " . Yücel also said , " Many will still chide the band for not returning to the sound of past successes like Last Rights or Too Dark Park , but it 's this type of purist viewpoint that ultimately stagnates a band 's progress . "
Jarosław Jerry Szprot of Metal Storm , in comparing the album to their previous set , said " Mythmaker is basically more of the same . " He stated that while the band was doing a lot of experimenting , something was still missing , but continued that newcomers would probably find the album quite interesting and original . Trey Spencer of Sputnik Music described the album as a blend of elements from many of their previous albums , and also said it would be a good first album for new listeners to buy .
Erika Szabo of Rocknworld said , " Skinny Puppy provides listeners with more of the same thing with the slightest of changes . " She was positive about half the songs , but called the other half " less stimulating " . She also said the album was " expansive and expressive ... even if ... recycled " .
= = Track listing = =
Tracks from Allmusic .
All music composed by Ogre / Key / Walk .
= = Personnel = =
All credits from Allmusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
Ogre – vocals , keyboards
cEvin Key – synthesizers , keyboards , drums
Mark Walk – synthesizers , bass , guitar
= = = = Additional personnel = = = =
Otto von Schirach – sound design ( 7 )
Dre " Databomb " Robinson – percussion ( 2 , 10 )
Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall – synthesizers , electronics ( 5 , 6 , 8 )
Saki Kaskas – acoustic guitar ( 5 ) , guitar ( 12 )
Traz Damji – piano , synth ( 5 , 12 )
= = = Production = = =
Producers – Mark Walk , Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall , Scaremeister
Mixing – Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall
Mastering – Stephen Marcussen
Art direction , design – Steven R. Gilmore
Painting – Manuel Ocampo
= = Chart positions = =
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= Tupolev Tu @-@ 85 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 85 ( USAF / DoD reporting name ' Type 31 ' , NATO reporting name Barge ) was a Soviet prototype strategic bomber based on the Tu @-@ 4 , an unlicensed reverse engineered copy of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . It was the ultimate development of the B @-@ 29 family , being over 50 % heavier than its ancestor and had nearly double the range . Only two prototypes were built before the program was canceled in favor of the Tupolev Tu @-@ 95 bomber which was much faster and had the same range .
= = Development = =
Neither the Tu @-@ 4 nor the Tupolev Tu @-@ 80 was a true intercontinental strategic bomber as they both lacked the range to attack the United States from bases in the Soviet Union and return . The Tu @-@ 85 was designed to achieve the necessary range by use of more powerful and fuel @-@ efficient engines , a redesigned wing to increase the lift / drag ratio and the addition of more fuel . A large number of engines were considered before settling on the 4 @,@ 500 @-@ horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) Shvetsov ASh @-@ 2K , essentially two air @-@ cooled ASh @-@ 82 radial engines paired together and the liquid @-@ cooled 4 @,@ 300 @-@ horsepower ( 3 @,@ 200 kW ) Dobrynin VD @-@ 4K six @-@ bank inline engine , similar in configuration to the failed German Junkers Jumo 222 . Both engines were given turbochargers and power @-@ recovery turbines which converted them into turbo @-@ compound engines . The Shvetsov design was preferred , but was not yet mature enough for use , and the VD @-@ 4K was selected . A lot of effort was put into refining the design of the wing in collaboration with TsAGI . It had an aspect ratio of 11 @.@ 745 and a taper of 2 @.@ 93 for optimum lift at high @-@ altitudes . The Tu @-@ 85 carried 63 @,@ 600 litres ( 16 @,@ 800 US gal ) of fuel in 48 flexible tanks .
Much of the armament and equipment was derived from those of the late @-@ model Tu @-@ 4 , including the four remotely controlled dorsal and ventral turrets and the tail turret , each with two 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 cannon . But the Tu @-@ 85 's tail turret had an Argon ranging radar and each of the two bomb bays was enlarged to hold a 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 20 @,@ 000 lb ) FAB @-@ 9000 bomb .
Actual design work began in August 1949 and was ratified by a directive from the Council of Ministers dated 16 September that required the first prototype to be ready for manufacturer 's tests in December 1950 . Construction of the first aircraft began in July 1950 and was completed in September . It first flew on 9 January 1951 and the manufacturer 's tests lasted until October 1951 . On 12 September the first prototype flew 9 @,@ 020 km ( 5 @,@ 600 mi ) with a bomb load of 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) and landed with enough fuel remaining to have covered 12 @,@ 018 km ( 7 @,@ 468 mi ) . The second prototype , sometimes referred to as the 85D ( Russian : dooblyor ) or 85 / 2 , incorporated the lessons learned from the first aircraft , including revision and reinforcement of the airframe and a variety of changes to its equipment and systems . It was first flown on 28 June 1951 and its trials lasted until November 1951 . Series production was approved on 23 March 1951 at three factories where it would succeed the Tu @-@ 4 on the production line , but this was reversed later in the year and the program was cancelled : in the Korean War Soviet MiG @-@ 15s brought down many US B @-@ 29 bombers , showing that there was no future for piston aircraft in combat use . Priority was given to the higher performance turboprop Tu @-@ 95 ' Bear ' , as its own turboprop powerplants , the TV @-@ 12 prototype series for the Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12 turboprops that power the Tu @-@ 95 to this day , was already generating 12 @,@ 000 shp as early as 1951 .
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 85 / 1 ) = =
Data from Gordon , OKB Tupolev : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 11 – 12
Length : 39 @.@ 306 m ( 128 @.@ 96 ft )
Wingspan : 55 @.@ 96 m ( 183 @.@ 6 ft )
Height : 11 @.@ 358 m ( 37 @.@ 26 ft )
Wing area : 273 @.@ 6 m ² ( 2 @,@ 945 ft ² )
Empty weight : 54 @,@ 711 kg ( 120 @,@ 364 lb )
Loaded weight : 76 @,@ 000 kg ( 167 @,@ 200 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 107 @,@ 292 kg ( 236 @,@ 534 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Dobrynin VD @-@ 4K turbo @-@ compound radial engines , 3 @,@ 200 kW ( 4 @,@ 300 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 638 km / h ( 344 kn , 396 mph )
Range : 12 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 500 nmi , 7 @,@ 457 mi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 700 m ( 38 @,@ 376 ft )
Rate of climb : 17 m / s ( 3 @,@ 280 ft / min )
Wing loading : 277 kg / m ² ( 57 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 170 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 10 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : 10 × 23 mm Nudelman NR @-@ 23 cannons , two each in four turrets plus tail barbette
Bombs : up to 18 @,@ 000 kg ( 40 @,@ 000 lb ) of bombs
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= Pennsylvania Route 183 =
Pennsylvania Route 183 ( PA 183 ) is a 31 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 51 @.@ 0 km ) route that runs north to south in southeastern Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at U.S. Route 422 Business ( US 422 Bus . ) in Reading in Berks County . Its northern terminus is at PA 61 near Schuylkill Haven in Schuylkill County . The road passes through developed areas near Reading before continuing north through rural areas , crossing from Berks County into Schuylkill County at Blue Mountain . PA 183 serves the communities of Bernville , Strausstown , and Cressona .
Much of what is now PA 183 was originally designated as part of Pennsylvania Route 83 in 1927 , a route that ran from US 30 / PA 1 in Devon northwest to US 120 / PA 42 ( now PA 61 ) near Schuylkill Haven . PA 83 was realigned to a more direct route in northern Berks County by 1960 , bypassing a jog to the west through Rehrersburg . By 1966 , PA 83 was renumbered to PA 183 to avoid duplication with Interstate 83 ( I @-@ 83 ) and the southern terminus was cut back to its current location in Reading . The alignment of PA 83 between Devon and Reading became a part of other state routes , with some portions becoming unnumbered .
= = Route description = =
= = = Berks County = = =
PA 183 begins at US 422 Bus. in the downtown area of Reading in Berks County . The northbound direction begins at the intersection of North 3rd Street and Franklin Street and heads west concurrent with westbound US 422 Bus. on one @-@ way Washington Street , carrying three lanes of traffic . Southbound PA 183 ends at the intersection of 2nd Street and Penn Street , following US 422 Bus. westbound south on North 2nd Street , a one @-@ way street with four lanes of traffic . Past the concurrency with US 422 Bus . , PA 183 heads west on the two @-@ lane undivided Washington Street , passing to the north of Reading Area Community College . The route passes through commercial areas before turning north onto Front Street and entering residential areas . At the intersection with Walnut Street , PA 183 splits into a one @-@ way pair that carries two lanes in each direction , with the northbound direction remaining along Front Street and the southbound direction following Schuylkill Avenue . Front Street heads north while Schuylkill Avenue angles northwest , with the one @-@ way pair continuing through areas of homes and passing over Norfolk Southern 's Harrisburg Line . Schuylkill Avenue becomes a two @-@ way , two @-@ lane road at the Green Street intersection . Northbound PA 183 turns west on two @-@ way , two @-@ lane Windsor Street to rejoin southbound PA 183 on four @-@ lane undivided Schuylkill Avenue . Along this one @-@ way pair , northbound PA 183 is city @-@ maintained . The highway heads northwest , passing over a Norfolk Southern railroad line and the Schuylkill River on a bridge .
The roadway passes commercial establishments before coming to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Reading Line , at which point it enters residential areas . PA 183 comes to an interchange with the PA 12 freeway ( Warren Street Bypass ) that is connected via local streets . Here , the roadway narrows to two lanes . A short distance later , the route enters Bern Township and becomes Bernville Road , passing through a golf course before heading past a mix of homes and businesses in Greenfield Manor . The road passes to the south of Reading Regional Airport , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane before heading past industrial parks and St. Joseph Medical Center . PA 183 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US 222 freeway .
Past the US 222 interchange , the route narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and passes businesses and homes in the community of Leinbachs . Farther northwest , the roadway heads into a mix of farmland and woodland with development . PA 183 heads west and crosses into Penn Township , continuing through more rural areas with some homes . The route passes through Pleasant Valley and passes to the north of Blue Marsh Lake , curving to the northwest . The road continues through wooded areas and fields with some residences as it continues along the northeastern side of the lake . Past Blue Marsh Lake , PA 183 enters Bernville and passes to the west of residential and commercial development in the town . The road leaves Bernville , at which point it briefly passes through Jefferson Township and Penn Township again before continuing back into Jefferson Township . The route passes through agricultural areas with some trees and development , curving to the north .
PA 183 enters Upper Tulpehocken Township and heads northwest again through more rural areas of farms and woods as an unnamed road . Farther northwest , the roadway passes along the northeastern border of Strausstown , at which point it crosses Old Route 22 . Continuing through more of Upper Tulpehocken Township , the route comes to an interchange with I @-@ 78 / US 22 . Past this interchange , PA 183 passes through more areas of farmland and development before curving west into forested areas and entering Bethel Township , where it comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 419 . Following this , the road heads north and ascends Blue Mountain .
= = = Schuylkill County = = =
At the summit of Blue Mountain , PA 183 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing the Appalachian Trail and entering Wayne Township in Schuylkill County , The route descends the mountain and becomes a three @-@ lane undivided road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane . The road narrows to two lanes and continues north through wooded areas with some farm fields and residences , coming to an intersection with PA 895 . The route heads through more rural areas with some homes , passing through Reedsville . PA 183 comes to a junction with PA 443 and heads northeast through more farms , woods , and homes . The route crosses into North Manheim Township and becomes Chestnut Street , where it curves to the east . The road passes through more rural areas , becoming the border between Cressona to the north and North Manheim Township to the south before fully entering Cressona .
At this point , PA 183 heads into residential areas before coming to a bridge under a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line . A short distance before passing under the railroad , PA 183 Truck splits to the north to bypass the low @-@ clearance underpass . Past the bridge , the route curves north and becomes Sillyman Street , passing commercial establishments before heading past homes . PA 183 turns east onto Pottsville Street , with PA 901 and PA 183 Truck continuing north on Sillyman Street . The route curves northeast and continues past more residences before heading east and crossing a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line . At this point , PA 183 heads back into North Manheim Township , where it passes businesses and crosses the Schuylkill River before coming to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 61 near Schuylkill Haven .
PA 183 has a total length of 31 @.@ 6 miles ( 50 @.@ 9 km ) . In 2010 , PA 183 had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 15 @,@ 000 vehicles between US 222 and Bernville to a low of 5 @,@ 300 vehicles between I @-@ 78 / US 22 and PA 419 . None of PA 183 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
When Pennsylvania designated legislative routes in 1911 , what is now PA 183 was not given a legislative number . In 1927 , PA 83 was designated to run from US 30 / PA 1 in Devon northwest to US 120 / PA 42 ( now PA 61 ) near Schuylkill Haven . The route headed north from Devon to Valley Forge on Devon State Road , where it continued northwest concurrent with PA 23 through Phoenixville . Northwest of here , PA 83 headed northwest parallel to the Schuylkill River to Reading , where it turned north to follow Poplar Neck Road and 9th Street before heading west along US 22 / PA 3 on Penn Street . From Reading , PA 83 followed the current alignment of PA 183 to northwest of Bernville , where it headed to the west to Rehrersburg before heading north . In Schubert , the route continued north along the current alignment of PA 183 to Schuylkill Haven . PA 83 followed the alignment of Legislative Route 201 between Valley Forge and North Coventry Township and Legislative Route 147 between North Coventry Township and Reading . The route had a total length of about 72 miles ( 116 km ) .
When first designated , all of PA 83 was paved except the portion between Rehrersburg and the intersection with PA 443 . The remaining unpaved portion was paved by 1940 . PA 83 was split into a one @-@ way pair in downtown Reading by 1953 , being rerouted from following US 422 on Penn Street to following Chestnut Street westbound and Franklin Street eastbound , where it ran concurrent with US 422 Alt . By 1960 , PA 83 was realigned to a more direct alignment between Bernville and Schubert , passing through Strausstown . PA 83 was renumbered to PA 183 by 1966 to avoid conflict with I @-@ 83 , which was located in South Central Pennsylvania . Also , the southern terminus was cut back to US 422 Bus. in Reading . The former alignment of PA 83 between Devon and Reading became an unnumbered road between Devon and the intersection with PA 252 , PA 252 between there and Valley Forge , solely PA 23 between Valley Forge and Phoenixville , PA 724 between Phoenixville and southeast of Reading , and an unnumbered road between there and Reading . The PA 83 designation is not currently used in Pennsylvania .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 183 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 183 Truck ( PA 183 Truck ) is a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) truck route of PA 183 that bypasses a low @-@ clearance bridge under the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad in Cressona . The truck route follows Wilder Street north and curves to the northwest out of Cressona into North Manheim Township . PA 183 Truck turns north onto Beckville Road and heads east , crossing the railroad tracks at @-@ grade . The route turns northeast and crosses over the West Branch Schuylkill River before it comes to an intersection with PA 901 . At this point , PA 183 Truck heads south to form a concurrency with PA 901 along Gordon Nagle Trail , heading back into Cressona and becoming Sillyman Street . The truck route and PA 901 both end at an intersection with PA 183 .
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= John Keats 's 1819 odes =
In 1819 , John Keats composed six odes , which are among his most famous and well @-@ regarded poems . Keats wrote the first five poems , " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " , and " Ode to Psyche " in quick succession during the spring , and he composed " To Autumn " in September . While the exact order in which Keats composed the poems is unknown , some critics contend that they form a thematic whole if arranged in sequence . As a whole , the odes represent Keats 's attempt to create a new type of short lyrical poem , which influenced later generations .
= = Background = =
Early in 1819 , Keats left his poorly paid position as dresser ( or assistant house surgeon ) at Guy 's Hospital , Southwark , London to completely devote himself to a career in poetry . In the past , he had relied on his brother George for financial assistance from time to time , but now , when his brother appealed to him for the same aid , the cash @-@ strapped poet was unable to help and was overwhelmed with guilt and despair . He decided to forsake the life of a poet for a more lucrative career – but not before allowing himself a few months of poetic indulgence .
It was during the months of spring 1819 that he wrote many of his major odes . Following the month of May 1819 , he began to tackle other forms of poetry , including a play , some longer pieces , and a return to his unfinished epic , Hyperion . His brother 's financial woes continued to loom over him , and , as a result , Keats had little energy or inclination for composition , but , on 19 September 1819 , he managed to squeeze out To Autumn , his last major work and the one that rang the curtain down on his career as a poet .
= = Structure = =
After writing " Ode to Psyche " , Keats sent the poem to his brother and explained his new ode form : " I have been endeavouring to discover a better Sonnet stanza than we have . The legitimate does not suit the language well , from the pouncing rhymes ; the other appears too elegiac , and the couplet at the end of it has seldom a pleasing effect . I do not pretend to have succeeded . It will explain itself . "
Writing these poems had a particular influence on Keats , as Walter Jackson Bate explains :
However felicitous he may have been in writing them , these short poems of one of the greatest of English lyrists are the by @-@ product of other efforts ; and those habits of both ideal and practice left him more dissatisfied than he would otherwise have been with the pressure of most lyric forms toward quick , neat solution [ ... ] The new ode form appealed also because it was sufficiently confining to challenge his conscience as a craftsman . Finally , the union of amplitude and formal challenge offered unique opportunities as well for the concentrated intensity and concreteness of idiom that he had begun to master in Hyperion
In " Ode to Psyche " , Keats incorporated a narrative structure that sets the scene , gives background information , and then ends with a conclusion . Of these structural elements , the preface was discontinued in his next odes and the setting is reduced within the other odes until the scene is merely implied .
= = Poems = =
The exact chronological and interpretive orders of the six 1819 poems are unknown , but " Ode to Psyche " was probably written first and " To Autumn " last . Keats simply dated the others May 1819 . However , he worked on the spring poems together , and they form a sequence within their structures .
= = = Ode on a Grecian Urn = = =
" Ode on a Grecian Urn " is a lyric ode with five stanzas containing 10 lines each . The first stanza begins with the narrator addressing an ancient urn as " Thou still unravished bride of quietness ! " , initiating a conversation between the poet and the object , which the reader is allowed to observe from a third @-@ person point of view . By describing the object as a " foster @-@ child of silence and slow time " , the poet describes the urn as both a silent object , a theme which reoccurs throughout the poem , and a stone object that resists change .
Throughout the first two stanzas , the speaker addresses the urn as a single object , taking note of its silence at several points as he discusses unheard melodies and tunes heard not by the sensual ear ( line 13 ) . In Keats , Narrative , and Audience , Andrew Bennett suggests that the discussion between the poet and the urn at the beginning of the poem leaves the reader to examine more than just the relationship between the two but also his place as a third @-@ party observer . With line 17 , the second stanza begins to change tone as the poet shifts his focus from the urn as a whole to the individuals represented in the artwork . The two lovers , whose image the unknown artist has created through his craftsmanship , appear to the poet as a couple who cannot kiss yet do not grow old . Again the narrator discusses the urn in terms of its unaging qualities by saying , " She cannot fade , though thou hast not thy bliss " ( line 19 ) , but he also focuses on the inability of the lovers to ever obtain sensual pleasure due to their static nature .
As the poem comes to a close , the narrator once again addresses the urn as a single object . However , his tone becomes sharper as he seeks answers from the work of art that it appears unable to answer . In the final couplet , the poet provides a line for the urn , which complicates the narrative and has generated a multitude of critical responses as to the author 's intent : " Beauty is truth — truth beauty / that is all ye know on earth and all ye need to know " ( lines 49 – 50 ) .
= = = Ode on Indolence = = =
" Ode on Indolence " comprises six stanzas containing ten lines each . The poem discusses a morning of laziness on the part of the narrator , during which his attention becomes captivated by three figures he sees in a vision . Beginning with an epitaph taken from Matthew 6 : 28 , the poet introduces the theme of indolence through an excerpt of Jesus 's suggestion that God provides for the lilies of the field without making them toil . The poem describes the three figures as wearing " placid sandals " and " white robes " , which alludes to the Grecian mythology that commonly appears in the 1819 odes . The images pass the narrator three times , which causes him to compare them to images on a spinning urn ( line 7 ) . In line 10 , the narrator uses the word " Phidian " again as a reference to the Elgin marbles , whose creation was thought to have been overseen by Phidias , a Grecian artist . As the poem progresses , the narrator begins to discuss the intrusion upon his indolence by the figures of Love , Ambition , and Poesy , and he suggests that the images have come to " steal away " his idle days . In the final stanzas , the figure of Poesy is described as a daemon which Helen Vendler suggests poses a direct threat to the idleness the poet wishes to retain . In the final lines , the poet once again rejects the three images : " Vanish , ye phantoms , from my idle spright , / Into the clouds , and never more return ! " ( lines 39 – 40 ) with the intention of once again enjoying the laziness from which the poem obtains its title .
= = = Ode on Melancholy = = =
" Ode on Melancholy " is the shortest of the 1819 spring odes at three stanzas of 10 lines . Originally , the poem contained four stanzas , but the original first stanza was removed before publication in 1820 for stylistic reasons . The poem describes the narrator 's opinions on melancholy and is addressed specifically to the reader , unlike the narrative of many of the other odes . The lyric nature of the poem allows the poet to describe the onset of melancholy and then provides the reader with different methods of dealing with the emotions involved . Using personification , the poem creates characters out of Joy , Pleasure , Delight , and Beauty , and allows them to interact with two other characters which take the shape of a male and his female mistress mentioned ( line 17 ) . Keats himself fails to appear as a character in the poem , as there is no mention of the poet himself suffering from melancholy . In the final stanza , the poet describes the mistress as dwelling in Beauty , but modifies the beauty by saying that it " must die " ( line 21 ) . Harold Bloom suggests that this provides the poem with a hint of Keats 's philosophy of negative capability , as only the beauty that will die meets the poem 's standard of true beauty . The image of the bursting of Joy 's grape ( line 28 ) gives the poem a theme of sexuality . According to critics , the bursting of the grape alludes to the passing from the moment of ultimate sexual pleasure to the decreased pleasure of a post @-@ orgasmic state .
= = = Ode to a Nightingale = = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " is the longest of the 1819 odes with 8 stanzas containing 10 lines each . The poem begins by describing the state of the poet , using negative statements to intensify the description of the poet 's physical state such as " numbless pains " and " not through envy of thy happy lot " ( lines 1 – 5 ) . While the ode is written " to a Nightingale " , the emphasis of the first line is placed upon the narrator rather than the bird , and Helen Vendler suggests that the negation of the reader as a party in the discourse happens just as the song of the nightingale becomes the " voice of pure self @-@ expression " . In the third stanza , the poet asks the nightingale to " Fade far away " , casting it off just as the narrator in " Ode to Indolence " rejects the Love , Ambition , and Poesy and the poet in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " banishes the figures on the urn to silence . In the fourth stanza , the poet states that he will fly to the nightingale rather than it to him , moving upon the " wings of Poesy " , which leaves Walter Jackson Bate to believe that while the poet intends to identify with the bird by describing the poem as being " to " it , the real identification in the narrative exists between the poet and his perceptions of the nightingale 's song . In its closing , the poem questions whether the bird 's song has been real or part of a dream : " Was it a vision , or a waking dream ? / Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? " ( lines 79 – 80 ) , and the theme of imagination once again arises as the poet appears , according to Timothy Hilton , unable to distinguish between his own artistic imagination and the song which he believes to have spurred it into action .
= = = Ode to Psyche = = =
" Ode to Psyche " is a 67 @-@ line poem written in stanzas of varying length , which took its form from modification Keats made to the sonnet structure . The ode is written to a Grecian mythological character , displaying a great influence of Classical culture as the poet begins his discourse with " O GODDESS ! " ( line 1 ) . Psyche , a creature so beautiful that she drew the attention of Cupid himself , draws the attention of the narrator , whose artistic imagination causes him to dream of her : " Surely I dream 'd to @-@ day , or did I see / The wingèd Psyche with awaken 'd eyes " ( lines 5 – 6 ) . As he relates himself to the mythical character of Cupid , he confuses the god 's emotions with his own and imagines that he too has fallen in love with the woman 's beauty . The poet does , however , understand the temporal difference between the characters of ancient Greece and his own as he declares , " even in these days [ ... ] I see , and sing , by my own eyes inspired " ( lines 40 – 43 ) . In line 50 , the poet states " Yes , I will be thy priest , and build a fane " , which , Harold Bloom suggests , implies that the poet himself becomes a " prophet of the soul " as he regards the beauty of Psyche and attempts to place himself within Cupid 's personage. according to T.S. Eliot , it is the most prominent ode among the six great odes .
= = = To Autumn = = =
" To Autumn " is a 33 line poem broken into three stanzas of 11 . It discusses how autumn is both a force of growth and maturation , and deals with the theme of approaching death . While the earlier 1819 odes perfected techniques and allowed for variations that appear within " To Autumn " , Keats dispenses with some aspects of the previous poems ( such as the narrator ) to focus on the themes of autumn and life . The poem discusses ideas without a progression of the temporal scene , an idea that Keats termed as " stationing " . The three stanzas of the poem emphasize this theme by shifting the imagery from summer to early winter and also day turning into dusk .
= = Critical reception = =
Keats 's use of the odal hymn in his six odes , along with his use of the odal hymn with a responsal voice in " Ode to a Grecian Urn " and " Ode to a Nightingale " , created , according to Walter Jackson Bate , " a new tone for the English lyric . " Bate , when speaking about the 1819 odes , wrote : " The productivity of the three and a half weeks that begins on April 21 is difficult to parallel in the career of any modern writer . Yet to Keats it was not even a new beginning . It was rather a matter of becoming more alive in preparation for the next beginning . " In addition to this , Bate argued that " It is because " To Autumn " is so uniquely a distillation , and at many different levels , that each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English . We need not be afraid of continuing to use the adjective [ ... ] The ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' for example , is a less ' perfect ' though a greater poem . " Charles Patterson argued the relationship of " Ode on a Grecian Urn " as the greatest 1819 ode of Keats , " The meaningfulness and range of the poem , along with its controlled execution and powerfully suggestive imagery , entitle it to a high place among Keats 's great odes . It lacks the even finish and extreme perfection of " To Autumn " but is much superior in these qualities to the " Ode to a Nightingale " despite the magic passages in the latter and the similarities of over @-@ all structure . In fact , the " Ode on a Grecian Urn " may deserve to rank first in the group if viewed in something approaching its true complexity and human wisdom . " Later , Ayumi Mizukoshi argued that early audiences did not support " Ode to Psyche " because it " turned out to be too reflexive and internalised to be enjoyed as a mythological picture . For the same reason , the " Ode on a Grecian Urn " drew neither attention nor admiration . Herbert Grierson believed " Nightingale " to be superior to the other odes because it and " To Autumn " were more logical and contained stronger arguments . Although the poet is gazing round the surface of the urn in each stanza , the poem cannot readily be consumed as a series of ' idylls ' . "
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= Weymouth , Dorset =
Weymouth / ˈweɪməθ / is a seaside town in Dorset , England , situated on a sheltered bay at the mouth of the River Wey on the English Channel coast . The town is 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) south of Dorchester and 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) north of the Isle of Portland . The town 's population is 52 @,@ 323 ( 2011 ) . The town is the third largest settlement in Dorset after the unitary authorities of Bournemouth and Poole .
Weymouth is a tourist resort , and its economy depends on its harbour and visitor attractions ; the town is a gateway situated halfway along the Jurassic Coast , a World Heritage Site on the Dorset and east Devon coast , important for its geology and landforms . Weymouth Harbour is home to cross @-@ channel ferries , pleasure boats and private yachts , and nearby Portland Harbour is home to the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy , where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games were held .
The A354 road bridge connects Weymouth to Portland , which together form the borough of Weymouth and Portland . The history of the borough stretches back to the 12th century ; including involvement in the spread of the Black Death , the settlement of the Americas , the development of Georgian architecture , and preparations for World War II .
= = History = =
Weymouth originated as a settlement on a constricted site to the south and west of Weymouth Harbour , an outlying part of Wyke Regis . The town developed from the mid 12th century onwards , but was not noted until the 13th century . By 1252 it was established as a seaport and became a chartered borough . Melcombe Regis developed separately on the peninsula to the north of the harbour ; it was mentioned as a licensed wool port in 1310 . French raiders found the port so accessible that in 1433 the staple was transferred to Poole .
Melcombe Regis is thought to be the first port at which the Black Death came into England in June 1348 , possibly either aboard a spice ship or an army ship . In their early history Weymouth and Melcombe Regis were rivals for trade and industry , but the towns were united in an Act of Parliament in 1571 to form a double borough . Both towns have become known as Weymouth , despite Melcombe Regis being the main centre . The villages of Upwey , Broadwey , Preston , Wyke Regis , Chickerell , Southill , Radipole and Littlemoor have become part of the built @-@ up area .
King Henry VIII had two Device Forts built to protect the south Dorset coast from invasion in the 1530s : Sandsfoot Castle in Wyke Regis and Portland Castle in Castletown . Parts of Sandsfoot have fallen into the sea due to coastal erosion . During the English Civil War , around 250 people were killed in the local Crabchurch Conspiracy in February 1645 . In 1635 , on board the ship Charity , around 100 emigrants from the town crossed the Atlantic Ocean and settled in Weymouth , Massachusetts . More townspeople emigrated to the Americas to bolster the population of Weymouth , Nova Scotia and Salem , Massachusetts ; then called Naumking . There are memorials to this on the side of Weymouth Harbour and near to Weymouth Pavilion and Weymouth Sea Life Tower .
The architect Sir Christopher Wren was the Member of Parliament for Weymouth in 1702 , and controlled nearby Portland 's quarries from 1675 to 1717 . When he designed St Paul 's Cathedral , Wren had it built out of Portland Stone , the famous stone of Portland 's quarries . Sir James Thornhill was born in the White Hart public house in Melcombe Regis and became the town 's MP in 1722 . Thornhill became an artist , and coincidentally decorated the interior of St Paul 's Cathedral .
The resort is among the first modern tourist destinations , after King George III 's , brother the Duke of Gloucester built a grand residence there , Gloucester Lodge , and passed the mild winter there in 1780 ; the King made Weymouth his summer holiday residence on fourteen occasions between 1789 and 1805 , even venturing into the sea in a bathing machine . A painted statue of the King stands on the seafront , called the King 's Statue , which was renovated in 2007 / 8 by stripping 20 layers of paintwork , replacing it with new paints and gold leaf , and replacing the iron framework with a stainless steel one . A mounted white horse representing the King is carved into the chalk hills of Osmington .
Weymouth 's esplanade is composed of Georgian terraces , which have been converted into apartments , shops , hotels and guest houses . The buildings were constructed in the Georgian and Regency periods between 1770 and 1855 , designed by architects such as James Hamilton , and were commissioned by wealthy businessmen , including those that were involved in the growth of Bath . These terraces form a long , continuous arc of buildings which face Weymouth Bay along the esplanade , which also features the multi @-@ coloured Jubilee Clock , erected in 1887 to mark the 50th year of Queen Victoria 's reign . Statues of Victoria , George III and Sir Henry Edwards , Member of Parliament for the borough from 1867 to 1885 , and two war memorials stand along the Esplanade .
In the centre of the town lies Weymouth Harbour ; although it was the reason for the town 's foundation , the harbour separates the two areas of Melcombe Regis ( the main town centre ) and Weymouth ( the southern harbourside ) from each other . Since the 18th century they have been linked by successive bridges over the narrowest part of the harbour . The present Town Bridge , built in 1930 , is a lifting bascule bridge allowing boats to access the inner harbour . The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed a lifeboat at Weymouth for the first time on 26 January 1869 . A boathouse was built with a slipway by the harbour and is still in use , although the lifeboat is now moored at a pontoon .
During World War I , approximately 120 @,@ 000 ANZAC personnel convalesced in Weymouth after being injured at Gallipoli or other theatres of the war . Weymouth and Portland were bombed by German planes in World War II ; Portland harbour had a large naval base , and Weymouth was home to Nothe Fort , next to Nothe Gardens . 517 @,@ 816 troops embarked through the borough to fight at the Battle of Normandy . The Bouncing bomb was tested in the Fleet lagoon to the west of town . The history of the area is documented at the Timewalk museum in Brewers Quay .
= = Governance = =
The district of Weymouth and Portland was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis and the nearby Portland urban district . For local elections the district is divided into 15 wards , 12 of them in Weymouth . Elections take place in a four @-@ year cycle ; one third of the councillors in all but three wards retire or seek re @-@ election in years one , two and three , and county council elections are held in year four . The Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Ray Banham ( Liberal Democrat ) , Kate Wheller ( Labour Party ) is Deputy Mayor .
Weymouth , Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency , created in 1885 . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ; currently Richard Drax ( Conservative ) .
For European Parliament elections , South Dorset , the rest of South West England , and Gibraltar form the South West England constituency .
Dorset South was the most marginal Labour seat in the 2001 general election , won by 153 votes . Jim Knight was expecting to have a difficult 2005 election , yet he won with a margin of 1 @,@ 812 votes — this was in contrast to other areas , where Labour suffered a decline in popularity . This was helped by a high @-@ profile anti @-@ Conservative campaign by musician Billy Bragg . The seat was gained from Labour by Drax for the Conservatives at the 2010 General Election .
Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany since 1986 , and the French town of Louviers , in the department of Eure in Normandy , since 1959 .
= = Geography = =
Weymouth is situated on the western shore of Weymouth Bay on the south coast of England , 195 kilometres ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 ° 37 ′ N 2 ° 27 ′ W ( 50 @.@ 613 , − 2 @.@ 457 ) . The town is built on weak sand and clay rock which in most places along the Dorset coast , except for narrow bands at Lulworth Cove , Swanage and Durdle Door , has been eroded and transported away . This weak rock has been protected at Weymouth by Chesil Beach and the strong limestone Isle of Portland that lies offshore , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis . The island affects the tides of the area , producing a double low tide in Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour . The maximum tidal range is small , at around 2 metres ( 7 ft ) .
There are two lakes in the borough , both RSPB Nature Reserves — Radipole Lake in the town centre , and Lodmoor between the town centre and Preston . Radipole Lake , the largest nature reserve , and mouth of the River Wey before it flows into Weymouth Harbour , is an important habitat for fish and migratory birds , and over 200 species of plants . Radipole is an important tourist attraction ; it and Weymouth Beach are situated very close to the main town centre . There are 11 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the borough , which cover an area of 800 @.@ 87 hectares ( 1 @,@ 979 acres ) , and there are 37 other Nature Conservation Designations .
Situated approximately halfway along the Jurassic Coast , Weymouth is a gateway town to the UNESCO World Heritage Site , which includes 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast that is important for its geology and landforms . The South West Coast Path has two routes around Weymouth and Portland — one around its coast , and one along the South Dorset Downs , which reduces the path 's length by 31 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 3 mi ) . The path is the United Kingdom 's longest national trail , at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) .
Weymouth is the largest town in the area , larger than the county town of Dorchester , which lies just to the north , and hence is a centre of activity for the nearby population . A steep ridge of chalk called the South Dorset Downs , locally known as The Ridgeway , separates Dorchester and Weymouth ; they are less agricultural than the valleys in the centre and north of Dorset , but have dairy and arable farms . The nearest villages to Weymouth are part of the built @-@ up area , including Wyke Regis , Chickerell and Preston .
The sand and clay on which Weymouth is built is very low @-@ lying — large areas are below sea level , which allowed the eastern areas of the town to flood during extreme low pressure storms . In the 1980s and 1990s a sea wall was built around Weymouth Harbour and along the coast road in Preston ; a rip rap groyne in Greenhill and beach nourishment up to Preston have created a wide and artificially graded pebble beach , to ensure that the low @-@ lying land around Lodmoor does not flood . The defences at Preston , the extended ferry terminal and the widening of the Esplanade have changed the sediment regime in Weymouth Bay , narrowing the beach at Greenhill and widening the sands in Weymouth . A study conducted as part of the redevelopment of the Pavilion complex showed that the proposed marina will contribute slightly to this effect , but sand dredged out of the marina could be used to make the beach up to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) wider .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its location on the south @-@ west coast of England , Weymouth has a temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1981 to 2010 was 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The warmest month is August , which has an average temperature range of 14 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 1 ° C ( 57 @.@ 4 to 68 @.@ 2 ° F ) , and the coolest is February , which has a range of 3 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 4 ° C ( 38 @.@ 7 to 47 @.@ 1 ° F ) . Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England 's average , and Weymouth is in AHS Heat zone 1 . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in February to 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 63 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August ; the annual mean is 11 @.@ 8 ° C ( 53 @.@ 2 ° F ) .
The low @-@ lying nature of the area , and the ameliorating effect of the lakes and mild seas that surround the town , act to keep night @-@ time temperatures above freezing for much of the winter , though frosts are recorded . The lowest temperature of − 9 @.@ 8 ° C ( 14 @.@ 4 ° F ) was recorded on 13 January 1987 . Days with snow lying are equally rare : on average zero to six days per year ; almost all winters have one day or less with snow lying . It may snow or sleet in winter , yet it rarely settles on the ground ; low @-@ lying coastal areas on the South Coast of England such as Weymouth experience milder winters than the rest of the United Kingdom . The growing season in Weymouth lasts for more than 310 days per year , and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b .
Weymouth and Portland has one of the sunniest climates in the United Kingdom , along with many south coast towns . The resort averaged 1869 @.@ 8 hours of sunshine annually between 1981 and 2010 , which is 43 % of the maximum possible , and 40 % above the United Kingdom average of 1339 @.@ 7 hours . December is the cloudiest month ( 62 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine ) , November the wettest ( 88 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rain ) and July is the sunniest and driest month ( 243 @.@ 6 hours of sunshine , 35 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of rain ) . Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average , and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average , particularly in summer ; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England . The average annual rainfall of 730 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 8 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
The mid @-@ year population of Weymouth in 2011 was 52 @,@ 323 , in a built @-@ up area of 18 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 acres ) , giving an approximate population density of 2 @,@ 800 residents per square kilometre ( 11 per acre ) , in 25 @,@ 174 dwellings . The population has grown steadily since the 1970s , mainly as a result of migration . There is an above average number of residents aged 60 – 84 ( 27 @.@ 4 % ) , however this is less than the Dorset average of 30 @.@ 2 % , and the proportion of the population between 18 and 59 is also above the Dorset average . The population is largely native to England — 94 @.@ 9 % of residents are White British , slightly below the Dorset average of 95 @.@ 5 % , and well above the England and Wales average of 80 @.@ 5 % . The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity , at 61 @.@ 0 % , which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59 @.@ 3 % . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at 29 @.@ 3 % , slightly above the average of 25 @.@ 1 % .
House prices in Weymouth and Portland are relatively high by UK standards , yet around average for the south of England — the average price of a detached house in 2010 was £ 303 @,@ 622 ; semi @-@ detached and terraced houses were cheaper , at £ 204 @,@ 647 and £ 203 @,@ 207 respectively , and an apartment or maisonette cost £ 155 @,@ 056 . The crime rate in Weymouth of 7 @.@ 6 burglaries per 1000 households is lower than that of England and Wales ( 11 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) , but above that of Dorset ( 3 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) . Unemployment levels are low , particularly in summer , at 2 @.@ 5 % of the economically active population in July 2011 , compared to the UK average of 7 @.@ 7 % .
= = Economy = =
Tourism has been the largest industry in Weymouth for decades , though the number of people employed in the sector has declined slightly since its peak in the late 1990s . Weymouth 's coast and beaches , lakes , museums , aquarium , and two shopping centres are the main attractions for visitors . The visitor accommodation consists of hotels on the seafront , guest houses around the town centre , and caravan and camping sites just out of town , including three sites owned by Haven and British Holidays : Littlesea , Seaview and Weymouth Bay .
There are over two hundred events held throughout the year in the borough , including firework festivals , dragon boat racing , beach volleyball , handball and motocross , and the annual carnival in mid @-@ August , which attracts around 70 @,@ 000 people each year . Weymouth is the only port in the world to have hosted the start of The Tall Ships ' Races three times — in 1983 , 1987 and 1994 ; the 1994 race attracting 300 @,@ 000 spectators .
The Pavilion Theatre was built in 1960 on a peninsula of reclaimed land between the harbour and the esplanade , after the Ritz Theatre was destroyed by fire in 1954 . The Pavilion was owned and operated by Weymouth and Portland Borough Council , providing a venue for local community groups and schools , and hosting seasonal ' end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ pier ' entertainment and year @-@ round shows and events . It was announced in 2006 that the Pavilion complex and 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) of its surroundings would be entirely redeveloped from 2008 to 2011 , in time for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The proposed complex was to include a refurbished theatre , a World Heritage Site visitors ' centre , a new ferry terminal , a 140 bed 4 @-@ star hotel , an underground car park , a shopping arcade , offices , around 340 luxury apartments , 110 affordable homes , public squares , promenades , and a 290 @-@ berth marina . Delays to the project mean it was unlikely to be completed in time for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the redevelopment never took place . In November 2012 Weymouth and Portland Borough Council announced the intended closure and demolition of the theatre , with the site closing on 31 May 2013 . Following a formal tender process the theatre was leased to local businessman Phil Say and reopened on 13 July 2013 . Weymouth Pavilion is now operated by Weymouth Pavilion CIC as a not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation .
As part of the regeneration of Weymouth and Portland , it was decided in 2007 that Weymouth 's esplanade will be redeveloped in time for the 2012 Olympic Games . Planned improvements include a public square around the restored statue of King George III , the restoration and extension the Art Deco pier bandstand , a Tourist information centre and café , Victorian @-@ style shelters and seasonal kiosks , a beach rescue centre , and a sand art pavilion for the sculptures of Mark Anderson . Other alterations to the promenade were made , particularly around key areas such as the Jubilee Clock and the pier bandstand , with the introduction of new cafes and bars that connect the promenade and beach using innovative design , shaped like an upturned boat , also including a lighting scheme and seating areas with planting , fountains and trees . A 2010 council report said there are " venues with an emphasis on an alcohol @-@ led night out . While these uses area positive attribute to the town , popular with both residents and visitors , they are also closely linked to a well @-@ documented crime and disorder problem in the town centre . "
Weymouth Harbour is long and narrow , and formed the estuary of the River Wey until the building of a bridge to Westham , which separated the harbour 's backwaters from Radipole Lake . For centuries the harbour was a passenger terminal and trade and cargo port : goods handled included wool and spices , and in the 20th century Weymouth was a bulk importer of fertiliser and cars . The old harbourside , on both sides of the seaward end of the harbour , still hosts a fishing fleet , with docks , unloading areas , and a cross @-@ channel ferry terminal . Fishing and cargo trading employ fewer people in the area since their peak in earlier centuries , but local fishermen catch the largest mass of fish in England and the third largest in the United Kingdom . The inner harbour has been refurbished in two phases , in 1994 – 1996 and in 2002 , to include a new marina with hundreds of berths for pleasure boats , cruisers and sailing boats . Local boats offer fishing and diving trips , pleasure cruises along the Jurassic Coast , and thrill @-@ rides to the Isle of Portland .
The main shopping centre in the area is in Melcombe Regis , consisting of two pedestrianised streets ( St. Thomas 's and St. Mary 's Street ) , shops along the esplanade , and a new precinct stretching from St. Thomas 's Street to the harbourside , built in the 1990s . There are shops and restaurants in the pedestrianised Hope Square and Brewers Quay , which are linked to the town centre by town bridge and a small passenger ferry service across the harbour . In 2005 the town centre had 292 shops and 37 @,@ 500 square metres ( 404 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floorspace , and there was 0 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 100 acres ) of industrial estate in the area . The shopping catchment area , which extends for approximately 3 miles towards the north and seven miles east and west , has a population of 71 @,@ 700 ( mid @-@ 2001 ) . Weymouth , Portland and Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 . Fashion company New Look has its global headquarters in Weymouth , and until 2005 the company 's regional distribution centre was based at the same site . Plans were approved in 2007 to develop the New Look site to include new headquarters , retail warehouses and industrial units , a hotel , fire station , and a medical centre with ambulance station .
= = Transport = =
Weymouth railway station is the terminus of a route from London Waterloo and of a route from Westbury and Bristol . There used to be a station to handle summer tourist traffic , but this traffic declined and it was demolished in 1986 . A smaller station took up part of the site , and the rest was given over to commercial development . Part of the South West Main Line west of Moreton Station to east of Dorchester South Station has been reduced from dual to single track . Local councils lobbied the Department for Transport , in connection with the 2012 Olympic Games , to relay the double track and increase services . Services to London Waterloo began running every 30 minutes from December 2007 , but services through Bristol to Cardiff were reduced .
An unusual feature of the railways in Weymouth was that until 1987 main @-@ line trains ran though the streets and along the Weymouth Harbour Tramway to the Quay station at the eastern end of the harbour , to connect with ferries to mainland Europe . Due to declining business , goods traffic ceased in 1972 , but passenger services continued until they ceased in 1987 from lack of use .
Local bus services are run by First Hampshire and Dorset , which bought the local Southern National company . Buses run from Weymouth to the Isle of Portland , Dorchester , Bournemouth , Wool , Beaminster , Axminster , and to other villages and the town 's holiday parks . Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the Jurassic Coast Bus service , which runs for 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) from Exeter to Poole , through Sidford , Beer , Seaton , Lyme Regis , Charmouth , Bridport , Abbotsbury , Weymouth , Wool , and Wareham . This service is convenient for walkers who can ride the bus to connect with the South West Coast Path for a walk along the coast .
The A354 road connects the town to the A35 trunk road in Dorchester , and terminates at Easton on the Isle of Portland . The A353 road runs east from Weymouth to the south of Warmwell , where it connects with the A352 to the Isle of Purbeck and Wareham . The B3157 road runs west from Weymouth to the south of Bridport where it terminates and connects to the A35 . In the 1980s the town centre was bypassed by the A354 to Portland , but the government 's road building policy changed before a proposed relief road could be completed . Before completion of the relief road , the A354 followed its original route through Upwey and Broadwey , where traffic problems were common at peak tourist times , particularly on event days such as the carnival .
The relief road 's construction was delayed by opposition from residents and environmental groups , including Transport 2000 and the Campaign to Protect Rural England , who objected to the route 's partial destruction of a nature reserve , which is an AONB and SSSI . With Weymouth and Portland scheduled to host 2012 Olympic sailing events the project reopened ; the local authorities favouring a more environmentally friendly proposal than in the 1990s . On 5 April 2007 , Dorset County Council granted planning permission for a modified proposal including a single carriageway running 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) north , and a 1000 @-@ space park @-@ and @-@ ride scheme , costing £ 84 @.@ 5 million . Work commenced in 2008 ; and was completed by mid @-@ 2011 , in time for the 2012 Olympic sailing events . During archaeological excavations carried out in advance of the relief road construction , a burial pit containing 51 dismembered skeletons of Viking men was discovered on Ridgeway Hill .
= = Culture = =
= = = Writers = = =
Thomas Hardy lived and worked in Weymouth in 1869 , and in 1871 @-@ 2 lodging at 1 West Parade , now Park Street , returning to the Bockhampton cottage to complete Under the Greenwood Tree . Diggory Venn in Hardy 's The Return of the Native describes the excitement of Weymouth , where " out of every ten folk you meet nine of ’ em in love " . Weymouth 's Esplanade , the Gloucester Lodge Hotel and Old Rooms are featured in The Trumpet @-@ Major ( 1880 ) , renamed Budmouth in the 1895 edition , to bring the novel within fictional ‘ Wessex ’ . Thomas Hardy walked on Chesil Beach many times , and it is featured in The Well @-@ Beloved ( 1897 ) .
Joseph Drew wrote a historical novel The Poisoned Cup " a quaint tale of old Weymouth and Sandsfoot Castle " ( 1876 ) , The Rival Queens , an account of the life of Mary Queen of Scots ( 1880 ) , and several other popular works on religion , history and science .
The novelist John Cowper Powys 's novel Weymouth Sands ( 1934 ) is set in Weymouth , where he " was more at home than anywhere else in the world " . Powys 's paternal grandmother lived in Weymouth and the family lived in nearby Dorchester from 1880 to 1885 .
The novelist Gerald Basil Edwards spent the last years of his life in Weymouth . In nearby Upwey he met the art student Edward Chaney , who encouraged him to complete The Book of Ebenezer Le Page .
= = = Media = = =
Westcountry Television and Meridian Broadcasting are the local ITV television franchises . Westcountry is received from the Stockland Hill transmitter or from one of its three relay transmitters in the town ( Wyke Regis , Bincombe Hill and Preston ) . Meridian is received from the Rowridge transmitter . The local newspaper is the Dorset Echo . Weymouth was used as location to film The Boat That Rocked , alongside nearby Portland Harbour , and Channel 4 's Hugh 's Fish Fight .
= = Education = =
The Chesil Education Partnership pyramid area operates in south Dorset , and includes three infant schools , two junior schools , fourteen primary schools , four secondary schools and two special schools . 77 @.@ 5 % of Weymouth Town residents over 16 have qualifications , which is slightly below the Dorset average of 78 @.@ 7 % ; about 20 % of adult residents have higher qualifications ( Level 4 + ) , which is lower than the Dorset average of 27 % .
There are three secondary schools in Weymouth — All Saints ' Church of England School in Wyke Regis ; Budmouth College in Chickerell ; and Wey Valley School and Sports College in Broadwey . Wey Valley was added to the Government 's Failing Schools list in 2007 as only 27 % of the students achieved 5 A * to C passes . The fourth secondary school in the Chesil Education Partnership is Royal Manor Arts College on the Isle of Portland . All Saints ' has 921 students on roll , Budmouth has 1560 and Wey Valley 1171 . In 2006 , 31 % of students at Wey Valley , and 58 % of students at All Saints ' and Budmouth , attained five or more A * to C GCSEs including English and mathematics .
Budmouth College also has a sixth form centre which had 296 students in 2006 . Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is a further education college which has around 7 @,@ 500 students from South West England and overseas , about 1500 studying A @-@ Level courses . In 2006 , Budmouth students received an average of 647 @.@ 6 UCAS points , and Weymouth College students gained 614 @.@ 1 . Some secondary and A @-@ Level students commute to Dorchester to attend The Thomas Hardye School ; in 2007 , 79 % of Hardye school students received five or more A * to C GCSEs , and 78 % of all A @-@ Level results were A to C grades .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Weymouth 's wide and shallow sandy beach is used for swimming and sunbathing during the tourist season , and for beach sport events throughout the year , including beach motocross , the International handball championships and the beach volleyball classic . The international kite festival , held in May each year on Weymouth Beach , attracts around 40 @,@ 000 spectators to the esplanade from around the world .
Weymouth Cricket Club is sponsored by local business and runs in partnership with nearby schools .
The local football club , Weymouth F.C. or ' the Terras ' , are outside the Football League but , in common with some other non @-@ league clubs , they became professional in 2005 . The team enjoyed erratic success at their level ; twice playing in the third round of the FA Cup , the highest club competition level . At the end of the 2005 – 06 season the team became champions of the Conference South ( the sixth level of English football ) and moved up to the Conference National ( the fifth level ) for the first time since 1989 . However the club were relegated at the end of the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons and now play in the Southern League Premier Division ( the seventh level ) . The Terras ' ground is the Bob Lucas Stadium ; its record attendance is 6 @,@ 500 against Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup 2005 – 2006 season .
The Wessex Stadium is out of town , but until 1987 the team played at a ground near the town centre , which is now an Asda supermarket . The club 's move pre @-@ dated the move to new out @-@ of @-@ town grounds by professional league clubs , and was the first football stadium opened in England in 32 years . Motorcycle speedway racing was staged at the stadium from 1954 until the redevelopment ; Weymouth 's team was revived in 2003 , and ' the Wildcats ' race at a track adjacent to the stadium . However , the club closed early in 2011 , following disputes with the landlords owning the stadium . In 2005 a scheme was proposed to rebuild the Wessex Stadium to occupy a pitch @-@ and @-@ putt golf course , coincidentally with Asda building on the previous stadium site . Although the plans were to move by August 2007 , the scheme was shelved before construction could begin .
On the shores of Portland Harbour , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis , is Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy , where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games were based . The main reason that the resort was chosen to be an 2012 Olympic venue was because the National Sailing Academy had only recently been built , so no new venue would have to be built . However , as part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency 's plans to redevelop Osprey Quay , in which the academy is built , a new 600 @-@ berth marina and an extension with more on @-@ site facilities was built . Weymouth and Portland were one of the first locations in the United Kingdom to finish building a venue for the Olympic Games , as construction started in October 2007 and finished at the end of 2008 .
The waters of Weymouth and Portland were credited by the Royal Yachting Association as the best in Northern Europe for sailing . Local , national and international sailing events are regularly held in the bay ; these include the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUCS Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships . Tall ship Pelican , built as an Arctic fishing trawler in 1948 , offers sail training voyages for youth . Weymouth Bay is a venue for other water @-@ sports — the reliable wind is favourable for wind- and kite @-@ surfing . The sheltered waters in Portland Harbour and near Weymouth are used for angling , diving to shipwrecks , snorkelling , canoeing , jet skiing , water skiing , and swimming .
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= Georg Solti =
Sir Georg Solti , KBE ( / ˈdʒɔːrdʒ ˈʃɒlti / ; 21 October 1912 – 5 September 1997 ) was an orchestral and operatic conductor , best known for his appearances with opera companies in Munich , Frankfurt and London , and as a long @-@ serving music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . Born in Budapest , he studied there with Béla Bartók , Leó Weiner and Ernő Dohnányi . In the 1930s , he was a répétiteur at the Hungarian State Opera and worked at the Salzburg Festival for Arturo Toscanini . His career was interrupted by the rise of the Nazis , and being of Jewish background he fled the increasingly restrictive anti @-@ semitic laws in 1938 . After conducting a season of Russian ballet in London at the Royal Opera House he found refuge in Switzerland , where he remained during the Second World War . Prohibited from conducting there , he earned a living as a pianist .
After the war , Solti was appointed musical director of the Bavarian State Opera in Munich in 1946 . In 1952 he moved to the Frankfurt Opera , where he remained in charge for nine years . He took West German citizenship in 1953 . In 1961 he became musical director of the Covent Garden Opera Company , London . During his ten @-@ year tenure , he introduced changes that raised standards to the highest international levels . Under his musical directorship the status of the company was recognised with the grant of the title " the Royal Opera " . He became a British citizen in 1972 .
In 1969 Solti became music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , a post he held for 22 years . He relinquished the position in 1991 and became the orchestra 's music director laureate , a position he held until his death . During his time as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra 's eighth music director , he also served as music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1972 until 1975 and principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra from 1979 until 1983 .
Known in his early years for the intensity of his music making , Solti was widely considered to have mellowed as a conductor in later years . He recorded many works two or three times at various stages of his career , and was a prolific recording artist , making more than 250 recordings , including 45 complete opera sets . The most famous of his recordings is probably Decca 's complete set of Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen , made between 1958 and 1965 . Solti 's Ring has twice been voted the greatest recording ever made , in polls for Gramophone magazine in 1999 and the BBC 's Music Magazine in 2012 . Solti was repeatedly honoured by the recording industry with awards throughout his career , including a record 32 Grammy Awards as a recording artist .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Solti was born György Stern ( Hungarian : Stern György ) on Maros utca , in the Hegyvidék district of the Buda side of Budapest . He was the younger of the two children of Móricz ( " Mor " ) Stern and his wife Teréz , née Rosenbaum , both of whom were Jewish . In the aftermath of the First World War it became the accepted practice in Hungary for citizens with Germanic surnames to adopt Hungarian ones . The right wing regime of Admiral Horthy enacted a series of " Hungarianisation " laws , including a requirement that state employees with foreign @-@ sounding names must change them . Mor Stern , a self @-@ employed merchant , felt no need to change his surname , but thought it prudent to change that of his children . He renamed them after Solt , a small town in central Hungary . His son 's given name , György , was acceptably Hungarian and was not changed .
Solti described his father as " a kind , sweet man who trusted everyone . He shouldn 't have , but he did . Jews in Hungary were tremendously patriotic . In 1914 , when war broke out , my father invested most of his money in a war loan to help the country . By the time the bonds matured , they were worthless . " Mor Stern was a religious man , but his son was less so . Late in life Solti recalled , " I often upset him because I never stayed in the synagogue for longer than ten minutes . " Teréz Stern was from a musical family , and encouraged her daughter Lilly , eight years the elder of the children , to sing , and György to accompany her at the piano . Solti remembered , " I made so many mistakes , but it was invaluable experience for an opera conductor . I learnt to swim with her . " He was not a diligent student of the piano : " My mother kept telling me to practise , but what ten @-@ year @-@ old wants to play the piano when he could be out playing football ? "
Solti enrolled at the Ernö Fodor School of Music in Budapest at the age of ten , transferring to the more prestigious Franz Liszt Academy two years later . When he was 12 he heard a performance of Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony conducted by Erich Kleiber , which gave him the ambition to become a conductor . His parents could not afford to pay for years of musical education , and his rich uncles did not consider music a suitable profession ; from the age of 13 Solti paid for his education by giving piano lessons .
The faculty of the Franz Liszt Academy included some of the most eminent Hungarian musicians , including Béla Bartók , Leó Weiner , Ernő Dohnányi and Zoltán Kodály . Solti studied under the first three , for piano , chamber music and composition respectively . Some sources state that he also studied with Kodály , but in his memoirs Solti recalled that Kodály , whom he would have preferred , turned him down , leaving him to study composition first with Albert Siklós and then with Dohnányi . Not all the Academy 's tutors were equally distinguished : Solti remembered with little pleasure the conducting classes run by Ernö Unger , " who instructed his pupils to use rigid little wrist motions . I attended the class for only two years , but I needed five years of practical conducting experience before I managed to unlearn what he had taught me " .
= = = Pianist and conductor = = =
After graduating from the Academy in 1930 Solti was appointed to the staff of the Hungarian State Opera . He found that working as a répétiteur , coaching singers in their roles and playing at rehearsals , was a more fruitful preparation than Unger 's classes for his intended career as a conductor . In 1932 he went to Karlsruhe in Germany as assistant to Josef Krips , but within a year , Krips , anticipating the imminent rise to power of Hitler and the Nazis , insisted that Solti should go home to Budapest , where at that time Jews were not in danger . Other Jewish and anti @-@ Nazi musicians also left Germany for Budapest . Among other musical exiles with whom Solti worked there were Otto Klemperer , Fritz Busch , and Kleiber . Before Austria fell under Nazi control , Solti was assistant to Arturo Toscanini at the 1937 Salzburg Festival :
Toscanini was the first great musical impression in my life . Before I heard him live in 1936 , I had never heard a great opera conductor , not in Budapest , and it was like a lightning flash . I heard his Falstaff in 1936 and the impact was unbelievable . It was the first time I heard an ensemble singing absolutely precisely . It was fantastic . Then I never expected to meet Toscanini . It was a chance in a million . I had a letter of recommendation from the director of the Budapest Opera to the president of the Salzburg Festival . He received me and said : " Do you know Magic Flute , because we have an influenza epidemic and two of our repetiteurs are ill ? Could you play this afternoon for the stage rehearsals ? "
After further work as a répétiteur at the opera in Budapest , and with his standing enhanced by his association with Toscanini , Solti was given his first chance to conduct , on 11 March 1938 . The opera was The Marriage of Figaro . During that evening , news came of the German invasion of Austria . Many Hungarians feared that Hitler would next invade Hungary ; he did not do so , but Horthy , to strengthen his partnership with the Nazis , instituted anti @-@ semitic laws , mirroring the Nuremberg Laws , restricting Hungary 's Jews from engaging in professions . Solti 's family urged him to move away . He went first to London , where he made his Covent Garden debut , conducting the London Philharmonic for a Russian ballet season . The reviewer in The Times was not impressed with Solti 's efforts , finding them " too violent , for he lashed at the orchestra and flogged the music so that he endangered the delicate , evocative atmosphere . " At about this time Solti dropped the name " György " in favour of " Georg " .
After his appearances in London Solti went to Switzerland to seek out Toscanini , who was conducting in Lucerne . Solti hoped that Toscanini would help find him a post in the US . He was unable to do so , but Solti found work and security in Switzerland as vocal coach to the tenor Max Hirzel , who was learning the role of Tristan in Wagner 's opera . Throughout the Second World War , Solti remained in Switzerland . He did not see his father again : Mor Stern died of diabetes in a Budapest hospital in 1943 . Solti was reunited with his mother and sister after the war . In Switzerland he could not obtain a work permit as a conductor , but earned his living as a piano teacher . After he won the 1942 Geneva International Piano Competition he was permitted to give piano recitals , but was still not allowed to conduct . During his exile , he met Hedwig ( Hedi ) Oeschli , daughter of a lecturer at Zürich University . They married in 1946 . In his memoirs he wrote of her , " She was very elegant and sophisticated . ... Hedi gave me a little grace and taught me good manners – although she never completely succeeded in this . She also helped me enormously in my career " .
= = = Munich and Frankfurt = = =
With the end of the war Solti 's luck changed dramatically . He was appointed musical director of the Bavarian State Opera in Munich in 1946 . In normal circumstances this prestigious post would have been an unthinkable appointment for a young and inexperienced conductor , but the leading German conductors such as Wilhelm Furtwängler , Clemens Krauss and Herbert von Karajan were prohibited from conducting pending the conclusion of denazification proceedings against them . Under Solti 's direction , the company rebuilt its repertoire and began to recover its pre @-@ war eminence . He benefited from the encouragement of the elderly Richard Strauss , in whose presence he conducted Der Rosenkavalier . Strauss was reluctant to discuss his own music with Solti , but gave him advice about conducting .
In addition to the Munich appointment Solti gained a recording contract in 1946 . He signed for Decca Records , not as a conductor but as a piano accompanist . He made his first recording in 1947 , playing Brahms 's First Violin Sonata with the violinist Georg Kulenkampff . He was insistent that he wanted to conduct , and Decca gave him his first recording sessions as a conductor later in the same year , with the Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra in Beethoven 's Egmont overture . Twenty years later Solti said , " I 'm sure it 's a terrible record , because the orchestra was not very good at that time and I was so excited . It is horrible , surely horrible – but by now it has vanished . " He had to wait two years for his next recording as a conductor . It was in London , Haydn 's Drum Roll symphony , in sessions produced by John Culshaw , with whose career Solti 's became closely linked over the next two decades . Reviewing the record , The Gramophone said , " The performance of the London Philharmonic Orchestra under Georg Solti ( a fine conductor who is new to me ) is remarkable for rhythmic playing , richness of tone , and clarity of execution . " The Record Guide compared it favourably with EMI 's rival recording by Sir Thomas Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic .
In 1951 Solti conducted at the Salzburg Festival for the first time , partly through the influence of Furtwängler , who was impressed by him . The work was Idomeneo , which had not been given there before . In Munich Solti achieved critical and popular success , but for political reasons his position at the State Opera was never secure . The view persisted that a German conductor should be in charge ; pressure mounted , and after five years Solti accepted an offer to move to Frankfurt in 1952 as musical director of the Frankfurt Opera . The city 's opera house had been destroyed in the war , and Solti undertook to build a new company and repertoire for its recently completed replacement . He also conducted the symphony concerts given by the opera orchestra . Frankfurt 's was a less prestigious house than Munich 's and he initially regarded the move as a demotion , but he found the post fulfilling and remained at Frankfurt from 1952 to 1961 , presenting 33 operas , 19 of which he had not conducted before . Frankfurt , unlike Munich , could not attract many of the leading German singers . Solti recruited many rising young American singers such as Claire Watson and Sylvia Stahlman , to the extent that the house acquired the nickname " Amerikanische Oper am Main " . In 1953 the West German government offered Solti German citizenship , which , being effectively stateless as a Hungarian exile , he gratefully accepted . He believed he could never return to Hungary , by then under communist rule . He remained a German citizen for two decades .
During his Frankfurt years Solti made appearances with other opera companies and orchestras . He conducted in the Americas for the first time in 1952 , giving concerts in Buenos Aires . In the same year he made his debut at the Edinburgh Festival as a guest conductor with the visiting Hamburg State Opera . The following year he was a guest at the San Francisco Opera with Elektra , Die Walküre and Tristan und Isolde . In 1954 he conducted Don Giovanni at the Glyndebourne Festival . The reviewer in The Times said that no fault could be found in Solti 's " vivacious and sensitive " conducting . In the same year Solti made his first appearance with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , at the Ravinia Festival . In 1960 he made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York , conducting Tannhäuser , and he continued to appear there until 1964 .
In the recording studios Solti 's career took off after 1956 , when John Culshaw was put in charge of Decca 's classical recording programme . Culshaw believed Solti to be " the great Wagner conductor of our time " , and was determined to record the four operas of Der Ring des Nibelungen with Solti and the finest Wagner singers available . The cast Culshaw assembled for the cycle included Kirsten Flagstad , Hans Hotter , Birgit Nilsson and Wolfgang Windgassen . Apart from Arabella in 1957 , in which he substituted when Karl Böhm withdrew , Solti had made no complete recording of an opera until the sessions for Das Rheingold , the first of the Ring tetralogy , in September and October 1958 . In their respective memoirs Culshaw and Solti told how Walter Legge of Decca 's rival EMI predicted that Das Rheingold would be a commercial disaster ( " ' Very nice , ' he said , ' Very interesting . But of course you won 't sell any . ' " ) The success of the recording took the record industry by surprise . It featured for weeks in the Billboard charts , the sole classical album alongside best sellers by Elvis Presley and Pat Boone , and brought Solti 's name to international prominence . He appeared with leading orchestras in New York , Vienna and Los Angeles , and at Covent Garden he conducted Der Rosenkavalier and Britten 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
= = = Covent Garden = = =
In 1960 Solti signed a three @-@ year contract to be music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic from 1962 . Even before he took the post the Philharmonic 's autocratic president , Dorothy Chandler , breached his contract by appointing a deputy music director without Solti 's approval . Although he admired the chosen deputy , Zubin Mehta , Solti felt he could not have his authority undermined from the outset , and he withdrew from his appointment . He accepted an offer to become musical director of Covent Garden Opera Company , London . When first sounded out about the post he had declined it . After 14 years of experience at Munich and Frankfurt he was uncertain that he wanted a third successive operatic post . Moreover , founded only 15 years earlier , the Covent Garden company was not yet the equal of the best opera houses in Europe . Bruno Walter convinced Solti that it was his duty to take Covent Garden on .
The biographer Montague Haltrecht suggests that Solti seized the breach of his Los Angeles contract as a convenient pretext to abandon the Philharmonic in favour of Covent Garden . However , in his memoirs Solti wrote that he wanted the Los Angeles position very much indeed . He originally considered holding both posts in tandem , but later acknowledged that he had had a lucky escape , as he could have done justice to neither post had he attempted to hold both simultaneously .
Solti took up the musical directorship of Covent Garden in August 1961 . The press gave him a cautious welcome , but there was some concern that under him there might be a drift away from the company 's original policy of opera in English . Solti , however , was an advocate of opera in the vernacular , and he promoted the development of British and Commonwealth singers in the company , frequently casting them in his recordings and important productions in preference to overseas artists . He demonstrated his belief in vernacular opera with a triple bill in English of L 'heure espagnole , Erwartung and Gianni Schicchi . As the decade went on , however , more and more productions had to be sung in the original language to accommodate international stars .
Like his predecessor Rafael Kubelík , and his successor Colin Davis , Solti found his early days as musical director marred by vituperative hostility from a small clique in the Covent Garden audience . Rotten vegetables were thrown at him , and his car was vandalised outside the theatre , with the words " Solti must go ! " scratched on its paintwork . Some press reviews were strongly critical ; Solti was so wounded by a review in The Times of his conducting of The Marriage of Figaro that he almost left Covent Garden in despair . The chief executive of the Opera House , Sir David Webster , persuaded him to stay with the company , and matters improved , helped by changes on which Solti insisted . The chorus and orchestra were strengthened , and in the interests of musical and dramatic excellence , Solti secured the introduction of the stagione system of scheduling performances , rather than the traditional repertory system . By 1967 The Times commented that " Patrons of Covent Garden today automatically expect any new production , and indeed any revival , to be as strongly cast as anything at the Met in New York , and as carefully presented as anything in Milan or Vienna " .
The company 's repertory in the 1960s combined the standard operatic works with less familiar pieces . Among the most celebrated productions during Solti 's time in charge was Schoenberg 's Moses and Aaron in the 1965 – 66 and 1966 – 67 seasons . In 1970 , Solti led the company to Germany , where they gave Don Carlos , Falstaff and Victory , a new work by Richard Rodney Bennett . The public in Munich and Berlin were , according to the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , " beside themselves with enthusiasm " .
Solti 's bald head and demanding rehearsal style earned him the nickname " The Screaming Skull " . A music historian called him " the bustling , bruising Georg Solti – a man whose entire physical and mental attitude embodied the words ' I 'm in charge ' . " Singers such as Peter Glossop described him as a bully , and after working with Solti , Jon Vickers refused to do so again . Nevertheless , under Solti , the company was recognised as having achieved parity with the greatest opera houses in the world . Queen Elizabeth II conferred the title " the Royal Opera " on the company in 1968 . By this point Solti was , in the words of his biographer Paul Robinson , " after Karajan , the most celebrated conductor at work " . By the end of his decade as music director at Covent Garden Solti had conducted the company in 33 operas by 13 composers .
In 1964 Solti separated from his wife . He moved into the Savoy Hotel , where not long afterwards he met Valerie Pitts , a British television presenter , sent to interview him . She too was married , but after pursuing her for three years , Solti persuaded her to divorce her husband . Solti and Valerie Pitts married on 11 November 1967 . They had two daughters .
= = = Chicago Symphony Orchestra = = =
In 1967 Solti was invited to become music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . It was the second time he had been offered the post . The first had been in 1963 after the death of the orchestra 's conductor , Fritz Reiner , who made its reputation in the previous decade . Solti told the representatives of the orchestra that his commitments at Covent Garden made it impossible to give Chicago the eight months a year they sought . He suggested giving them three and a half months a year and inviting Carlo Maria Giulini to take charge for a similar length of time . The orchestra declined to proceed on these lines . When Solti accepted the orchestra 's second invitation it was agreed that Giulini should be appointed to share the conducting . Both conductors signed three @-@ year contracts with the orchestra , effective from 1969 .
One of the members of the Chicago Symphony described it to Solti as " the best provincial orchestra in the world . " Many players remained from its celebrated decade under Reiner , but morale was low , and the orchestra was $ 5m in debt . Solti concluded that it was essential to raise the orchestra 's international profile . He ensured that it was engaged for many of his Decca sessions , and he and Giulini led it in a European tour in 1971 , playing in ten countries . It was the first time in its 80 @-@ year history that the orchestra had played outside of North America . The orchestra received plaudits from European critics , and was welcomed home at the end of the tour with a ticker @-@ tape parade .
The orchestra 's principal flute player , Donald Peck , commented that the relationship between a conductor and an orchestra is difficult to explain : " some conductors get along with some orchestras and not others . We had a good match with Solti and he with us . " Peck 's colleague , the violinist Victor Aitay said , " Usually conductors are relaxed at rehearsals and tense at the concerts . Solti is the reverse . He is very tense at rehearsals , which makes us concentrate , but relaxed during the performance , which is a great asset to the orchestra . " Peck recalled Solti 's constant efforts to improve his own technique and interpretations , at one point experimentally dispensing with a baton , drawing a " darker and deeper , much more relaxed " tone from the players .
As well as raising the orchestra 's profile and helping it return to prosperity , Solti considerably expanded its repertoire . Under him the Chicago Symphony gave its first cycles of the symphonies of Bruckner and Mahler . He introduced new works commissioned for the orchestra , such as Lutosławski 's Third Symphony , and Tippett 's Fourth Symphony which was dedicated to Solti . Another new work was Tippett 's Byzantium , an orchestral song @-@ cycle , premiered by Solti and the orchestra with the soprano Faye Robinson . Solti frequently programmed works by American composers , including Charles Ives and Elliott Carter .
Solti 's recordings with the Chicago Symphony included the complete symphonies of Beethoven , Brahms , Bruckner and Mahler . Most of his operatic recordings were with other orchestras , but his recordings of The Flying Dutchman ( 1976 ) , Fidelio ( 1979 ) , Moses und Aron ( 1984 ) and his second recordings of Die Meistersinger ( 1995 ) and Verdi 's Otello ( 1991 ) were made with the Chicago players .
After relinquishing the position of music director in 1991 , Solti continued to conduct the orchestra , and was given the title of music director laureate . He conducted 999 concerts with the orchestra . His 1,000th concert was scheduled for October 1997 , around the time of his 85th birthday , but Solti died that September .
= = = Later years = = =
In addition to his tenure in Chicago Solti was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1972 to 1975 . From 1979 until 1983 he was also principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra . He continued to expand his repertoire . With the London Philharmonic he performed many of Elgar 's major works in concert and on record . Before performing Elgar 's two symphonies , Solti studied the composer 's own recordings made more than 40 years earlier , and was influenced by their brisk tempi and impetuous manner . A critic in The Guardian wrote that Solti " conveys the authentic frisson of the great Elgarian moment more vividly than ever before on record . " Late in his career he became enthusiastic about the music of Shostakovich , whom he admitted he failed to appreciate fully during the composer 's lifetime . He made commercial recordings of seven of Shostakovich 's fifteen symphonies .
In 1983 Solti conducted for the only time at the Bayreuth Festival . By this stage in his career he no longer liked abstract productions of Wagner , or modernistic reinterpretations , such as Patrice Chéreau 's 1976 Bayreuth Ring , which he found grew boring on repetition . Together with the director Sir Peter Hall and the designer William Dudley , he presented a Ring cycle that aimed to represent Wagner 's intentions . The production was not well received by German critics , who expected radical reinterpretation of the operas . Solti 's conducting was praised , but illnesses and last @-@ minute replacements of leading performers affected the standard of singing . He was invited to return to Bayreuth for the following season , but was unwell and withdrew on medical advice before the 1984 festival began .
In 1991 Solti collaborated with the actor and composer Dudley Moore to create an eight @-@ part television series , Orchestra ! , which was designed to introduce audiences to the symphony orchestra . In 1994 he directed the " Solti Orchestral Project " at Carnegie Hall , a training workshop for young American musicians . The following year , to mark the 50th anniversary of the United Nations , he formed the World Orchestra for Peace , which consisted of 81 musicians from 40 nations . The orchestra has continued to perform after his death , under the conductorship of Valery Gergiev .
Solti regularly returned to Covent Garden as a guest conductor in the years after he relinquished the musical directorship , greeted with " an increasingly boisterous hero 's welcome " ( Grove ) . From 1972 to 1997 he conducted ten operas , some of them in several seasons . Five were operas he had not conducted at the Royal Opera House before : Carmen , Parsifal , Die Entführung aus dem Serail , Simon Boccanegra and a celebrated production of La traviata ( 1994 ) which propelled Angela Gheorghiu to stardom . On 14 July 1997 he conducted the last operatic music to be heard in the old house before it closed for more than two years for rebuilding . The previous day he had conducted what proved to be his last symphony concert . The work was Mahler 's Fifth Symphony ; the orchestra was the Zurich Tonhalle , with whom he had made his first orchestral recording 50 years earlier .
Solti died suddenly , in his sleep , on 5 September 1997 while on holiday in Antibes in the south of France . He was 84 . After a state ceremony in Budapest , his ashes were interred beside the remains of Bartók in Farkasréti Cemetery .
= = Recordings = =
Solti recorded throughout his career for the Decca Record Company . He made more than 250 recordings , including 45 complete opera sets . During the 1950s and 1960s Decca had an alliance with RCA Victor , and some of Solti 's recordings were first issued on the RCA label .
Solti was one of the first conductors who came to international fame as a recording artist before being widely known in the concert hall or opera house . Gordon Parry , the Decca engineer who worked with Solti and Culshaw on the Ring recordings , observed , " Many people have said ' Oh well , of course John Culshaw made Solti . ' This is not true . He gave him the opportunity to show what he could do . "
Solti 's first recordings were as a piano accompanist , playing at sessions in Zurich for the violinist Georg Kulenkampff in 1947 . Decca 's senior producer , Victor Olof did not much admire Solti as a conductor ( nor did Walter Legge , Olof 's opposite number at EMI 's Columbia Records ) , but Olof 's younger colleague and successor , Culshaw , held Solti in high regard . As Culshaw , and later James Walker , produced his recordings , Solti 's career as a recording artist flourished from the mid @-@ 1950s . Among the orchestras with whom Solti recorded were the Berlin Philharmonic , Chicago Symphony , London Philharmonic , London Symphony and Vienna Philharmonic orchestras . Soloists in his operatic recordings included Birgit Nilsson , Joan Sutherland , Régine Crespin , Plácido Domingo , Gottlob Frick , Carlo Bergonzi , Kiri Te Kanawa and José van Dam . In concerto recordings , Solti conducted for , among others , András Schiff , Julius Katchen , Clifford Curzon , Vladimir Ashkenazy and Kyung @-@ wha Chung .
Solti 's most celebrated recording was Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen made in Vienna , produced by Culshaw , between 1958 and 1965 . It has twice been voted the greatest recording ever made , the first poll being among readers of Gramophone magazine in 1999 , and the second of professional music critics in 2011 , for the BBC 's Music Magazine .
= = Honours and memorials = =
Honours awarded to Solti included the British CBE ( honorary ) , 1968 , and an honorary knighthood ( KBE ) , 1971 , which became a substantive knighthood when he took British citizenship in 1972 , after which he was known as Sir Georg Solti . He received honours from other countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Portugal and the US . He received honorary fellowships or degrees from the Royal College of Music and DePaul , Furman , Harvard , Leeds , London , Oxford , Surrey and Yale universities .
In celebration of his 75th birthday in 1987 , a bronze bust of Solti by Dame Elisabeth Frink was dedicated in Lincoln Park , Chicago , outside the Lincoln Park Conservatory . It was first displayed temporarily at the Royal Opera House in London . The sculpture was moved to Grant Park in 2006 in a new Solti Garden , near Orchestra Hall in Symphony Center . In 1997 , to commemorate the 85th anniversary of his birth , the City of Chicago renamed the block of East Adams Street adjacent to Symphony Center as " Sir Georg Solti Place " in his memory .
Record industry awards to Solti included the Grand Prix Mondial du Disque ( 14 times ) and 32 Grammy Awards ( including a special Trustees ' Grammy Award , shared with John Culshaw , for the recording of the Ring ( 1967 ) and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award ( 1996 ) ) . He won more Grammys than any other recording artist , whether classical or popular . In September 2007 , as a tribute on the 10th anniversary of his death , Decca published a recording of his final concert .
After Solti 's death his widow and daughters set up the Solti Foundation to assist young musicians . Solti 's memoirs , written with the assistance of Harvey Sachs , were published the month after his death . Solti 's life was also documented in a 1997 film by Peter Maniura , Sir Georg Solti : The Making of a Maestro . In 2007 Valerie Solti was appointed a Cultural Ambassador of Hungary , an honorary title granted by the Hungarian state .
In 2012 a series of events under the banner of " Solti @ 100 " was announced , to mark the centenary of Solti 's birth . Among the events announced were concerts in New York and Chicago , and commemorative exhibitions in London , Chicago , Vienna and New York . In the same year Solti was voted into the inaugural Gramophone " Hall of Fame " .
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= John Johnson ( footballer ) =
John James Johnson ( born 16 September 1988 ) is an English footballer who plays as a defender for Indian club Bengaluru FC . A graduate of the Middlesbrough youth academy , he made his debut for the club against Chelsea . A lack of first team opportunities saw him being loaned to Football League clubs Tranmere Rovers and Northampton Town .
After playing for a season on loan , Northampton signed Johnson on a permanent basis . He was also given club captainship but was replaced in the role after the arrival of Clarke Carlisle . In the 2012 – 13 season , his appearances for the club were hindered due to a cartilage injury . Johnson then signed for debutant Bengaluru FC in the I @-@ League in India , managed by his former Northampton Town teammate Ashley Westwood . Johnson , along with Kenyan Curtis Osano , became the first foreigners to play for the club .
= = Career = =
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Born in Middlesbrough , North Yorkshire , Johnson is a product of the Middlesbrough academy which he joined in 2005 . He signed a professional contract with Middlesbrough on 15 May 2008 and made his first team debut ( and only appearance for the club ) on 18 October 2008 in a 5 – 0 home defeat to Chelsea in the Premier League , coming on as a substitute for Jonathan Grounds in the 54th minute . Later , in an interview in May 2015 , Johnson said that his debut had been the " most inspirational moment " of his life . In November 2008 , he made a loan move to League One side Tranmere Rovers until the end of the year . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 victory against Leeds United the following week , but scored an own goal in Tranmere 's Football League Trophy northern area semi @-@ final against Scunthorpe United , which gave Scunthorpe a 2 – 1 victory . He played five games , four in the league , during his loan spell with Tranmere .
= = = Northampton Town = = =
Johnson joined League Two club Northampton Town on a one @-@ month loan in September 2009 . He made his debut for the club in a 3 – 0 loss against Shrewsbury Town and on 3 October 2009 , scored the first goal of his professional career , in a 2 – 2 draw against Bradford City . Having played four games , Johnson said he hoped to help the club back to winning ways . On 22 October 2009 , he extended his stay at Northampton until the new year , and scored his first goal on 24 October 2009 in a 4 – 2 win over Morecambe . The loan was extended until the end of the season in December .
Northampton signed Johnson on a two @-@ year contract in July 2010 following the successful loan spell . After signing for the club on a permanent basis , Johnson 's first match was the opening game of the season , in a 3 – 0 loss against Torquay United . Two months later , he received a straight red card after fouling Simon Clist and lost his appeal , resulting in a one @-@ match ban , missing a 3 – 1 loss against Oxford United . A week after his suspension , he scored his first goal as a permanent Northampton player in a 2 – 0 win over Lincoln City . In his first season at Northampton ( as a permanent player ) , he made 41 appearances and scored seven goals .
Johnson was appointed as captain ahead of the 2011 – 12 season having previously captained the club in a friendly match against Nottingham Forest , but was stripped of the post following the arrival of Clarke Carlisle . Johnson retained his first team place , making 48 appearances and scoring twice in two consecutive games against Morecambe and Southend . During a 3 – 2 loss against Burton Albion on 26 December 2011 , Johnson received a straight red card in the 18th minute , for fouling John McGrath . After the match , the club announced it would appeal against his sending @-@ off . The club won the appeal after The Football Association overturned the decision , therefore making him available to play .
As his contract was due to expire in the summer , Johnson signed a one @-@ year extension with Northampton keeping him at the club until 2013 on 16 May 2012 . After signing , manager Aidy Boothroyd said he expected Johnson to realise his full potential in the coming season . However , Johnson suffered a cartilage injury in October 2012 that ruled him out for four to six weeks . He made a return in a 1 – 1 draw against York City , but his return was short @-@ lived when he came off at half @-@ time and was out until January after undergoing knee surgery . After making his return on 19 January 2013 against AFC Wimbledon in a 1 – 1 draw , Boothroyd said Johnson made the team tougher and more aggressive . Later in the 2012 – 13 season , Johnson regained his first team place and the club finished in sixth place , qualifying for the promotion play @-@ offs . Johnson described the team as " the strongest " he had played in . Johnson was an unused substitute in the play @-@ offs as Northampton Town lost 3 – 0 on aggregate against Bradford City . He was released by Northampton at the end of the season .
= = = Bengaluru FC = = =
On 16 July 2013 , Johnson signed for Bengaluru FC of the Indian I @-@ League , and with Curtis Osano , became the first foreigners in the team 's history . He made his debut in their first ever I @-@ League match on 22 September against Mohun Bagan , playing the entirety of a 1 – 1 draw . In their next match against Rangdajied United F.C. , he scored his first goal in India , opening a 3 – 0 victory . He scored his second goal in as many matches on 6 October against United S.C. , the only goal of the game . Four days later he netted in his third consecutive match , in the 12th minute of a 2 – 1 victory against Mohammedan S.C .. In the Federation Cup , Johnson played three full matches against Sporting Goa , Rangdajied United and East Bengal . However , Bengaluru could not proceed beyond the group stage . After defeating Dempo on 20 April 2014 , the club won the I @-@ League in its debut season . He was also awarded the Best Defender of 2013 – 14 I @-@ League award .
Johnson kicked off the 2015 season by winning the Federation Cup , defeating Dempo 2 – 1 in the final . He played in the club 's 2 – 1 defeat against Malayasian club Johor Darul Ta 'zim in the preliminary round of 2015 AFC Champions League , receiving a yellow card in the 67th minute .
On 20 June 2016 , after helping Bengaluru FC win their second I @-@ League title , Johnson was rewarded with a new two @-@ year contract , keeping him with the club till the end of the 2017 – 18 season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played on 6 April 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Bengaluru FC
I @-@ League ( 2 ) : 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
Federation Cup ( 1 ) : 2014 – 15
= = = Individual = = =
Best Defender of I @-@ League ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
= = Style of play = =
Though Johnson mainly plays as a centre @-@ back or as a right back , but journalist Arunava Chaudhuri said the he is " equally comfortable in defensive midfield . " After playing in India , sports website The Hard Tackle described Johnson as " one of the best footballing imports to the country " . The website also praised his height as it is " influential in defence as it is from both attacking and defensive set @-@ pieces . " He was recognised by BBC as " consistent , a firm fans ' favourite and a brave , no nonsense defender . "
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= The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science =
The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science was published in November 1909 in New York by Doubleday , Page & Company . The book is a highly critical account of the life of Mary Baker Eddy ( 1821 – 1910 ) , the founder of Christian Science , and the early history of the Christian Science church in 19th @-@ century New England .
The material first appeared in McClure 's magazine ( 1893 – 1929 ) in 14 installments between January 1907 and June 1908 , preceded by an editorial in December 1906 announcing the series . The articles were the first major examination of Eddy 's life and work , published when she was 85 years old , and became a key primary source for most independent accounts of the church 's early history .
The magazine 's publisher and editor @-@ in @-@ chief , S. S. McClure ( 1857 – 1949 ) , assigned five writers to work on the articles : Willa Cather ( 1873 – 1947 ) , who won the 1923 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for one of her novels ; researcher Georgine Milmine ( 1874 – 1950 ) ; managing editor Will Irwin ( 1873 – 1948 ) ; Burton J. Hendrick ( 1870 – 1949 ) ; Mark Sullivan ( 1874 – 1952 ) , who became a well @-@ known political columnist ; and briefly Ida Tarbell ( 1857 – 1944 ) . The original byline on the book and articles was Milmine 's , but it later emerged that Cather , who had joined McClure 's as an editor in 1906 , was the principal author .
The Christian Science church purchased the manuscript shortly after the book 's publication , and it was soon out of print . It was republished by Baker Book House in 1971 after its copyright had expired , and again in 1993 by the University of Nebraska Press , this time naming both Cather and Milmine as authors .
= = Synopsis = =
The material was published by McClure 's when Witter Bynner ( 1881 – 1968 ) was an assistant editor and briefly managing editor . It first appeared under Georgine Milmine 's byline in 14 installments between January 1907 and June 1908 as " Mary Baker G. Eddy : The Story of Her Life and the History of Christian Science . " The text of the articles was revised and updated for the book , where it was presented in 26 chapters .
The articles were preceded by an unsigned , seven @-@ page editorial in December 1906 , explaining why the series was being published and discussing the difficulties of the investigation . The author of the editorial wrote : " The Christian Science mind is unfriendly to independent investigation . It presupposes that anything even slightly unfavorable to Mrs. Eddy or to Christian Science is deliberate falsehood . " The publication got off to an unfortunate start by reproducing a photograph on page two of the editorial that purported to be of Eddy , but was in fact of someone else .
The criticism of Eddy is considerable . She is portrayed as deceitful , someone who regularly revised her life story , and who was interested only in making money . The authors reproduce witness statements from Eddy 's childhood of her having repeated fainting spells as a way of gaining attention or avoiding punishment , particularly from her father , and say that she developed a habit of appearing to be seriously ill only to recover quickly .
Eddy was widowed when she was 22 years old and pregnant , after which she returned to live in her father 's home . Her son was raised there for the first few years of his life , looked after for at least some of the time by domestic staff because of Eddy 's health issues . The articles allege that she allowed him to be adopted by one of the staff when he was four , then failed to maintain a relationship with him until he was in his thirties , though they lived near each other . ( Eddy has written that she was unable to prevent the adoption , but McClure 's implied otherwise . )
Her next two marriages , lifelong poor health , and the numerous legal actions she was involved in – including lawsuits against her students and a criminal case in which her third husband was accused of conspiracy to murder one of them ( an allegation that was never proven ) – are examined in detail . The authors also allege that Eddy 's major work , Science and Health ( 1875 ) , which became Christian Science 's main religious text , borrowed heavily from the work of Phineas Parkhurst Quimby ( 1802 – 1866 ) , a New England faith healer . Quimby had treated Eddy in the years before his death and had given her some of his unpublished notes .
Eddy replied only to the early installments in McClure 's by challenging its description of her father , early family life , and some of the issues surrounding her marriages . McClure 's had said that the Bible was the only book in the house when she was growing up ; on the contrary , she wrote , her father was a great reader . Her statement described the educational and professional achievements of her family to counter McClure 's claim that her childhood home had provided a " lonely and unstimulating existence . " She offered as an example of her own kindness ( in response to McClure 's view of her as bad tempered ) that a housekeeper of the family 's had resigned because Eddy allowed a blind girl , who had knocked on the door and was unknown to the family , to stay with them .
= = Authorship = =
= = = Editorial team = = =
Georgine Milmine was born in Ontario , Canada . Before joining McClure 's as a researcher , she worked for the Syracuse Herald in New York . She had been collecting material about Eddy for years , but lacked the resources to research and write it up herself , so she sold it to McClure 's .
The publisher assigned five writers to the story , including Milmine , Willa Cather , Burton J. Hendrick , political columnist Mark Sullivan , Will Irwin and for a short time Ida Tarbell . Cather had started working for McClure 's as an editor in 1906 when she was 32 years old . She and Sullivan spent time traveling in New England seeking confirmation of the material about Eddy 's early life . The journalist Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant ( 1881 – 1965 ) wrote in 1953 :
Startling material relating to a leading religious leader and romantic personality of that time – Mary Baker G. Eddy – had been brought into McClure 's by one Georgine Milmine . S. S. McClure was always interested in biography ... and he was always interested in novelty . Thus he saw in Mrs. Eddy a " natural " for McClure 's , for her personal origins and idiosyncrasies , her marital history , the psychological and factual background of her ideas and her " message " in Science and Health had not then been publicized . The material was touchy , and would attract a world of readers both of the faithful and the doubters . It must , however , be carefully verified , and Willa Sibert Cather , with four other members of McClure 's staff , was chosen for this job . ...
The job seemed to her a little infra dig , not on the level where she cared to move . But she inspired confidence , had the mind of a judge and the nose of a detective when she needed it . ... She was quickly fascinated by the psychological implications of her material , and made long stays in Boston to edit it . But the book that ensued was largely written in the McClure 's office , and was a composite , not Willa Cather 's personal work .
Witter Bynner , a McClure 's assistant editor at the time of publication , signed a copy of the book on February 12 , 1934 , writing : " The material was brought to McClure 's by Miss Milmine , but was put into the painstaking hands of Willa Cather for proper presentation , so that a great part of it is her work . " In 1935 a copy of the book listed for sale by Philip Duschnes , a New York bookseller , contained a photostat of an editor 's note identifying Cather as the author . David Stouck , professor emeritus of English at Simon Fraser University , writes that the Christian Science church 's Mary Baker Eddy Library holds the original manuscript of the book and that Cather 's handwriting is evident on it , in notes and edits for the typesetter . Several of Cather 's later characters were reportedly modeled on her portrait of Eddy , including Mrs. Cutter in My Ántonia ( 1918 ) .
= = = Cather 's letters = = =
Cather denied that she was the main author in letters to Genevive Richmond in 1933 and Harold Goddard Rugg in 1934 ; she told them she had only helped to organize and rewrite the material . According to Stouck , she minimized her role in part because she wanted to distance herself from journalism , and in part because the Christian Science church and Eddy were angered by the articles . Brent Bohlke writes that Cather regarded the book as poorly written ; he adds that it contains some excellent writing and character analysis , but that it is not well @-@ structured . He attributes this to poor editing that failed to rid the book of the serialized nature of the original McClure 's pieces .
Cather identified herself as the author in a letter to her father in December 1906 ; she told him the articles beginning February 1907 ( at that time written , but not yet published ) were hers . She also referred to her authorship in a letter to S.S. McClure in June 1912 .
She acknowledged her authorship fully on November 24 , 1922 , in a letter to Edwin H. Anderson ( 1861 – 1947 ) , director of the New York Public Library and an old friend of hers . She told him that she had written the entire book except for the first chapter . S.S. McClure had purchased Milmine 's research , Cather wrote , including newspaper articles from the 1880s , court records , and a first edition of Science and Health , all of which were hard to obtain . Apparently when McClure 's was sold , the new publisher threw away the research , including the first edition .
Cather told Anderson that Burton J. Hendrick had written the first installment , but that it had been largely based on rumor . S.S. McClure asked her to complete the series because she was regarded as impartial . For the rest of the installments , she wrote that no expense was spared in verifying Milmine 's material , and that S. S. McClure had promoted her to managing editor on the basis of her work on the articles . She ended the letter by asking Anderson to regard the information as confidential . She wrote that she had not told the truth about it to anyone previously , Bohlke writes , but that she felt someone ought to know the true story . Cather 's letter to Anderson can only be paraphrased , not quoted , because she left a clause in her will forbidding the publication of her letters and private papers . The correspondence will enter the public domain in 2017 , 70 years after her death .
= = Reception = =
= = = Church response = = =
Peter Lyon wrote in Success Story : The Life and Times of S.S. McClure ( 1963 ) that when the articles first appeared , three Christian Science officials arrived at the McClure 's offices and asked McClure to allow them to edit the rest of the articles before publication . When he refused , they said he would soon notice a loss of advertising .
The church purchased the original manuscript of the book and there were rumors that the plates had been destroyed . In June 1920 the church also purchased some of McClure 's research notes from a New York manuscript dealer . There were stories that Christian Scientists were buying and destroying copies of the book , and removing them from libraries to keep them out of circulation . Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant wrote in 1953 that copies had become scarce even in libraries . The book 's copyright expired 28 years after publication . Baker Book House , a Christian publishing house , republished it in 1971 " in the interest of fairness and objectivity , " according to its back cover .
Caroline Fraser writes that the church tried to stop the University of Nebraska Press from republishing the book in 1993 . The university was interested in doing so , with a new introduction by David Stouck , because the articles and book were Cather 's first extended work , and therefore important in her development as a writer . According to Fraser , the head of the church 's Committee on Publication ( its media office ) called the Nebraska Press and told them the reprint might damage the church 's and Eddy 's reputation . The Press said the church representative " felt it was his responsibility to try to bully us into stopping publication or into saying that the book was worthless . "
Stouck made clear his view in the book 's preface that Willa Cather was " indisputably the principal author of The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science . " But , according to Fraser , there were fears for the jobs of the church researchers who had helped make the Cather – Milmine manuscript available for examination . Stouck therefore agreed to add a statement to the book :
Since the re @-@ issue of The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science went to press new materials have come to light which suggest that Eddy 's enemies may have played a significant role in organizing materials for the " Milmine " biography . New information about Georgine Milmine , moreover , suggests that she would have welcomed biased opinion for its sensational and commercial value . The exact nature of Willa Cather 's part in the compiling and writing of the biography remains , accordingly , a matter for further scholarly investigation . "
The " enemies " Stouck refers to relate to the so @-@ called " Next Friends " lawsuit , which was being prepared during the McClure 's serialization . The lawsuit was brought by Eddy 's relatives , who said that she was unable to manage her own affairs ; had it succeeded she would have lost control of the church and her fortune . According to Fraser , the suit was organized in 1907 by Joseph Pulitzer ( 1847 – 1911 ) , owner of the New York World ( 1860 – 1931 ) ; his motive was to engineer a story about Eddy to rival that of McClure 's . Gillian Gill , in her Mary Baker Eddy ( 1998 ) , wrote that the New Hampshire Historical Society holds documents that show the McClure 's journalists were in touch with the litigants and that both sides were feeding each other information .
According to Fraser , an official from the church 's Committee on Publication made the following statement at its 1993 annual meeting :
A major corrective opportunity this year involved the rerelease of one of the earliest malicious biographies of Mrs. Eddy , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science by Georgine Milmine . Dating from the yellow journalism period , this book was published in an attempt to discredit her . The current publisher , after much correspondence with our office , instead issued a statement accurately characterizing its bias . The book has received almost no attention in the public , proving if Truth isn 't spoken , nothing is said .
= = = General reception and influence = = =
The articles and book became key primary sources for most of the biographies of Eddy that have been published independently of the church . Gill wrote that in any publication not written by a Christian Scientist , the material is regarded as the single trustworthy source on Eddy , especially on the first half of her life . It influenced Edwin Franken Dakin 's Mrs. Eddy : The Biography of a Virginal Mind ( 1929 ) , Ernest Sutherland Bates and John V. Dittemore 's Mary Baker Eddy : The Truth and the Tradition ( 1932 ) , Martin Gardner 's The Healing Revelations of Mary Baker Eddy ( 1993 ) , and Caroline Fraser 's God 's Perfect Child ( 1999 ) .
The New York Times wrote in 1910 that the book " ranks among the really great biographies – or would were its subject of more intrinsic importance " :
Since this Life first appeared in McClure 's Magazine not one important statement as of fact in it has been disproved or even seriously questioned . It is a product of much and highly intelligent labor , and were Christian Scientists open to argument or amenable to reason the wretched cult would not have survived its publication for a single month . It is unanswerable and conclusive , and nobody who has not read it can be considered well @-@ informed as to the history or nature of Eddyism .
Gill disagreed that the book offers an accurate portrayal of Eddy . She argued , for example , that the story of Eddy having " fits " as a child to get her own way , or rather the way McClure 's described them , was " invented more or less out of whole cloth " by McClure 's journalist Burton Hendrick , and that the accounts of her as " hysterical " were misogynist . ( That Eddy would fall and lose consciousness as a child is supported by Robert Peel ( 1909 – 1992 ) , who worked for the church and wrote a sympathetic three @-@ volume biography of Eddy . )
The journalist Adela Rogers St. Johns ( 1894 – 1988 ) , who was a minister in the Church of Religious Science ( a closely related belief system to Christian Science ) , wrote in 1974 that Cather was " a fine – maybe our finest – American woman novelist , " but that she was a " lousy unscrupulous reporter . " She argued that Cather had " stirred with grim fancy the most vicious and inaccurate of all the attacks on Mrs. Eddy . " David Stouck , in his introduction to the University of Nebraska Press edition , wrote that Cather 's portrayal of Eddy " contains some of the finest portrait sketches and reflections on human nature that Willa Cather would ever write . "
= = Publication details = =
" Editorial announcement " , McClure 's , December 1906 , introducing the series .
Georgine Milmine , " Mary Baker G. Eddy : The Story of Her Life and the History of Christian Science " , McClure 's , January 1907 – June 1908 ( 14 installments ) .
Georgine Miline , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , Doubleday 1909 ; also at archive.org.
Georgine Milmine , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , Baker Book House , 1971 ( introduction by Stewart Hudson ) .
Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , University of Nebraska Press , 1993 ( introduction by David Stouck ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6349 @-@ X
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= Seekers ( novel series ) =
Seekers is a children 's novel series written by a team of authors under the pseudonym Erin Hunter , who also wrote the Warriors series . Seekers follows the adventures of four bear cubs : Kallik ( a polar bear ) , Lusa ( a black bear ) , Ujurak ( a small grizzly bear who can shape @-@ shift into any animal ) , and Toklo ( also a grizzly bear ) . Led by Ujurak , the four bears search for a place where they can live in peace without human interference and harassment . The first book The Quest Begins was released on May 27 , 2008 and was followed by Great Bear Lake , Smoke Mountain , The Last Wilderness , Fire in the Sky , and Spirits in the Stars , released on February 8 , 2011 . The series has been well received , with critics praising the realistic behavior of the characters , the excitement in the novels , and the descriptions of the bears ' world .
= = Inspiration and origins = =
Similarly to the Warriors series , Seekers began as a request from HarperCollins to Victoria Holmes to develop another series about a group of animals , but not cats . Dogs were considered , but rejected because they were too close to cats in their hierarchical social organization , pack and hunting lifestyles , and territoriality . This was expressed by Victoria Holmes later in an online chat , where she stated that she " was reluctant to create stories that ... would be quite similar to Warriors . Dogs live in packs , they hunt for their food , they have a strict hierarchy within their communities , they guard their territories " . Horses , otters and dolphins were considered , but were dismissed : Holmes felt that horses tended to run away rather than stay and fight , and that dolphin battles would be slow without " the all @-@ action excitement that Erin loves so much " . In the end , the company left the decision to Holmes and she opted for bears ; in the later author chat she notes that bears " live much more solitary lifestyles than cats , they are wild through and through with no history of domestication whatsoever ( performing bears don 't count ) , and they are much bigger animals , with a whole lot more potential for fighting " . The series took inspiration from Inuit beliefs and Native American languages . Holmes found that Native Americans and bears are very closely linked to the natural environment . The names of the bears are taken from several different Indian languages . Lusa , for example , means " black " in Choctaw .
Holmes drew inspiration from Inuit beliefs and the Native American languages which are spoken in the area which the bears live . Holmes developed Ujuark 's shape @-@ shifting powers after reading up on shamans , who are supposed to be able to transform into other animals . Holmes liked the idea and decided to have one of the bears have the same ability , which allowed him to " infiltrate a human community without them guessing the truth . " Later , Holmes " needed to establish what sort of beliefs each bear would have , " so after finding that bears are closely linked to their environment just like Native Americans , Holmes centered her research around the Natives . The names of the bears are from Native American languages ; Lusa means midnight or black in Choctaw , while Kallik means lightning in Inuktitut , Silaluk means storm in Inuktitut , Taqqiq means moon , Toklo means two in Chicksaw , and Ujurak means rock .
= = Books = =
= = = First series = = =
The series takes place over the span of six books , which are : The Quest Begins , Great Bear Lake , Smoke Mountain , The Last Wilderness , Fire in the Sky , and Spirits in the Stars . The story follows four young bears . Lusa , a black bear , Kallik , a polar bear , Toklo , a grizzly bear and Ujurak , who is able to shape @-@ shift into any animal , but remains a brown bear most of the time .
The first book , The Quest Begins , shows how each of the four bears are either abandoned or separated from their parents . Kallik is separated from her mother and brother when a pod of orcas ( killer whales ) eat her mother , while her brother was still on the other side of the canal , thinking they were both dead . After this , Kallik travels to find her brother . Toklo is abandoned by his mother after his brother , Tobi , dies and his mother sees how the salmon is disappearing , and left Toklo to travel alone . Lusa was born and raised in a zoo . Her story intertwines with Toklo 's after his mother is brought to the zoo and Lusa hears of the wild . Hoping to leave her home , she escapes the zoo and looks for Toklo . Meanwhile , Toklo finds Ujurak injured and helps him ; they begin to travel together . They meet up with Lusa at the end of the book . By Great Bear Lake , the four bears have joined together and they try to go to the Arctic . Although Kallik finds her brother Taqqiq , he has joined a group of bullying bears who kidnap a black bear cub . Taqqiq sees that what he did was wrong and joins the questing bears but he soon leaves the group in the third book when he feels he does not belong with them . The remaining four cubs learn of a place called the Last Great Wilderness in the third book , where there is plentiful food and shelter . After defying hardships such as hunger and bear hunters , they finally make it to the Last Great Wilderness . However , even though they are there , Ujurak , who leads the journey , feels that they need to go further , into the Arctic . In Fire in the Sky , the bears leave the Last Great Wilderness and travel towards the Arctic . In the sixth and final book of the first series , Spirits in the Stars , the four bears make it to Star Island , a place where many polar bears live . They find a sick mother polar bear and her cub . The mother dies from sickness and the four bears look after her cub . Toklo finds that he also struggles with his urge to become a brown bear and travel alone . The bears save the polar bears that inhabit Star Island by destroying an oil rig that was poisoning the seals that they eat , but Ujurak dies in an avalanche while saving the others . Yakone , a young white bear who lived on the strange Star Island with the sick bears , is added to the group of bears on the last page of the book .
= = = Return to the Wild = = =
The series takes place over the span of six books , five of which have been released . The books that have been released to date in this series are Return to the Wild : Island of Shadows , Return to the Wild : The Melting Sea , Return to the Wild : River of Lost Bears , Return to the Wild : Forest of Wolves , Return to the Wild : The Burning Horizon , and Return to the Wild : The Longest Day . The story follows Toklo , Kallik , Lusa , and Yakone as they return home but struggle between leaving the only family they 've ever known or returning home , where they haven 't been for so long .
= = = Other books = = =
Seekers has also been published in original English @-@ language manga form . The books are drawn by Bettina Kurkoski , who also drew The Rise of Scourge . The first one , Toklo 's Story , was released on February 9 , 2010 , the same day The Last Wilderness was released . The second , featuring Kallik , called Kallik 's Adventure was released on February 8 , 2011 . The third one was going to be called Lusa 's Tale , But Tokyopop , the graphic novel company , decided not to make any more books for the USA . Unless Erin Hunter creates it herself , the book may not come out at all .
= = Themes = =
The main theme emphasized in the series is the environment . Holmes says that by " coming up with a series about a different animal gave me a chance to explore some themes that don 't fit so easily into Warriors . In particular , the environment . " Holmes says that she has always been keen on recycling and saving the planet so she wanted to explore the ways bears and other animals might react to humans destroying their homes and habitats . Many reviewers have picked up the theme . Publishers Weekly found that " readers will appreciate the bears ' struggle to survive , along with Hunter 's environmental theme . " Booklist also commented on each separate story of the three bears touch on environmental problems and issues . School Library Journal noted that " The bears ' declining habitat is evident , and often throughout their journey the animals have to dodge cars and humans with guns . "
A review from Children 's Literature picked up the environmental theme , but commented on themes such as " youth versus age , new versus tradition and the discovery that foreign others are often not very different from oneself . " This also ties into a theme of racism noted by a Kidreads.com reviewer . He notes that " [ Hunter ] also cleverly deals with the theme of racism through a unique and honest approach — three bears of different color , different backgrounds and different beliefs turn to each other for survival and friendship . " Despite differences between the bears they still work together .
= = Publication history = =
The first series contains a total of six books . It was originally to be called " The Clawed Path , " as the journey the four bears make through all six books in the series is referred to as " the clawed path . " At the very last moment , the title was changed so that it would look similar to the Warriors series . Holmes was initially unhappy with the change , but has since said that she has come to like it and the way it looks on the books .
The first novel of the series , The Quest Begins , was first featured on the HarperCollin 's FirstLook Program in November 2007 . Readers who signed up for the program had a chance to read an early edition of this book , an Advanced Reader 's Copy , before it was published in stores . The Quest Begins was released in the US on May 27 , 2008 . The book was also released as a paperback on February 10 , 2009 and an e @-@ book on October 6 , 2009 . The US has published the fifth book and published the sixth on February 8 , 2011 .
The books have also been released in the UK and Canada . Canada received the first book on May 25 , 2008 . Canada has published up to the sixth book . The UK releases have different covers than the Canadian and US covers . In the UK , only the first , second , third and fourth books were released . The first three books have also been translated into Russian .
= = Critical reception = =
Seekers has received generally positive reviews . Publishers Weekly praised the suspenseful ending of the first book and thought readers would find great interest in the bears ' struggle to survive . Booklist found the plot of the first book to have an " interesting balance of cute anthropomorphic characterization and realistic attention to bear behaviors . " School Library Journal wrote " from the first page , this story is exciting and refreshing " and " [ t ] he plot is fast paced , and the author is apt at creating and sustaining the adrenaline @-@ charged mood of these youngsters on their own . " Kirkus Review found that " Hunter creates a richly sensuous world filled with cruelty , beauty , tenderness , savagery and just enough underlying legendary background to add mystery . " However , the reviewer also felt that too much detail went into developing the characters and setting and there was very little plot . In a review for the second and third books , Horn Book Review felt that readers might experience some confusion about the mountain , but they would still enjoy the fantasy adventure and the descriptions of the animals .
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= Krusty Gets Kancelled =
" Krusty Gets Kancelled " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 13 , 1993 . In the episode , a new show featuring a puppet named Gabbo premieres in Springfield and competes with Krusty the Clown 's show . Krusty 's show is soon cancelled , and Bart Simpson decides to help Krusty get back on the air by staging a comeback special .
John Swartzwelder wrote the episode and David Silverman served as director . Following the success of " Homer at the Bat " , the writers wanted to try a similar guest star heavy episode , except with celebrities instead of baseball players . The episode proved quite difficult as many of the actors asked to guest star declined at the last minute and the comeback special portion was nearly scrapped . Johnny Carson , Hugh Hefner , Bette Midler , Luke Perry and the Red Hot Chili Peppers ( Flea , Anthony Kiedis , Arik Marshall and Chad Smith ) all guest star as themselves and appear on Krusty 's special . Elizabeth Taylor and Barry White , both of whom guest starred in previous episodes this season , make cameo appearances .
= = Plot = =
One afternoon while watching television , Homer and Bart see a highly distracting commercial for something named " Gabbo " . The advertisement is the start of a viral marketing campaign around Springfield to build interest in whatever " Gabbo " is . Finally , " Gabbo " is revealed to be a ventriloquist 's dummy . Ventriloquist Arthur Crandall announces that Gabbo 's new program will air in direct competition with the established Krusty the Klown Show on each afternoon at 4 p.m. Gabbo 's catchphrase — " I 'm a bad wittle boy " — instantly charms his intended audience , and this has a negative impact on Krusty and his show . The clown vows to withstand the competition from the new program , but Gabbo 's cutthroat tactics quickly attract Krusty 's audience . Krusty tries to fight back with a dummy of his own , but due to its gruesome appearance and poor condition , it falls apart , and scares off many of the children in the audience . Even The Itchy & Scratchy Show abandon Krusty , move to the Gabbo Show , and are replaced with the strangely incomprehensible Eastern European cartoon " Worker and Parasite " ( in the style of Priit Pärn ) with characters resembling them . Eventually , Krusty 's ratings hit rock bottom , and then his show is cancelled .
Left without work and without having built a nest egg , Krusty falls on hard times and begins suffering from depression . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa , all along unimpressed with Gabbo , decide to try to help Krusty . When Bart sneaks into the studio where they are filming Gabbo , he overhears Gabbo referring to children of Springfield as " S.O.B. ' s " while the cameras are switched off . He manages to distract the cameraman and turns the cameras back on as Gabbo continues this rant . This adversely affects Gabbo 's reputation , and Kent Brockman reports it on the news . But he repeats the same " S.O.B. ' s " gaffe , is fired from his job , and Gabbo escapes unscathed . Meanwhile , Krusty is still down in the dumps without a job . After visiting his house and seeing photos of Krusty 's celebrity friends , Bart and Lisa suggest he host a comeback special . They begin recruiting major celebrities to appear on Krusty 's special : Bette Midler , Johnny Carson , the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Hugh Hefner , and Luke Perry ( Krusty 's " worthless half @-@ brother " ) . They also try to recruit Elizabeth Taylor , but her agent declines the invitation before they can speak to her .
Bart and Lisa return to Krusty to declare their success , only to find him morbidly obese from drinking several milkshakes after believing them to be weight @-@ loss shakes . Fortunately , the entire Simpson family helps get him back into shape before the special airs .
Krusty 's comeback special features his reunion with Sideshow Mel , Perry getting shot out of a cannon , the Red Hot Chili Peppers singing " Give It Away " in their underwear , Carson lifting a 1987 Buick Skylark over his head and Krusty and Midler singing " Wind Beneath My Wings " . The show is a great success and Krusty 's career gets back on track . While watching the special at home , Taylor remarks to herself that she should fire her agent . Afterwards , everyone heads to Moe 's for an after party , where they toast Krusty and watch Carson as he plays the accordion while balancing Grampa and Jasper on a bench on his head .
= = Production = =
The idea of The Krusty the Clown Show being cancelled was pitched by writer John Swartzwelder . The rest of the writers decided this would be an opportunity to include a group of celebrity guest stars . They had done a similar episode the year before called " Homer at the Bat " which starred nine Major League Baseball players and had hoped to emulate its success . At that point , the writers had a list of celebrities that had wanted to do a guest spot on the show and decided to use this episode to burn through some of them . However , the episode was described by executive producer Mike Reiss as " a nightmare " because several guests pulled out at the last minute and the script had to be changed several times . One of the goals for the episode was to have an ex @-@ President of the United States . They wrote " very respectful but cute " parts for each then @-@ living ex @-@ president ( Nixon , Ford , Carter , and Reagan ) at the time , but they all turned them down . Only Ronald Reagan responded , sending a politely worded reply .
All of the guest stars were recorded over a period of several months . One of the writers ' goals was to get a musical act to appear , but several performers , including The Rolling Stones and Wynonna Judd , turned the role down ( although the Stones did eventually appear in Season 14 's " How I Spent My Strummer Vacation " ) . The Red Hot Chili Peppers finally accepted , and were directed by George Meyer who told them to ad @-@ lib many of their lines . The celebrity aspect of the episode was almost canceled because the producers were unable to get an obligation before the record deadline . Johnny Carson appears in the episode , and it was one of the few televised appearances he made after he retired from The Tonight Show . He recorded his lines the night after the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards . The original role pitched for Carson was one where he visited the Simpson family 's house and mooched off them . Carson felt this role was too degrading , so instead the writers took the opposite route and portrayed him as extremely versatile and multi @-@ talented . Bette Midler 's condition for guest starring was that the show promoted her anti @-@ littering campaign . Elizabeth Taylor guest starred as herself and also recorded a part as Maggie in " Lisa 's First Word " on the same day . Luke Perry was one of the first guest stars to agree to their part .
The short cartoon " Worker and Parasite " is a reference to Soviet cartoons . To produce the animation , director David Silverman xeroxed several drawings and made the animation very jerky . The scene where Krusty sings " Send in the Clowns " was very tricky for the animators because it involves two shots of the same scene from different angles . Parts of the scene were animated by Brad Bird .
= = Cultural references = =
Folk singer Judy Collins ' 1975 rendition of the song " Send in the Clowns " is parodied in the episode , and Krusty sings the altered lyrics : " Send in those soulful and doleful , schmaltz @-@ by @-@ the @-@ bowlful clowns " in a musical number of his comeback special . Gabbo 's name comes from the 1929 film The Great Gabbo . He was originally designed to be more square , but the second design was made to be " a demented Howdy Doody " . His voice was based on Jerry Lewis . The sequence with Gabbo 's song contains several references to the 1940 film Pinocchio . Krusty mentions that he beat Joey Bishop . Bishop was an entertainer who had his own show , The Joey Bishop Show , which ran opposite of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . Bette Midler 's serenading Krusty is a reference to the way Bette sang to Johnny Carson on the penultimate episode of Carson 's The Tonight Show . The scene in which Krusty instructs the Red Hot Chili Peppers to change the lyrics to the song " Give It Away " is a reference to Ed Sullivan instructing The Doors to change the lyrics to the song " Light My Fire " . The poses of the Red Hot Chili Peppers in the scene are based on the movie The Doors . Flea , the bassist of the Red Hot Chili Peppers , is mistakenly seen playing a guitar during the performance of " Give It Away " . Several scenes in Krusty 's special are based on Elvis Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special . The musical piece that Hugh Hefner plays on the wine glasses is from Peter and the Wolf and was composed by Sergei Prokofiev .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " finished 24th in ratings for the week of May 10 – 16 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
In 2006 , Bette Midler , Hugh Hefner , Johnny Carson , Luke Perry and the Red Hot Chili Peppers were listed at number four on IGN 's list of the best Simpsons guest stars . They all also appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . In 2007 , Vanity Fair named " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the ninth best episode of The Simpsons . John Orvet felt , " This is Krusty 's best episode — better than the reunion with his father , or the Bar Mitzvah episode , which won an Emmy much later on . The incorporation of guest stars as themselves is top @-@ notch , and we get to see the really dark side of Krusty 's flailing showbiz career . Hollywood , television , celebrities , and fans are all beautifully skewered here . " Brien Murphy of the Abilene Reporter @-@ News classed " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as one of his three favorite episodes of The Simpsons , along with " Behind the Laughter " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " . Though Jim Schembri of The Age put the episode among his top 10 episodes of the series , he also noted " Unfortunately , this signaled the beginning of the show 's obsession with star cameos . " An article in the Herald Sun placed " Krusty Gets Kancelled " among the top 20 episodes of The Simpsons , and characterized " The sight of Krusty 's feeble attempt to fight back with his own gruesome ventriloquist doll , which falls apart on his lap on air " as the highlight of the episode . In 1997 , TV Guide named " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the second greatest Simpsons episode and the 66th greatest TV episode . In 2009 , it was named the 24th Greatest TV Episode of All @-@ Time .
In an article about the 2003 DVD release in The Independent , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " was highlighted along with episodes " When You Dish Upon a Star " , " Lisa the Iconoclast " , " Dog of Death " , " Homer Badman " , and " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " . In a 2004 review of the release of The Simpsons season four on DVD , Andrew Pulver of The Guardian highlighted episodes " Kamp Krusty " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as part of " TV art at its peak " . Mike Clark of USA Today also highlighted " Kamp Krusty " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as better episodes of the season , along with " A Streetcar Named Marge " and " Lisa the Beauty Queen " . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post described episodes " A Streetcar Named Marge " , " Mr. Plow " , " Marge vs. the Monorail " , and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as " gems " of The Simpsons ' fourth season . Spence Kettlewell of The Toronto Star described season 4 episodes " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , " Kamp Krusty " , " Mr. Plow " , and " I Love Lisa " as " some of the best episodes " of the series . Forrest Hartman of the Reno Gazette @-@ Journal wrote that the large number of celebrity appearances detracted from the episode , commenting : " The result is a boring hodgepodge of scenes with Bette Midler , Johnny Carson , the Red Hot Chili Peppers and more where we 're supposed to laugh simply because famous people are interacting with Krusty . " The episode is one of co @-@ executive producer Tim Long 's three favorites , including " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " and " A Milhouse Divided " .
In 2000 , the episode was released as part of a Twentieth Century Fox boxed set The Simpsons Go Hollywood , commemorating The Simpsons ' 10th anniversary . The set included " some of the series ' best spoofs of movies and TV " , and also included episodes " Marge vs. the Monorail " , " A Streetcar Named Marge " , " Who Shot Mr. Burns " , Parts 1 and 2 , and " Bart Gets Famous " . The episode was included in a 2003 release of The Simpsons Classics on DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment .
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= Battle of the Eastern Solomons =
The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons ( also known as the Battle of the Stewart Islands and , in Japanese sources , as the Second Battle of the Solomon Sea ( 第二次ソロモン海戦 ) ) took place on 24 – 25 August 1942 , and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the second major engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Guadalcanal Campaign . As at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway , the ships of the two adversaries were never within sight of each other . Instead , all attacks were carried out by carrier @-@ based or land @-@ based aircraft .
After several damaging air attacks , the naval surface combatants from both America and Japan withdrew from the battle area without either side securing a clear victory . However , the U.S. and its allies gained tactical and strategic advantage . Japan 's losses were greater and included dozens of aircraft and their experienced aircrews . Also , Japanese reinforcements intended for Guadalcanal were delayed and eventually delivered by warships rather than transport ships , giving the Allies more time to prepare for the Japanese counteroffensive and preventing the Japanese from landing heavy artillery , ammunition , and other supplies .
= = Background = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. Marine Corps units ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases to threaten supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and secure the islands as launching points for a campaign with an eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The Allied landings were directly supported by three U.S. aircraft carrier Task Forces ( TF ) : TF 11 ( USS Saratoga ) , TF 16 ( USS Enterprise ) , and TF 18 ( USS Wasp ) , their respective air groups , and supporting surface warships , including a battleship , cruisers , and destroyers . The overall commander of the three carrier task forces was Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher , who flew his flag on Saratoga . The aircraft from the three carriers provided close air support for the invasion forces and defended against Japanese air attacks from Rabaul . After a successful landing , they remained in the South Pacific area charged with four main objectives : ( 1 ) guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo ; ( 2 ) giving support to Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against possible Japanese counteroffensives ; ( 3 ) covering the movement of supply ships aiding Guadalcanal ; and ( 4 ) engaging and destroying any Japanese warships that came within potential range .
Between 15 and 20 August , the U.S. carriers covered the delivery of fighter and bomber aircraft to the newly opened Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . This small but hard @-@ won airfield was a critical point in the entire island chain , and both military sides strategically considered that control of the airbase offered potential control of the local battle area airspace . In fact , Henderson Field and the aircraft based upon it soon resulted in telling effects on the movement of Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands and in the attrition of Japanese air forces in the South Pacific Area . Historically , Allied control of Henderson Field became the key factor in the entire battle for Guadalcanal .
Surprised by the Allied offensive in the Solomons , Japanese naval forces ( under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto ) and army forces prepared a counteroffensive , with the goal of driving the Allies out of Guadalcanal and Tulagi . The counteroffensive was called Operation Ka ( Ka comes from the first syllable for Guadalcanal as pronounced in Japanese ) with the naval forces having an additional objective of destroying Allied warship forces in the South Pacific area , specifically the U.S. carriers .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
On 16 August 1942 , a convoy of three slow transport ships loaded with 1 @,@ 411 Japanese soldiers from the 28th " Ichiki " Infantry Regiment as well as several hundred naval troops from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force ( SNLF ) , departed the major Japanese base at Truk Lagoon ( Chuuk ) and headed towards Guadalcanal . The transports were guarded by light cruiser Jintsu , eight destroyers , and four patrol boats , led by Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka ( flag in Jintsu ) Also departing from Rabaul to help protect the convoy was a " Close Cover force " of four heavy cruisers from the 8th Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . These were the same relatively old heavy cruisers that had defeated an Allied naval surface force in the earlier Battle of Savo Island ( with the subtraction of the Kako , which had been sunk by an American submarine ) . Tanaka planned to land the troops from his convoy on Guadalcanal on 24 August .
On 21 August , the rest of the Japanese Ka naval force departed Truk , heading for the southern Solomons . These ships were basically divided into three groups : the " Main Body " contained the Japanese carriers — Shōkaku and Zuikaku , light carrier Ryūjō , and a screening force of one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers , commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo in Shōkaku ; the " Vanguard Force " consisted of two battleships , three heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and three destroyers , commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe ; the " Advanced Force " contained five heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , six destroyers , and the seaplane carrier Chitose , commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō . Finally , a force of about 100 IJN land @-@ based bombers , fighters , and reconnaissance aircraft at Rabaul and nearby islands were positioned for operational support . Nagumo 's main body positioned itself behind the " Vanguard " and " Advanced " forces in an attempt to more easily remain hidden from U.S. reconnaissance aircraft .
The Ka plan dictated that once U.S. carriers were located , either by Japanese scout aircraft or an attack on one of the Japanese surface forces , Nagumo 's carriers would immediately launch a strike force to destroy them . With the U.S. carriers destroyed or disabled , Abe 's " Vanguard " and Kondo 's " Advanced " forces would close with and destroy the remaining Allied naval forces in a warship surface action . This would then allow Japanese naval forces the freedom to neutralize Henderson Field through bombardment while covering the landing of the Japanese army troops to retake Guadalcanal and Tulagi .
In response to an unanticipated land battle fought between U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal and Japanese forces on 19 – 20 August , the U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher reversed back towards Guadalcanal from their positions 400 mi ( 350 nmi ; 640 km ) to the south on 21 August . The U.S. carriers were to support the Marines , protect Henderson Field , engage the enemy and destroy any Japanese naval forces that arrived to support Japanese troops in the land battle on Guadalcanal .
Both Allied and Japanese naval forces continued to converge on 22 August and both sides conducted intense aircraft scouting efforts , however neither side spotted its adversary . The disappearance of at least one of their scouting aircraft ( shot down by aircraft from Enterprise before it could send a radio report ) , caused the Japanese to strongly suspect that U.S. carriers were in the immediate area . The U.S. , however , was unaware of the disposition and strength of approaching Japanese surface warship forces .
At 09 : 50 on 23 August , a U.S. PBY Catalina flying boat ( based at Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands ) initially sighted Tanaka 's convoy . By late afternoon , with no further sightings of Japanese ships , two aircraft strike forces from Saratoga and Henderson Field took off to attack the convoy . However , Tanaka , knowing that an attack would be forthcoming following the PBY sighting , reversed course once it had departed the area , and eluded the strike aircraft . After Tanaka reported to his superiors his loss of time by turning north to avoid the expected Allied airstrike , the landings of his troops on Guadalcanal was pushed back to 25 August . By 18 : 23 on 23 August , with no Japanese carriers sighted and no new intelligence reporting of their presence in the area , Fletcher detached Wasp ( which was getting low on fuel ) and the rest of TF 18 for the two @-@ day trip south toward Efate Island to refuel . Thus , Wasp and her escorting warships missed the upcoming battle .
= = = Carrier action on August 24 = = =
At 01 : 45 on 24 August 1942 , Nagumo ordered Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara ( with the light carrier Ryūjō , the heavy cruiser Tone and destroyers Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze ) to proceed ahead of the main Japanese force and send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field at daybreak . The Ryūjō mission was most likely in response to a request from Nishizo Tsukahara ( the naval commander at Rabaul ) for help from the combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field . The mission may also have been intended by Nagumo as a feint maneuver to divert U.S. attention allowing the rest of the Japanese force to approach the U.S. naval forces undetected as well as to help provide protection and cover for Tanaka 's convoy . Most of the aircraft on Shōkaku and Zuikaku were readied to launch on short notice if the U.S. carriers were located . Between 05 : 55 and 06 : 30 , the U.S. carriers ( mainly Enterprise augmented by PBY Catalinas from Ndeni ) launched their own scout aircraft to search for the Japanese naval forces .
At 09 : 35 , a Catalina made the first sighting of the Ryūjō force . Later that morning , several more sightings of Ryūjō and ships of Kondo 's and Mikawa 's forces by carrier and other U.S. reconnaissance aircraft followed . Throughout the morning and early afternoon , U.S. aircraft also sighted several Japanese scout aircraft and submarines , leading Fletcher to believe that the Japanese knew where his carriers were , which actually was not yet the case . Still , Fletcher hesitated to order a strike against the Ryūjō group until he was sure there were no other Japanese carriers in the area . Finally , with no firm word on the presence or location of other Japanese carriers , at 13 : 40 Fletcher launched a strike of 38 aircraft from Saratoga to attack Ryūjō . However , he kept aircraft in reserve from both U.S. carriers potentially ready should any Japanese fleet carriers be sighted .
Meantime , at 12 : 20 , Ryūjō launched six Nakajima B5N2 " Kate " bombers and 15 A6M3 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 Mitsubishi G4M2 " Betty " bombers and 14 Zeros from Rabaul . However , unknown to the Ryūjō aircraft , the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base earlier at 11 : 30 . The Ryūjō aircraft were detected on radar by Saratoga as they flew toward Guadalcanal , further fixing the location of their ship for the impending U.S. attack . The Ryūjō aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14 : 23 , and tangled with Henderson 's fighters ( members of the Cactus Air Force ) while bombing the airfield . In the resulting engagement , three " Kates " , three Zeros , and three U.S. fighters were shot down , and no significant damage was done to Henderson Field .
Almost simultaneously , at 14 : 25 a Japanese scout aircraft from the cruiser Chikuma sighted the U.S. carriers . Although the aircraft was shot down , its report was transmitted in time , and Nagumo immediately ordered his strike force launched from Shōkaku and Zuikaku . The first wave of aircraft ( 27 Aichi D3A2 " Val " dive bombers and 15 Zeros ) was off by 14 : 50 and on its way toward Enterprise and Saratoga . Coincidentally about this same time , two U.S. scout aircraft finally sighted the main Japanese force . However , due to communication problems , these sighting reports never reached Fletcher . Before leaving the area , the two U.S. scout aircraft attacked Shōkaku , causing negligible damage .
At 16 : 00 a second wave of 27 " Vals " and nine Zeros was launched by the Japanese carriers and headed south toward the U.S. carriers . Abe 's " Vanguard " force also surged ahead in anticipation of meeting the U.S. ships in a surface action after nightfall .
Again coincidentally about this same time , the Saratoga strike force arrived and attacked Ryūjō , hitting and heavily damaging her with three to five bombs and perhaps one torpedo , and killing 120 of her crew . Also during this time , several U.S. B @-@ 17 heavy bombers attacked the crippled Ryūjō but caused no additional damage . The crew abandoned the heavily damaged Japanese carrier at nightfall and she sank soon after . Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze rescued Ryūjō 's survivors and the aircrews from her returning strike force , who ditched their aircraft in the ocean nearby . After the rescue operations were complete , both Japanese destroyers and Tone rejoined Nagumo 's main force .
At 16 : 02 , still waiting for a definitive report on the location of the Japanese fleet carriers , the U.S. carriers ' radar detected the first incoming wave of Japanese strike aircraft . Fifty @-@ three F4F @-@ 4 Wildcat fighters from the two U.S. carriers were directed by radar control towards the attackers . However , communication problems , limitations of the aircraft identification capabilities of the radar , primitive control procedures , and effective screening of the Japanese dive bombers by their escorting Zeros , prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Vals before they began their attacks on the U.S. carriers . Just before the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks , Enterprise and Saratoga cleared their decks for the impending action by launching the aircraft that they had been holding ready in case the Japanese fleet carriers were sighted . These aircraft were told to fly north and attack anything they could find , or else to circle outside the battle zone , until it was safe to return .
At 16 : 29 , the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks . Although several attempted to set up to attack the Saratoga , they quickly shifted back to the nearer carrier , Enterprise . Thus , Enterprise was the target of almost the entire Japanese air attack . Several Wildcats followed the " Vals " into their attack dives , despite the intense anti @-@ aircraft artillery fire from Enterprise and her screening warships , in a desperate attempt to disrupt their attacks . As many as four Wildcats were shot down by U.S. anti @-@ aircraft fire , as well as several Vals .
Because of the effective anti @-@ aircraft fire from the U.S. ships , plus evasive maneuvers , the bombs from the first nine " Vals " missed Enterprise . However , at 16 : 44 , an armor @-@ piercing , delayed @-@ action bomb penetrated the flight deck near the aft elevator and passed through three decks before detonating below the waterline , killing 35 men and wounding 70 more . Incoming sea water caused Enterprise to develop a slight list , but it was not a major breach of hull integrity .
Just 30 seconds later , the next " Val " planted its bomb only 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) away from where the first bomb hit . The resulting detonation ignited a large secondary explosion from one of the nearby 5 in ( 130 mm ) guns ' ready powder casings , killing 35 members of the nearby gun crews and starting a large fire .
About a minute later , at 16 : 46 , the third and last bomb hit Enterprise on the flight deck forward of where the first two bombs hit . This bomb exploded on contact , creating a 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) hole in the deck , but caused no further damage . Four " Vals " then broke off from the attack on Enterprise to attack the U.S. battleship North Carolina , but all of their bombs missed and all four " Vals " were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire or U.S. fighters . The attack was over at 16 : 48 , and the surviving Japanese aircraft reassembled in small groups and returned to their ships .
Both sides thought that they had inflicted more damage than was the case . The U.S. claimed to have shot down 70 Japanese aircraft , even though there were only 42 aircraft in all . Actual Japanese losses — from all causes — in the engagement were 25 aircraft , with most of the crews of the lost aircraft not being recovered or rescued . The Japanese , for their part , mistakenly believed that they had heavily damaged two U.S. carriers , instead of just one . The U.S. lost six aircraft in the engagement , with most of the crews being rescued .
Although Enterprise was heavily damaged and on fire , her damage @-@ control teams were able to make sufficient repairs for the ship to resume flight operations at 17 : 46 , only one hour after the engagement ended . At 18 : 05 , the Saratoga strike force returned from sinking Ryūjō and landed without major incident . The second wave of Japanese aircraft approached the U.S. carriers at 18 : 15 but was unable to locate the U.S. formation because of communication problems and had to return to their carriers without attacking any U.S. ships , losing five aircraft in the process from operational mishaps . Most of the U.S. carrier aircraft launched just before the first wave of Japanese aircraft attacked failed to find any targets . However , two SBD Dauntlesses from Saratoga sighted Kondo 's advanced force and attacked the seaplane tender Chitose , scoring two near @-@ hits which heavily damaged the unarmored ship . The U.S. carrier aircraft either landed at Henderson Field or were able to return to their carriers after dusk . The U.S. ships retired to the south to get out of range of any approaching Japanese warships . In fact , Abe 's " Vanguard " force and Kondo 's " Advance " force were steaming south to try to catch the U.S. carrier task forces in a surface battle , but they turned around at midnight without having made contact with the U.S. warships . Nagumo 's main body , having taken heavy aircraft losses in the engagement and being low on fuel , also retreated northward .
= = = Actions on 25 August = = =
Believing that two U.S. carriers had been taken out of action with heavy damage , Tanaka 's reinforcement convoy again headed toward Guadalcanal , and by 08 : 00 on 25 August they were within 150 mi ( 130 nmi ; 240 km ) of their destination . At this time , Tanaka 's convoy was joined by five destroyers which had shelled Henderson Field the night before , causing slight damage . At 08 : 05 , 18 U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field attacked Tanaka 's convoy , causing heavy damage to Jintsu , killing 24 crewmen , and knocking Tanaka unconscious . The troop transport Kinryu Maru was also hit and eventually sank . Just as the destroyer Mutsuki pulled alongside Kinryu Maru to rescue her crew and embarked troops , she was attacked by four U.S. B @-@ 17s from Espiritu Santo which landed five bombs on or around Mutsuki , sinking her immediately . An uninjured but shaken Tanaka transferred to the destroyer Kagerō , sent Jintsu back to Truk , and took the convoy to the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands .
Both the Japanese and the U.S. elected to completely withdraw their warships from the area , ending the battle . The Japanese naval forces lingered near the northern Solomons , out of range of the U.S. aircraft based at Henderson Field , before finally returning to Truk on 5 September .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle is generally considered to be a tactical and strategic victory for the U.S. because the Japanese lost more ships , aircraft , and aircrew , and Japanese troop reinforcements for Guadalcanal were delayed . Summing up the significance of the battle , historian Richard B. Frank states :
The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was unquestionably an American victory , but it had little long @-@ term result , apart from a further reduction in the corps of trained Japanese carrier aviators . The ( Japanese ) reinforcements that could not come by slow transport would soon reach Guadalcanal by other means .
The U.S. lost only seven aircrew members in the battle . However , the Japanese lost 61 veteran aircrew , who were hard for the Japanese to replace because of an institutionalized limited capacity in their naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves . The troops in Tanaka 's convoy were later loaded onto destroyers at the Shortland Islands and delivered piecemeal , without most of their heavy equipment , to Guadalcanal beginning on August 29 , 1942 . The Japanese claimed considerably more damage than they had inflicted , including that Hornet — not in the battle — had been sunk , thus avenging its part in the Doolittle Raid .
Emphasizing the strategic value of Henderson Field , in a separate reinforcement effort , Japanese destroyer Asagiri was sunk and two other Japanese destroyers heavily damaged on 28 August , 70 mi ( 61 nmi ; 110 km ) north of Guadalcanal in " The Slot " by U.S. aircraft based at the airfield . The battle for the island settled into a two @-@ month @-@ long stalemate , punctuated by an intense land battle at Edson 's Ridge on 13 September and a large surface naval engagement at Cape Esperance and a bombardment of Henderson Field by two Japanese battleships from Truk in early October .
Enterprise traveled to Pearl Harbor for extensive repairs , which were completed on 15 October 1942 . She returned to the South Pacific on 24 October , just in time for the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and her rematch with Shōkaku and Zuikaku .
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= Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ship =
The Siegfried class was a group of six coastal defense ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( " Imperial Navy " ) in the late 19th century . The ships were intended to protect the German coastline from naval attacks . The class comprised the lead ship Siegfried , along with her sisters Beowulf , Frithjof , Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen . All six ships were named after Norse mythological figures . Two further vessels , the Odin class , were built to a similar design but were not identical .
The Siegfried @-@ class ships were obsolete by the outbreak of World War I , and saw only limited service in their intended role before they were withdrawn from active duty . The ships then served in a variety of secondary duties , including barracks ships , target ships , and in the case of Beowulf , an icebreaker in the Baltic Sea . All six ships were struck from the naval register on 17 June 1919 , days before the Treaty of Versailles was signed . Five of the ships were sold for scrapping immediately after they were struck from the register , but Frithjof was purchased by a shipping company , and converted into a freighter . She served in this capacity until she too was scrapped in 1930 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Siegfried class were 76 @.@ 40 meters ( 250 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline and 79 m ( 259 ft 2 in ) long overall . The ships had a beam of 14 @.@ 90 m ( 48 ft 11 in ) and a draft of between 5 @.@ 51 m ( 18 ft 1 in ) forward and 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 ft 10 in ) aft . All six ships were heavily rebuilt , each undergoing refits at various times between 1898 and 1904 . During the rebuilding , the ships were lengthened , to 84 @.@ 80 m ( 278 ft 3 in ) at the waterline and 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 ft 7 in ) overall . The ships ' beams remained the same , but their draft was slightly decreased , to 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) forward and 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 3 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ; 3 @,@ 900 short tons ) , and a maximum displacement of 3 @,@ 741 t ( 3 @,@ 682 long tons ) . After the reconstruction , the displacement was increased to between 4 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 436 t ( 3 @,@ 937 to 4 @,@ 366 long tons ) , depending on the ship .
The ships used transverse and longitudinal steel frames in the hull . They had eight watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 % of the hull . After the refits , one more watertight compartment was added . The ships were described as good sea boats ; they had gentle motion and were very responsive to commands from the helm . The ships lost significant speed in heavy seas , however . The ships had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men , with an additional 6 officers and 22 men when serving as a flagship . The refit increased crew requirements , to an additional 31 sailors normally , and the extra flagship crew increased to 9 officers and 34 men . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one pinnace , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , each in its own engine room . These engines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) in diameter . The ships had eight marine type boilers , with the exception of Hagen , which was equipped with eight Thornycroft boilers . The ships had similar maximum speeds , with Beowulf the fastest at 15 @.@ 1 knots ( 28 @.@ 0 km / h ; 17 @.@ 4 mph ) and Heimdall the slowest at 14 @.@ 6 knots ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) . Each ship had three electric generators that provided between 29 – 26 kilowatts at 67 volts . The ships stored up to 220 t ( 220 long tons ; 240 short tons ) of coal and 220 t ( 220 long tons ; 240 short tons ) of fuel oil , which enabled a range of 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships could only steam 740 nmi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ; 850 mi ) . With the refit , fuel bunkerage was more than doubled , to 580 t ( 570 long tons ; 640 short tons ) of coal and 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of oil . This dramatically increased the sailing range , to 3 @,@ 400 nmi ( 6 @,@ 300 km ; 3 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots and 1 @,@ 940 nmi ( 3 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 230 mi ) at 14 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of three 24 @-@ centimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) K L / 35 guns . In an arrangement very unusual for such large guns , two of which were mounted in a pair of MPL C / 88 turrets forward side @-@ by @-@ side , while the third was mounted in a single turret aft . The guns could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and depress to − 4 degrees and elevate to 25 degrees . This enabled a maximum range of 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) . The guns had an ammunition storage of 204 rounds , or 68 shells per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 shells per minute . The 1895 design for the armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 140 kg ( 310 lb ) .
The ships also had a secondary battery of eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , though Siegfried only had six of these guns . After the refit , this was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the munition storage correspondingly increased to 2 @,@ 500 rounds . The 8 @.@ 8 cm gun fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 590 m / s ( 1 @,@ 936 m / s ) . The guns could sustain a rate of fire of approximately 15 rounds per minute . Six machine guns were temporarily fitted .
The ships were also equipped with four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the stern in an above @-@ water swivel mount , two were placed laterally , also above water , and the fourth was in the bow . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 10 torpedoes . After the refit , the stern and lateral tubes were replaced with 45 cm ( 18 in ) weapons , but the lateral torpedo tubes were submerged . They had 8 torpedoes between them . The bow tube was retained , but also moved below the waterline ; it had three torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' armor consisted of compound steel for the first three ships and Krupp armor for the last three , coupled with teak . The upper section of the main armored belt was 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central portion of the ship and reduced to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at either end . This was mounted on 330 mm ( 13 in ) of timber . The lower section of the belt was 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick in the central area , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) on the bow and stern . This portion of the armored belt was mounted on 290 mm ( 11 in ) of timber . The main armored deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , though on Hagen and Heimdall this was increased to 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The conning tower had a roof that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and sides that were 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; the armor protection on the conning tower sides was also increased on Hagen and Heimdall , to 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Construction = =
The six ships of the Siegfried class were built by a combination of private and government shipyards . Siegfried was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel in 1888 . The ship was ordered as the coast defense ship " O " under construction number 44 . She was launched on 10 August 1889 and commissioned into the fleet on 29 April 1890 . Beowulf was built at AG Weser in Bremen from 1890 to 1892 . She had been ordered as " P " , under construction number 100 . Beowulf was launched on 8 November 1890 and commissioned on 1 April 1892 . Frithjof was also built at AG Weser , under construction number 101 and the provisional name " Q " . She was launched on 21 July 1891 and commissioned into active service on 23 February 1893 .
Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen were all built at Imperial Navy dockyards , with Heimdall at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven and the latter two at the Kaiserliche Werft Kiel . Heimdall was laid down in 1891 under construction number 14 and the provisional name " U " ; she was launched on 27 July 1892 and commissioned on 7 April 1894 . Hildebrand and Hagen were ordered as " R " and " S " , respectively . Hildebrand was laid down in 1890 , launched on 6 August 1892 , and commissioned on 28 October 1893 . Hagen , the last ship of the class , was laid down in 1891 , launched on 21 October 1893 , and completed on 2 October 1894 .
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Siegfried class saw only limited service in their intended roles . The revolutions in capital ship building in the first decade of the 20th century rapidly made these ships obsolete . The Second Naval Law , passed on 27 March 1908 , reduced the service life of all capital ships from 25 years to 20 years . This meant that the Siegfried @-@ class ships , along with a number of other vessels , were to be replaced as soon as possible . Siegfried , Beowulf , and Frithjof were replaced by the Helgoland @-@ class battleships Helgoland , Thüringen , and Oldenburg . Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen were replaced by the Kaiser @-@ class battleships Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , and Kaiserin , respectively .
As the new battleships were intended for offensive operations , the Siegfried class was still retained for coast defense duties . The ships served in this capacity through the start of World War I , until they were withdrawn from active service in 1915 . Afterward , all six ships served in a variety of secondary roles , primarily as barracks ships . All six ships were struck from the naval register on 17 June 1919 , shortly before the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the First World War , was signed . Siegfried was a barracks ship in Wilhelmshaven from 1916 . She was intended to be rebuilt as a salvage ship , but this plan was abandoned and the vessel was sold to H. Peters , Wewelsfleth in 1919 for 425 @,@ 000 marks . She was broken up in 1920 in Kiel . Beowulf served as a target ship for U @-@ boats from 1916 to 1918 , when she transitioned to ice @-@ breaking duty in the Baltic Sea . Frithjof was a barracks ship in Danzig after 1916 . Following her removal from navy service , she was sold to A Bernstein in Hamburg . She was rebuilt as a freighter by Deutsche Werke , and served in this capacity until she was broken up in 1930 . She was the longest serving Siegfried @-@ class ship .
Heimdall was a barracks ship for the crews of U @-@ boats and the Ems coast defense flotilla based in Emden . Like Siegfried , Heimdall was intended to be reconstructed as a salvage ship , and this was likewise abandoned . She was broken up for scrap metal in 1921 . Hildebrand was a barracks ship in Windau after she was removed from active duty . She was sold to a Dutch ship @-@ breaking firm in 1919 , but while en route to the scrapyard , she became grounded on the Dutch coast . The wreck was blown up in 1933 , and eventually scrapped in situ . Hagen was a barracks ship in Libau , Danzig , and Warnemünde during the remainder of World War I. She was sold for scrapping to Norddeutsche Tiefbauges after the end of the war .
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= U.S. Route 195 =
U.S. Route 195 ( US 195 ) is a north – south United States Highway , of which all but 0 @.@ 65 miles of its 94 @.@ 42 miles ( 1 @.@ 05 of 151 @.@ 95 km ) are within the state of Washington . The highway starts in rural Idaho north of the city of Lewiston as a state highway in an interchange with US 95 . As the road crosses into Washington it becomes a state highway that connects communities in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington . US 195 travels north , serving the cities of Pullman , Colfax and Rosalia in Whitman County before continuing into Spokane County to its terminus in the city of Spokane at an interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) .
The first section of US 195 designated as part of Washington 's state highway system was codified in 1913 from Colfax to Spokane as the Inland Empire Highway and from the Idaho state line to Pullman as the Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway . The two highways were included as part of State Road 3 in 1923 and US 195 during the creation of the US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 . Originally , the northern terminus of the highway was at US 95 in Sandpoint , but was truncated to Spokane after US 2 was extended west from Bonners Ferry in 1946 . US 195 was cosigned with Primary State Highway 3 ( PSH 3 ) from US 95 to Spokane and PSH 6 from Spokane to Newport from the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 until the 1964 highway renumbering . US 195 was extended south into Idaho after the relocation of US 95 , designated as the North and South Highway in 1916 , onto its present freeway in 1975 . Bypasses of Pullman , Rosalia , and Plaza were completed during the early 1970s , converting portions of US 195 into a divided highway .
= = Route description = =
US 195 runs 93 @.@ 95 miles ( 151 @.@ 20 km ) in Idaho and Washington and is listed in its entirety as part of the National Highway System , a system of roads crucial to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . As a state highway in both states , the roadway is maintained by the Idaho Transportation Department ( ITD ) and Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) .
= = = Idaho = = =
US 195 travels within Idaho for 0 @.@ 577 miles ( 0 @.@ 929 km ) from an interchange with US 95 to the Washington state line , entirely north of Lewiston atop the Lewiston Hill in unincorporated Nez Perce County . ITD surveys the roads under its control on a regular basis to measure the amount of traffic using the state 's highways . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . A July 2011 survey reported average daily traffic of 6 @,@ 761 vehicles being served the US 95 interchange .
Administratively , US 195 does not exist in Idaho . According to ITD 's milepoint log , both carriageways are officially US 95 ramps into Washington state .
= = = Washington = = =
US 195 travels 93 @.@ 37 miles ( 150 @.@ 26 km ) north through the Palouse region of Eastern Washington , from the Idaho state line north to Spokane . The highway serves as an important link between Pullman and Spokane as well as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway and a main north – south route in the region alongside State Route 27 ( SR 27 ) . US 195 enters Washington north of Clarkston in unincorporated Whitman County and travels west to an intersection with its 0 @.@ 61 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 98 km ) spur route , providing a connection to US 95 northbound towards Moscow . The highway continues northwest through farmland and the towns of Uniontown and Colton along Union Flat Creek towards Pullman . US 195 intersects SR 27 , also part of the Palouse Scenic Byway , and travels west of Pullman on a highway bypass of the city . The bypass travels through the termini of SR 194 and SR 270 as it leaves the Pullman area heading north towards Colfax along the South Fork Palouse River . US 195 becomes Main Street within Colfax and travels through the town along a WSDOT rail line to the eastern terminus of SR 272 and SR 26 . The highway continues north along Pine Creek and the WSDOT rail line past the northern terminus of SR 271 , a diamond interchange south of Rosalia , before leaving the Palouse Scenic Byway at the Spokane County border . The roadway heads north through a diamond interchange in Plaza and along Spangle Creek past the community of Spangle . US 195 enters the city of Spokane as a four @-@ lane highway along Hangman Creek and ends at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 90 , cosigned with US 2 and US 395 .
US 195 is defined by the Washington State Legislature as SR 195 , part of the Revised Code of Washington as § 47 @.@ 17 @.@ 380 . Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of AADT , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of US 195 within Washington was in Hangman Valley before the I @-@ 90 interchange in Spokane , serving 19 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was between Pullman and Colfax , serving 3 @,@ 100 vehicles . The entire route of US 195 is designated as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The Inland Empire Highway was originally a collection of gravel county roads that have existed since 1898 in the Spokane area and 1905 in the Pullman area . The highway was added to the state highway system in 1913 , traveling within the Palouse region between Colfax and Spokane . The Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway was also established in 1913 , traveling northwest from Sampson Trail Y at the Idaho – Washington state line to Pullman . The Idaho portion of US 195 became part of the North and South Highway in 1916 and was not numbered under Idaho 's state highway system in 1953 . The gap in the Second Division between Pullman and Colfax was named by Whitman County as a highway of importance the following year and was not built until 1925 as part of State Road 3 . State Road 23 , connecting Spokane to Newport , was designated in 1915 before it was renamed to the Pend O 'Reille Highway and renumbered to State Road 6 in 1923 . The Inland Empire Highway was numbered as State Road 3 in 1923 and retained the designation as PSH 3 in 1937 , while State Road 6 became PSH 6 .
The United States Highway System was established on November 11 , 1926 , during its adoption by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) and included US 195 , traveling north from US 95 within Washington through Pullman and Spokane before ending at US 95 in Sandpoint , Idaho . The present four @-@ lane divided highway along Hangman Creek in Spokane was constructed in 1939 as part of general improvements to Eastern Washington highways , relocating the route of the creek and a nearby Northern Pacific Railway line . The section of US 195 between Spokane and Sandpoint was replaced by an extension of US 2 from Bonners Ferry , Idaho to Everett , Washington in 1946 , truncating the highway to US 10 and US 395 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , Washington converted its highways to the present state route system , to take effect in 1970 . US 195 replaced PSH 3 and its branches along its present route , with its southern terminus at US 95 atop Lewiston Hill in Idaho and its northern terminus at I @-@ 90 in Spokane at an interchange that was opened in 1969 .
The State Department of Highways completed construction of three highway bypasses between 1973 and 1975 , avoiding the cities of Pullman , Rosalia , and Plaza , using funding originally intended for the canceled Bay Freeway project in Seattle . US 95 was relocated onto its present freeway , bypassing Washington state , in 1979 and US 195 was extended south into Idaho to the new interchange with a spur route traveling towards northbound US 95 . The highway between Uniontown and Rosalia was designated as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway on December 19 , 2002 , as part of the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program . WSDOT is , as of March 2013 , upgrading US 195 within Spokane in Hangman Valley to a limited @-@ access highway by constructing diamond interchanges and a single point urban interchange at four intersections to be completed in late 2013 . The project began with engineering studies in 1999 and progressed to limited access plans in 2002 and construction beginning in 2013 on the interchange with Cheney @-@ Spokane Road .
= = Spur route = =
US 195 has a 0 @.@ 61 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 98 km ) spur route at its southern terminus on the Washington – Idaho state line that travels east from US 195 to serve US 95 northbound atop Lewiston Hill . The highway was established in 1979 on the former alignment of US 95 as it passed briefly through Washington before it was moved onto its present freeway . WSDOT included the road in its annual AADT survey in 2012 and calculated that 100 vehicles per day used the spur route . ITD designates the spur route as US 95 Spur in their milepoint log .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Len Waters =
Leonard Victor ( Len ) Waters ( 20 June 1924 – 24 August 1993 ) was the first Aboriginal Australian military aviator , and the only one to serve as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . Aborigines at the time suffered significant discrimination and disadvantages in Australian society , such as restrictions on movement , residence , employment , and access to services and citizenship . Born in northern New South Wales and raised in Queensland , Waters was working as a shearer when he joined the RAAF in 1942 . Training initially as a mechanic , he volunteered for flying duties and graduated as a sergeant pilot in 1944 . He flew P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific theatre , where he completed 95 missions , mainly close air support . By the end of the war he had risen to the rank of warrant officer . Following his discharge from the RAAF in 1946 , he attempted to start a regional airline but was unable to secure financial backing and government approval . He went back to shearing , and died in 1993 at the age of 69 .
= = Early life = =
The fourth of 11 children to Donald and Grace Waters ( née Bennett ) , Len Waters was born at Euraba Mission , near Boomi in northern New South Wales on 20 June 1924 . He grew up at Nindigully , near St George , Queensland , and was educated to the seventh grade at Nindigilly State School . Hearing tales of pioneering aviators Charles Kingsford Smith , Amy Johnson , Bert Hinkler and Charles Lindbergh , and reading stories of Biggles , Flash Gordon , and Buck Rogers , he had , as he put it , his " head in the clouds " from an early age . Waters left school when he was 14 to support his family , working alongside his father as a ring barker . He was paid 10 shillings per week , for a seven @-@ day week , less than one @-@ sixth of the average wage at the time . In 1939 , he began working as a shearer .
= = RAAF career = =
Although the military had officially barred or restricted the recruitment of Aborigines in earlier periods , these impediments were significantly relaxed after Japan entered World War II , and Australia came under direct attack for the first time . Waters volunteered for service in the RAAF on 24 August 1942 , at Brisbane , and was accepted . He began training as an aircraft mechanic , but later volunteered for flying service , and commenced initial training at Somers , Victoria , in December 1943 . The aircrew interviewer thought he looked " a bit rough " but " should make a fighter " . Waters believed his lack of education would be a disadvantage , and studied nights to make up for it . Keen to be a pilot , he was concerned that he would be allocated to duty as a wireless operator because he showed an aptitude for Morse transmission early on . He was also asked to imagine himself as the tail gunner in a Lancaster or Halifax heavy bomber , to which he replied , " I had a very disappointed look on my face , sir ! " So convinced was he that he would not achieve his dream of becoming an aviator , Waters made three separate bets against himself being selected , and had to pay out £ 15 when he was nevertheless chosen .
Waters undertook his basic flight instruction at No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School in Narrandera , New South Wales , where he flew De Havilland Tiger Moths . He completed his training on CAC Wirraways and received his wings as a sergeant pilot at No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty . Posted to No. 2 Operational Training Unit at Mildura , Victoria , he converted to P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters . Once , while he was on leave , Waters was reportedly gaoled in Moree , New South Wales , for not carrying an identity card , which was one of the racially discriminatory institutions affecting Aborigines at the time . On 14 November 1944 , he was posted to No. 78 Squadron , a fighter unit based on the island of Noemfoor , off Dutch New Guinea . When he arrived , he was allocated a P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk . By chance , a previous pilot had nicknamed the plane " Black Magic " and painted those words on its nose . Waters found the name of his plane an amusing coincidence and chose to retain it .
By this stage of the war , Japanese aircraft were almost non @-@ existent in the South West Pacific theatre ; No. 78 Squadron 's main role was ground attack , bombing and strafing enemy positions . Waters flew 95 sorties from Noemfoor , and later from the air bases at Morotai and Tarakan , in Borneo . During one mission , his aircraft was struck by a 37 mm cannon shell that embedded itself behind him in the cockpit without detonating . He flew for another two hours , with the possibility of the shell exploding at any time , a situation he likened to having a loaded gun against his head . " I 'll tell you what " , he said after returning to base , " that was the best landing I ever made " . On 1 January 1945 , he was promoted to flight sergeant . By the end of the war , Waters was commanding operations which included commissioned officers . A colleague described him as a " gaunt , genial figure , humble despite his daring feats " . In addition to his combat flying , Waters also held the RAAF middleweight boxing title .
One of Len Waters ' brothers , Donald Edward ( Jimmy ) Waters , had served as an infantryman with the Australian Army during the war . With the end of the Pacific War in September 1945 , Len considered volunteering for the Australian component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan , if his brother did also . Jim declined at the time ( he later changed his mind ) , so Len returned to Australia and left the air force with the rank of warrant officer on 18 January 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war life and legacy = =
After returning to Australia , Waters attempted to start a regional airline serving South West Queensland . However , he was not able to secure finance or bureaucratic agreement . He reportedly wrote four letters seeking government approval , but never received a reply . He never flew a plane again . While racism in the military during World War II was considered to be minimal , Waters and other Aborigines who had served their country found that the skills they had acquired were not valued in peacetime . He wrote later that , having put off his uniform , he simply " returned to being a blackfellow " .
Four weeks after his discharge from the Air Force , Waters married Gladys Saunders , with whom he had six children . He worked as an automotive mechanic , but was forced to cease by union rules , which required him to serve an apprenticeship . Waters was then briefly employed by a local council in Queensland as a road worker , before returning to shearing , which took him away from his family to properties stretching from North Queensland to Victoria . He personally estimated that he sheared a million sheep during his life .
Waters applied for housing commission accommodation and was allocated a house at Inala , Brisbane , in August 1956 . He eventually bought the property and lived there for 33 years . He died on 24 August 1993 at the age of 69 in Cunnamulla , and was buried in St George Cemetery .
In 1995 – 96 , Waters was commemorated in several ways : Australia Post depicted his portrait on a stamp and that of his P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter " Black Magic " on an aérogramme , as part of its Australia Remembers series ; Black Magic Port was named after his personal Kittyhawk ; Len Waters Place , a park in Inala , was opened ; Moree Plains Shire Council dedicated Leonard Waters Park in Boggabilla , New South Wales ; and Len Waters Street in Ngunnawal , Australian Capital Territory , was named after him . In 2003 , Balonne Shire Council erected a monument to Waters and another local RAAF identity , Squadron Leader John Jackson , in St George . In 2011 , the Sutherland Shire Council recognised Len Waters ' memory and achievements by dedicating Len Waters Park , with a memorial plinth and plaque , at Timbrey Circuit , Barden Ridge , New South Wales .
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= Casino Night =
" Casino Night " is the second season finale of the American comedy television series The Office , and the twenty @-@ eighth episode overall . Written by Steve Carell , who also acts in the show as Michael Scott , and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode originally aired in the United States on May 11 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Nancy Carell as Carol Stills and Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the office hosts a casino night , to which Michael Scott ( Carell ) inadvertently invites two dates . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decides to transfer to Dunder Mifflin 's Stamford branch and reveals to Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) his feelings for her .
The episode was the first of the series to run as a " supersized " episode , featuring twenty @-@ eight minutes and twenty seconds of content rather than the standard twenty minutes and thirty seconds . In addition , the episode was the first of the series to be written by Carell ; he had suggested the idea for the episode to executive producer Greg Daniels , who thoroughly enjoyed the idea and green lit the script . " Casino Night " also introduces the musical exploits of Kevin Malone , played by Brian Baumgartner . The episode received wide acclaim from television critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being seen by 7 @.@ 7 million viewers . It is generally considered by both critics and audiences to be one of the show 's greatest episodes .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) organizes a casino charity event in the warehouse , and unwittingly winds up with two dates for the evening , his boss Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) and his real @-@ estate agent Carol Stills ( Nancy Carell ) . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) go through audition tapes for her wedding band and discover that colleague Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) has his own band . Jim , upset about Pam 's impending marriage to Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) , tells the documentary crew that he met with Jan about transferring to the Stamford , Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin because he has " no future here . "
During Casino Night , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) wins a game of craps and kisses Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) on the cheek , disregarding their attempts to keep their intimate relationship a secret . She slaps him and walks away , the two quietly enjoying the experience . Jan and Carol share an awkward conversation when they realize Michael has invited them both . Jim tells Jan that he 's made a decision about the transfer . After Roy leaves , Jim tells Pam that he is in love with her . After a stunned pause , she states she cannot be with him . He tells her he wants to be more than friends , but she is sorry he " misinterpreted things . " Jim apologizes for misinterpreting their friendship and discreetly wipes a tear from his cheek as he walks away . Jan leaves Michael and Carol , noticeably upset at the night 's events , and it is revealed she packed an overnight bag in her car , implying she had planned to spend the night with Michael . Pam returns to the office and talks to her mother over the phone about Jim 's statement , eventually saying " Yeah , I think I am . " It remains unknown to this date what Pam 's mother asked her , with fans speculating that two plausible lines were " Are you in love with Jim ? " or " Are you still going to marry Roy ? " ( But in a flashback in " Gay Witch Hunt " and " Cocktails " it is shown she must have feelings for Jim . ) Jim enters the room and approaches her as she hastily hangs up . She begins to say something but Jim kisses her , and after hesitating , she returns the kiss . The two stare at each other in silence as the episode ends .
= = Production = =
" Casino Night " was the first episode of the series written by Steve Carell . Initially , Carell suggested to executive producer Greg Daniels that an episode should revolve around a casino night . When it came time to plan the finale for the show , Daniels chose the idea and picked Carell to write the script . Parts of the script were fleshed out during the flights to and from New York when the show was filming the earlier episode " Valentine 's Day " . Later , Carell had only one weekend to write the bulk script . Daniels was very happy with the rough script and noted " came in with a great draft " . Jenna Fischer admitted that filming the episode was a relief because she had " been carrying around the secret cliff @-@ hangers for two months " . Toby Flenderson , who is portrayed by writer Paul Lieberstein , stated during the episode " I 'm gonna chase that feeling " after winning at a game of poker . The line was originally intended to lead to a subplot wherein Toby develops a gambling addiction , but the storyline was later abandoned .
The episode was the fifth episode of the season and the seventh of the entire series directed by Ken Kwapis . During the editing of the episode , executive producer Greg Daniels publicly addressed NBC in an interview , stating , " I 'd like to get a supersized episode , because it ’ s a really long script with a lot of good stuff . " In response , fans of the show set up an online petition to " supersize " the season finale . The website generated over 2 @,@ 800 signatures . On April 20 , NBC announced it would be extending the season finale by ten minutes . Although other NBC shows Will & Grace and My Name Is Earl that aired on the same night had extended episodes , cast members David Denman and John Krasinski credited in interviews the petition for the extended time . Denman and Krasinski both believed that the petition was partially responsible for the other two shows getting extended times as well .
The filming of the episode 's ending caused a " huge divide among the writing staff and the director and the cast " . Carell , Kwapis , and the actors wanted the moment when Pam and Jim kiss to " follow the characters and the emotion of the moment " by having the action captured in full by the show 's cameramen . The writing staff , on the other hand , wanted Pam and Jim 's moment to be private and only heard via the mics ; Daniels explained , " The writing staff was itching to do something kind of weird [ with the scene ] and have it be a private moment that the doc crew didn 't know was going to happen and so only heard on their mics and came running around the corner to film . " Eventually , both versions were filmed , but the former was broadcast . The alternate version has never been released .
The episode features Kevin Malone playing the drums in a band , which had been an idea circulated since the first season , when allusions to him being in a Steve Miller tribute band were written ; the scenes had to be removed from the series due to issues negotiating with the singer . The crew later decided to have Kevin be in a Police tribute band called Scrantonicity because he " talks so low , and has very little expression , and there is no band that sings higher and with more expression than the Police . " While Kevin was always intended to be the band 's lead singer , executive producer Greg Daniels approached Baumgartner about possibly playing an instrument , but the actor replied he could not play anything . Daniels and Baumgartner then discussed instruments that would be " funny " to play and brought up harmonicas , saxophones , and drums . They ultimately decided on the latter because they deemed a " drumming lead singer [ to ] be the funniest choice , " regardless of the fact that the actor had " absolutely no drumming experience , and it 's a difficult instrument . "
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael creating Dunder Mifflin Mad Libs , Dwight and Jim choosing their charities , Dwight considering Jim 's telekinetic powers , an extension of Michael 's scene with Darryl , Pam finding planning a wedding stressful , Meredith and the casino dealer sharing a past .
= = Cultural references = =
On the phone with Jan , Michael compares the performance of the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin to the biblical story of David and Goliath . He later tells her that she 's the " Eva Peron to his Cesar Chavez " . He later calls answers his phone while talking to her and says " Jan Levenson , I presume " , a reference to " Dr. Livingstone , I Presume " . Michael reasons that the money from the casino night should benefit the Boy Scouts of America because " They don 't have cookies like the Girl Scouts ! " He later states that he will donate all of his charity winnings to Comic Relief , a British charity . Kelly reasons that she would donate her winnings to Kobe Bryant 's foundation , only because he bought his wife a large ring .
When Michael mentions donating money to " Afghanistanis with AIDS " , the conversation gets confused , and the various office workers being talking about Afghanis , Afghans , and the nonsensical " Afghanistanannis " . In a talking head , Michael notes that AIDS is not a humorous disease , and is one of the many things that is off @-@ topic in comedy , including the assassination of John F. Kennedy and The Holocaust . However , he notes that the assassination of Abraham Lincoln recently became funny . While looking through the various cover bands , Jim and Pam stumble upon a Kiss tribute and Jim tells Pam that her wedding should have three stages like Lollapalooza . Kevin 's band is playing a cover of " Don 't Stand So Close to Me " by The Police .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Casino Night " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 11 , 2006 . The episode received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million viewers , and retained 93 percent of its lead @-@ in " My Name is Earl " audience . For his work on this episode , Steve Carell was nominated for and won the Writers Guild of America Award for Television : Episodic Comedy .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Casino Night " received widespread critical acclaim from television critics . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad stated that " This episode , the season finale , was , in a word , brilliant . You could not ask for a better way to tie up story lines that occurred over the course of a season while opening up new ones at the same time . " Sciannamea went on to praise Carell 's writing , as well as the progression of the relationship arcs in the show . Brian Zoromski of IGN said that " ' Casino Night , ' was full of great character development , awkward situations and laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments . " Zoromski enjoyed the unfolding of the Jim @-@ Pam relationship during the latter half of season two , and the climax of it in the season finale . He also enjoyed and praised the development of two minor characters , Kevin Malone and Creed Bratton , the latter played by the actor of the same name . He ultimately awarded the episode a ten out of ten , denoting a " Masterpiece " . Jacob Cliffton of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly noted that , unlike other shows that featured resolved sexual tension , The Office was in no worry of being cancelled . She based this deduction on the fact that the show " isn 't based entirely on the endearing flirtation between " Jim and Pam . In a 2011 poll conducted by fansite OfficeTally , fans voted " Casino Night " as their favorite of all Office episodes that had been aired at that time .
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= The One with the Rumor =
" The One with the Rumor " is the ninth episode of the eighth season of the American television situation comedy Friends , which aired on NBC on November 22 , 2001 . It continues the series ' annual Thanksgiving @-@ themed episode tradition , and guest @-@ stars cast member Jennifer Aniston 's then @-@ husband Brad Pitt in the uncredited role of Will Colbert , who reveals that he and Ross ( David Schwimmer ) were part of an " I hate Rachel " club . The two of them hated Rachel Green ( Aniston ) and got the exchange student from Thailand to join their club . Will revealed that they spread a rumor in high school that Rachel ( Aniston ) was a hermaphrodite .
The episode was directed by Gary Halvorson and written by Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan . It was nominated for multiple Primetime Emmy Awards , but was criticized as " insulting " by a national intersex education group . Pitt admitted his appearance was mainly to promote his upcoming film , Spy Game .
= = Plot = =
Monica ( Courteney Cox ) tells her friends that she will not be cooking a turkey for Thanksgiving because of the large amount of leftovers it will create . Chandler does not eat turkey as a result of his dislike of all Thanksgiving foods ( a result of childhood trauma ) , Pheobe ( Lisa Kudrow 's character ) is a vegetarian and Rachel was having an aversion to poultry from her pregnancy . This left only Monica , Ross and Joey to eat the enormous turkey . Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) protests , and announces that he will eat the entire turkey himself if necessary . Monica agrees , and Joey finishes the nineteen @-@ pound turkey by the end of the episode . Monica tells Rachel that she has invited over an old high @-@ school friend of hers and Ross 's called Will Colbert ( Brad Pitt ) . Rachel does not remember him , and he reacts with total disgust when he finds out Rachel will be joining them for dinner .
Throughout dinner , Will is hostile to Rachel . Will , like Monica , has lost a great deal of weight since high school and looks great . When Will keeps ignoring her advances and is continuously hostile , he reveals that she was horrible to him in high school . Will also eventually reveals that during high school , he and Ross initiated the episode 's titular rumor : that Rachel is a hermaphrodite , which was spread throughout their entire high school , and even went so far as to reach Chandler 's high school . Rachel reacts tearfully , claiming she never hurt Ross in high school , until Monica reminds her that she started a rumor of her own that Ross made out with the school 's 50 @-@ year @-@ old librarian , though Ross shockingly reveals that this is in fact true , much to everyone 's amusement and disgust . Monica comforts Rachel , saying that despite the rumor , she was still the most popular girl in their high school , and reminds Ross and Rachel that they are having a baby together and that some things are more important than high school . Will feels betrayed that Ross had a relationship with Rachel but then that turns to a high five when he discovers that Ross " knocked her up but did not marry her . " Ultimately the characters settle their differences . The episode culminates in Joey finishing off the turkey wearing Phoebe 's @-@ turned @-@ Rachel 's maternity pants and getting the meat sweats . After being extremely full , Joey still had room for pie .
= = Production = =
It was reported by Entertainment Weekly that Pitt would don a fat suit for flashback scenes to his fat childhood , though this was unfounded as Will 's weight was merely referred to on screen . Pitt frequently visited Aniston at the studios before and after his appearance , though he did not go onto the set for fear of distracting the audience . When questioned about his appearance in the show , Pitt said it was to promote his upcoming film Spy Game , though added that he liked the series anyway . The episode was taped on November 2 , following four days of rehearsals .
= = Reception = =
As the series finale drew close in 2004 , Eric Deggans of St. Petersburg Times ranked Pitt as one of the worst guest stars in Friends : " Stilted reactions , overly exaggerated comedy , near @-@ palpable self @-@ consciousness - despite his cred as a film actor , Pitt knew he was out of his depth on a sitcom stage . After five minutes ' viewing , the audience did , too . " His work on set is admired by the main stars ; Schwimmer recalls Pitt was " definitely [ ... ] going against type " and LeBlanc called him " really great on the show " . USA Today rates Will 's line " Look at her standing there with those yams . My two greatest enemies , Ross . Rachel Green and complex carbohydrates " one of the best of the episode .
The eponymous rumor drew criticism from the intersex community , a member of which wrote a strongly worded letter of complaint to NBC , calling the episode " ignorant , insulting , degrading , and absolutely unprofessional " . The member urged the network to learn about intersex individuals via the Society 's website and read an on @-@ air apology before future episodes .
= = = Primetime Emmy Award nominations = = =
Pitt was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his appearance in the episode . Additionally , Nick McLean was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi @-@ Camera Series , while Stephen Prime was nominated for Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series , for their work on the episode .
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= Biman Bangladesh Airlines =
Biman Bangladesh Airlines ( Bengali : বিমান বাংলাদেশ এয ় ারলাইন ্ স ) , partly transcribed from English into Bengali and the other way around , commonly known as Biman ( Bengali : বিমান ) , is the flag carrier of Bangladesh . Its main hub is at Shahjalal International Airport in Dhaka and it also operates flights from its secondary hubs at Shah Amanat International Airport in Chittagong and Osmani International Airport in Sylhet . The airline provides international passenger and cargo services to its destinations ; as of April 2015 , it has air service agreements with 42 countries , but flies to just 16 of them . The airline 's headquarters , Balaka Bhaban , is located in Kurmitola , Dhaka . Annual Hajj flights ; transporting tourists and non @-@ resident Bangladeshi workers and migrants ; and the activities of its subsidiaries form an integral part of the airline 's business . The carrier is currently facing stiff competition from a number of domestic Bangladeshi private airlines as well as some international carriers , which offer greater flexibility targeting Bangladesh 's air transport sector which is experiencing an 8 % annual growth rate , thanks to a large number of tourists and non @-@ resident Bangladeshi travellers .
Created in February 1972 , Biman enjoyed an internal monopoly in the aviation industry of Bangladesh until 1996 . In the decades following its founding , the airline expanded its fleet and destinations but it was adversely affected by corruption and mismanagement . At its peak , Biman operated flights to 29 international destinations , extending from New York City in the west to Tokyo in the east . The airline was wholly owned and managed by the government of Bangladesh until 23 July 2007 , when it was transformed into the country 's largest public limited company by the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh . Since becoming a public limited company in 2007 , the airline has reduced staff and begun to modernise its fleet . The airline has made a deal with Boeing for ten new aircraft along with options for ten more . Biman Bangladesh Airlines is certified as safe to fly in Europe by the European Aviation Safety Agency and it also successfully passed the IATA Operational Safety Audit and since then , the airline has resumed flights to some of its previous destinations in Asia and Europe .
= = History = =
Biman Bangladesh Airlines was established on 4 January 1972 as Bangladesh 's national airline under the Bangladesh Biman Ordinance ( Presidential Order No. 126 ) . The initiative to launch the flag carrier was taken by 2 @,@ 500 former employees , including ten Boeing 707 commanders and seven other pilots of Pakistan International Airlines , who submitted a proposal to the government on 31 December 1971 following the independence of Bangladesh . The airline was initially called Air Bangladesh but was soon changed to its current name .
On 4 February 1972 , Biman started its domestic services , initially linking Dhaka with Chittagong , Jessore and Sylhet , using a single Douglas DC @-@ 3 acquired from India . Following the crash of this DC @-@ 3 on 10 February 1972 , near Dhaka , during a test flight , two Fokker F27s belonging to Indian Airlines and supplied by the Indian government entered the fleet as a replacement . Shortly afterwards , additional capacity was provided with the incorporation of a Douglas DC @-@ 6 , loaned by the World Council of Churches , which was in turn replaced with another Douglas DC @-@ 6 , a DC @-@ 6B model leased from Troll @-@ Air , to operate the Dhaka @-@ Calcutta route . On 4 March 1972 , Biman started its international operations with a weekly flight to London using a Boeing 707 chartered from British Caledonian . The short haul fleet was supplemented by a Fokker F27 from India on 3 March 1972 ; the aircraft was employed on a daily scheduled flight between Calcutta and Dhaka on 28 April 1972 . Three additional Fokker F27s were acquired during March and September of that year . In the first year of operation , Biman operated 1 @,@ 079 flights carrying just over 380 @,@ 000 passengers .
Four Fokker F27s joined the fleet in 1973 , enabling Biman to double the frequency of the Kolkata flight to a twice daily service . A Boeing 707 was added to the fleet in September and the flight to London became twice @-@ weekly , while a Chittagong – Kolkata flight also began operating . In 1974 , operations were extended to Kathmandu ( February ) , Bangkok ( November ) and Dubai ( December ) . In 1976 , Biman sold two of its Fokker F27s and bought another Boeing 707 to extend international services to Abu Dhabi , Karachi and Mumbai . Singapore was added to Biman 's list of international destinations , when a third Boeing 707 was purchased in February 1977 , followed by Jeddah , Doha and Amsterdam the following year , which also saw the purchase of its fourth Boeing 707 . In 1977 , Biman was converted into a public sector corporation to be governed by a board of directors appointed by the government . The airline broke even for the first time in 1977 – 78 , and made a profit the following year . International destinations expanded to include Kuala Lumpur , Athens , Muscat and Tripoli in 1979 , followed by Yangon , Tokyo and Dhahran in 1980 . Biman took delivery of its first 85 @-@ seater Fokker F28 @-@ 4000 in 1981 . In 1983 , three Douglas DC @-@ 10s joined the fleet and the airline started to phase out the Boeing 707s . The flight network expanded further to include Baghdad ( 1983 ) , Paris ( 1984 ) and Bahrain ( 1986 ) . On 5 August 1984 , Biman faced its worst accident ever when a Fokker F27 flying in from Chittagong crashed near Dhaka , killing all 49 on board . The long haul fleet was then supplemented by the purchase of two new Airbus A310s in 1996 , followed by the addition of two more in 2000 , from Singapore Airlines and Air Jamaica , and another in 2003 .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Key people = = =
As of June 2016 , the chairman position is held by Air Mshl Muhammad Enamul Bari ; A. M. Mosaddique Ahmed is the managing director ( MD ) and chief executive officer ( CEO ) .
Kevin John Steele , who served as MD and CEO of Biman from March 2013 to April 2014 , was the first foreign national in the airline 's history to be appointed CEO and MD of Biman . He was chosen from a pool of 42 local and foreign candidates after a competitive selection process . Steele is a British citizen who has many years of experience working in management and administrative positions at British Airways and other airlines around the world . Steele resigned to Biman 's MD and CEO positions in December 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 12 ) citing health issues . Steele left office on 19 April 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) . Kyle Haywood took office as Biman 's MD and CEO on 5 January 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 01 @-@ 05 ) . A British national , Haywood was the second foreign national to hold the airline 's CEO position after Kevin Steele .
= = = Ownership = = =
The airline was wholly owned by the Bangladeshi government through the Bangladesh Biman Corporation since its inception . In 1977 , Biman was converted into a public sector corporation which afforded Biman limited autonomy , led by a government @-@ appointed board of directors . The authorised share capital was increased to BDT 2 billion in 1987 , and Biman was transformed into a public limited company , the largest in Bangladesh , in 2007 .
= = = Privatisation = = =
= = = = 1980s = = = =
During the late 1980s , Hossain Mohammad Ershad , President of Bangladesh at the time , served as president of Biman . After an early period of expansion and growth , Biman entered an era of nose @-@ diving profits and slow growth , exacerbated by incompetent and corrupt management , who padded purchases , falsified repair bills , and kept unprofitable routes in operation for political reasons . Research conducted in 1996 found that Biman had 5 @,@ 253 non @-@ flying personnel , 30 percent more than Singapore Airlines , a carrier who operated a fleet almost ten times the size of Biman 's . The report described Biman as " poorly managed , overstaffed , undercapitalized , and subject to excessive political interference in its day @-@ to @-@ day management . "
= = = = 1990s = = = =
In the 1992 – 93 fiscal year , accounts under the Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism revealed that BDT 22 million in tax was not paid to the government . The audit carried out in 1999 , also showed that Biman was owed BDT 2 @.@ 2 million by travel agents from the proceeds of ticket sales , most likely with the collusion of Biman officials . Additionally , BDT 2 @.@ 4 million was overpaid as incentive commissions to the sales agents in violation of Biman policies . In 2007 , the caretaker government launched an anti @-@ corruption drive . This was shortly followed by the forced retirement of 35 other employees and officials , some of whom were close aides of Shamim Iskander . In 2008 Iskander , younger brother of former premier Khaleda Zia , was sent to jail over charges of concealing information regarding his wealth and not for his connection with Biman .
Faced with growing losses from the late 1990s onwards , the government offered 40 percent of Biman to foreign airlines in 2004 , hoping a buyer would take over the management of the carrier . However , the proposal demanded that many decision @-@ making rights remain within the Bangladesh government , and the offer was ignored by outside airlines . A similar initiative in 1998 cost Biman $ 1 @.@ 6 million in consultancy fees with no positive results .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
In the 2005 – 06 fiscal year , Biman carried 1 @.@ 15 million passengers , a growth of 70 % over the previous decade . With the rise of private domestic carriers in Bangladesh , however , Biman 's market share for domestic passengers dropped by 35 % over the previous ten years ' average , with only 162 @,@ 000 passengers travelling with Biman in the domestic sector in the 2005 – 06 fiscal year . During the same period , Biman reported its biggest annual loss of over US $ 120 million ( BDT 8 @.@ 3 billion as of 2010 ) , with a US $ 100 million ( BDT 6 @.@ 9 billion as of 2010 ) loss reported the following year . Biman also fell behind on millions of dollars in payments to its fuel supplier , the Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation ( BPC ) , with debts that rose to BDT 15 @.@ 64 billion in late December 2006 ( 2006 @-@ 12 ) .
= = = = Public limited company = = = =
In May 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 ) , the caretaker government approved plans to turn Biman into a public limited company with shareholdings split between seven public sector organisations . As a part of the restructuring , the government put in place a voluntary retirement scheme ( VRS ) to reduce the man @-@ equipment ratio ( MER ) of 367 : 1 ( ratio of manpower to aircraft ) . The industry average at the time was 200 : 1 , and other Asian airlines operated with MERs of about 150 : 1 . The VRS provided compensation based on length of service , at a cost to the government of over BDT 2 @.@ 97 billion borrowed from the World Bank . Biman management expected to reduce its workforce by 1 @,@ 600 , but 2 @,@ 162 applications were received , many from employees who expected to be dismissed with little or no severance pay if the quota was not met . Biman accepted between 1 @,@ 863 and 1877 applications , and affirmed that key personnel would not be allowed to leave the organisation via VRS .
On 23 July 2007 , Biman Bangladesh Airlines became the largest public limited company in Bangladesh . Earlier suggestions that the airline should be renamed Bangladesh Airlines were rejected . The government is the sole shareholder of the 1 @.@ 5 billion shares , but intends to offer 49 percent to the private sector while retaining majority ownership . The previous managing director , Dr. Abdul Momen , was appointed as the chief executive officer ( CEO ) and managing director of the new organisation . The six directors were appointed from the ministries of energy , commerce , finance , civil aviation , foreign affairs , and the cabinet division , with the cabinet secretary taking on the role as chairman of the board of directors . The six secretaries and a joint secretary to the civil aviation ministry were made the seven shareholders of the new PLC . In September 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 09 ) , the government appointed Air Commodore Zahed Kuddus ( retd ) to replace Dr. Momen as CEO . From 2002 to 2005 Kuddus had been chair of the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh ( CAAB ) , before which he had held various posts in the Bangladesh Air Force .
Following the privatisation , an initiative was launched by ex @-@ Biman employees , who left the organisation via the VRS , to set up a competing airline . Names proposed for the airline included Air Bangla International , Biman Employees Airlines and Balaka . They were joined by previous managing directors of Biman , along with the former president of the Bangladesh Airline Pilots ' Association . However , nothing further was heard of regarding the proposed venture .
The airline made profits in FY 2007 – 08 ( BDT 60 million ) and FY 2008 – 09 ( BDT 150 million ) ; In FY 2009 – 10 , however , the carrier incurred in a net loss of BDT 800 million .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
In FY 2010 – 11 it made losses of BDT 2 billion , despite the government exempting it a debt of about BDT 11 @.@ 94 billion and BDT 5 @.@ 73 billion owed to the BPC and the CAAB , respectively . In FY 2011 – 12 it made a loss of BDT 6 @.@ 06 billion ( US $ 75 million ) ; in FY 2012 – 13 unaudited figures show a loss of BDT 2 billion . The airline plans to be fully profitable by FY 2014 – 15 . As of December 2013 , Biman owed BDT 15 @.@ 60 billion to different sources ; of which BDT 3676 @.@ 2 million to CAAB and BDT 8 @.@ 50 billion to Padma Oil Company , its fuel supplier . Biman made a profit of BDT 2 @.@ 72 billion in FY 2014 – 15 .
= = = Subsidiaries = = =
Biman 's subsidiaries are associated with aircraft ground handling , aviation engineering , aviation training and flight catering . There are five wholly owned subsidiaries , including :
Since 1972 , BGH provides ground @-@ handling services for all airports in Bangladesh ; the company reported a profit of BDT 4 @.@ 5 billion for the FY 2011 – 12 . The wholly owned subsidiary BFCC was set up in 1989 to provide in @-@ flight meals . It is one of Biman 's profitable operations , supplying food to Saudia , Etihad , Malaysia Airlines , Thai Airways , Emirates , Dragon Air , China Southern Airlines and Regent Airways , along with casual orders from other airlines operating into Bangladesh . The BFCC consumes 90 % of the eggs and chickens from the BPC , another profit @-@ making subsidiary of Biman formed in 1976 and put into operation in November 1980 to rear poultry at farms in Dhaka . Bird flu was detected at one of the farms in March 2007 , and many of the birds were culled . This was the first incident of bird flu in Bangladesh .
= = Services = =
Biman is notable for disruptions to its flight schedule and poor customer service . In 2007 , Biman faced strong criticism from major international airports including London Heathrow Airport and Dubai International Airport for its failure to maintain flight schedules . Heathrow Airport operator BAA wrote to Biman providing evidence which showed Biman had not achieved the minimum 80 % usage of its allocated landing slots at Heathrow , as required by EU and International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) regulations , during the summer of 2007 . Biman should , therefore , not expect slot allocations at Heathrow for the summer of 2008 and should look to Stansted or Gatwick airports if it wished to continue serving London . Following discussions with BAA , however , Biman obtained landing slots for the summer of 2008 on condition that it achieved 80 % usage . Delays continued unabated and in September 2008 , Biman 's Dhaka – London direct flight utilising a DC @-@ 10 aircraft was diverted and landed at Gatwick when it did not have sufficient fuel to remain in a holding pattern over Heathrow following arrival over three hours after the scheduled time . In a 10 September 2008 article published in The Times , Biman was labelled the worst performer for punctuality at Heathrow , with flights delayed on average by three hours . In 2008 , the United Nations advised its staff not to fly with Biman , citing both safety and security concerns and Biman 's unreliable flight schedules . It was made clear that UN staff who flew with Biman did so at their own risk , and would be ineligible to make claims on insurance . Biman 's then newly appointed managing director said he was unaware of the UN directive , but admitted that Biman did face problems in managing its flight schedules . He expected the situation to improve with the procurement of aircraft in the coming months .
In 2013 , Biman signed agreements with SITA and Mercator to provide infrastructure support and revenue accounting services to the airline .
In 2014 , Biman launched advance seat reservation system on its website . The airline also offers online meal selection option , where the passenger can choose from diabetic meals , vegetarian meals , Asian vegetarian meal , child meal and Muslim meal , that will be served on board .
= = = Flight classes = = =
A two @-@ class service ( J and Y ) is operated on all of Biman 's airliners . The Business Class cabin on its Boeing 777 are arranged in a 2 – 3 – 2 configuration , while economy class cabin is set up in a 3 – 3 – 3 configuration . The narrow @-@ body Boeing 737 @-@ 800s ' Business Class is set up in a 2 – 2 configuration while Economy Class is in a 3 – 3 arrangement . The older Airbus A310s have a 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 configuration in Economy Class ; 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 in Business Class .
= = = In @-@ flight amenities = = =
Biman relaunched its inflight magazine re @-@ branded as Bihanga in September 2013 . The bi @-@ monthly magazine , previously known as Diganta , and prior to that Jatri , is published by Subcontinental Media Group . The magazine is available in both Bengali and English , covering topics about Bangladesh and Biman 's destinations . English and Bengali language newspapers are also available on board in the aircraft .
The newer Boeing 777s are equipped with modern in @-@ flight entertainment . Every seat is fitted with personal touch screen displays provided by Thales . It is loaded with movies , songs and games . It also has high resolution moving maps and live flight information . It is in two languages – English and Bengali .
Biman launched in @-@ flight duty free sales in March 2014 , branded as Biman Boutique . The duty @-@ free products include : perfumes , cosmetics , jewelleries , watches , children 's gifts , chocolate and tobacco .
In 2014 , Biman launched amenity kit for children on @-@ board which include coloring books , stationery , dolls and jigsaw puzzle .
= = = Frequent @-@ flyer program = = =
Biman launched a frequent @-@ flyer program , named Biman Loyalty Club , in November 2013 . It offers rewards such as tiered benefits , mileage bonuses , extra baggage , lounge access and priority check @-@ in at airports .
As of July 2014 , the frequent @-@ flyer program had 8 @,@ 000 members .
= = = Ticketing = = =
An agreement was signed with Amadeus in 2007 to upgrade Biman 's ticketing system with an e @-@ ticketing solution to comply with IATA rules , which set out a deadline of 31 December 2007 for all member airlines to switch over their ticketing systems . E @-@ ticketing has enabled major airlines to provide online check @-@ in facilities , reducing the need to queue up at check @-@ in counters . However , Biman has not made any attempts to improve customer service through the adoption of e @-@ ticketing , although it has been able to reduce its own costs . In 2005 , Biman had briefly stopped using the Amadeus ticketing system when the government suspended the operation of a local Amadeus subsidiary following a court order , after allegations of money laundering . The suspension , however , lasted only a month , and was lifted after the writ was appealed in the High Court .
In 2013 , Biman signed an agreement with German e @-@ ticketing company Hahn Air , enabling Biman 's tickets to be purchased from anywhere around the world .
= = = Biman Cargo = = =
Biman also operates a cargo service using the cargo holds of its passenger aircraft to ship freight to international destinations . It has established Cargo Village at Shahjalal International Airport where the cargo is packaged and labelled before being loaded onto its aircraft .
While the air cargo industry in Bangladesh grew by 16 @.@ 5 % in the fiscal year 2003 – 04 , Biman 's cargo operations remained stagnant when private operators such as Bismillah Airlines , Best Aviation and Air Bangladesh produced a 108 % growth from the previous year . The private operators increased their share of the cargo market by 10 @.@ 6 % and were responsible for handling 24 % of the total 99 @,@ 000 tonnes of cargo at the expense of both Biman and foreign airlines which saw a reduction in their shares by 4 @.@ 6 % and 6 @.@ 0 % respectively . Foreign airlines handled 47 % of the total cargo with Biman taking on the remaining 29 % .
As with its passenger service and management , corruption has also been rife at Biman Cargo . An investigation in 2004 uncovered irregularities in a number of Biman 's Middle East operations which deprived the government of millions of dollars in revenue . Biman officials in Dubai were found to have been " extending special privileges " to the main freight handler in exchange for bribes . The smuggling of foreign currency and gold bars is reported to have taken place at the Biman Cargo Village by Biman and CAAB employees . A number of arrests were made but the perpetrators evaded punishment through lack of evidence and pressure from the CAAB union .
= = Destinations = =
As of November 2014 , Biman serves 21 destinations , 18 of them international . However , the carrier has air service agreements with 43 countries leaving room for expansion for which it lacks aircraft . The airline operates flights to several destinations in the Middle East , some destinations in South and South East Asia ; London and Rome in Europe .
The airline announced intentions to commence flights to Guangzhou and Kunming in China in summer 2014 . Former Biman board director Kazi Oahedul Alam criticised the expansion as poorly planned and not commercially viable .
= = = New York and Manchester = = =
From 1993 to 2006 , Biman operated flights to John F. Kennedy International Airport , New York City , from Dhaka via Brussels . New York was Biman 's farthest and most prestigious destination , and was kept operational despite heavy financial losses to maintain a landing slot in the US which , if cancelled , could be difficult to regain . To curb the losses , Biman reduced the service to one flight per week and re @-@ routed it through Manchester Airport , UK , capitalising on travel demands from the expatriate Bangladeshi community in the north of England . On 8 April 2006 , Biman 's inaugural flight to Manchester landed at Manchester Airport en route to JFK . However , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) had placed the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh ( CAAB ) into Category 2 ( does not meet International Civil Aviation Organization standards ) according to its International Aviation Safety Assessment Program , which placed additional restrictions on the country 's airlines when flying to the US . A former CAAB assistant director made scathing remarks about the CAAB in an opinion article in the Aviatour , a monthly travel and tourism supplement of Bangladeshi news magazine Weekly Holiday . For Biman , this meant that it could continue flying to the US , but could not expand or make alterations to its routes , such as changing the transit from Brussels to Manchester . The FAA fined Biman for breaching its rules , and flights to New York were again re @-@ routed through Brussels .
The FAA had already warned Biman to replace its ageing DC @-@ 10s by December 2005 . According to experts , these aircraft were inadequately equipped to safely cross the Atlantic . On 13 May 2006 , the FAA refused permission for Biman flight BG001 ( Dhaka – Brussels – JFK ) to enter its airspace , citing safety concerns over the ailing DC – 10 aircraft used on the route . The flight was diverted to Montréal @-@ Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in Canada , where the passengers were provided with alternative airline options to complete their journey . Canadian authorities inspected the aircraft and gave it a clean bill of health after which the aircraft returned to Dhaka without any passengers . The FAA eventually admitted it was mistaken and apologised for the error .
The incident put an end to the route , which had been losing US $ 80 @,@ 000 per flight , owing to its use of obsolete DC @-@ 10s . Biman decided to axe the route along with a number of other regional and domestic routes to curb the huge losses being incurred by the airline each month . However , in October 2007 , Biman was directed by the then caretaker government to resume flights to New York . Biman was given until 25 October 2008 ( extended from an earlier deadline of 23 March 2008 ) to resume flights to the airport by the JFK airport authority , after which it would have lost the landing slot permanently .
The resumption of flights to the United States may take place in 2015 , this depending on the FAA upgrading the category of the CAAB which is still category 2 , as of May 2015 .
= = = Hajj flights = = =
The annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca for the Hajj is undertaken by thousands of Bangladesh 's predominantly Muslim population . Biman has been the sole Bangladeshi airline permitted by the government to provide flights for pilgrims to King Abdulaziz International Airport , Jeddah . Every year , the commencement of these flights is inaugurated by high @-@ ranking government officials , including , at times , the Prime Minister .
In 2002 , the government opened the service to private tour operators for the first time . The initial private flights were plagued with delays , with both outgoing and return flights postponed for as long as nine days , which caused the Bangladesh government to return the Hajj flights ' monopoly to Biman .
Biman 's handling of Hajj flights has also been beset with troubles . In 2005 , the State Minister for Civil Aviation and Tourism resigned after complaints that he set fares too high . In 2006 , Biman took the unprecedented step of removing the business – class seats from its dedicated Hajj flights to accommodate more economy @-@ class passengers . Procedural irregularities by the Hajj agencies delayed the confirmation of pilgrims ' visas , and Biman had to cancel 19 flights owing to lack of sufficient passengers . Once the situation was resolved , Biman was then unable to offer the required number of flights to cope with the backlog of passengers .
In June 2007 , the caretaker government approved a three @-@ year Hajj policy aiming to alleviate the problems encountered during the previous two years . Hajj flights would also begin leaving from Bangladesh 's two other international airports , Shah Amanat International Airport and Osmani International Airport . Biman put out a tender for the wet lease of two aircraft for additional Hajj flights and reached an agreement with Phuket Air . However , the deal fell through in August 2007 after Phuket Air demanded advance payment of 30 % instead of the previously agreed @-@ to 10 % . Ausban Aeronautical Services of Australia was selected next , following a re @-@ tender , to fill the gap left by Phuket Air . In 2008 , Biman wet @-@ leased a 542 @-@ seater Boeing 747 @-@ 200 from Kabo Air of Nigeria for six months to operate flights to Saudi Arabia and the UAE . Another 512 @-@ seater Boeing 747 @-@ 300 was leased from Orient Thai Airlines .
As of June 2014 , Biman still experienced difficulties in providing their scheduled services , as the carrier gave priority to the transportation of pilgrims to Jeddah during the Hajj season using aircraft that otherwise were flown on its regular flights . Despite this , the airline reported a profit of almost BDT 1 billion from the 2012 Hajj season , the highest results ever since these services were started in 1973 .
= = Fleet = =
A vintage Douglas Dakota and Douglas DC @-@ 3 were the first aircraft in Biman 's fleet . Domestic operations commenced with the acquisition of four Fokker F27 aircraft flying passengers to Chittagong and Sylhet from its base in Dhaka . Shortly afterwards , a Boeing 707 , chartered from British Caledonian , joined the airline 's fleet , allowing Biman to begin international flights . In 1983 , Biman purchased three McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 @-@ 30 aircraft from Singapore Airlines to provide services on its long haul routes . The British Aerospace ATP entered the fleet in late 1990 , coming to replace the Fokker F27s .
During the mid @-@ 1990s , Biman switched its airliner of choice for long haul routes to the Airbus series of aircraft . In 1995 , two PW4000 @-@ powered Airbus A310 @-@ 300s were ordered ; the first of them joined the fleet on 15 June 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 06 @-@ 15 ) . It nevertheless retained its elderly DC – 10 fleet , even though the aircraft had been banned by several countries ( notably the USA ) because of safety concerns .
For over three decades , the DC – 10 – 30s were Biman 's sole widebody aircraft and served the airline consistently well , with no noteworthy mechanical problems – in marked contrast to the record of its domestic operations . These were operated with Fokker F28 and BAe ATPs which were routinely out of service because of technical trouble . In one incident , a government minister disembarked a flight and travelled by road when he learned that the aircraft he was on was a BAe ATP . In January 2003 , Biman leased two Boeing 737 @-@ 300s which were used on domestic and regional routes for eighteen months . These acted as a replacement for the BAe ATPs .
McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10s and Airbus A310 @-@ 300s made up most of Biman 's international fleet , before the delivery of the modern Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs started in 2011 . Fokker F28s made up the remainder of the fleet for the domestic and regional sectors , before they were retired in 2012 . Biman 's fleet contains the second @-@ to @-@ last Douglas DC – 10 to come off the production line ( l / n 445 ) , and only three other Airbus A310 – 300s were produced following Biman 's purchase of two new Airbus A310s in 1996 . The two Fokker F28 – 4000s were acquired from PBair in 2004 at a cost of $ 2 @.@ 91 million . Both of these aircraft were built in 1977 , making Biman 's latest acquisitions the oldest aircraft in its fleet . The ageing fleet made it difficult for Biman to maintain its flight schedule , as the aircraft suffered from mechanical problems , leading to flight delays and cancellations . A number of aircraft remained grounded owing to lack of spare parts as they are no longer manufactured and used parts are difficult to source . A deal was signed in January 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 01 ) a three @-@ year contract with a German company for the maintenance of their powerplants , for the DC – 10s . The airline operates its own ancillary and maintenance facilities at Shahjalal International Airport , where it carries out all maintenance work and C @-@ Checks on DC – 10 – 30s and A310 – 300s .
= = = Modernisation = = =
= = = = 2000s = = = =
In 2000 , Biman put out a request for proposal for the acquisition of four wide @-@ bodied aircraft to replace the DC – 10s , but both the fleet renewal plans and the airline 's expected privatisation were shelved by the government . A further attempt was made in 2005 to acquire new aircraft and plans were submitted for the purchase of ten new wide @-@ bodied Airbus and Boeing aircraft at a total cost of $ 1 billion . Boeing arranged to finance the purchase provided a guarantee was given by the Bangladesh government . After bureaucratic delays and a perceived lack of commitment from the government , Boeing lost interest and the plans were cancelled . A similar attempt to purchase medium @-@ haul aircraft for domestic service was also postponed . In March 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 03 ) , Biman put out a tender for the dry lease of two Airbus A310 @-@ 300 and two Airbus A300 @-@ 600 aircraft for two years . The sole response to the tender came from Star Aviation of the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) .
After Biman became a public limited company , renewed attempts were made to procure new @-@ generation aircraft to replace its ageing fleet . In November 2007 , Boeing made an offer to supply Biman with four Boeing 777 @-@ 200s ( with options for two more ) to be delivered by 2013 and four Boeing 787 @-@ 8 Dreamliners ( with options for two more ) to be delivered by 2017 and provide similar aircraft on lease for the interim period beginning in 2009 . The average price of these aircraft was quoted as US $ 165 million . Airbus also made an offer to supply four Airbus A320 or Airbus A330 series aircraft at a much lower price than that of Boeing . To manage the fleet in the short run , Biman again floated a tender in January 2008 to purchase / dry lease with options to purchase two used Airbus A310 @-@ 300 aircraft .
On 10 March 2008 , the Biman management unveiled a plan to procure eight next @-@ generation wide @-@ bodied aircraft from Boeing Commercial Airplanes for a total cost of US $ 1 @.@ 26 billion , including four 419 @-@ seater Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER ( average price of US $ 182 @.@ 9 million per unit ) , and four Boeing 787 @-@ 8 Dreamliners that will seat 294 ( US $ 133 @.@ 31 million per unit ) , to be delivered in 2017 . The deal for the acquisition of these eight aircraft was signed with Boeing in April 2008 , and also included a memorandum of understanding for the purchase of two Boeing 737 @-@ 800s to be delivered in 2015 , with Biman making an initial instalment of US $ 1 @.@ 54 million . Of the remaining cost , US @-@ based EXIM bank will finance 85 % , while a syndication of local banks will finance the balance . In June the same year , Biman placed a firm order for two Boeing 737 @-@ 800s , and took options for two more aircraft of the type . The total order for these ten aircraft was valued at around US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
In 2010 , Biman leased two Boeing 777 @-@ 200ERs from EuroAtlantic Airways . These aircraft were used mainly on routes to European destinations to cover the interim period before the delivery of the first two new Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs in 2011 . To secure the delivery of these two brand new 777 @-@ 300ERs the airline used an initial US $ 277 million loan granted from JPMorgan Chase . Wearing a new livery , the carrier took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER in late October 2011 . It was the 300th 777 @-@ 300ER delivered by Boeing . The 301st ever delivered Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER also went to Biman ; the airline took possession of it in late November 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 11 ) . The third Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , named Aakash Pradeep , was handed over to the carrier in February 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 02 ) ; the fourth one , named Raanga Pravat , joined the fleet in March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 ) , following the government approving a US $ 356 million loan , of which US $ 290 million will be provided by the Ex @-@ Im Bank and the rest by the Standard Chartered Bank .
Biman retired its entire McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 fleet on 20 February 2014 , by operating a special Dhaka @-@ Birmingham farewell flight with its last DC @-@ 10 , with a stopover at Kuwait ; the carrier also operated nine separate aviation enthusiasts ' scenic flights at Birmingham , from 22 – 24 February , three flights a day . The last DC @-@ 10 will then be scrapped locally in Dhaka . The Airbus A310 @-@ 300s will also be phased out in 2015 .
The carrier leased two Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER aircraft from EgyptAir in March 2014 . The airline plans to expand its fleet to 16 aircraft , to allow route expansion . With newly leased Dash 8 @-@ Q400 aircraft , the carrier is resuming full swing domestic flights to Cox 's Bazar , Jessore , Saidpur , Rajshahi and Barisal in April 2015 . The two aircraft , dry leased from Smart Aviation Company for a period of five years , will also be operated on regional flights to Kolkata and Yangon . Initially it was supposed to resume in November 2013 , which Biman failed to as it was unable to find a lessor of aircraft .
= = = Livery = = =
In modern Bengali , the word বিমান biman refers to " aeroplane " , originating from the Sanskrit word vimāna , a name given to a flying machine mentioned in ancient Vedic literature . The logo , painted on the tail , is a stylised white stork ( বলাকা bôlaka ) inside a red circle . The logo was designed by painter Quamrul Hassan . The initial livery was a dark blue line extending across the aircraft along the windows and covering the tail section . This was replaced in the 1980s by dark green and red lines , matching the colours of the Bangladesh flag , and has remained so for over two decades .
In 2010 , Biman went through a rebranding exercise and unveiled a new logo and livery , designed by Teague , which was applied to its leased Boeing 777 and 737 aircraft . However , following change of government , Biman was forced to revert to the original branding as the new brand image was not endorsed by the incoming government . The carrier has adopted a new , more modern revised version of its livery , that was applied to the new Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs delivered in late 2011 .
The bôlaka has also given its name to the Biman headquarters , the Balaka Bhaban ( বলাকা ভবন bôlaka bhôban , Stork Building ) , and a landmark sculpture in Dhaka depicting storks is in front of Biman 's former headquarters , the Biman Bhaban in the Motijheel Commercial Area in Dhaka .
= = = Current = = =
As of February 2016 , the Biman Bangladesh Airlines fleet included the following aircraft :
= = = Historical fleet = = =
The carrier also formerly operated the following aircraft :
= = Accidents and incidents = =
As of November 2013 , Aviation Safety Network records 11 accidents / incidents for Biman Bangladesh Airlines , with only two of them leading to fatalities .
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= New York State Route 21 =
New York State Route 21 ( NY 21 ) is a state highway extending for 99 @.@ 99 miles ( 160 @.@ 92 km ) through the western part of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 417 in the village of Andover , and its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 104 in the town of Williamson . In between , NY 21 serves the cities of Hornell and Canandaigua and intersects several major east – west routes , including the Southern Tier Expressway ( I @-@ 86 / NY 17 ) near Hornell , the conjoined routes of U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 in Canandaigua , the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) in Manchester , and NY 31 in Palmyra .
NY 21 originally extended from the Pennsylvania state line in the south to Lake Ontario in the north when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . South of Hornell , the route followed modern NY 36 . NY 21 was rerouted to follow its current alignment south of Hornell in the 1950s and truncated on its northern end to Williamson in 1980 . Other changes of local importance , mostly realignments to bypass communities along the route , have also occurred at various points in the route 's history . NY 21 originally had an alternate route around Canandaigua Lake ; however , that highway — designated NY 21A — was eliminated in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Andover to Naples = = =
NY 21 begins at an intersection with NY 417 in the village of Andover . The route heads northward , paralleling the Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad ( WNYP ) through a rural stretch of eastern Allegany County . At Alfred Station , located just east of the village of Alfred , the highway meets the eastern terminus of NY 244 . NY 21 and the WNYP head northeast through the village of Almond to the Steuben County line , where the road and rail line begin to turn to the southeast toward Hornell . The portion of NY 21 near Almond briefly parallels the Southern Tier Expressway , designated Interstate 86 ( I @-@ 86 ) and NY 17 . East of the county line , NY 21 leaves the vicinity of the expressway and passes through another undeveloped stretch to reach the city of Hornell , where it becomes West Main Street .
The highway follows West Main Street for several blocks into the city 's downtown district , where it crosses the Norfolk Southern Railway 's Southern Tier Line and intersects NY 36 . NY 21 turns north onto NY 36 , separating from the WNYP and forming a concurrency with NY 36 north along a four @-@ lane divided highway known as the Maple City Bypass . The overlap ends north of the city limits in the town of Hornellsville , where NY 21 splits from NY 36 and resumes its northeasterly track . Not far to the north of this point is exit 34 of the Southern Tier Expressway , accessed by way of NY 36 . From Hornell , NY 21 heads northeast through progressively less developed areas as it winds its way across the hilly terrain of the Southern Tier . For the next 15 miles ( 24 km ) , NY 21 serves only small , roadside hamlets , such as Fremont , Haskinville , and Loon Lake .
North of Haskinville , NY 21 takes on a more northerly course through the county that eventually brings it to the village of Wayland , where it intersects I @-@ 390 at exit 3 south of the village . The interchange also serves as the southern terminus of NY 15 and is adjacent to the north end of NY 415 , which terminates north of the exit at NY 21 . NY 15 joins NY 21 north into the center of Wayland , where the two routes separate upon intersecting NY 63 . While NY 15 continues north from the village into Livingston County , NY 21 leaves Wayland on an east – west alignment , roughly paralleling the northern county line and a B & H Rail Corporation line as it runs through a valley surrounding the Cohocton River . After 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , the road enters the hamlet of North Cohocton , centered around NY 21 's junction with the northern terminus of NY 371 .
While the river , its valley , and the rail line proceed south from North Cohocton , NY 21 turns to the northeast , ascending out of the valley and finally crossing the county line , at this point bordering Ontario County . The route meanders across another area of hilly , undeveloped terrain to the village of Naples , home to the north end of NY 53 and the south end of NY 245 . NY 21 meets the two routes at opposite ends of the community , with NY 53 terminating south of the village center and NY 245 beginning to its north . Naples also serves as NY 21 's entrance to the Finger Lakes region ; the village itself is located in the southernmost part of the Canandaigua Lake valley .
= = = Naples to Williamson = = =
NY 21 continues north from Naples , running alongside the western edge of the lake valley , and eventually the lake itself . Near Woodville , a hamlet 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Naples , the route briefly enters Yates County for just over a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before reentering Ontario County . It serves lakeside homes and cottages in the town of South Bristol for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , after which the road begins to climb the side of the valley and meander toward the hamlet of Bristol Springs . Here , the road forks , with NY 64 beginning to the left ( west ) and NY 21 continuing to the right ( north ) . While NY 64 heads northwest to Rochester , NY 21 progresses to the northeast , overlooking Canandaigua Lake on its way through mostly isolated areas of the town of Canandaigua . The route eventually reaches the outskirts of the city of Canandaigua , where it intersects US 20 and NY 5 .
At this point , NY 21 turns east , joining US 20 and NY 5 as all three routes head around the southwestern portion of the city . The primary portion of the bypass ends about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) later at an intersection with South Main Street ; the junction also marks the east end of the overlap between the three routes and the south end of NY 332 . NY 21 turns north onto South Main Street , following NY 332 through the city 's historic downtown district . The two routes pass by 426 South Main Street , Benham House , and the city 's former United States Post Office , all properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places , before splitting at the junction of Gibson and North Main streets . NY 332 continues north from this point on North Main Street toward Victor while NY 21 follows Gibson Street northeastward through a residential section of the city . It passes Sonnenberg Gardens and Mansion State Historic Park and the city 's VA Hospital before leaving the Canandaigua city limits .
Outside the Canandaigua city limits , the area surrounding NY 21 becomes rural once again ; however , the surrounding terrain is more level than it was south of the city . The route heads northeast through farmland to Chapin , a small hamlet in the town of Hopewell , where it intersects the south end of NY 488 and turns to take on a more northerly course . Not far to the north are the adjacent villages of Shortsville and Manchester , roughly separated by the Ontario Central Railroad . Here , NY 21 passes under the railroad and intersects both NY 96 and the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) at exit 43 just north of the Manchester village center . Past the Thruway , NY 21 becomes rural in nature once more as it runs across rolling terrain to the Wayne County line .
Within Wayne County , the area around NY 21 becomes more developed as it enters the village of Palmyra , where the road is village @-@ maintained from the southern village line to its junction with NY 31 in the village 's historic center . The route briefly overlaps NY 31 along East Main Street before crossing both the Erie Canal and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision on its way out of the village . From Palmyra to Williamson , the land surrounding NY 21 is predominantly rural in nature . However , midway between the two locations , NY 21 comes close to the hamlet of Marion , which it bypasses to the west . In Williamson , NY 21 passes through the town center at a junction with Ridge Road before ending at an intersection with NY 104 in a more commercial section of the town .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Prior to the American Revolution , the path of modern NY 21 north of Canandaigua was part of an old Native American trail connecting Seneca Lake to Lake Ontario by way of Canandaigua Lake . The trail began in the vicinity of Geneva and went west to Canandaigua on a path now occupied by US 20 and NY 5 . It continued north from Canandaigua , passing through the village of Palmyra and the hamlet of Marion before reaching the Lake Ontario shoreline at Pultneyville . Construction to convert the Canandaigua – Marion section of the trail into a road was completed in 1794 . The remainder of the trail north to Pultneyville was converted into a road approximately three years later .
The Canandaigua – Pultneyville highway served as a post road in the years that followed . At some point , the section of the highway between Palmyra and Marion , initially a corduroy road , was rebuilt as a plank road and tolled . The highway fell into disrepair over the years , leading travelers to conceive ways to avoid paying toll . The toll booths were eventually removed , and the road was later covered with dirt and converted into a stage road . By the 1920s , the state of New York had assumed ownership of the Canandaigua – Pultneyville highway . In the mid @-@ 1920s , it became part of NY 72 , a north – south highway extending from NY 52 in Naples to the Lake Ontario shoreline in Pultneyville by way of the western side of Canandaigua Lake .
= = = Establishment = = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 72 became part of NY 21 , a new route extending from the Pennsylvania state line at Troupsburg to Pultneyville . It followed what is now NY 36 from the state line to Hornell and modern County Route 121 ( CR 121 ) , NY 415 , and NY 371 between Loon Lake and North Cohocton ( via Cohocton ) . The remainder of NY 21 roughly followed its current alignment . At the same time , what is now NY 21 from Andover to Hornell was designated as the western half of NY 17F while the section between Loon Lake and modern NY 415 was assigned NY 371 . The remaining piece around Wayland was part of NY 2 south of Wayland and part of the new NY 39 from Wayland to Cohocton . NY 39 overlapped NY 21 from Cohocton to Naples , where it forked from NY 21 and continued east on modern NY 245 .
Several portions of current NY 21 south of Naples had carried designations prior to 1930 . In 1924 , the Andover – Hornell segment was designated as part of NY 17 ; at the same time , the short piece between modern NY 415 and the center of Wayland became part of NY 4 . By 1926 , the portion connecting Wayland to Naples was included in the new NY 52 . NY 4 was renumbered to NY 2 in 1927 to eliminate numerical duplication with the new US 4 .
= = = Realignments and truncations = = =
The alignments of NY 21 and NY 371 between Loon Lake and Cohocton were flipped c . 1937 , routing NY 21 through the village of Wayland instead . The realignment extended NY 21 's overlap with NY 39 west to Wayland and created an overlap with NY 2 south of the village . NY 2 was absorbed into an extended US 15 ( now NY 15 ) by the following year . In the early 1940s , the NY 17F designation was eliminated and replaced with an extended NY 36 from Andover to Hornell . The alignments of NY 36 and NY 21 south of Hornell were flipped in the early 1950s , placing both routes on their current alignments south of the city .
On April 1 , 1980 , NY 21 was truncated to its present northern terminus at NY 104 in Williamson as part of a highway maintenance swap between New York State and Wayne County . In the swap , ownership and maintenance of NY 21 north of Williamson was transferred from the state of New York to the county in exchange for maintenance of NY 441 between the Monroe – Wayne county line and NY 350 . The former routing of NY 21 north to Lake Road ( CR 101 ) in Pultneyville is now designated as CR 120 .
Until the 1980s , NY 21 entered Canandaigua on Bristol Street and followed it to South Main Street ( then @-@ US 20 and NY 5 ) , where it joined its current alignment . When the Western Bypass around the southwestern fringe of the city was constructed in the late 1970s and early 1980s , US 20 and NY 5 were realigned to follow the highway around the city . NY 21 was also realigned at this time to follow its modern routing on the bypass and South Main Street . The segment of Bristol Street vacated by NY 21 between the Western Bypass and the Canandaigua city line was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) as unsigned NY 943A until September 1 , 1996 , when maintenance of the road was turned over to the town of Canandaigua . However , the designation remained in NYSDOT documents until 2007 .
= = NY 21A = =
NY 21A was an alternate route of NY 21 along the eastern side of Canandaigua Lake . When it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at NY 21 north of the village of Naples and ran along the east shore of the lake to eastern Canandaigua , where it ended at US 20 and NY 5 . In between , NY 21A passed through the lakeside hamlet of Vine Valley . The route was truncated c . 1939 to begin in Vine Valley , separating it from its parent route . It was eliminated entirely in the early 1940s when most of NY 21A was absorbed by NY 364 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship =
The TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship was a women 's professional wrestling tag team championship owned by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion . It was contested for mainly by teams consisting of two female wrestlers in TNA , known as the TNA Knockouts , in TNA 's women 's division ; however , the championship was once held by a male .
The creation of the championship was announced on August 20 , 2009 during a backstage segment on TNA 's primary television program TNA Impact ! . Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won via the result of a scripted match . Sarita and Taylor Wilde were the inaugural champions . They won a four @-@ week tournament to crown the first champions . The final champions were ODB and Eric Young , who held the titles for a record 478 days .
On the June 20 , 2013 episode of Impact Wrestling , Knockouts Division Executive Brooke Hogan stripped ODB and Young of the title because Young is a male talent , despite the fact that he had been a male for the prior 478 days . This ultimately resulted in the titles being deactivated , as it 's no longer listed among TNA 's active championships .
= = History = =
= = = TNA Knockout = = =
TNA Knockout , or just Knockout for short , is the term used by TNA to refer to its onscreen female employees ; this is similar to TNA 's main rival World Wrestling Entertainment and their Divas pseudonym . TNA 's first women 's accomplishment was announced at TNA 's first weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view event on June 19 , 2002 . It was called the " Miss TNA " crown . The holder of the crown was determined in a lingerie battle royal on June 19 , 2002 , which aired on June 26 , 2002 . The participants in the match were Alexis Laree , Elektra , Erin Bray , Francine , Miss Joni , Sasha , Shannon , Taylor Vaughn , and Teresa Tyler . Vaughn last eliminated Elektra to win the crown . The TNA Knockout of the Year is another award in TNA given to the knockout who achieved the most or had the best run that year . The most recent Knockout of the Year was Gail Kim in 2007 ; no award was given out in 2008 . In October 2007 at TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event , TNA established their first women 's championship , with Gail Kim winning a 10 knockout gauntlet match to become the first TNA Women 's Knockout Champion . Ms. Brooks , Christy Hemme , Awesome Kong , Roxxi Laveaux , Talia Madison , Shelly Martinez , Jackie Moore , ODB , and Angel Williams were also involved in the match . Two DVDs on the topic of the TNA Knockouts have been released by TNA . The first was named " Knockouts : The Ladies of TNA Wrestling Vol.1 " and was released on August 29 , 2006 . " Knocked Out : The Women of TNA Wrestling " was the second , being released on October 7 , 2008 .
= = = Championship Tournament = = =
On the August 20 , 2009 episode of Impact ! , backstage interviewer Lauren , who was standing with and about to interview Christy Hemme , Tara , Taylor Wilde , and Sarita , announced that TNA were planning to host an eight @-@ team single elimination tag team tournament to crown the first @-@ ever TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions . After a four @-@ way match consisting of Hemme , Traci Brooks , Sarita , and Awesome Kong , TNA commentators Mike Tenay and Taz announced that the first round match of the tournament would take place on the August 27 episode of Impact ! with Kong and Raisha Saeed facing Brooks and Sharmell . Kong and Saeed wound up winning the match , and moving to the next round of the tournament . On the September 3 episode of Impact ! , the team of Hemme and Tara defeated the team of Hamada and Sojournor Bolt to move onto round two of the tournament . The next week on Impact ! , the team of Sarita and Taylor Wilde defeated Alissa Flash and Daffney to also advance to round two . Later in that same episode , Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ( collectively known as The Beautiful People ) defeated the team of Madison Rayne and Roxxi . Round two began on the September 17 episode of Impact ! , with the encounters of Kong and Saeed versus Sarita and Wilde and The Beautiful People versus Hemme and Tara . The first bout pitted Hemme and Tara against The Beautiful People , with the latter being victorious . Sarita and Wilde won the second encounter over Kong and Saeed . The finals for the tournament were then set for TNA 's No Surrender PPV event , with The Beautiful People versus Sarita and Wilde . Sarita and Wilde defeated Madison Rayne , a substitute for Angelina Love who had been released from her contract prior to the event , and Velvet Sky ( also collectively known as The Beautiful People ) on September 20 at No Surrender to become the first official TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions .
Tournament Bracket
= = = Belt designs = = =
The actual physical title belts were first shown at No Surrender . The belts introduced have a red strap with two small gold plates and one large gold plate . In the center of each plate stands a figure resembling a globe made out of gold . On the outer edge of the plate are red gems , which circle the entire plate . The center golden plate of the belt has TNA 's official logo engraved in the very center with the words " Knockouts Tag Team " above it and the words " Wrestling Champion " below .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champions were Sarita and Wilde , who defeated The Beautiful People ( Rayne and Sky ) in the finals of an eight @-@ team tournament to crown the first TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions . At 478 days , Eric Young and ODB hold the record for the longest reign in the title 's history . Awesome Kong 's and Hamada 's only reign holds the record for the shortest reign in the title 's history at 63 days . As of June 27 , 2013 , the championships are retired due to TNA not having enough female talent for a Tag Team Division . Young is the first and only male wrestler to have held the title . Overall , there have been 9 reigns shared between 15 wrestlers and 9 teams .
= = = Combined reigns = = =
= = = = By team = = = =
= = = = By wrestler = = = =
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= Sonic Unleashed =
Sonic Unleashed , released as Sonic World Adventure ( Japanese : ソニックワールドアドベンチャー , Hepburn : Sonikku Wārudo Adobenchā ) in Japan , is a 2008 video game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for multiple platforms in 2008 . The game follows Sonic the Hedgehog as he attempts to restore the world to normal after his nemesis , Doctor Eggman . The game also focuses on Sonic 's ' werehog ' form , which he gains during the beginning after coming into contact with the energy of Dark Gaia . Gameplay features two distinct styles , with each being played either during daytime or night @-@ time . Daytime stages incorporate Sonic 's traditional platforming and trademark speed , with a combination of behind @-@ the @-@ back third @-@ person viewpoints and 2D side @-@ scroller platforming ; gameplay seamlessly transitions between these two views . Night @-@ time levels see Sonic transform into the Werehog ; gameplay slows down to accommodate greater platform play , and involves combat against waves of enemies using the Werehog 's brute strength .
The game 's existence was first brought to light when Sega trademarked the Unleashed name , and shortly after , images and a gameplay video were leaked to the public in March 2008 . Public anticipation for the game was high , owing to the video 's demonstration of some two @-@ dimensional gameplay , seen as a possible return to Sonic 's platforming roots . However , critical reception for the game was mixed , with reviewers praising certain elements , such as the sense of speed in daylight stages and the graphics and audio that make up the environments , and criticizing others , such as the new Werehog game mechanic , as well as several gameplay and design concepts . Many reviewers felt that Unleashed was ultimately not the title that would be able to reinvigorate the series . Sonic Unleashed was de @-@ listed in 2010 , following Sega 's decision to remove all Sonic titles with average Metacritic scores from sale in stores . Despite this , the game was made available to purchase on PlayStation Network on April 8 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic Unleashed is a platform game in which the player controls the titular Sonic the Hedgehog in two modes : fast @-@ paced levels that take place during daytime , showcasing Sonic 's trademark speed as seen in previous games in the series , and slower , night @-@ time levels , during which Sonic transforms into the Werehog , and gameplay switches to an action @-@ based , brawler style of play , in which Sonic battles Gaia enemies ( those created by the main enemy in the game , Dark Gaia ) . Each level takes place on a particular continent , each of which is based on a real @-@ world location ( i.e. , Greece @-@ based Apotos , Italy @-@ based Spagonia , Africa @-@ based Mazuri , New York @-@ based Empire City , China @-@ based Chun @-@ nan , Antarctica @-@ based Holoska , Middle East @-@ based Shamar , and Southeast Asia @-@ based Adabat . In sections of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of the game , the player may choose to advance the time of day in order to play as either Sonic or the Werehog ; in the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions , time is advanced automatically .
Daytime levels focus on Sonic 's speed , and to this extent , sees the player control Sonic through fast @-@ moving stages containing both 2D and 3D styles of gameplay . 2D sections are reminiscent of the Mega Drive / Genesis @-@ era Sonic games , where the player controls Sonic in a side @-@ scrolling fashion , while 3D sections see the camera placed behind Sonic , so the player may move in all directions . In addition to moves available in past games , such as the homing attack , new moves are also introduced . For instance , a new sidestep feature known as the Quick Step is available , allowing Sonic to dodge left and right , and a Drift feature , which allows Sonic to make tighter turns without slowing down . The game also features a gameplay mechanic previously used in the Sonic Rush series called the Sonic Boost , which greatly increases Sonic 's speed , allowing him to smash through objects , destroy enemies instantly , or even access different level paths . In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , an on @-@ screen " Ring Energy " meter displays how much boost is available . The amount of boost remaining may be increased by collecting more rings , and is decreased by using the Boost . In contrast , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of the game represent available Boost using bars , which may be added by performing " Action Chains " , destroying multiple enemies in quick succession through the use of homing attacks , or by collecting rings . Japanese game company Dimps helped design some of the stages .
Nighttime levels feature slower @-@ paced , action @-@ oriented levels , in which Sonic transforms into the Werehog , a beast form that has great strength and stretchable arms . Gameplay here sees the player use a variety of melee and combo attacks to defeat large numbers of enemies , collect items , and move items around to advance through the level , and use his stretchable arms to cling to distant objects ; simple puzzle elements are also featured . Collecting rings in these levels replenishes the Werehog 's health , while a special move , Unleashed Mode , allows the Werehog to channel his energy into increasing the power of his attacks for a short time . Nighttime levels are adjusted in the Wii version to allow greater use of the Wii Remote , such that players may control the arms of the Werehog by using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk in order to grab onto objects and proceed in the levels . The Wii version of the game also expands upon the ratio of nighttime levels to daytime , with more than three times as many nighttime levels ( twenty @-@ five in all ) . After nighttime levels are completed , Dark Gaia Points are gained , allowing access to bonus moves .
In addition to these two gameplay types , Sonic Unleashed also features hubworlds , in which the player may reveal , as well as advance , the story of the game . Hubworlds operate differently depending on the version of the game being played ; the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature fully interactive , explorable 3D hubworlds , similar to those in Sonic 2006 and Sonic Adventure , in which townspeople may be interacted with and side quests may be undertaken , in order to gain experience or unlock items , such as artwork , videos and music tracks . In contrast , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions feature menu @-@ based map systems , in which players simply click on areas to talk to townspeople and find information . Within both day and nighttime levels are medals that Sonic may collect , two types of which exist : Sun and Moon . In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , collecting these medals allows the player to level up Sonic 's Sun and Moon stats , and these must be increased to reach new stages in the game , with a certain number of Sun medals for Hedgehog levels , and a certain number of Moon medals for Werehog levels . Because only the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature playable hubworlds , these are also the only versions in which Sun and Moon medals may be found by exploring the towns , talking to the citizens , and completing side quests . In the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions , Sun and Moon medals are earned after completing stages and clearing their objectives . The medals are used to open up doors in Gaia gates , which can earn bonus content .
= = Plot = =
In a cold open , Sonic is pursuing his nemesis , Doctor Eggman , bounding around a fleet of spaceships . After the defeat of several of his robots , Sonic transforms into Super Sonic . After a brief chase through the airships , Sonic corners Eggman . However , Eggman manages to trap him using a powerful new ray weapon which drains the power of the Chaos Emeralds , causing them to turn grey and useless . He then uses the Emeralds ' energy to fire an enormous laser and unleash a powerful beast , Dark Gaia , from the center of the planet , which has devastating consequences , shattering the planet into seven pieces . In addition , the ray and drained Chaos Emeralds have the unforeseen side @-@ effect of transforming Sonic into a " Werehog " — a beast form with greater strength and abilities — at night . Eggman then ejects Sonic into space , who then lands safely onto the planet below .
After landing along with the Emeralds , Sonic encounters a friendly creature who appears to suffer amnesia . Assuming he has caused it with his fall , Sonic decides to assist him in his quest to find out who he is , and the monster becomes a guide for the player ; Sonic soon gives him the nickname Chip . Sonic 's quest begins , and with the help of some old friends , such as Amy and Tails , he attempts to solve the crisis by traveling the world 's continents , finding shrines that will fix the Emeralds , in order to return the world , and himself , to normal .
After six of the seven continents are returned to normal , Chip is able to regain his memory ; he is in fact Dark Gaia 's opposite , Light Gaia . Since the beginning of time , the two of them had been in a cycle where Dark Gaia would break the planet apart , and Light Gaia would put it back together . Chip was released along with Dark Gaia , but because both of them were released prematurely , he lost his memory , and Dark Gaia was broken apart . They are able to place the last Chaos Emerald in the shrine on the final continent at Eggman 's new empire , " Eggmanland " , but are interrupted by him ; Sonic then defeats Eggman who is using a robot that utilizes Dark Gaia 's power . During the battle , the three sink into the core of the Earth and encounter Dark Gaia . Eggman orders Dark Gaia to destroy Sonic , but it turns on him , knocking him away with one of its tentacles , and absorbs the power that turned Sonic into a Werehog , curing Sonic of lycanthropy , and uses that power to become Semi @-@ Perfect Dark Gaia .
Dark Gaia then attacks Sonic and Chip , but Chip protects Sonic and calls all of the Gaia temples together to form the Gaia Colossus and fight Dark Gaia . The Gaia Colussus seemingly destroys Dark Gaia , but Dark Gaia is not finished with them or the Earth yet , and consumes the entire world in darkness , becoming Perfect Dark Gaia in the process . Chip then gives the restored Chaos Emeralds to Sonic , allowing him to turn into Super Sonic and destroy it ; Dark Gaia then sinks back into the planet , but the battle takes its toll on Super Sonic . Chip saves Sonic by throwing him to the surface , before returning himself to the inside of the planet ; he leaves behind his necklace and some parting words . Sonic places the necklace on his hand as a bracelet to remind him of their adventure together before speeding off with Tails , flying alongside him on the coastline in the Tornado plane .
= = Development = =
Sonic Team began development of the game in 2006 , after having begun work on the core technology , the Hedgehog Engine , in 2005 . The title was first brought to public attention when the Sonic Unleashed name was trademarked by Sega on March 12 , 2008 . Screenshots of cut scenes , artwork , and a video were leaked ten days later , with the title then officially confirmed by Sega on April 3 , 2008 with a small selection of screenshots and an updated video . The game was developed internally by Sonic Team in Japan . It was originally intended to be the third installment of the Sonic Adventure series and subsequently , at an early development stage , had the working title Sonic World Adventure , complete with work @-@ in @-@ progress logo . However , the development team began to introduce enough new innovations to separate it from the Sonic Adventure titles , and so a new title , Sonic Unleashed , was decided upon . It was then later revealed that the game 's name in Japan would in fact remain Sonic World Adventure for its release there .
Sonic Team decided early on in the development process to reduce the number of characters present in the game , as well as to make Sonic the only playable character ; this decision was taken to get more quality out of fewer characters . While it felt that these ideas combined with traditional Sonic gameplay was a good beginning , it also had to consider how to introduce newer gamers unfamiliar with the Sonic franchise to the series , and so the concept of the Werehog was born , in addition to exploring its own mythology and ideas for the story . Director Yoshihisa Hashimoto felt from the outset that there would be both praise and criticism , but hoped that long @-@ term Sonic fans would understand and empathise with the ideas and direction the team had taken .
In terms of technology , Hashimoto remarked that the visual style was born out of desire to see a global illumination solution used for the game 's lighting — that is , light reflecting from one object in the scene onto others . To this extent , development on the renderer for this process began , and the final solution allowed the developers to use distributed rendering over hundreds of computers to calculate lighting for each ten- to twenty @-@ kilometer action stage in around two or three days . Characters , enemies and objects are then lit at run @-@ time with Sonic Team 's " Light Field " technology to blend them in with the surrounding pre @-@ calculated lighting . Because the game was being developed for two levels of hardware capability depending on the target platform , two development " silos " were set up to work on two separate builds of the game : one for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 version utilizing the Hedgehog Engine , and one for the PlayStation 2 and Wii version , which instead utilizes a modified version of an existing , internal Sega engine . Hashimoto , who had never directed a Sonic game before , incorporated new features such as a " Quick Step " mechanic allowing players to dodge obstacles with the L and R triggers . Hashimoto sought to combine the best qualities of 2D and 3D Sonic gameplay and address the criticisms directed at previous 3D entries in the franchise . Additional code to dynamically adjust the speed of the game for different situations was used to properly balance its fast pace with traditional platforming elements .
As well as the unique motion @-@ based gameplay mechanics , the Wii version of the game also supports the GameCube controller , and also the option of using the Classic Controller . The daytime levels for the Wii were altered to accommodate the motion control @-@ based drift mechanic , while night @-@ time levels include a mostly behind @-@ the @-@ back view and different platforming styles and combat mechanics . Developer Dimps , who had past involvement in the Sonic franchise , was involved in the design of the daytime areas for these versions . In addition , overall , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions have fewer daytime levels than the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 counterparts .
Initially , it was stated that Unleashed was to be intended solely as a single @-@ player experience , and would not offer any multiplayer or online modes . This was cast into doubt when references to online modes were alluded to around E3 2008 , but later interviews re @-@ iterated that Unleashed would have no online modes at all . However , downloadable content , including additional levels , would remain a possibility after the game 's release . A demo version was released on the Xbox Live Marketplace on December 8 , 2008 and on the US and EU PlayStation Stores on December 18 and 24 , 2008 , respectively . The demo does not contain any of the Werehog stages . On March 12 , 2009 Sega released Sonic Unleashed 's first downloadable content for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , consisting of four Chun @-@ nan daytime stages and two night stages in addition to two new missions . Since then , more downloadable levels have been added : Spagonia , Holoska , Mazuri , Apotos , Shamar , Empire city and Adabat .
Speaking after the game 's release , Sonic Team member and Sonic and the Black Knight director Tetsu Katano remarked that although he did not feel the Werehog concept was a mistake , time and resources were a limiting factor in the game 's production . He also remarked that the Werehog may reappear in future games , or possibly in a sequel to Sonic Unleashed , should one be made .
Game developer Gameloft announced in May 2009 that it had secured a licensing agreement with Sega Europe Ltd. to produce mobile phone versions of Sega properties , and that its first title would be a version of Sonic Unleashed for mobile phone platforms . It was released in June 2009 in Europe , Middle East , Australia and New Zealand .
= = Reception = =
Initial anticipation when the first media for Unleashed was revealed was high , as the demonstration videos hinted at a possible return of Sonic to his traditional platforming roots , especially because of the series ' declining quality in recent years , and a number of poorly received titles in the franchise that preceded it , such as the 2006 game , Sonic the Hedgehog .
Critical reception to Unleashed was mixed , with Metacritic aggregate scores of 60 and 54 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions respectively , and 66 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions . The added element of motion controls for the Werehog sections , as well as text @-@ based hub worlds and better Werehog level design and camera system , were reasons cited for the higher review scores for the Wii version of the game , though a few review websites , such as 1UP , gave the Wii version a lower score than its Xbox 360 and PS3 counterparts . Nevertheless , the game was a commercial success and sold 2 @.@ 45 million units combined making it Sega 's third best selling game during their last fiscal year period of 2008 .
Positive elements of Sonic Unleashed remarked upon by reviews include the environments , such as the " postcard @-@ perfect architecture " , and the graphics , with stages looking " absolutely gorgeous " and being " very pretty and lovingly animated " , with one reviewer comparing them to a playable Pixar film . Praise was given to the technical competence of Sega 's new Hedgehog Engine as a whole on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , with " bright cartoonish graphics that fly by without a stutter " ; however , some complaints were raised about frame rate reduction when large numbers of enemies appeared during the Werehog sections . Although the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions do not use the Hedgehog Engine , graphics for these platforms were still praised for their high quality , with the title being nominated for Best Graphics Technology for the Wii by IGN in its 2008 video game awards . The soundtrack to the game was also praised as being an improvement on more recent installments in the series ; use of an orchestral score , rather than rock as in more recent games , was appreciated .
An overwhelmingly negative reaction was given by critics to the Werehog concept and corresponding night @-@ time sections , which contributed greatly to the lower than expected review scores . Some reviewers compared the Werehog sections to God of War . Complaints stemmed from the game 's change of speed , from high @-@ speed daytime sections to the slower , night @-@ time sections ; the " pace @-@ breaking combat levels " were described as " plodding " , as well as " lethargic " and " combat @-@ heavy " . Further to the change of pace , the new style of gameplay that accompanies the night @-@ time levels was widely criticized , involving " frustrating " platform elements and combat described as not " terribly interesting " and " boring " , with " awkward " action sequences overall . Some reviewers felt that the Werehog as a concept did not mix well with the daylight areas and traditional Sonic gameplay ; GamePro 's review described them as " dreadfully out @-@ of @-@ place " , while IGN stated that they have " nothing to do with Sonic whatsoever " , feeling that the Werehog was " being slapped on " to the Sonic experience .
In stark contrast to the Werehog sections , many reviewers found the daytime levels to be enjoyable , especially the " exhilarating " sense of speed they provide ; with " the most satisfying gameplay of any Sonic title in years " , the game " perfectly [ captures ] the feel of classic Sonic " . Many also enjoyed the mixture of , and transition between , 2D and 3D sections . Indeed , many reviewers remarked that they would have appreciated the game more had it consisted solely of , and expanded upon , the daytime levels . GameSpot 's review for the Xbox 360 version , however , argued that the controls were " unresponsive " in the daytime levels , and that most of them were " horribly designed " , instead describing the Wii version as a " vastly superior experience " , with its daytime levels praised for better control and design .
Aside from the criticism of Werehog levels , further aspects of the game were criticised , contributing to the mixed review scores . The quests that players must undertake in hub @-@ towns were described as " inane " and " tedious " , where " figuring out what happens next involves aimlessly wandering through towns and speaking to citizens , only to discover that most of them don 't know what we 're looking for " . The story and overall tone of the game , including the new character Chip , were criticised , some remarking that it was too juvenile , or comparable to that of a Saturday morning cartoon .
= = Legacy = =
The game 's original soundtrack , entitled Planetary Pieces : Sonic World Adventure Original Soundtrack , was released as a three @-@ disc set in Japan on January 28 , 2009 . The main theme music for the game is entitled " Endless Possibility " , and features Jaret Reddick of the American rock band Bowling for Soup . The ending theme music for the game is a slow tempo ballad entitled " Dear My Friend " , and features singer Brent Cash .
Downloadable packs containing extra levels for this game are available on the PlayStation Network and the Xbox Live Arcade .
Archie Comics has made an adaptation of Sonic Unleashed featuring the opening cutscene and Sonic 's transformation into the Werehog . A short 3D animated film was released on November 21 , 2008 , entitled Sonic : Night of the Werehog , which tells the story of two male ghosts who live in a haunted house taking pictures of scared children in order to woo a female ghost , and their frustration with an unafraid Sonic who enters the house with a very afraid Chip . But soon , it 's the ghosts who are afraid when Sonic looks at the full moon and transforms . The film was produced by Sega VE Animation Studio .
On March 25 , 2010 , a pack of Sonic costumes was released to the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 game LittleBigPlanet . The pack includes Sonic , Tails , Knuckles , Dr. Eggman and Sonic the Werehog .
For Sonic 's 20th anniversary , Sonic Generations includes major gaming aspects from past titles . A remake of the Rooftop Run stage appears in the console and PC versions , along with a modified Egg Dragoon serving as the second @-@ to @-@ last boss of those versions . However , Sonic does not retain the Werehog form and instead must fight the machine in his normal form .
On May 14 , 2014 , Archie Comics ' Sonic the Hedgehog comics branched out to follow some of the main events in Sonic Unleashed , such as the planet breaking apart , and the addition of Sonic the Werehog starting in issue 264 .
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= Bird =
Birds ( Aves ) are a group of endothermic vertebrates , characterised by feathers , toothless beaked jaws , the laying of hard @-@ shelled eggs , a high metabolic rate , a four @-@ chambered heart , and a lightweight but strong skeleton . Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm ( 2 in ) bee hummingbird to the 2 @.@ 75 m ( 9 ft ) ostrich . They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species , at approximately ten thousand , with more than half of these being passerines , sometimes known as perching birds or , less accurately , as songbirds .
The fossil record indicates that birds are the last surviving group of dinosaurs , having evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs . True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period , around 100 million years ago . DNA @-@ based evidence finds that birds diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event that killed off all other dinosaurs . Birds , especially those in the southern continents , survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling . Primitive bird @-@ like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper , in the broader group Avialae , have been found dating back to the mid @-@ Jurassic period . Many of these early " stem @-@ birds " , such as Archaeopteryx , were not yet capable of fully powered flight , and many retained primitive characteristics like toothy jaws in place of beaks , and long bony tails .
Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species ; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds . Wings , which evolved from forelimbs , give most birds the ability to fly , although further speciation has led to some flightless birds , including ratites , penguins , and diverse endemic island species of birds . The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight . Some bird species of aquatic environments , particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins , and also members of the duck family , have also evolved for swimming . Birds , specifically Darwin 's finches , played an important part in the inception of Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection .
Some birds , especially corvids and parrots , are among the most intelligent animals ; several bird species make and use tools , and many social species pass on knowledge across generations , which is considered a form of culture . Many species annually migrate great distances . Birds are social , communicating with visual signals , calls , and bird songs , and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting , flocking , and mobbing of predators . The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous , usually for one breeding season at a time , sometimes for years , but rarely for life . Other species have polygynous ( " many females " ) or , rarely , polyandrous ( " many males " ) breeding systems . Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilized through sexual reproduction . They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents . Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching . Some birds , such as hens , lay eggs even when not fertilized , though unfertilized eggs do not produce offspring .
Many species of birds are economically important . Domesticated and undomesticated birds ( poultry and game ) are important sources of eggs , meat , and feathers . Songbirds , parrots , and other species are popular as pets . Guano ( bird excrement ) is harvested for use as a fertilizer . Birds prominently figure throughout human culture . About 120 – 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century , and hundreds more before then . Human activity threatens about 1 @,@ 200 bird species with extinction , though efforts are underway to protect them . Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry .
= = Evolution and classification = =
The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae . Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use . Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy . Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda .
= = = Definition = = =
Aves and a sister group , the clade Crocodilia , contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria . During the late 1990s , Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica . However , an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century , and is used by many scientists including adherents of the Phylocode system . Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds . This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils , and assigning them , instead , to the Avialae , in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs .
Gauthier identified four conflicting ways of defining the term " Aves " , which is a problem because the same biological name is being used four different ways . Gauthier proposed a solution , number 4 below , which is to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group , the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants . He assigned other names to the other groups .
Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers ( alternately Avifilopluma )
Aves can mean those that fly ( alternately Avialae )
Aves can mean all reptiles closer to birds than to crocodiles ( alternately Avemetatarsalia [ = Panaves ] )
Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants ( a " crown group " ) . ( alternately Neornithes )
Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx is an avialan , and not a member of Aves . Gauthier 's proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of paleontology and bird evolution , though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent . Avialae , initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves , is often used synonymously with the vernacular term " bird " by these researchers .
Most researchers define Avialae as branch @-@ based clade , though definitions vary . Many authors have used a definition similar to " all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus . " Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy @-@ based clade ( that is , one based on physical characteristics ) . Jacques Gauthier , who named Avialae in 1986 , re @-@ defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight , and the birds that descended from them .
= = = Dinosaurs and the origin of birds = = =
Based on fossil and biological evidence , most scientists accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs , and more specifically , they are members of Maniraptora , a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids , among others . As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds , the previously clear distinction between non @-@ birds and birds has become blurred . Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China , which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs , contribute to this ambiguity .
The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the flying theropods , or avialans , are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs , which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids . Together , these form a group called Paraves . Some basal members of this group , such as Microraptor , have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly . The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small . This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal , have been able to glide , or both . Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non @-@ avialan feathered dinosaurs , who primarily ate meat , recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores .
The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found , and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century . Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics : teeth , clawed fingers , and a long , lizard @-@ like tail , as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds . It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds , though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor .
= = = Early evolution = = =
The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China , which has been dated to the late Jurassic period ( Oxfordian stage ) , about 160 million years ago . The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi , Xiaotingia zhengi , and Aurornis xui . The well @-@ known early avialan , Archaeopteryx , dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks ( about 155 million years old ) from Germany . Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds , but were later lost during bird evolution . These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life , and long feathers or " hind wings " covering the hind limbs and feet , which may have been used in aerial maneuvering .
Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period . Many groups retained primitive characteristics , such as clawed wings and teeth , though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups , including modern birds ( Aves ) . While the earliest forms , such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis , retained the long bony tails of their ancestors , the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the group Pygostylia . In the late Cretaceous , around 95 million years ago , the ancestor of all modern birds also evolved a better sense of smell .
= = = Early diversity of bird ancestors = = =
The first large , diverse lineage of short @-@ tailed avialans to evolve were the enantiornithes , or " opposite birds " , so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds . Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches , from sand @-@ probing shorebirds and fish @-@ eaters to tree @-@ dwelling forms and seed @-@ eaters . While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period , enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era .
Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify , the Euornithes ( meaning " true birds " , because they include the ancestors of modern birds ) , were semi @-@ aquatic and specialized in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms . Unlike the enantiornithes , which dominated land @-@ based and arboreal habitats , most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird @-@ like species , waders , and swimming and diving species . The later included the superficially gull @-@ like Ichthyornis , the Hesperornithiformes , which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic . The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds , like strongly keeled breastbones , toothless , beaked portions of their jaws ( though most non @-@ avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws ) . Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers , which may have replaced the " hind wing " as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight .
= = = Diversification of modern birds = = =
All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves ( alternately Neornithes ) , which has two subdivisions : the Palaeognathae , which includes the flightless ratites ( such as the ostriches ) and the weak @-@ flying tinamous , and the extremely diverse Neognathae , containing all other birds . These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder , although Livezey and Zusi assigned them " cohort " rank . Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint , the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9 @,@ 800 to 10 @,@ 050 .
Due largely to the discovery of Vegavis , a late Cretaceous neognath member of the duck lineage , Aves is known to have split into several modern lineages by the end of the Mesozoic era . Studies using a " morphological clock " analysis have estimated that the actual origin of modern birds probably occurred slightly earlier than the earliest known fossils , during the mid @-@ Cretaceous period .
The earliest divergence within the Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae , the superorder containing the Anseriformes ( ducks , geese , swans and screamers ) and the Galliformes ( the pheasants , grouse , and their allies , together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies ) . The earliest fossil remains of true birds come from the possible galliform Austinornis lentus , dated to about 85 million years ago , but the dates for the actual splits are much debated by scientists . The Aves are agreed to have evolved in the Cretaceous , and the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs . This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence ; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation , while fossil evidence supports a Cenozoic radiation . Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial , but recent results show that all the extant groups of birds originated from only a small handful of species that survived the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction .
= = = Classification of bird orders = = =
Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Jarvis , E.D. et al . ( 2014 ) with some clade names after Yury , T. et al . ( 2013 ) .
The classification of birds is a contentious issue . Sibley and Ahlquist 's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds ( 1990 ) is a landmark work on the classification of birds , although it is frequently debated and constantly revised . Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate , but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves ; evidence from modern bird anatomy , fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem , but no strong consensus has emerged . More recently , new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders . The most recent effort is drawn above and is based on whole genome sequencing of 48 representative species .
= = Distribution = =
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents , reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel 's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) inland in Antarctica . The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions . It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics , however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics . Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world 's oceans and in them , with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres ( 980 ft ) .
Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans . Some of these introductions have been deliberate ; the ring @-@ necked pheasant , for example , has been introduced around the world as a game bird . Others have been accidental , such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity . Some species , including cattle egret , yellow @-@ headed caracara and galah , have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Compared with other vertebrates , birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations , mostly to facilitate flight .
= = = Skeletal system = = =
The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones . They have large air @-@ filled cavities ( called pneumatic cavities ) which connect with the respiratory system . The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures . The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum . The spine has cervical , thoracic , lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical ( neck ) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible , but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae . The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum . The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders . The forelimbs are modified into wings .
= = = Excretory system = = =
Like the reptiles , birds are primarily uricotelic , that is , their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine . Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and ( with exception of the ostrich ) uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste . However , birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic , excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia . They also excrete creatine , rather than creatinine like mammals . This material , as well as the output of the intestines , emerges from the bird 's cloaca . The cloaca is a multi @-@ purpose opening : waste is expelled through it , most birds mate by joining cloaca , and females lay eggs from it . In addition , many species of birds regurgitate pellets . Males within Palaeognathae ( with the exception of the kiwis ) , the Anseriformes ( with the exception of screamers ) , and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes ( but fully developed in Cracidae ) possess a penis , which is never present in Neoaves . The length is thought to be related to sperm competition . When not copulating , it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca , just inside the vent . The digestive system of birds is unique , with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth . Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight . Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies , including protein from the intestines , as additional energy during migration .
= = = Respiratory and circulatory systems = = =
Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups . Upon inhalation , 75 % of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air . The other 25 % of the air goes directly into the lungs . When the bird exhales , the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs . Thus , a bird 's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation . Sound production is achieved using the syrinx , a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea ; the trachea being elongated in some species , increasing the volume of vocalizations and the perception of the bird 's size .
In birds , the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch ( or pharyngeal arch ) , unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta . The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system . Unlike in mammals , the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their nucleus .
= = = = Heart type and features = = = =
The avian circulatory system is driven by a four @-@ chambered , myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac . This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication . The heart itself is divided into a right and left half , each with an atrium and ventricle . The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction . Being myogenic , the heart 's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node , located on the right atrium . The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarizing signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles . The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers . Much like a mammalian heart , the avian heart is composed of endocardial , myocardial and epicardial layers . The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls , due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body . Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass . This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight .
= = = = Organization = = = =
Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood ; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals . As a result , birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal . The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction , and become more rigid as they move away from the heart . Blood moves through the arteries , which undergo vasoconstriction , and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body . As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow . Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur . Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues , it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste . In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues . Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart . Veins , unlike arteries , are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure . As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart . Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium , then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen . Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body .
= = = Nervous system = = =
The nervous system is large relative to the bird 's size . The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight @-@ related functions , while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns , navigation , mating and nest building . Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis , New World vultures and tubenoses . The avian visual system is usually highly developed . Water birds have special flexible lenses , allowing accommodation for vision in air and water . Some species also have dual fovea . Birds are tetrachromatic , possessing ultraviolet ( UV ) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green , red and blue ones . This allows them to perceive ultraviolet light , which is involved in courtship . Birds have specialized light @-@ sensing cells deep in their brains that respond to light without input from eyes or other sensory neurons . These photo @-@ receptive cells in the hypothalamus are involved in detecting the longer days of spring , and thus regulate breeding activities .
Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye ; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers . Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers . Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging — kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents . The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking . Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane , a third eyelid that moves horizontally . The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds . The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten . Most birds cannot move their eyes , although there are exceptions , such as the great cormorant . Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field , while birds with eyes on the front of their heads , such as owls , have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field . The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers , although in some birds , such as the Asio , Bubo and Otus owls , these feathers form tufts which resemble ears . The inner ear has a cochlea , but it is not spiral as in mammals .
= = = Defence and intraspecific combat = = =
A few species are able to use chemical defenses against predators ; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant oil against an aggressor , and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers .
A dearth of field observations limit our knowledge , but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death . The screamers ( Anhimidae ) , some jacanas ( Jacana , Hydrophasianus ) , the spur @-@ winged goose ( Plectropterus ) , the torrent duck ( Merganetta ) and nine species of lapwing ( Vanellus ) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon . The steamer ducks ( Tachyeres ) , geese and swans ( Anserinae ) , the solitaire ( Pezophaps ) , sheathbills ( Chionis ) , some guans ( Crax ) and stone curlews ( Burhinus ) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents . The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded , blade @-@ like radius . The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail . Swans , for instance , may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
Birds have two sexes : either female or male . The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes , rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals . Male birds have two Z chromosomes ( ZZ ) , and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome ( WZ ) .
In nearly all species of birds , an individual 's sex is determined at fertilization . However , one recent study demonstrated temperature @-@ dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey , for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female @-@ to @-@ male sex ratio . This , however , was later proven to not be the case . These birds do not exhibit temperature @-@ dependent sex determination , but temperature @-@ dependent sex mortality .
= = = Feathers , plumage , and scales = = =
Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds ( though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds ) . They facilitate flight , provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation , and are used in display , camouflage , and signaling . There are several types of feathers , each serving its own set of purposes . Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae . The distribution pattern of these feather tracts ( pterylosis ) is used in taxonomy and systematics . The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body , called plumage , may vary within species by age , social status , and sex .
Plumage is regularly moulted ; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the " non @-@ breeding " plumage , or — in the Humphrey @-@ Parkes terminology — " basic " plumage ; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey @-@ Parkes system as " alternate " plumages . Moulting is annual in most species , although some may have two moults a year , and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years . Moulting patterns vary across species . In passerines , flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first . When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced , the outermost tertiaries begin to drop . After the innermost tertiaries are moulted , the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers ( centrifugal moult ) . The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap . A small number of species , such as ducks and geese , lose all of their flight feathers at once , temporarily becoming flightless . As a general rule , the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair . Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae . The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers , in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail . The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward , secondaries inward , and the tail from center outward . Before nesting , the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly . The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation .
Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily , spending an average of around 9 % of their daily time on this . The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland ; these secretions protect the feathers ' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent , inhibiting the growth of feather @-@ degrading bacteria . This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants , which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting , to remove feather parasites .
The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks , claws , and spurs . They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus , but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds . Most bird scales do not overlap significantly , except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers . The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals .
= = = Flight = = =
Most birds can fly , which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes . Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for breeding , feeding , and predator avoidance and escape . Birds have various adaptations for flight , including a lightweight skeleton , two large flight muscles , the pectoralis ( which accounts for 15 % of the total mass of the bird ) and the supracoracoideus , as well as a modified forelimb ( wing ) that serves as an aerofoil . Wing shape and size generally determine a bird species ' type of flight ; many birds combine powered , flapping flight with less energy @-@ intensive soaring flight . About 60 extant bird species are flightless , as were many extinct birds . Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands , probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators . Though flightless , penguins use similar musculature and movements to " fly " through the water , as do auks , shearwaters and dippers .
= = Behaviour = =
Most birds are diurnal , but some birds , such as many species of owls and nightjars , are nocturnal or crepuscular ( active during twilight hours ) , and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate , by day or night .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Birds ' diets are varied and often include nectar , fruit , plants , seeds , carrion , and various small animals , including other birds . Because birds have no teeth , their digestive system is adapted to process unmasticated food items that are swallowed whole .
Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists , while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists . Birds ' feeding strategies vary by species . Many birds glean for insects , invertebrates , fruit , or seeds . Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch . Those species that seek pest insects are considered beneficial ' biological control agents ' and their presence encouraged in biological pest control programs . Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds , sunbirds , lories , and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co @-@ adapted flowers . Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates ; shorebirds ' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches . Loons , diving ducks , penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater , using their wings or feet for propulsion , while aerial predators such as sulids , kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey . Flamingos , three species of prion , and some ducks are filter feeders . Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers .
Some species , including frigatebirds , gulls , and skuas , engage in kleptoparasitism , stealing food items from other birds . Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting , rather than a significant part of any species ' diet ; a study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40 % of their food and on average stole only 5 % . Other birds are scavengers ; some of these , like vultures , are specialised carrion eaters , while others , like gulls , corvids , or other birds of prey , are opportunists .
= = = Water and drinking = = =
Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands . Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food . They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise , saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting . Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils .
Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat . Some species , especially of arid zones , belonging to the pigeon , finch , mousebird , button @-@ quail and bustard families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads . Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes . Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers . Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food . The pigeon family , flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called crop milk that they provide to their chicks .
= = = Feather care = = =
Feathers being critical to the survival of a bird , require maintenance . Apart from physical wear and tear , feathers face the onslaught of fungi , ectoparasitic feather mites and birdlice . The physical condition of feathers are maintained by preening often with the application of secretions from the preen gland . Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves . While some birds dip into shallow water , more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves . Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust @-@ bathe . A behaviour termed as anting in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers . Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage .
= = = Migration = = =
Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures , therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat . These migrations vary among the different groups . Many landbirds , shorebirds , and waterbirds undertake annual long distance migrations , usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions . These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or polar regions and a non @-@ breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere . Before migration , birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs . Migration is highly demanding energetically , particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling . Landbirds have a flight range of around 2 @,@ 500 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) and shorebirds can fly up to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) , although the bar @-@ tailed godwit is capable of non @-@ stop flights of up to 10 @,@ 200 km ( 6 @,@ 300 mi ) . Seabirds also undertake long migrations , the longest annual migration being those of sooty shearwaters , which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan , Alaska and California , an annual round trip of 64 @,@ 000 km ( 39 @,@ 800 mi ) . Other seabirds disperse after breeding , travelling widely but having no set migration route . Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons .
Some bird species undertake shorter migrations , travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food . Irruptive species such as the boreal finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next . This type of migration is normally associated with food availability . Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range , with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics ; others undertake partial migrations , where only a fraction of the population , usually females and subdominant males , migrates . Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions ; in Australia , surveys found that 44 % of non @-@ passerine birds and 32 % of passerines were partially migratory . Altitudinal migration is a form of short distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes elevations and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions . It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable due to lack of food . Some species may also be nomadic , holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability . Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive , irruptive , nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations .
The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time ; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s a Manx shearwater released in Boston returned to its colony in Skomer , Wales , within 13 days , a distance of 5 @,@ 150 km ( 3 @,@ 200 mi ) . Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods . For diurnal migrants , the sun is used to navigate by day , and a stellar compass is used at night . Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock . Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris . These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth 's geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors .
= = = Communication = = =
Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals . Signals can be interspecific ( between species ) and intraspecific ( within species ) .
Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance , to display breeding condition in sexually selected species , or to make threatening displays , as in the sunbittern 's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks . Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds , particularly between species . Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays , which have developed from non @-@ signalling actions such as preening , the adjustments of feather position , pecking , or other behaviour . These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair @-@ bonds . The most elaborate displays occur during courtship , where " dances " are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements ; males ' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays .
Bird calls and songs , which are produced in the syrinx , are the major means by which birds communicate with sound . This communication can be very complex ; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently , allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs .
Calls are used for a variety of purposes , including mate attraction , evaluation of potential mates , bond formation , the claiming and maintenance of territories , the identification of other individuals ( such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season ) , and the warning of other birds of potential predators , sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat . Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication . The Coenocorypha snipes of New Zealand drive air through their feathers , woodpeckers drum territorially , and palm cockatoos use tools to drum .
= = = Flocking and other associations = = =
While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups , other birds may form large flocks . The principal benefits of flocking are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency . Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests , where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system . This has led to the development of many mixed @-@ species feeding flocks , which are usually composed of small numbers of many species ; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources . Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases .
Birds sometimes also form associations with non @-@ avian species . Plunge @-@ diving seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna , which push shoaling fish towards the surface . Hornbills have a mutualistic relationship with dwarf mongooses , in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators .
= = = Resting and roosting = = =
The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times . Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep , where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye @-@ opening " peeks " , allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats . Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight . It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight . Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow @-@ wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time . The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock . This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock . This adaptation is also known from marine mammals . Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators . Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety .
Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers , although others place their beaks among their breast feathers . Many birds rest on one leg , while some may pull up their legs into their feathers , especially in cold weather . Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep . Many ground birds , such as quails and pheasants , roost in trees . A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down . Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates . This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species , including owlet @-@ nightjars , nightjars , and woodswallows . One species , the common poorwill , even enters a state of hibernation . Birds do not have sweat glands , but they may cool themselves by moving to shade , standing in water , panting , increasing their surface area , fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves .
= = = Breeding = = =
= = = = Social systems = = = =
Ninety @-@ five percent of bird species are socially monogamous . These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or — in some cases — for several years or until the death of one mate . Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care , which is especially important for species in which females require males ' assistance for successful brood @-@ rearing . Among many socially monogamous species , extra @-@ pair copulation ( infidelity ) is common . Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males , but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids . Female birds have sperm storage mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation , a hundred days in some species . Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism . For females , possible benefits of extra @-@ pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate . Males of species that engage in extra @-@ pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise .
Other mating systems , including polygyny , polyandry , polygamy , polygynandry , and promiscuity , also occur . Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males . Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances .
Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display , typically performed by the male . Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song . Some displays , however , are quite elaborate . Depending on the species , these may include wing or tail drumming , dancing , aerial flights , or communal lekking . Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection , although in the polyandrous phalaropes , this is reversed : plainer males choose brightly coloured females . Courtship feeding , billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners , generally after the birds have paired and mated .
Homosexual behaviour has been observed in males or females in numerous species of birds , including copulation , pair @-@ bonding , and joint parenting of chicks .
= = = = Territories , nesting and incubation = = = =
Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season ; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks . Species that are unable to defend feeding territories , such as seabirds and swifts , often breed in colonies instead ; this is thought to offer protection from predators . Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites , and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense .
All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate . Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs , while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs . There are many exceptions to this pattern , however ; the ground @-@ nesting nightjars have pale eggs , and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage . Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite 's egg , which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts .
Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest . Most species create somewhat elaborate nests , which can be cups , domes , plates , beds scrapes , mounds , or burrows . Some bird nests , however , are extremely primitive ; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground . Most birds build nests in sheltered , hidden areas to avoid predation , but large or colonial birds — which are more capable of defence — may build more open nests . During nest construction , some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite @-@ reducing toxins to improve chick survival , and feathers are often used for nest insulation . Some bird species have no nests ; the cliff @-@ nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock , and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet . The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground @-@ nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial .
Incubation , which optimises temperature for chick development , usually begins after the last egg has been laid . In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared , whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation . Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches , areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds . Incubation can be an energetically demanding process ; adult albatrosses , for instance , lose as much as 83 grams ( 2 @.@ 9 oz ) of body weight per day of incubation . The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun , decaying vegetation or volcanic sources . Incubation periods range from 10 days ( in woodpeckers , cuckoos and passerine birds ) to over 80 days ( in albatrosses and kiwis ) .
The diversity of characteristics of birds is great , sometimes even in closely related species . Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below .
= = = = Parental care and fledging = = = =
At the time of their hatching , chicks range in development from helpless to independent , depending on their species . Helpless chicks are termed altricial , and tend to be born small , blind , immobile and naked ; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed precocial . Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks . Chicks at neither of these extremes can be semi @-@ precocial or semi @-@ altricial .
The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species . At one extreme , parental care in megapodes ends at hatching ; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately . At the other extreme , many seabirds have extended periods of parental care , the longest being that of the great frigatebird , whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months . The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched . The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation .
In some species , both parents care for nestlings and fledglings ; in others , such care is the responsibility of only one sex . In some species , other members of the same species — usually close relatives of the breeding pair , such as offspring from previous broods — will help with the raising of the young . Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida , which includes such birds as the true crows , Australian magpie and fairy @-@ wrens , but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite . Among most groups of animals , male parental care is rare . In birds , however , it is quite common — more so than in any other vertebrate class . Though territory and nest site defence , incubation , and chick feeding are often shared tasks , there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty .
The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically . The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets , like the ancient murrelet , leave the nest the night after they hatch , following their parents out to sea , where they are raised away from terrestrial predators . Some other species , such as ducks , move their chicks away from the nest at an early age . In most species , chicks leave the nest just before , or soon after , they are able to fly . The amount of parental care after fledging varies ; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help , while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging . Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration .
= = = = Brood parasites = = = =
Brood parasitism , in which an egg @-@ layer leaves her eggs with another individual 's brood , is more common among birds than any other type of organism . After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird 's nest , they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host 's own brood . Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites , which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young , or non @-@ obligate brood parasites , which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young . One hundred bird species , including honeyguides , icterids , and ducks , are obligate parasites , though the most famous are the cuckoos . Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host 's young , which allows them to destroy the host 's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host 's chicks ; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks .
= = = = Sexual selection = = = =
Birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviors , with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway . Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and color differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations . Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified ; intersexual selection , also known as female choice ; and intrasexual competition , where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate . Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual ’ s fitness . Conflicts between an individual fitness and signaling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and courtship behavior are " honest " traits . Signals must be costly to ensure that only good @-@ quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviors .
= = = = Inbreeding depression = = = =
Inbreeding causes early death ( inbreeding depression ) in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata . Embryo survival ( that is , hatching success of fertile eggs ) was significantly lower for sib @-@ sib mating pairs than for unrelated pairs .
Darwin ’ s finch Geospiza scandens experiences inbreeding depression ( reduced survival of offspring ) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by environmental conditions such as low food availability .
= = = = Inbreeding avoidance = = = =
Incestuous matings by the purple @-@ crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression ( greater than 30 % reduction in hatchability of eggs ) . Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings ( see Promiscuity # Other animals for 90 % frequency in avian species ) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding . However , there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings . Nevertheless , 43 % of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young .
Inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit ( Parus major ) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness . In natural populations of Parus major , inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace , which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative .
Southern pied babblers Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways . The first is through dispersal , and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates . Although both males and females disperse locally , they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered . Within their group , individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite @-@ sex breeder is unrelated .
Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring , usually males , delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin . Female offspring rarely stay at home , dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently , or to join unrelated groups . In general , inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness ( inbreeding depression ) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles . Cross @-@ fertilization between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny .
= = Ecology = =
Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions . While some birds are generalists , others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements . Even within a single habitat , such as a forest , the niches occupied by different species of birds vary , with some species feeding in the forest canopy , others beneath the canopy , and still others on the forest floor . Forest birds may be insectivores , frugivores , and nectarivores . Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing , plant eating , and piracy or kleptoparasitism . Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds , while vultures are specialised scavengers . Avivores are animals that are specialized at preying on birds .
Some nectar @-@ feeding birds are important pollinators , and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal . Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve , and in some cases a flower 's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar .
Birds are often important to island ecology . Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not ; on those islands , birds may fulfill ecological roles typically played by larger animals . For example , in New Zealand the moas were important browsers , as are the kereru and kokako today . Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa . Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas , principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano , which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas .
A wide variety of avian ecology field methods , including counts , nest monitoring , and capturing and marking , are used for researching avian ecology .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Since birds are highly visible and common animals , humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man . Sometimes , these relationships are mutualistic , like the cooperative honey @-@ gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana . Other times , they may be commensal , as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities . Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests , and some pose an aviation hazard . Human activities can also be detrimental , and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction ( hunting , avian lead poisoning , pesticides , roadkill , and predation by pet cats and dogs are common sources of death for birds ) .
Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis , salmonellosis , campylobacteriosis , mycobacteriosis ( avian tuberculosis ) , avian influenza ( bird flu ) , giardiasis , and cryptosporidiosis over long distances . Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans .
= = = Economic importance = = =
Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs , called poultry , are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans ; in 2003 , 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide . Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption , though domesticated turkeys , ducks , and geese are also relatively common . Many species of birds are also hunted for meat . Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas . The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl ; other widely hunted birds include pheasants , wild turkeys , quail , doves , partridge , grouse , snipe , and woodcock . Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand . Though some hunting , such as that of muttonbirds , may be sustainable , hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species .
Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers ( especially the down of geese and ducks ) , which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding , and seabird feces ( guano ) , which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen . The War of the Pacific , sometimes called the Guano War , was fought in part over the control of guano deposits .
Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes . Colourful birds , such as parrots and mynas , are bred in captivity or kept as pets , a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species . Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing , respectively . Messenger pigeons , used since at least 1 AD , remained important as recently as World War II . Today , such activities are more common either as hobbies , for entertainment and tourism , or for sports such as pigeon racing .
Amateur bird enthusiasts ( called birdwatchers , twitchers or , more commonly , birders ) number in the millions . Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species . Bird feeding has grown into a multimillion @-@ dollar industry ; for example , an estimated 75 % of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter .
= = = In religion and mythology = = =
Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology . In religion , birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity , such as in the Cult of Makemake , in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs or as attendants , as in the case of Hugin and Munin , the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin . In several civilizations of ancient Italy , particularly Etruscan and Roman religion , priests were involved in augury , or interpreting the words of birds while the " auspex " ( from which the word " auspicious " is derived ) watched their activities to foretell events . They may also serve as religious symbols , as when Jonah ( Hebrew : יוֹנָה , dove ) embodied the fright , passivity , mourning , and beauty traditionally associated with doves . Birds have themselves been deified , as in the case of the common peacock , which is perceived as Mother Earth by the Dravidians of India . In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires , birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms . Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds .
= = = In culture and folklore = = =
Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times , when they were represented in early cave paintings . Some birds have been perceived as monsters , including the mythological Roc and the Māori 's legendary Pouākai , a giant bird capable of snatching humans . Birds were later used as symbols of power , as in the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors . With the advent of scientific interest in birds , many paintings of birds were commissioned for books . Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon , whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society . Birds are also important figures in poetry ; for example , Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey , and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2 . The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a ' burden ' . Other English metaphors derive from birds ; vulture funds and vulture investors , for instance , take their name from the scavenging vulture .
Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures . Owls are associated with bad luck , witchcraft , and death in parts of Africa , but are regarded as wise across much of Europe . Hoopoes were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia , but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia .
= = = In music = = =
In music , birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways : they can be inspired by birdsong ; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition , as Vivaldi and Beethoven did , along with many later composers ; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works , as Ottorino Respighi first did ; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg , they can duet with birds .
= = = Conservation = = =
Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species , such as the barn swallow and European starling , they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species . Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human @-@ caused avian extinctions , eradicating an estimated 750 – 1800 species , occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian , Polynesian , and Micronesian islands . Many bird populations are declining worldwide , with 1 @,@ 227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN in 2009 .
The most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions or long @-@ line fishing bycatch , pollution ( including oil spills and pesticide use ) , competition and predation from nonnative invasive species , and climate change .
Governments and conservation groups work to protect birds , either by passing laws that preserve and restore bird habitat or by establishing captive populations for reintroductions . Such projects have produced some successes ; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004 , including the California condor and Norfolk parakeet .
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= Kepler @-@ 10b =
Kepler @-@ 10b is the first confirmed terrestrial planet to have been discovered outside the Solar System . Discovered after several months of data collection during the course of the NASA @-@ directed Kepler Mission , which aims to discover Earth @-@ like planets crossing in front of their host stars , the planet 's discovery was announced on January 10 , 2011 . Kepler @-@ 10b has a mass of 3 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 49 Earth masses and a radius of 1 @.@ 4 Earth radii . However , it lies extremely close to its star , Kepler @-@ 10 , and as a result is too hot to support life . Its existence was confirmed using measurements from the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 10 , the star that hosts Kepler @-@ 10b , is located 560 light @-@ years from our solar system in the Draco constellation . It is approximately the same size as the Sun , with an estimated age of 12 billion years . Planet Kepler @-@ 10b was the first planet to be discovered in the orbit of its star . For this , it was designated the star 's b planet . The star , in turn , was named for the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ led operation aimed at discovering terrestrial planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 10 , 2011 .
The transit method of discovering exoplanets relies upon carefully monitoring the brightness of a star . If a planet is present and crosses the line of sight between Earth and the star , the star will dim at a regular interval by an amount that depends upon the radius of the transiting planet . In order to measure the mass of a planet , and rule out other phenomena that can mimic the presence of a planet transiting a star , candidate transiting planets are followed up with the radial velocity method of detecting extrasolar planets .
Kepler @-@ 10b 's discovery was based on eight months of data collected with the Kepler telescope from May 2009 to January 2010 . The planet 's first transits were observed in July 2009 . According to the collected data , Kepler @-@ 10 dimmed by one part in ten thousand every 0 @.@ 83 days . Kepler @-@ 10 was the first star in the field of view of the Kepler telescope identified as capable of harboring a small transiting planet , and was considered a high priority target for ground based radial velocity observations intended to confirm the mass of Kepler @-@ 10b . Radial velocity measurements with the Keck I telescope taken intermittently between August 2009 and August 2010 revealed a periodic Doppler shift in the spectrum of Kepler @-@ 10 consistent with a planet of the nature observed by Kepler , confirming the planet 's existence and allowing its mass to be determined . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 10 , 2011 .
On January 13 , 2011 , 3 days after the planet 's discovery was announced , The Economist published an article suggesting “ Vulcan ” as an unofficial name for the planet , after both the hypothetical planet , and the Roman god of the same name .
In September 2011 , the detection of secondary transit and phases were announced . This allowed to determine the temperature and albedo of the planet . This is the first terrestrial exoplanet with observed phases . Detection of phases was possible due to extreme day / night side temperature variations and the amount of starlight the planet receives due to its proximity to the host star .
= = = Reaction = = =
Kepler @-@ 10b 's discovery excited astronomers , who hoped to use data about it to inquire into the formation and structure that terrestrial , Earth @-@ size planets tend to have in common . Geoff Marcy of the University of California at Berkeley said that the discovery was ranked “ as among the most profound scientific discoveries in human history , ” and that the planet “ will go into every textbook worldwide . ” Marcy also described Kepler @-@ 10b as " a bridge between the gas giant planets we ’ ve been finding and the Earth itself . " Diana Valencia at the University of Côte d 'Azur in Nice , France considered the planet more of a " super @-@ Mercury " than a super @-@ Earth , granted its physical characteristics .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 10b is most noted for its rocky surface . It has a diameter 1 @.@ 4 times that of the Earth , and a mass of 3 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 49 times that of Earth . The density of Kepler @-@ 10b is 5 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 8 g cm − 3 . It orbits its star , Kepler @-@ 10 , in less than a day , at less than a twentieth of the distance from Mercury to the Sun . Its surface temperature on the star lit side is approximately 1833 K , which is as hot as a blast furnace and hot enough to melt iron .
Though CoRoT @-@ 7b was discovered before Kepler @-@ 10b and has been claimed to be rocky , there is more room for other interpretations in the case of CoRoT @-@ 7b 's composition than there is for Kepler @-@ 10b . This is due to the much larger uncertainty in CoRoT @-@ 7b 's mass ( and , to a lesser extent , its radius ) which is illustrated in the plot to the left . Consequently , CoRoT @-@ 7b may be revealed to be a lava @-@ ocean planet , whereas Kepler @-@ 10b must be predominantly made of rock or iron . In addition to showing the range of masses and radii consistent with the observations of each planet , the plot includes curves of compositions implied by certain masses and radii .
Kepler @-@ 10b is tidally locked to its parent star and has extreme variations in temperature between day and night sides . It also reflects about half of the starlight it receives .
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= Taxonomy of Narcissus =
The taxonomy of Narcissus is complex , and still not fully resolved . Known to the ancients , the genus name appears in Graeco @-@ Roman literature , although their interest was as much medicinal as botanical . It is unclear which species the ancients were familiar with . Although frequently mentioned in Mediaeval and Renaisance texts it was not formally described till the work of Linnaeus in 1753 . By 1789 it had been grouped into a family ( Narcissi ) but shortly thereafter this was renamed Amaryllideae , from which comes the modern placement within Amaryllidaceae , although for a while it was considered part of Liliaceae .
Many of the species now considered to be Narcissus were in separate genera during the nineteenth century , and the situation was further confused by the inclusion of many cultivated varieties . By 1875 the current circumscription was relatively settled . By 2004 phylogenetic studies had allowed the place of Narcissus within its fairly large family to be established , nested within a series of subfamilies ( Amaryllidoideae ) and tribes ( Narcisseae ) . It shares its position in the latter tribe with Sternbergia .
The infrageneric classification has been even more complex and many schemes of subgenera , sections , subsections and series have been proposed , although all had certain similarities . Most authorities now consider there to be 10 – 11 sections based on phylogenetic evidence . The problems have largely arisen from the diversity of the wild species , frequent natural hybridisation and extensive cultivation with escape and subsequent naturalisation . The number of species has varied anywhere from 16 to nearly 160 , but is probably around 50 – 60 .
The genus appeared some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras , around 24 million years ago , in the Iberian peninsula . While the exact origin of the word Narcissus is unknown it is frequently linked to its fragrance which was thought to be narcotic , and to the legend of the youth of that name who fell in love with his reflection . In the English language the common name Daffodil appears to be derived from the Asphodel with which it was commonly compared .
= = History = =
Genus valde intricatum et numerosissimis dubiis oppressum
A genus that is very complex and burdened with numerous uncertainties
= = = Early = = =
Narcissus was first described by Theophrastus ( Θεόφραστος , c 371 - c 287 BC ) in his Historia Plantarum ( Greek : Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία ) as νάρκισσος , referring to N. poeticus , but comparing it to Asphodelus ( ασφοδελωδες ) . Theophrastus ' description was frequently referred to at length by later authors writing in Latin such as Pliny the Elder ( Gaius Plinius Secundus , 23 AD – 79 AD ) from whom came the Latin form narcissus ( see also Culture ) . Pliny 's account comes to us in his Natural History ( Latin : Naturalis Historia ) . Like his contemporaries , his interests were as much therapeutic as botanical . Another much cited Greek authority was Dioscorides ( Διοσκουρίδης , 40 AD – 90 AD ) in his De Materia Medica ( Greek : Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς ) . Both authors were to remain influential till at least the Renaisance , given that their descriptions went beyond the merely botanical , to the therapeutic ( see also Antiquity ) .
An early European reference is found in the work of Albert Magnus ( c . 1200 – 1280 ) , who noted in his De vegetabilibus et plantis the similarity to the leek . William Turner in his A New Herball ( 1551 ) cites all three extensively in his description of the plant and its properties . It was to remain to Linnaeus in 1753 to formally describe and name Narcissus as a genus in his Species Plantarum , at which time there were six known species ( N. poeticus , N. pseudonarcissus , N. bulbocodium , N. serotinus , N. jonqulla and N. tazetta ) . At that time , Linnaeus loosely grouped it together with 50 other genera into his Hexandria monogynia .
= = = Modern = = =
It was de Jussieu in 1789 who first formally created a ' family ' ( Narcissi ) , as the seventh ' Ordo ' ( Order ) of the third class ( Stamina epigyna ) of Monocots in which Narcissus and 15 other genera were placed . The use of the term Ordo at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family , rather than Order . The family has undergone much reorganisation since then , but in 1805 it was renamed after a different genus in the family , Amaryllis , as ' Amaryllideae ' by Jaume St.-Hilaire and has retained that association since . Jaume St.-Hilaire divided the family into two unnamed sections and recognised five species of Narcissus , omitting N. serotinus .
De Candolle brought together Linnaeus ' genera and Jussieau 's families into a systematic taxonomy for the first time , but included Narcissus ( together with Amaryllis ) in the Liliaceae in his Flore française ( 1805 @-@ 1815 ) rather than Amaryllidaceae , a family he had not yet recognised . Shortly thereafter he separated the ' Amaryllidées ' from ' Liliacées ' ( 1813 ) , though attributing the term to Brown 's ' Amaryllideae ' in the latter 's Prodromus ( 1810 ) rather than St.-Hilaire 's ' Amaryllidées ' . He also provided the text to the first four volumes of Redouté illustrations in the latter 's Les liliacées between 1805 and 1808 ( see illustration here of N. candidissimus ) .
Historically both wide and narrow interpretations of the genus have been proposed . In the nineteenth century genus splitting was common , favouring the narrow view . Haworth ( 1831 ) using a narrow view treated many species as separate genera , as did Salisbury ( 1866 ) . These authors listed various species in related genera such as Queltia ( hybrids ) , Ajax ( = Pseudonarcissus ) and Hermione ( = Tazettae ) , sixteen in all in Haworth 's classification . In contrast , Herbert ( 1837 ) took a very wide view reducing Harworth 's sixteen genera to six . Herbert , treating the Amaryllidacea as an ' order ' as was common then , considered the narcissi to be a suborder , the Narcisseae , the six genera being Corbularia , Ajax , Ganymedes , Queltia , Narcissus and Hermione and his relatively narrow circumscription of Narcissus having only three species . Later Spach ( 1846 ) took an even wider view bringing most of Harworth 's genera into the genus Narcissus , but as separate subgenera . By the time that Baker ( 1875 ) wrote his monograph all of the genera with one exception were included as Narcissus . The exception was the monotypic group Tapeinanthus which various subsequent authors have chosen to either exclude ( e.g. Cullen 1986 ) or include ( e.g. Webb 1978 , 1980 ) . Today it is nearly always included .
The eventual position of Narcissus within the Amaryllidaceae family only became settled in the twenty @-@ first century with the advent of phylogenetic analysis and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system . The genus Narcissus belongs to the Narcisseae tribe , one of 13 within the Amaryllidoideae subfamily of the Amaryllidaceae . It is one of two sister clades corresponding to genera in the Narcisseae , being distinguished from Sternbergia by the presence of a paraperigonium , and is monophyletic .
= = Subdivision = =
The infrageneric phylogeny of Narcissus still remains relatively unsettled . The taxonomy has proved very complex and difficult to resolve , particularly for the Pseudonarcissus group . This is due to a number of factors , including the diversity of the wild species , the ease with which natural hybridisation occurs , and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation .
De Candolle , in the first systematic taxonomy of Narcissus , arranged the species into named groups , and those names ( Faux @-@ Narcisse or Pseudonarcissus , Poétiques , Tazettes , Bulbocodiens , Jonquilles ) have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name . The evolution of classification was confused by including many unknown or garden varieties , until Baker ( 1875 ) made the important distinction of excluding all specimens except the wild species from his system . He then grouped all of the earlier related genera as sections under one genus , Narcissus , the exception being the monotypic Tapeinanthus . Consequently , the number of accepted species has varied widely .
A common modern classification system has been that of Fernandes ( 1951 , 1968 , 1975 ) based on cytology , as modified by Blanchard ( 1990 ) and Mathew ( 2002 ) , although in some countries such as Germany , the system of Meyer ( 1966 ) was preferred . Fernandes described two subgenera based on basal chromosome number , Hermione , n |
= 5 ( 11 ) and Narcissus , n =
7 ( 13 ) . He further subdivided these into ten sections ( Apodanthi , Aurelia , Bulbocodii , Ganymedes , Jonquillae , Narcissus , Pseudonarcissi , Serotini , Tapeinanthus , Tazettae ) , as did Blanchard later .
In contrast to Fernandes , Webb 's treatment of the genus for the Flora Europaea ( 1978 , 1980 ) prioritised morphology over genetics , and abandoned the subgenera ranks . He also restored De Candolle 's original nomenclature , and made a number of changes to section Jonquilla , merging the existing subsections , reducing Apodanthi to a subsection of Jonquilla , and moving N. viridiflorus from Jonquilla to a new monotypic section of its own ( Chloranthi ) . Finally , he divided Pseudonarcissus into two subsections . Blanchard ( 1990 ) , whose Narcissus : a guide to wild daffodils has been very influential , adopted a simple approach , restoring Apodanthae , and based largely on ten sections alone .
The Royal Horticultural Society ( RHS ) currently lists ten sections , based on Fernandes ( 1968 ) , three of which are monotypic ( contain only one species ) , while two others only containing two species . Most species are placed in Pseudonarcissus While infrageneric groupings within Narcissus have been relatively constant , their status ( genera , subgenera , sections , subsections , series , species ) has not . Some authors treat some sections as being further subdivided into subsections , e.g. Tazettae ( 3 subsections ) . These subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for narcissi types , e.g. Trumpet Daffodils , Tazettas , Pheasant 's Eyes , Hoop Petticoats , Jonquils .
While Webb had simply divided the genus into sections , Mathew found this unsatisfactory , implying every section had equal status . He adapted both Fernandes and Webb to devise a more hierarchical scheme he believed better reflected the interrelatinships within the genus . Mathew 's scheme consists of three subgenera ( Narcissus , Hermione and Corbularia ) . The first two subgenera were then divided into five and two sections respectively . He then further subdivided two of the sections ( subgenus Narcissus section Jonqullae , and subgenus Hermione section Hermione ) into three subsections each . Finally , he divided section Hermione subsection Hermione further into two series , Hermione and Albiflorae . While lacking a phylogenetic basis , the system is still in use in horticulture . For instance the Pacific Bulb Society uses his numbering system ( see Table II ) for classifying species .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
The phylogenetic analysis of Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) supported the infrageneric division of Narcissus into two clades corresponding to the subgenera Hermione and Narcissus , but does not support monophyly of all sections , with only Apodanthi demonstrating clear monophyly , corresponding to Clade III of Graham and Barrett ( see Cladogram ) , although some other clades corresponded approximately to known sections . These authors examined 36 taxa of the 65 listed then , and a later extended analysis by Rønsted et al . ( 2008 ) with five additional taxa confirmed this pattern .
A very large ( 375 accessions ) molecular analysis by Zonneveld ( 2008 ) utilising nuclear DNA content sought to reduce some of the paraphyly identified by Graham and Barrett . This led to a revision of the sectional structure , shifting some species between sections , eliminating one section and creating two new ones . In subgenus Hermione , Aurelia was merged with Tazettae . In subgenus Narcissus section Jonquillae subsection Juncifolii was elevated to sectional rank , thus resolving the paraphyly in this section observed by Graham and Barrett in Clade II due to this anomalous subsection , the remaining species being in subsection Jonquillae , which was monophyletic . The relatively large section Pseudonarcissi was divided by splitting off a new section , Nevadensis ( species from southern Spain ) leaving species from France , northern Spain and Portugal in the parent section . At the same time Fernández @-@ Casas ( 2008 ) proposed a new monotypic section Angustini to accommodate Narcissus deficiens , placing it within subgenus Hermione .
While Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) had determined that subgenus Hermione was monophyletic , using a much larger accession Santos @-@ Gally et al . ( 2011 ) did not . However the former had excluded species of hybrid origins , while the latter included both N. dubius and N. tortifolius . If these two species are excluded ( forming a clade with subgenus Narcissus ) then Hermione can be considered monophyletic , although as a section of Hermione , Tazettae is not monophyletic . They also confirmed the monophyly of Apodanthi .
Some so @-@ called nothosections have been proposed , predominantly by Fernández @-@ Casas , to accommodate natural ( ' ancient ' ) hybrids ( nothospecies ) .
= = = Subgenera and sections = = =
Showing revisions by Zonnefeld ( 2008 )
subgenus Hermione ( Haw . ) Spach .
( Aurelia ( Gay ) Baker ( monotypic ) - merged with Tazettae ( 2008 )
Serotini Parlatore ( 2 species )
Tazettae de Candolle ( 16 species ) syn . Hermione ( Salisbury ) Sprengel , in Fernandes ' scheme . Incorporating Aurelia ( 2008 )
subgenus Narcissus L.
Apodanthi A. Fernandes ( 6 species )
Bulbocodium de Candolle ( 11 species )
Ganymedes ( Haworth ) Schultes f . ( monotypic )
Jonquillae de Candolle ( 8 species )
Juncifolii ( A. Fern . ) Zonn. sect. nov . ( 2008 )
Narcissus L. ( 2 species )
Nevadensis Zonn. sect. nov . ( 2008 )
Pseudonarcissus de Candolle ( 36 species ) Trumpet daffodils
Tapeinanthus ( Herbert ) Traub ( monotypic )
= = = Species = = =
Estimates of the number of species in Narcissus have varied widely , from anywhere between 16 to nearly 160 , even in the modern era . Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753 . By the time of the 14th edition of the Systema Naturae in 1784 , there were fourteen . The 1819 Encyclopaedia Londinensis lists sixteen ( see illustration here of three species ) and by 1831 Adrian Haworth had described 150 species .
Much of the variation lies in the definition of species , and whether closely related taxa are considered separate species or subspecies . Thus , a very wide view of each species , such as Webb 's results in few species , while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes results in a larger number . Another factor is the status of hybrids , given natural hybridisation , with a distinction between ' ancient hybrids ' and ' recent hybrids ' . The term ' ancient hybrid ' refers to hybrids found growing over a large area , and therefore now considered as separate species , while ' recent hybrid ' refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents , with a more restricted range .
In the twentieth century Fernandes ( 1951 ) accepted 22 species , on which were based the 27 species listed by Webb in the 1980 Flora Europaea . By 1968 , Fernandes had accepted 63 species , and by 1990 Blanchard listed 65 species , and Erhardt 66 in 1993 . In 2006 the Royal Horticultural Society 's ( RHS ) International Daffodil Register and Classified List listed 87 species , while Zonneveld 's genetic study ( 2008 ) resulted in only 36 . As of September 2014 , the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 52 species , along with at least 60 hybrids , while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list .
= = Evolution = =
Within the Narcisseae , Narcissus ( western Mediterranean ) diverged from Sternbergia ( Eurasia ) some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras , around 29 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 1 Ma , with a best estimate of 23 @.@ 6 Ma . Later the genus divided into the two subgenera ( Hermione and Narcissus ) between 27 @.@ 4 – 16 @.@ 1 Ma ( 21 @.@ 4 Ma ) . The divisions between the sections of Hermione then took place during the Miocene period 19 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 8 Ma .
Narcissus appears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula , southern France and north @-@ western Italy , and within this area most sections of the genus appeared , with only a few taxa being dispersed to North Africa at a time when the African and West European platforms were closer together . Subgenus Hermione in turn arose in the southwestern mediterranean and north west Africa . However , these are reconstructions , the Amaryllidaceae lacking a fossil record .
= = Etymology = =
= = = Narcissus = = =
The derivation of the Latin narcissus ( Greek : νάρκισσος ) is unknown . It may be a loanword from another language , for instance it is said to be related to the Sanskrit word nark , meaning ' hell ' . It is frequently linked to the Greek myth of Narcissus described by Ovid in his Metamorphoses , who became so obsessed with his own reflection that as he knelt and gazed into a pool of water , he fell into the water and drowned . In some variations , he died of starvation and thirst . In both versions , the narcissus plant sprang from where he died . Although Ovid appeared to describe the plant we now know as Narcissus there is no evidence for this popular derivation , and the person 's name may have come from the flower 's name . The Poet 's Narcissus ( N. poeticus ) , which grows in Greece , has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating . Again , this explanation lacks any real proof and is largely discredited . Pliny wrote that the plant ‘ narce narcissum dictum , non a fabuloso puero ’ ( named narcissus from narce , not from the legendary youth ) , i.e. that it was named for its narcotic properties ( ναρκάω narkao , " I grow numb " in Greek ) , not from the legend . Furthermore , there were accounts of narcissi growing , such as in the legend of Persephone , long before the story of Narcissus appeared ( see Greek culture ) . It has also been suggested that daffodils bending over streams evoked the image of the youth admiring his own reflection in the water .
Linnaeus used the Latin name for the plant in formally describing the genus , although Matthias de l 'Obel had previously used the name in describing various species of Narcissi in his Icones stirpium of 1591 , and other publications , as had Clusius in Rariorum stirpium ( 1576 ) .
The plural form of the common name narcissus has caused some confusion . British English sources such as the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary give two alternate forms , narcissi and narcissuses . In contrast , in American English the Merriam @-@ Webster Dictionary provides for a third form , narcissus , used for both singular and plural . The Oxford dictionaries only list this third form under American English , although the Cambridge Dictionary allows of all three in the same order . However , Garner 's Modern American Usage states that narcissi is the commonest form , narcissus being excessively sibilant . For similar reasons , Fowler prefers narcissi in British English usage . Neither support narcissus as a plural form . Common names such as narcissus do not capitalise the first letter in contrast to the person of that name and the Latin genus name .
The name Narcissus ( feminine Narcissa ) was not uncommon in Roman times , such as Tiberius Claudius Narcissus , a Roman official in Claudius ' time , an early New Testament Christian in Rome and later bishops and saints .
= = = Daffodil = = =
The word daffodil was unknown in the English language before the sixteenth century . The name is derived from an earlier affodell , a variant of asphodel . In classical Greek literature the narcissus is frequently , referred to as the asphodel , such as the meadows of the Elysian fields in Homer ( see Antiquity ) . Asphodel in turn appears to be a loanword coming from French via Mediaeval Latin affodilus from Classical Latin asphodilus and ultimately the Greek asphodelos ( Greek : ἀσφόδελος ) . The reason for the introduction of the initial d is not known , although a probable source is an etymological merging from the Dutch article de , as in de affodil , or English the , as th 'affodil or t 'affodil , hence daffodil , and in French de and affodil to form fleur d 'aphrodille and daphrodille .
From at least the 16th century , daffadown dilly and daffydowndilly have appeared as playful synonyms of the name . In common parlance and in historical documents , the term daffodil may refer specifically to populations or specimens of the wild daffodil , N. pseudonarcissus . Ellacombe suggests this may be from Saffon Lilly , citing Prior in support , though admittedly conjectural .
Lady Wilkinson ( 1858 ) , who provides an extensive discussion of the etymology of the various names for this plant , suggests a very different origin , namely the Old English word affodyle ( that which cometh early ) , citing a 14th @-@ century ( but likely originally much earlier ) manuscript in support of this theory , and which appears to describe a plant resembling the daffodil . Ellacombe provides further support for this from a fifteenth century English translation of Palladius that also refers to it .
= = = Jonquil = = =
The name jonquil is said to be a corruption via French from the Latin juncifolius meaning rush @-@ leaf ( Juncaceae ) and its use is generally restricted to those species and cultivars which have rush like leaves , e.g. N. juncifolius .
= = = Other = = =
A profusion of names have attached themselves in the English language , either to the genus as a whole or to individual species or groups of species such as sections . These include narcissus , jonquil , Lent lily , Lenten lily , lide lily , yellow lily , wort or wyrt , Julians , glens , Lent cocks , corn flower , bell rose , asphodel , Solomon 's lily , gracy day , haverdrils , giggary , cowslip , and crow foot .
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= John Francis Jackson =
John Francis Jackson , DFC ( 23 February 1908 – 28 April 1942 ) was an Australian fighter ace and squadron commander of World War II . He was credited with eight aerial victories , and led No. 75 Squadron during the Battle of Port Moresby in 1942 . Born in Brisbane , he was a grazier and businessman , who also operated his own private plane , when he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Reserve in 1936 . Called up for active service following the outbreak of war in 1939 , Jackson served with No. 23 Squadron in Australia before he was posted to the Middle East in November 1940 . As a fighter pilot with No. 3 Squadron he flew Gloster Gladiators , Hawker Hurricanes and P @-@ 40 Tomahawks during the North African and Syria – Lebanon campaigns .
Jackson was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Mentioned in Despatches for his actions in the Middle East . Subsequently posted to the South West Pacific theatre , he was promoted to squadron leader in March 1942 and given command of No. 75 Squadron at Port Moresby in Papua , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . Described as " rugged , simple " and " true as steel " , Jackson was nicknamed " Old John " in affectionate tribute to his thirty @-@ four years . He earned praise for his leadership during the defence of Port Moresby before his death in combat on 28 April . His younger brother Les took over No. 75 Squadron , and also became a fighter ace . Jacksons International Airport , Port Moresby , is named in John Jackson 's honour .
= = Early career = =
John Jackson was born on 23 February 1908 in the Brisbane suburb of New Farm , Queensland , the eldest son of businessman William Jackson and his wife Edith . Educated at Brisbane Grammar School and The Scots College , Warwick , Jackson joined the Young Australia League , with which he visited Europe . After leaving school he ran a grazing property in St George . By the early 1930s , he was in business as a stock and station agent , and had interests in engineering and financial concerns . He was inspired by the 1934 London to Melbourne Air Race to take up flying , and purchased a Klemm Swallow monoplane . In 1936 , he took part in the South Australian centenary air race , flying from Brisbane to Adelaide . That August , he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Reserve , or Citizen Air Force . In 1937 , he upgraded his aircraft to a Beechcraft Staggerwing , a type that was faster than many in the RAAF 's inventory .
On 17 February 1938 , Jackson married Elisabeth Thompson at Christ Church , North Adelaide ; the couple had a son and a daughter . Following the outbreak of World War II , Jackson was called up for active duty and commissioned as a pilot officer in the RAAF on 2 October 1939 . His twenty @-@ year @-@ old brother Arthur , also a pilot and keen to join the Air Force , was killed in a flying accident later that month . Two other brothers , Edward and Leslie , joined the RAAF in November . John Jackson served initially with No. 23 Squadron , which operated CAC Wirraways at Archerfield , Queensland . He was promoted to flying officer in April 1940 . That October , he was posted to join No. 3 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , which had been based in Egypt since August . He arrived in the Middle East in November 1940 .
= = Combat service = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Jackson first saw action with No. 3 Squadron in the North African campaign at the controls of a Gloster Gladiator . Soon after he arrived , he had an accident taking off that finished with the biplane on its nose . Though he considered himself a " full @-@ blown operational pilot " , his experience in air @-@ to @-@ air gunnery was " practically nil " , and he essentially learned the skills of being a fighter pilot as he went along . Once the unit had converted to Hawker Hurricanes , he began to score victories in quick succession . He shot down three Junkers Ju 87s in a single sortie near Mersa Matruh on 18 February 1941 , the same action in which Gordon Steege claimed three .
On 5 April 1941 , Jackson fired several bursts at a Ju 87 before his guns jammed ; he then made two dummy attacks and forced the German plane to crash land in a wadi , thus claiming his fourth victory . After converting to P @-@ 40 Tomahawks , No. 3 Squadron took part in the Syria – Lebanon campaign . Jackson became an ace on 25 June , when he destroyed a Potez 630 light bomber ( possibly a misidentified LeO 451 ) of the Vichy French air force . He claimed a Dewoitine D.520 fighter on 10 July . The next day Jackson shared in the destruction of another D.520 with Bobby Gibbes ; the pair tossed a coin to take full credit for it ; Gibbes won to claim his first " kill " .
Jackson was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 July 1941 . By now his younger brother Ed had been posted to No. 3 Squadron and was serving with him in Palestine . With the campaign in Syria concluding in mid @-@ July , the unit undertook no operations in August and personnel went on leave before returning to action in Egypt the next month . The rural @-@ bred Jackson took to the night life in Alexandria , but his stay at a first @-@ class hotel left him bewildered as to the purpose of the room 's bidet , which he eventually determined was " some feminine arrangement " . Peter Ewer , in Storm Over Kokoda , observed : " There was something of the patrician about John Jackson , but his well @-@ to @-@ do background had a distinctly Australian tinge to it . He liked a game of cards , with a bet on the outcome . " In Whispering Death , Mark Johnston noted that although " tall and blue @-@ eyed " , he " did not have the air of a ' boy 's own ' or movie star pilot " , but rather was " balding , ambling and no extrovert " . Jackson returned to Australia in November 1941 . He was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for his " marked keenness and determination " during operations with No. 3 Squadron in the Middle East . The former award was promulgated in the London Gazette on 1 January 1942 and the latter , which listed him as " John Henry Jackson " , on 7 April . The DFC was presented to Jackson 's widow Elisabeth , after his death .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Following his return from the Middle East , Jackson was briefly an instructor at No. 1 Service Flying Training School , based at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria . He wrote to his wife , " I just loathe this joint . This training is a tough job and I take my hat off to the boys who have been doing it since war broke out ... every one of these instructors is longing to be sent overseas , but I doubt if they have any chance of ever getting there — they are so valuable here . " In January 1942 , he was posted to No. 4 Squadron , which operated Wirraways in Canberra .
As the Japanese advanced towards New Guinea in early 1942 , the RAAF urgently established three new fighter units for Australia 's northern defence , Nos. 75 , 76 and 77 Squadrons . Jackson was promoted to acting squadron leader and appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 75 Squadron on 19 March , barely two weeks after the unit was formed at Townsville , Queensland . He took over from Wing Commander Peter Jeffrey , who had led No. 3 Squadron in the Middle East and been given the task of preparing No. 75 for operations at Port Moresby , where the local Australian Army garrison was under regular attack by Japanese bombers . Jeffrey later recalled chiding Jackson for his eagerness to return to combat despite having already done enough in the war , to which the latter replied , " What are you fighting for ? King and country ? Well , I 'm fighting for my wife and kids and no Jap bastard 's going to get them ! " On 21 March , Jackson led the squadron 's main force to Seven Mile Aerodrome to take part in the defence of Port Moresby , a crucial early battle in the New Guinea campaign , and what military aviation historian Andrew Thomas called " one of the most gallant episodes in the history of the RAAF " . The unit was equipped with P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , whose long @-@ awaited arrival had seen them irreverently dubbed " Tomorrowhawks " , " Neverhawks " , and " Mythhawks " by the beleaguered garrison at Moresby . Jackson 's age of thirty @-@ four was considered advanced for a fighter pilot , and he was affectionately known as " Old John " to his men , one of whom was his younger brother Les , now a flight lieutenant . As CO , Jackson 's leadership was to prove inspirational to his pilots , many of whom had received only nine days of training in fighter tactics , and fired their guns just once .
On 22 March , the day after he arrived in New Guinea , Jackson took No. 75 Squadron on a dawn raid against the Japanese airfield at Lae . Rather than attacking directly from the south , he led the Kittyhawks in from the east , where they would not be expected and where the rising sun would hide their approach . Achieving the surprise he had hoped for , Jackson made two strafing passes over the airfield , ignoring standard practice that called for only one such pass to reduce the risk from anti @-@ aircraft fire . The Australians claimed a dozen Japanese planes destroyed on the ground and five more damaged . They also shot down two Mitsubishi Zero fighters in the air , and lost two Kittyhawks over Lae , along with one that had crash @-@ landed on takeoff from Moresby . The Japanese struck back the next day , destroying two Kittyhawks at Seven Mile Aerodrome . With his losses mounting , Jackson was given permission to withdraw the squadron to Horn Island in Far North Queensland , but refused . On 4 April , Jackson made a solo reconnaissance over Lae , after which he led another four Kittyhawks on a raid against the airfield , claiming seven enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground without loss to themselves ; Japanese sources credited the Australians with only two machines destroyed , but seventeen others damaged . Two days later , Les Jackson was forced to ditch his aircraft on a coral reef , but made it to shore with the aid of a life jacket that John dropped to him , not realising at the time that the downed pilot was his younger brother .
Jackson himself had to ditch into the sea on 10 April , when he was shot down after being surprised by three Zeros during another of his solo reconnaissance missions near Lae . After playing dead beside his crashed plane to discourage the Japanese fighters from machine @-@ gunning him , he swam to shore and made his way through jungle for over a week to Wau , with the help of two New Guinea natives . When he arrived back at Port Moresby in a US Douglas Dauntless on 23 April , a Japanese air raid was in progress and a bullet cut off the tip of his right index finger . Having survived his trek through the jungle , he dismissed the wound as " a mere scratch " . On 27 April , Jackson met with his pilots and revealed that some senior RAAF officers had expressed dissatisfaction with the way in which No. 75 Squadron was avoiding dogfighting with the Japanese Zeros . Jackson and his men had generally eschewed such tactics owing to the Zero 's superiority to the Kittyhawk in close combat . The senior officers ' comments had evidently stung him , however , as he declared to his pilots : " Tomorrow I 'm going to show you how " . According to journalist Osmar White , who saw him on the night of the 27th , Jackson 's " hands and eyes were still and rock steady " but he appeared " weary in soul " and " too long in the shadows " . White concluded : " He had done more than conquer fear — he had killed it " . The next day , Jackson led No. 75 Squadron 's five remaining airworthy Kittyhawks to intercept a force of Japanese bombers and their escort . He destroyed an enemy fighter before being shot down and killed . His aircraft hit the side of a mountain and embedded itself six feet ; Jackson was identified only by his size @-@ ten boots and the revolver he habitually wore . His final tally of aerial victories during the war was eight .
= = Legacy = =
Les Jackson took over command of No. 75 Squadron the day after his brother was killed . Although the squadron was no longer an effective fighting unit , it had checked Japan 's attempts to overpower Port Moresby by air attack , and the town continued to function as an important Allied base . John Jackson was survived by his wife and children , and interred in Moresby 's Bomana War Cemetery . His estate was sworn for probate at a value of £ 29 @,@ 780 ( $ 1 @,@ 870 @,@ 800 in 2011 ) . His name appears on panel 104 of the Commemorative Area at the Australian War Memorial ( AWM ) , Canberra . Jackson was a keen amateur film maker , and a four @-@ minute reel of 16 mm footage that he shot in Port Moresby is held by the AWM . Moresby 's Seven Mile Aerodrome was renamed Jackson 's Strip in his honour ; it later became Jacksons International Airport . In a 1989 interview , fellow No. 75 Squadron member Flight Lieutenant Albert Tucker commented , " I would say that had John F. Jackson not existed , the squadron would not have been effective in that defence role for as long as it was ... So the whole spirit of John F 's leadership , and I suppose his final sacrifice , was the thing that made 75 Squadron . " In March 2003 , the St George township erected a monument to Jackson and another local RAAF identity , Aboriginal fighter pilot Len Waters .
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= New York 's 20th congressional district special election , 2009 =
The 2009 special election for the 20th congressional district of New York was held on March 31 , 2009 , to fill the vacancy created in January 2009 when the district 's representative , Congresswoman Kirsten Gillibrand , was appointed US senator from New York , replacing Hillary Clinton , who had been appointed Secretary of State in the Obama administration . The two major @-@ party candidates were Democrat Scott Murphy , a private businessman , and Republican Jim Tedisco , the minority leader of the New York State Assembly . A third @-@ party candidate , Libertarian Eric Sundwall , was initially included in the race , but later removed from the ballot .
The 20th district has historically been conservative , and early polls favored Tedisco , but by February 2009 the race was considered a toss @-@ up . The Republican Party considered the election to be a referendum on President Obama 's economic policy and as such , injected significant funding into Tedisco 's campaign , using well @-@ known Republicans such as former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich , Congressional Minority Leader John Boehner , and former New York Governor George Pataki for support . Democrats used Senator Gillibrand , Vice President Joe Biden , and an endorsement from President Barack Obama to support the Murphy campaign .
Major issues brought up during the campaign were the candidates ' positions on President Obama 's stimulus plan , which Tedisco did not take a stance on until late in the race . Murphy supported it while Tedisco eventually opposed it . Tedisco portrayed Murphy 's support of the plan as a potential cause of the AIG bonus scandal . Tedisco 's campaign also brought up Murphy 's failure to pay taxes on a company he founded in the 1990s . A frequent Murphy talking point was that Tedisco 's primary residence was not in the Congressional district .
The race was so close that one early vote count had the candidates tied at 77 @,@ 225 votes each . Absentee ballots decided the election ; ballots were accepted until April 13 . While Tedisco had been ahead in early counts , by April 10 Murphy was leading , and by April 23 Murphy had a 401 @-@ vote advantage . Tedisco conceded the race the following day , and Murphy was sworn in on April 29 . Democratic electoral successes in November 2008 and Murphy 's clear support of the stimulus package were credited for his success .
= = Background = =
New York 's 20th district in 2009 encompassed all or part of Columbia , Dutchess , Delaware , Essex , Greene , Otsego , Rensselaer , Saratoga , Warren , and Washington counties . Traditionally conservative , it had been considered a safe seat for Republicans until Blue Dog Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand defeated incumbent John E. Sweeney in the 2006 election . In November 2008 , the Republican Party held an enrollment advantage of 70 @,@ 632 registered voters across the district , down from a 93 @,@ 337 @-@ voter advantage when the district lines were drawn by the New York State Legislature in 2002 . Although Republican George W. Bush carried the district by an eight @-@ point margin in the 2004 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama won the district in 2008 by a three @-@ point margin , or approximately 10 @,@ 000 votes of over 330 @,@ 000 cast . Gillibrand was reelected in 2008 by 24 points , a fourfold increase over her 2006 margin .
One of Barack Obama 's first decisions as president @-@ elect was to appoint Hillary Clinton , US Senator from New York and former Democratic presidential primary opponent , as Secretary of State ; Clinton resigned her Senate seat to take the position . The district 's seat became vacant in January 2009 when Governor David Paterson appointed Gillibrand to the United States Senate to replace Clinton . On February 23 , 2009 , Governor Paterson issued a proclamation setting the date for the special election as March 31 , 2009 . Under state law , Paterson was not required to issue a proclamation for a special election until July 2010 . Both the Rothenberg Political Report and the Cook Political Report listed the race as a toss @-@ up .
= = Candidates = =
In lieu of party primaries , the party nominees were chosen by a weighted vote among the county committees . The weight of the vote depended on the population of registered party voters ( Republican or Democrat ) in a given county .
= = = Republican Party = = =
State Senator Betty Little and former state Assembly minority leader and 2006 Republican gubernatorial candidate John Faso had been in the running for the Republican nomination . Richard Wager , a former aide to New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , and State Senator Stephen Saland had also been mentioned . Alexander " Sandy " Treadwell , the former New York Secretary of State and 2008 U.S. House challenger , had announced he would not run . On January 24 , State Assembly Minority Leader Jim Tedisco received the endorsement of Saratoga County 's Republican chairman , while the Greene County GOP endorsed Faso .
Jim Tedisco was the eventual Republican nominee , winning the GOP nomination on January 27 , 2009 . Tedisco represented the 110th Assembly District , which includes a significant portion of Saratoga County . Tedisco 's primary residence was not in the congressional district , although he did own a house in Saratoga Springs and much of his assembly district overlapped the congressional district . This issue would become a major talking point during the campaign .
= = = Democratic Party = = =
On January 31 , The Post @-@ Star reported that the Democrats had narrowed the field of potential candidates from over two dozen applicants down to six . The Democratic chairpersons met with all six candidates at a diner in Albany on February 1 , and selected Scott Murphy of Glens Falls , president of the Upstate Venture Association of New York , as their candidate . Other confirmed candidates included Saratoga County Democratic Chairman Larry Bulman , former New York Rangers goaltender Mike Richter , Coxsackie Town Supervisor Alex Betke , and Tracey Brooks , failed candidate for the nomination for the 21st district election in 2008 .
= = = Third parties = = =
New York allows electoral fusion , an arrangement allowing two or more qualified parties to list the same candidate on a ballot . The Conservative Party chose to cross @-@ endorse Tedisco on February 9 , while the Working Families Party gave its endorsement to Murphy on February 17 . On March 1 , the Independence Party , the largest third party in the 20th district , gave its endorsement to Murphy . This was the first time the Independence Party had endorsed a Democrat in the district .
Eric Sundwall , Chair of the New York Libertarian Party , was the Libertarian candidate for the seat . However , he was removed from the ballot on March 25 , after 3 @,@ 786 of the 6 @,@ 730 signatures his campaign had collected were ruled invalid . Under state election law , independent congressional candidates must collect at least 3 @,@ 500 valid signatures to be on the ballot . Two Saratoga County residents challenged over 6 @,@ 000 of Sundwall 's signatures ; Sundwall blamed Tedisco for the effort to have him removed from the ballot . The vast majority of the rejected signatures were from voters who put down their mailing address instead of the municipality in which they physically lived . Votes for Sundwall on absentee ballots , which were mailed out before he was removed from the ballot , were voided . On March 27 , Sundwall announced that he would vote for Murphy in the election and urged his supporters to join him .
= = Campaign = =
The campaigns agreed to hold four debates . The first debate took place on March 2 , between Tedisco and Murphy . The second debate , sponsored by WMHT and the Times Union , took place on March 19 between Murphy and Libertarian candidate Eric Sundwall . Jim Tedisco held a town hall meeting rather than attend , claiming the debate was not one of the four originally agreed upon . The third debate took place on March 23 and the final debate was on March 26 .
Strategists from both parties viewed the outcome of the race as a " referendum on President Obama 's handling of the economy " . Chairman Michael Steele of the Republican National Committee said the special election was the first of three elections that were " incredibly important " for the Republicans to win . The Republican leadership made this race a top priority , and Chairman Steele , former Governor George Pataki , House Minority Leader John Boehner , and former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich helped Tedisco with fundraising . Steele visited the district twice . On the Democratic side , Senator Gillibrand appeared in commercials and robocalls for Murphy , and Senator Chuck Schumer helped Murphy 's campaign with fundraising . Less than a week before the election , President Obama formally endorsed Murphy in a mass email to supporters and urged supporters to organize and vote for Murphy . A radio ad Vice President Joe Biden recorded for Murphy was released on March 25 . That same day , Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) Chairman Tim Kaine emailed 500 of the party 's top donors asking them to contribute to Murphy 's campaign .
The RNC spent $ 100 @,@ 000 on Tedisco 's behalf . The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee spent $ 150 @,@ 000 and the Service Employees International Union spent $ 315 @,@ 000 for Murphy . The New York State United Teachers made an effort to call its members on Murphy 's behalf , while the National Right to Life , National Republican Trust and New York State Rifle and Pistol Association organizations paid for ads and mailings supporting Tedisco .
Each candidate aimed to discredit the other by pointing out his opponent 's flaws or mistakes . Republicans called attention to Murphy 's failure to pay taxes on a start @-@ up computer software company he had founded in the 1990s , drawing comparison to three high @-@ profile Obama administration nominees who failed to pay all of their taxes . Tedisco also called attention to Murphy 's failure to regularly vote in elections after the National Republican Congressional Committee ( NRCC ) announced that Murphy had failed to vote in the 2000 presidential election , along with seven other primaries and general elections between 2000 and 2003 . Believing the negative ads run by the NRCC were responsible for his drop in the polls , Tedisco announced that he would take control of campaign advertising from the NRCC .
Murphy spent the first months of the campaign criticizing Tedisco 's early refusal to disclose his position on President Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act . When Tedisco came out in opposition to the legislation on March 16 , Murphy responded by writing " it 's just shameful it took well over a month for Assemblyman Tedisco to finally admit that he 'd vote ' No ' " . Murphy 's campaign described Tedisco as a career Albany politician .
By mid @-@ March , a provision in the stimulus package that grandfathered in bonuses paid to executives at troubled insurance giant AIG and other TARP recipients became a campaign issue . Tedisco , who had been criticized by Murphy for opposing the package , used the outrage over the AIG bonuses to reframe the debate . On March 19 , Tedisco called for the resignation of Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner over the AIG controversy . Murphy responded by insisting that the stimulus package was necessary for job creation .
= = = Media Endorsements = = =
March 22 , 2009 : Declaring " the upcoming special election in the 20th Congressional District nothing less than a referendum on the Obama economic stimulus plan " , the Kingston @-@ based Daily Freeman endorsed Murphy for his support of the plan .
March 22 , 2009 : Expressing a desire for " having candid , dissenting voices in any political body to keep the majority from going astray " , the Poughkeepsie Journal endorsed Tedisco .
March 26 , 2009 : Calling him " [ not ] ideal ... [ but ] the better candidate " , the Glens Falls @-@ based The Chronicle gave Jim Tedisco its endorsement .
March 26 , 2009 : The New York Post gave its support to Jim Tedisco , calling him " a far better fit for the largely conservative district " .
March 29 , 2009 : While acknowledging Tedisco 's role in creating the STAR Program and his vocal support for a property tax cap , The Times Union endorsed Murphy as " a candidate who would work with Mr. Obama to achieve his goals " .
March 29 , 2009 : Citing the need for " an experienced , effective representative in Congress " , The Post @-@ Star endorsed Tedisco .
March 29 , 2009 : Impressed by his " public service , experience and political philosophy " , as well has his opposition to a union card check bill , The Saratogian endorsed Tedisco .
March 29 , 2009 : Claiming that " Tedisco has the track record that will make him a solid check and balance in Washington " , the Troy Record endorsed Tedisco .
= = = Polling = = =
† Commissioned by Tedisco 's campaign and the NRCC ‡ Commissioned by the DCCC
= = Election = =
With 100 percent of precincts reporting , initial counts from the election had Murphy leading by about 60 votes out of over 150 @,@ 000 cast . Columbia County 's Board of Elections amended its tally the following day , reducing Murphy 's lead to 25 votes . The lead alternated between the two candidates throughout early recanvassing ; at one point the New York State Board of Elections had listed the election at a zero @-@ vote margin , with each candidate having exactly 77 @,@ 225 votes . By April 2 , Tedisco was ahead by 12 votes . He resigned the position of Assembly Minority Leader on April 5 in preparation for a transition to Congress , and was replaced by Brian Kolb the following day . On April 7 , Tedisco was ahead by 97 votes . The close tally meant that absentee ballots would decide the race .
All ballots , absentee ballot envelopes , and voting machines were impounded under a court injunction sought by state Republicans . Under the court order , absentee ballots were counted in central locations rather than individual precincts . Of the 10 @,@ 000 absentee ballots sent out to voters , 6 @,@ 000 were returned . Absentee ballots mailed within the United States had to be received by April 7 to be counted . The deadline for overseas ( including military ) ballots was extended to April 13 after the United States Department of Justice sued the state to ensure they would have a reasonable chance of being counted . Counting of the absentee ballots due by April 7 began on April 8 under a New York State Supreme Court ruling sought by Murphy 's campaign .
The legality of about 600 absentee ballots were contested during the count , including Senator Gillibrand 's ballot . By April 23 , Murphy was ahead by 401 votes , and Tedisco conceded the following day . Murphy was sworn in on April 29 . The official results came out in May and had Murphy winning the election with 80 @,@ 833 votes ( 50 @.@ 23 % ) against Tedisco 's 80 @,@ 107 votes ( 49 @.@ 77 % ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Murphy 's victory was credited to a coattail effect from Barack Obama 's election in 2008 . His support of the stimulus package and Tedisco 's failed attempt at clearly explaining his ( Tedisco 's ) opposition to the package also had an impact . Further explanations for the Republican defeat ranged from accusations that Tedisco " dither [ ed ] on the stimulus bill " , to intimations that Tedisco only became his party 's nominee by manipulating the selection process . In an editorial , the Wall Street Journal contended that being an " Albany careerist " and running confusing campaign ads had hurt Tedisco . Tedisco 's loss immediately made him appear vulnerable to Democrats hoping to capture his seat in the Assembly .
The day after being sworn in , Murphy hired Todd Schulte , his campaign manager , as his new chief of staff . He also hired one of Governor Paterson 's aides , Maggie McKeon , as his communications director . For his district director , Murphy turned to Rob Scholz , a Republican . Scholz had worked on Murphy 's campaign and had received praise from Larry Bulman , the chairman of the Saratoga County Democratic Committee . Within a month of being elected , Murphy opened offices in Saratoga Springs and Hudson . Murphy served the remainder of his term , but lost a reelection bid on November 2 , 2010 , to challenger Chris Gibson , a retired Army colonel .
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= Donald Wilson ( general ) =
Donald Wilson ( 25 September 1892 – 21 June 1978 ) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II .
Wilson enlisted in the Maryland National Guard as a private in 1916 and served with it on the Mexican border and the Western Front during World War I before transferring to the United States Army Air Service . After the war , he obtained a regular commission . Already qualified as an aerial observer , he became a pilot in 1922 . For many years he was an influential instructor at the Air Corps Tactical School . Wilson became a leading theorist who embraced the doctrine that strategic bombing was the most important aspect of air power . He argued that by attacking vulnerabilities , whole industries could be brought to a halt without necessarily having to destroy all of the factories . The doctrine which Wilson expounded later became the basis for AWPD @-@ 1 , the Army Air Forces ' strategic war plan developed in 1941 .
During World War II , Wilson served as Chief of the Personnel Division ( G @-@ l ) of the War Department General Staff . He became Chief of Staff of the Fifth Air Force in September 1942 , before returning to the United States in 1944 to become Assistant Chief of Staff , United States Army Air Forces for Organization , Commitments and Requirements . For a time he was acting Chief of Staff of Army Air Forces . In February 1945 , Wilson was present at the Battle of Iwo Jima as an official Army Air Forces observer . In June 1945 , he assumed command of the Air Force Proving Ground Command .
After the war , Wilson served as a member of the Gerow Board , which examined the military educational system and instituted a series of long @-@ lasting reforms . In 1947 , he was diagnosed with neurasthenia , and retired with the rank of major general .
= = Early life = =
Donald Wilson was born at Hiner 's Mill in Pendleton County , West Virginia on 25 September 1892 , the third of seven children of John Hamilton Wilson and his wife Martha Jane , née Siple . John Wilson worked a number of odd jobs before becoming a mail carrier with the Baltimore Post Office in 1899 . Donald was educated at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute . In 1910 , he went to work as a surveyor for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad .
= = World War I = =
In February 1916 , Wilson enlisted as a private in the Maryland National Guard and was posted to Company H , 5th Maryland Infantry . This unit was called to active duty at Laurel , Maryland in June 1916 for service on the Mexican border . It was based at Eagle Pass , Texas , and , like most National Guard units , supported but did not directly participate in the Pancho Villa Expedition , although it did occasionally cross the border into Mexico . Wilson was soon promoted to corporal , and later sergeant . The 5th Maryland Regiment returned to Maryland in February 1917 .
The 5th Maryland Infantry was again called up in April 1917 following the declaration of war by the United States on the German Empire . Wilson was promoted to second lieutenant , effective 9 April 1917 . He was posted to Company C , 5th Maryland Infantry . This time , the regiment moved to Camp McClellan , Alabama , where the 5th Maryland Infantry was absorbed into the 115th Infantry of the 29th Division on 1 October 1917 . While at Camp McClellan , Wilson applied for training as an aerial observer but his request was not accepted . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 23 April 1918 .
In June 1918 , the 29th Division sailed from Hoboken , New Jersey to Brest , France . It travelled across France , entering the front line trenches in the Traubach @-@ le @-@ Bas sector . In France , Wilson once again applied for training as an aerial observer , in response to an appeal from American Expeditionary Forces ( AEF ) headquarters . This time , he was successful and in September 1918 he reported to the Air Service Concentration Barracks at Saint @-@ Maixent . After training there , at Camp de Souge , and at Tours in November 1918 , he was posted to the 2nd Corps Aeronautical School at Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Seine . He was assigned to the 186th Aero Squadron at Weißenthurm ( Weissenthurm ) in May 1919 , returned to the United States in July , and was discharged from the Army on 15 August 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
Wilson married Edna Taggert , the older sister of the wife of his best friend in Anniston , in a ceremony in her home in Pittsburgh . After a honeymoon in Miami , Florida , they settled in Baltimore . The couple eventually had two children : Teresa Jane , born in 1921 , and Donald , born in 1923 .
In 1920 , Wilson applied for and received a Regular Army commission in the Air Service , into which he was commissioned as a first lieutenant on 1 July 1920 . He was immediately advanced to captain and posted to the Observation School at Post Field , Oklahoma as a senior instructor . In 1922 , he was sent to Carlstrom Field , Florida for primary pilot training and then to Kelly Field , Texas for advanced training . He also served there as an instructor in observation . From 1924 to 1927 , he served in Washington , DC , in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service . This was followed by a two @-@ year tour of duty in the Philippines as commander of the 2nd Observation Squadron .
On return to the United States in 1929 , Wilson was posted to the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field , Virginia as an instructor . In 1931 the school moved to Maxwell Field , Alabama , where he was promoted to major on 1 February 1932 . At the Air Corps Tactical School , Wilson became " one of the leading theorists ... during the thirties " . Like Giulio Douhet , the school embraced the doctrine that strategic bombing was the most important aspect of air power . However , Wilson rejected those parts of Douhet 's doctrine that called for mass bombing of cities to break the morale of the enemy .
Instead , in preparing the training course , Wilson drew on his knowledge that critical breaks in railroad systems could disrupt the entire system . He theorized that this was equally true of other industries , that by attacking vulnerabilities , whole industries could be brought to a halt without necessarily having to destroy all the factories . The school identified transportation , steel , iron ore , and electric power as key economic industries . Wilson termed this doctrine " industrial web theory " .
The formulators of industrial web theory were relatively young junior officers , nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract and admitted that they had no conclusive proof of their theories , but firmly believed that air power would dominate future warfare , after certain technological limitations had been overcome . Wilson was one of the nine key advocates , all instructors at the Tactical School , who became known as the " Bomber Mafia " : Wilson , Walker , Major Odas Moon ( who died in 1937 ) , and future generals Haywood S. Hansell , Laurence Kuter , Muir Fairchild , Robert Olds , Robert M. Webster , and Harold L. George . They espoused the doctrine in testimony to the Howell Commission on Federal Aviation in 1934 , where it was used as an argument supporting the creation of an independent air force .
Once adopted as doctrine , industrial web theory had a host of effects . To obtain the required accuracy to hit pinpoint targets , bombing had to be done by daylight . An improved bombsight was required : the Norden bombsight Mark XV , appearing in 1931 . Since a pursuit plane did not have the range to accompany the bombers , they had to be able to defend themselves , and new tactics called for formation flying to maximize the defense against hostile pursuit aircraft . The requirement for a better bomber led to the development of the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress . Wilson accepted the argument , most forcibly advanced by fellow instructor Kenneth Walker , that fighter aircraft did not have the range or speed to accompany bombers and probably could not shoot them down .
Wilson attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , graduating in June 1934 . He considered the course to be a waste of time , " devoted in large part to the minutiae of ground officers ' duties " and " devoid of serious recognition of the airplane as an instrument of war . " After graduation he returned to the Air Corps Tactical School as Director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 16 June 1936 . From November 1938 to March 1939 , he was also assistant commandant of the school .
= = World War II = =
Wilson was promoted to colonel on 16 October 1940 . He returned to Washington , DC , where he served in the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps under Brigadier General Carl A. Spaatz , the chief of its Plans Division . In May 1940 , he was transferred to the Plans Division of the War Department General Staff , which was headed by Brigadier General Leonard T. Gerow . Wilson was briefly chief of staff of Major General Walter H. Frank 's Third Air Force in Tampa , Florida but after only two months he was recalled to Washington to again serve on the War Department General Staff , this time in the G @-@ 1 ( Personnel ) Division , which was headed by Major General John H. Hilldring , a Command and General Staff School classmate . Wilson was promoted to brigadier general on 22 June 1942 . In July 1942 , Hilldring left to take over command of the 84th Infantry Division and Wilson became Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 .
In September 1942 , Wilson became chief of staff of Major General George Kenney 's Allied Air Forces , Southwest Pacific Area and Fifth Air Force . Kenney had specifically requested General Henry Arnold to send Wilson to replace his chief of staff , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , an RAAF officer . Wilson had known Kenney for many years and was on a first name basis with him ; but while serving as his chief of staff , Wilson always addressed Kenney respectfully as " general " . The loss of Brigadier General Kenneth N. Walker over Rabaul in January 1943 and then his successor , Brigadier General Howard K. Ramey on a reconnaissance mission in March did not dampen Wilson 's desire to accompany a mission , and he tagged along as a passenger on a B @-@ 24 on a bombing raid on Rabaul . For his service in the Southwest Pacific , Wilson was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
In March 1944 , Arnold asked for Kenney to return Wilson to work on his own staff . Wilson took the long way back , visiting the other war theatres in India , China , the Middle East , Italy and England . Wilson found the Army Air Forces Chief of Staff , Lieutenant General Barney Giles anxious for Wilson 's return so Giles could pay a visit to the war theatres . Wilson therefore found himself acting chief of staff . On Giles ' return , Wilson became Assistant Chief of Staff , Organization , Commitments and Requirements . In February 1945 , Wilson was present at the Battle of Iwo Jima as an official Army Air Forces observer . He was promoted to major general on 17 March 1945 .
On 25 June 1945 , Wilson was replaced as assistant chief of staff by Major General Hoyt Vandenberg . For his service in the post , Wilson was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal . He was appointed to command the Air Force Proving Ground Command . At the time , some 22 @,@ 000 airmen were assigned to this command .
= = Post war = =
Wilson served as a member of the Gerow Board , under his former chief , Lieutenant General Leonard T. Gerow , which examined the military educational system . The board met in Washington , DC , between 3 and 12 January 1946 . Its final report to the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , recommended a system of five joint colleges , which would collectively form a National Security University under the direction of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . In addition to the existing Industrial College and National War College , the board recommended the establishment of a joint administrative college , a joint intelligence college , and a Department of State college . Wilson went further and argued for the establishment of an air university , under the control of the Army Air Forces . Wilson 's proposal was accepted , and the Gerow Board 's recommendations resulted in a multi @-@ tiered educational system still in effect today , with a Squadron Officer School for junior officers ; an Air Command and Staff College for middle level officers ; and an Air University for senior officers . All were created from the old Air Corps Tactical School . Beyond that , air officers would have to participate in joint training with their Army and Navy colleagues at the Industrial College , National War College and Joint Forces Staff College , the last two being creations of the Gerow Board . The first classes began at these two new institutions in September 1946 and January 1947 respectively .
In October 1946 , Wilson was diagnosed with neurasthenia . Discharged on the grounds of disability with the rank of major general , he retired to Carmel , California , where he wrote and published his memoirs , entitled Wooing Peponi , in 1973 . He died on 21 June 1978 . His papers are in the The George C. Marshall Foundation .
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= Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitor =
The Admiral Spiridov class were a pair of monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1860s . The sister ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and remained there for their entire careers . Aside from several accidental collisions and one grounding , their careers were uneventful . They were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads in 1892 before they became training ships in 1900 . The Admiral Spiridovs were stricken from the Navy List in 1907 ; one ship became a stationary target and the other a coal @-@ storage barge . Their ultimate fates are unknown .
= = Design and description = =
By late 1863 , the Russian Admiralty Board had begun planning for the second generation of ironclads to succeed those ships then under construction . They ordered eight ships , two fully rigged seagoing types and six coastal defense ships , in March 1864 . The British shipbuilder Charles Mitchell submitted four different designs for the coastal defense vessels , two broadside ironclads and two turret ships . The Shipbuilding Technical Committee decided in August that the broadside designs would be based on the hull shape of the earlier Pervenets @-@ class ironclad for better seaworthiness , but they would be armed with fewer , but more powerful guns , than the numerous smoothbore guns of the older ships . Two variants were worked out that differed in the fineness of the hull and draft .
In November the committee decided to revise the designs to use three gun turrets , each armed with a pair of massive American @-@ designed 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Rodman guns , although the armament was changed to 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns two months later . On 4 June 1865 , Admiral Spiridov and Admiral Chichagov were ordered to the shallower @-@ draft version of the two designs . Construction of the ships was repeatedly delayed by design changes and delayed deliveries of components . Both of the most significant design changes were related to the armor protection . Shortly after they were ordered the Admiralty Board realized that the specified 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 114 mm ) armor would be outclassed by the latest rifled gun and decided that the existing armor would be reinforced by an additional 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) armor plate and additional wooden backing inside the existing armor . The additional weight was offset by increasing the height of the hull by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) which also deepened the ships ' draft . The second change occurred after new 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled guns were able to penetrate a replica of the armor scheme in June 1866 . The Admiralty Board decided to significantly thicken the armor of the two ships and removed one gun turret to compensate for the weight of the extra armor in November . Numerous other changes flowed from this decision as the engine and boilers had to be moved forward about 8 @-@ foot ( 2 m ) to maintain the ships ' trim and two transverse bulkheads also had to be moved . This major change added over 270 @,@ 000 rubles to the cost of the ships and added more delays as Russian ironworks had problems rolling the thicker armor plates .
The Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Charodeika class , and were 254 feet ( 77 @.@ 4 m ) long at the waterline . They had a beam of 43 feet ( 13 @.@ 1 m ) and a maximum draft of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 3 @,@ 196 long tons ( 3 @,@ 247 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 3 @,@ 505 to 3 @,@ 587 long tons ( 3 @,@ 561 to 3 @,@ 645 t ) . They were fitted with a plough @-@ shaped ram . The Admiral Spiridovs had a double bottom and their hulls were subdivided by six main watertight bulkheads . Their crew consisted of 280 officers and crewmen .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Admiral Spiridov class had a single two @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine . It had a bore of 68 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) and a stroke of 36 inches ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) and drove a single three @-@ bladed 14 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by four rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 1 @.@ 76 atm ( 178 kPa ; 26 psi ) . The engine was designed to produce a total of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) which gave the ships speeds between 9 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 16 @.@ 9 – 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 9 mph ) when they ran their initial sea trials in 1869 . The monitors also had a donkey boiler for the small steam engine that powered the ventilation fans and pumps . The Admiral Spiridov class carried 280 long tons ( 284 t ) of coal which gave them a range of about 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots . They were fitted with a light fore @-@ and @-@ aft sailing rig with three pole masts and a bowsprit . It had an area of 2 @,@ 850 square feet ( 265 m2 ) and its primary purpose was to steady the ships and assist in turning .
= = = Armament = = =
The monitors were ultimately designed to be armed with four Obukhov 9 @-@ inch rifled guns , a pair in each Coles @-@ type turret . An armored bulkhead separated the guns inside each turret . In 1874 – 75 the guns were replaced by a single 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) gun in each turret , based on a Krupp design . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 a 9 @-@ inch mortar was fitted to attack the thin deck armor of enemy ships , but accuracy was poor and they were later removed , probably in the early 1880s . An improved , more powerful , 11 @-@ inch gun was installed aboard Admiral Chichagov during the 1880s , although Admiral Spiridov retained her original guns until 1902 , if not for the rest of her career .
Light guns for use against torpedo boats were added to the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War when a pair of 4 @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns were mounted on the roofs of each gun turret . Other guns known have been fitted included 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) Baranov quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF Hotchkiss guns , and 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF Hotchkiss five @-@ barreled revolving cannon . The ships could also carry 12 @-@ 15 mines intended to be used to create a secure anchorage .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors was completely covered by three strakes of wrought iron armor , the upper two were about 3 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 12 m ) high and the lower one , below the waterline , was 3 feet 2 inches ( 0 @.@ 97 m ) high . The middle strake was 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 165 mm ) thick for a length of 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) amidships and the other strakes were generally 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick ( the upper strake was 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick abreast the turrets ) . The armor thinned to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) aft and 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) forward of the main belt . This outermost layer of armor was backed by 9 inches of teak reinforced with angle irons and then came the 1 @-@ inch inner armor plates , backed in its turn by another 9 inches of teak .
The turrets had 6 inches of armor , except around the gun ports , where it thickened to 6 @.@ 5 inches , reinforced by 12 inches of teak . The conning tower was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick . The deck armor was in two layers with a total thickness of 1 inch that were separated by a layer of cloth or felt to better deflect the glancing hits expected . The upper layer was 0 @.@ 625 inches ( 16 mm ) thick and the lower was 0 @.@ 375 inches ( 10 mm ) .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
After launching , the sisters were transferred to Kronstadt for fitting out as the shallow waters around Saint Petersburg prevented deep @-@ draft ships from being completed . This added more delays as the dockyard there lacked the equipment to efficiently fit out the ships . Both ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion . They were not fully equipped until around 1872 and their trials continued until 1873 . Admiral Spiridov accidentally rammed the monitor Admiral Lazarev in Kronstadt harbor in 1871 , and her sister collided with the monitor Veschun four years later ; neither ship was seriously damaged . Several days after the collision , Admiral Chichagov struck a sandbank at full speed . While not damaged in the incident , she was very firmly stuck and early attempts to pull her off failed , during which one seaman was killed and an officer badly wounded . The monitor had to be unloaded as much as possible and her forward guns were removed before she was freed from the sandbank , five days after running aground .
The ships received electric dynamos and searchlights were installed in the late 1870s . Admiral Chichagov served as the flagship for Captain 1st Rank Stepan Makarov during the 1885 naval maneuvers in the approaches to the Gulf of Riga and her boilers were replaced in two years later . Steam @-@ powered steering gear was installed in the sisters in 1887 and they were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads on 13 February 1892 . By this time , their role in Russian war plans was to defend the Gulf of Riga against an anticipated German amphibious landing . In 1900 they were transferred to the Kronstadt Engineering School as training ships before they were transferred to the Port of Kronstadt on 31 March 1907 for disposal . The sisters were stricken on 14 August and Admiral Spiridov became a stationary coal @-@ storage barge while Admiral Chichagov was grounded near Reval and used as a target . Their subsequent fates are unknown .
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= Gliese 876 d =
Gliese 876 d is an exoplanet approximately 15 light @-@ years away in the constellation of Aquarius . The planet was the third planet discovered orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876 . At the time of its discovery , the planet had the lowest mass of any known extrasolar planet apart from the pulsar planets orbiting PSR B1257 + 12 . Due to this low mass , it can be categorized as a super @-@ Earth .
= = Discovery = =
Gliese 876 d was discovered by analysing changes in its star 's radial velocity as a result of the planet 's gravity . The radial velocity measurements were made by observing the Doppler shift in the star 's spectral lines . At the time of discovery , Gliese 876 was known to host two extrasolar planets , designated Gliese 876 b and c , in a 2 : 1 orbital resonance . After the two planets were taken into account , the radial velocity still showed another period , at around two days . The planet , designated Gliese 876 d , was announced on June 13 , 2005 by a team led by Eugenio Rivera and was estimated to have a mass approximately 7 @.@ 5 times that of Earth .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Gliese 876 d is located in an orbit with a semimajor axis of only 0 @.@ 0208 AU ( 3 @.@ 11 million km ) . At this distance from the star , tidal interactions should in theory circularize the orbit ; however , measurements reveal that it has a high eccentricity of 0 @.@ 207 , comparable to that of Mercury in the Solar System .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 d is that only a lower limit on the mass can be obtained . This is because the measured mass value also depends on the orbital inclination , which in general is unknown . However , models incorporating the gravitational interactions between the resonant outer planets enables the inclination of the orbits to be determined . This reveals that the outer planets are nearly coplanar with an inclination of around 59 ° with respect to the plane of the sky . Assuming that Gliese 876 d orbits in the same plane as the other planets , the true mass of the planet is revealed to be 6 @.@ 83 times the mass of Earth .
Models predict that , if its non @-@ Keplerian orbit could be averaged to a Keplerian eccentricity of 0 @.@ 28 , then tidal heating would play a significant role in the planet 's geology to the point of keeping it completely molten . Predicted total heat flux is approximately 104 – 5 W / m2 at the planet 's surface ; for comparison the surface heat flux for Io is around 3 W / m2 . This is similar to the energy it receives from its parent star of about 40 @,@ 000 W / m2 .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Since Gliese 876 d has only been detected indirectly by its gravitational effects on its star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . On the assumption of a Venerean distribution of temperature and a maximum albedo of 0 @.@ 8 , the temperature was estimated at 430 – 650 K.
The low mass of the planet has led to suggestions that it may be a terrestrial planet . This type of massive terrestrial planet could be formed in the inner part of the Gliese 876 system from material pushed towards the star by the inward migration of the gas giants .
Alternatively the planet could have formed further from Gliese 876 , as a gas giant , and migrated inwards with the other gas giants . This would result in a composition richer in volatile substances , such as water . As it arrived in range , the star would have blown off the planet 's hydrogen layer via coronal mass ejection . In this model , the planet would have a pressurised ocean of water ( in the form of a supercritical fluid ) separated from the silicate core by a layer of ice kept frozen by the high pressures in the planetary interior . Such a planet would have an atmosphere containing water vapor and free oxygen produced by the breakdown of water by ultraviolet radiation .
Distinguishing between these two models would require more information about the planet 's radius or composition . The planet does not appear to transit its star , which makes obtaining this information impossible with current observational capabilities .
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= Alan Keyes =
Alan Lee Keyes ( born August 7 , 1950 ) is an American conservative political activist , author , former diplomat , and perennial candidate for public office . A doctoral graduate of Harvard University , Keyes began his diplomatic career in the U.S. Foreign Service in 1979 at the United States consulate in Bombay , India , and later in the American embassy in Zimbabwe .
He ran for President of the United States in 1996 , 2000 , and 2008 ( founding and serving as the presidential nominee of the America 's Independent Party in 2008 ) , and was a Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate in 1988 , 1992 , and 2004 . Keyes was appointed Ambassador to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations by President Ronald Reagan , and served as Reagan 's Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs from 1985 to 1987 ; in his capacities as a UN ambassador , among Keyes 's accomplishments was contributing to the Mexico City Policy .
Keyes also hosted a radio talk show , The Alan Keyes Show : America 's Wake @-@ Up Call , and a television commentary show on the MSNBC cable network , Alan Keyes Is Making Sense .
= = Personal life and family = =
Born in a naval hospital on Long Island , New York , Keyes was the fifth child of mother Gerthina ( Quick ) and father Allison L. Keyes , a U.S. Army sergeant and a teacher . Due to his father 's tours of duty , the Keyes family traveled frequently . Keyes lived in Georgia , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Texas , Virginia and overseas in Italy .
After high school , Keyes attended Cornell University , where he was a member of the Cornell University Glee Club and The Hangovers . He studied political philosophy with American philosopher and essayist Allan Bloom and has said that Bloom was the professor who influenced him most in his undergraduate studies . Keyes has stated that he received death threats for opposing Vietnam war protesters who seized a campus building . Keyes has stated that a passage of Bloom 's book , The Closing of the American Mind , refers to this incident , speaking of an African @-@ American student " whose life had been threatened by a black faculty member when the student refused to participate in a demonstration " at Cornell . Shortly thereafter , he left the school and spent a year in Paris under a Cornell study abroad program connected with Bloom .
Keyes continued his studies at Harvard University , where he resided in Winthrop House , and completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in government affairs in 1972 . During his first year of graduate school , Keyes 's roommate was William Kristol . In 1988 , Kristol ran Keyes 's unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign in Maryland .
Keyes earned his Ph.D. in government affairs from Harvard University in 1979 , having written a dissertation on Alexander Hamilton and constitutional theory , under Harvey C. Mansfield . Due to student deferments and a high draft number , Keyes was not drafted to serve in the Vietnam War . Keyes and his family were staunch supporters of the war , in which his father served two tours of duty . Keyes was criticized by opponents of the war in Vietnam , but he says he was supporting his father and his brothers , who were also fighting in the war .
Keyes is married to Jocelyn Marcel Keyes , of East Indian descent , from Calcutta . The couple has three children , Francis , Maya , and Andrew . Keyes is a traditional Catholic and a third @-@ degree Knight of Columbus . He 's also a close friend of Brazilian conservative philosopher and journalist Olavo de Carvalho .
In 2005 , when Maya Keyes was 20 years old , she came out as a lesbian . There were reports her family threw her out of the house and stopped talking to her . In an interview with Metro Weekly , a Washington , D.C. , LGBT newspaper , Maya confirmed that her father " cut off all financial support . " In the same report Maya said , " It doesn 't make much sense for him to be [ financially ] supporting someone who is working against what he believes in . " Alan Keyes contradicted reports about his having disowned his daughter in October 2007 . Keyes said that he loves his daughter and that she knows she has a home with him . He asserted that he never cut her off and never would , because it would be " wrong in the eyes of God . " He also said he would not be coerced into " approving of that which destroys the soul " of his daughter . He contended that he must " stand for the truth [ Jesus Christ ] represents " even if it breaks his heart .
= = Diplomat = =
A year before completing his doctoral studies , Keyes joined the United States Department of State as a protégé of Jeane Kirkpatrick . In 1979 , he was assigned to the consulate in Mumbai , India . The following year , Keyes was sent to serve at the embassy in Zimbabwe .
In 1983 , President Ronald Reagan appointed Keyes as Ambassador to the United Nations Economic and Social Council . In 1985 , he was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for International Organizations , a position he held until 1987 . His stay at the UN provoked some controversy , leading Newsday to say " he has propounded the more unpopular aspects of US policy with all the diplomatic subtlety of the cannon burst in Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . " He also served on the staff of the National Security Council .
At a fundraiser for Keyes 's senate campaign , President Reagan spoke of Keyes 's time as an ambassador , saying that he " did such an extraordinary job ... defending our country against the forces of anti @-@ Americanism . " Reagan continued , " I 've never known a more stout @-@ hearted defender of a strong America than Alan Keyes . " In 1987 Keyes was appointed a resident scholar for the American Enterprise Institute . His principal research for AEI was diplomacy , international relations , and self @-@ government .
Following government service , Ambassador Keyes was President of Citizens Against Government Waste ( CAGW ) from 1989 to 1991 , and founded CAGW 's National Taxpayers ' Action Day . In 1991 , he served as Interim President of Alabama A & M University , in Huntsville , Alabama .
= = Role in the Reagan Administration = =
Among the U.S. delegation to the 1984 World Population Conference in Mexico City , Keyes was selected by Reagan as deputy chairman . In that capacity , Keyes negotiated the language of the Mexico City Policy to withhold federal funds from international organizations that support abortion . Additionally , Keyes fought against an Arab @-@ backed UN resolution calling for investigation of Israeli settlements . The measure passed , 83 – 2 , with 15 abstentions and only Israel and the U.S. voting against it . Reagan again appointed Keyes to represent the U.S. at the 1985 Women 's Conference in Nairobi .
During his time at the United States Department of State , Keyes defended the Reagan policy of not imposing economic sanctions on South Africa as punishment for apartheid . Stated Keyes , " I see the black people in South Africa as the most critical positive factor for eliminating apartheid and building the future of that country ... And that is not something you do with rhetoric , slogans and noninvolvement . It 's not something you will achieve through disinvestment . "
= = Political campaigns = =
= = = 1988 Senate election = = =
In 1988 , Keyes was drafted by the Maryland Republican Party to run for the United States Senate , and received 38 percent of the vote against victorious incumbent Democrat Paul Sarbanes .
= = = 1992 Senate election = = =
Four years later , he ran again for the Senate from Maryland , coming in first in a field of 13 candidates in the Republican primary . Against Democrat Barbara Mikulski , he received 29 percent in the general election .
During the 1992 election , Keyes attracted controversy when he took a $ 8 @,@ 463 / month salary from his campaign fund .
= = = 1996 Presidential election = = =
Keyes sought the Republican presidential nomination in 1996 , and asked other candidates about abortion in those debates in which he participated . Many Republican leaders saw this as unnecessary and divisive . Keyes was particularly critical of Clinton during his campaign , saying , " This guy lies , but he lies with passion . " He questioned whether a Republican candidate who is truthful , yet cold and heartless , had a chance to win against the incumbent . Keyes was also especially critical of Pat Buchanan , once saying during an interview on the Talk from the Heart program with Al Kresta ( simulcast on KJSL St. Louis and WMUZ @-@ FM Detroit ) that Buchanan had a " black heart . " Keyes 's entry into the Republican race after Buchanan had secured victories in New Hampshire and Louisiana led many to believe that Keyes was a stalking horse for neoconservative elements in the Republican Party , since Buchanan had been a well @-@ known ardent foe of abortion and had suffered political fallout for bringing abortion and " cultural war " to the center of the public policy debate . Later during the primaries , Keyes was briefly detained by Atlanta police when he tried to force his way into a debate to which he had been invited , and then uninvited . He was never formally arrested and was eventually picked up 20 minutes later by Atlanta 's mayor at the time , Bill Campbell .
= = = 2000 Presidential election = = =
Keyes again campaigned for the Republican nomination in the 2000 primaries on a pro @-@ life , family values , tax reform plank . In Iowa , he finished 3rd , drawing 14 percent in a crowded field . He stayed in the race after the early rounds and debated the two remaining candidates , John McCain and George W. Bush , in a number of nationally televised debates . He finished second in 8 primaries . His best showing in the presidential primaries was in Utah , where he received 20 percent of the vote . He was also noted for jumping into a mosh pit during a Rage Against the Machine song during the Iowa caucus as part of a segment on Michael Moore 's TV series The Awful Truth .
= = = 2004 Senate election = = =
On August 8 , 2004 — with 86 days to go before the general election — the Illinois Republican Party drafted Alan Keyes to run against Democratic state senator Barack Obama for the U.S. Senate , after the Republican nominee , Jack Ryan , withdrew due to a sex scandal , and other potential draftees ( most notably former Illinois governor Jim Edgar and former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka ) declined to run . The Washington Post called Keyes a " carpetbagger " since he " had never lived in Illinois . " When asked to answer charges of carpetbagging in the context of his earlier criticism of Hillary Clinton , he called her campaign " pure and planned selfish ambition " , but stated that in his case he felt a moral obligation to run after being asked to by the Illinois Republican Party . " You are doing what you believe to be required by your respect for God 's will , and I think that that 's what I 'm doing in Illinois " .
Keyes , who opposes abortion in all cases " except as an inadvertent result of efforts to save the mother 's life " , said in a September 7 , 2004 news conference that Jesus Christ would not vote for Obama because of votes that Obama — then a member of the Illinois Senate Judiciary committee and a lecturer in constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School — cast in 2001 against a package of three anti @-@ abortion bills that Obama argued were too broad and unconstitutional . The legislation , which provided " that a live child born as a result of an abortion shall be fully recognized as a human person , " passed the Republican @-@ controlled Illinois Senate , but failed to pass out of the Democratic @-@ controlled Illinois House Judiciary committee . After the election , Keyes declined to congratulate Obama , explaining that his refusal to congratulate Obama was " not anything personal " , but was meant to make a statement against " extend [ ing ] false congratulations to the triumph of what we have declared to be across the line " of reasonable propriety . He said that Obama 's position on moral issues regarding life and the family had crossed that line . " I 'm supposed to make a call that represents the congratulations toward the triumph of that which I believe ultimately stands for ... a culture evil enough to destroy the very soul and heart of my country ? I cannot do this . And I will not make a false gesture , " Keyes said .
Keyes was also criticized for his views on homosexuality . In an interview with Michelangelo Signorile , a gay radio host , Keyes defined homosexuality as centering in the pursuit of pleasure , literally " selfish hedonism " . When Signorile asked if Mary Cheney , Vice President Dick Cheney 's lesbian daughter , fit the description and was therefore a " selfish hedonist " , Keyes replied , " Of course she is . That goes by definition . " Media sources picked up on the exchange , reporting that Keyes had " trashed " , " attacked , " and " lashed out at " Mary Cheney , and had called her a " sinner " — provoking condemnation of Keyes by LGBT Republicans and several GOP leaders . Keyes noted that it was an interviewer , not he , who brought up Mary Cheney 's name in the above incident , and he told reporters , " You have tried to personalize the discussion of an issue that I did not personalize . The people asking me the question did so , and if that 's inappropriate , blame the media . Do not blame me . "
During the campaign , Keyes outlined an alternative to reparations for slavery . His specific suggestion was that , for a period of one or two generations , African @-@ Americans who were descended from slaves would be exempt from the federal income tax ( though not from the FICA tax that supports Social Security ) . Keyes said the experiment " would become a demonstration project for what I believe needs to be done for the whole country , which is to get rid of the income tax . " He also called for the repeal of the 17th Amendment in order to require that U.S. Senators be appointed by state legislatures , rather than being directly elected .
Keyes finished with 27 % of the vote despite winning a small number of southern Illinois counties .
= = = 2008 Presidential election = = =
On June 5 , 2007 , We Need Alan Keyes for President was formed as a political action committee to encourage Keyes to enter the 2008 presidential election . On September 14 , 2007 , Keyes officially announced his candidacy in an interview with radio show host Janet Parshall . On September 17 , 2007 , Keyes participated in the Values Voter Debate streamed live on Sky Angel , the Values Voter website , and radio . In a straw poll of the attending audience , Keyes placed third among the invited candidates , after Mike Huckabee and Ron Paul . Keyes was excluded from the Republican CNN / YouTube debate on November 28 , 2007 . Keyes 's campaign called the exclusion " arbitrary , unfair , and presumptuous , " arguing that CNN was playing the role of " gatekeeper " for the presidential election .
On December 12 , 2007 , Keyes participated in the Des Moines Register 's Republican presidential debate , televised nationwide by PBS and the cable news networks . This was the first major presidential debate in which Keyes participated during the 2008 election season and the last Republican debate before the Iowa Caucuses . Although Keyes wasn 't listed on the latest national CNN poll leading up to the debate , he registered with at least 1 percent of the Iowa vote in order to participate . During the debate , after the moderator began to ask a question of Texas Congressman Ron Paul , Keyes insisted he wasn 't getting fair treatment . He interrupted the debate moderator at one point , saying that she hadn 't called on him in several rounds and that he had to make an issue of it . He went on the offensive against his opponents during the debate , criticizing Rudy Giuliani 's pro @-@ choice position , as well as Mitt Romney 's recent change in position on the same subject . In answering a question about global warming , he continued his criticisms of other candidates , saying , " I 'm in favor of reducing global warming , because I think the most important emission we need to control is the hot air emission of politicians who pretend one thing and don 't deliver " . He also advocated ending the income tax , establishing state @-@ sanctioned prayer in public schools , and abolishing abortion . Toward the end of the debate , Keyes stated he could not support Giuliani if he were to win the nomination due to the former New York mayor 's position on abortion .
In the Iowa caucuses , Keyes did not appear on any of the election totals . Keyes stated that many of the caucus locations he visited did not list him as a choice . His campaign CEO , Stephen Stone blamed much of this on the media and on Keyes 's decision to enter the race late . Stone explained that the media would not acknowledge Keyes 's candidacy , making it difficult to run an effective campaign .
Keyes supports an amendment to the Constitution barring same @-@ sex marriage . He stated he would not have gone to war in Iraq , but also said that the war was justified and defended President George W. Bush 's decision in one of his 2004 debates . Keyes has stated that troops should stay in Iraq , but also said that he would have turned over operations to the United Nations . However , Keyes has also stated that even while he was an ambassador there he was not a supporter of the United Nations .
After the early states , Keyes exclusively campaigned in Texas , where he finished with 0 @.@ 60 percent of all votes cast .
Following Texas , the Keyes campaign moved to seeking the Constitution Party presidential nomination , but he continued to appear on several Republican ballots . On May 6 , Keyes scored his best showing of the campaign by winning 2 @.@ 7 % for fourth place in North Carolina , earning him two delegates to the Republican National Convention .
= = = = Departure from Republican Party = = = =
Keyes first stated that he was considering leaving the Republican Party during a January 2008 appearance on The Weekly Filibuster radio show . He did not withdraw his candidacy after John McCain won the necessary 1 @,@ 191 delegates to the Republican National Convention , even though he was no longer campaigning for the Republican nomination . On March 27 , 2008 , Keyes 's campaign website began displaying the Constitution Party 's logo , along with a parody of the trademarked GOP logo in the form of a dead elephant . This appeared to be an indication of Keyes 's intentions to quit the Republican party and to begin officially seeking the Constitution Party 's presidential nomination .
On April 15 , Keyes confirmed his split from the Republican Party and his intention to explore the candidacy of the Constitution Party . He lost his bid for the party 's nomination , however , coming in second to 2004 CP vice presidential candidate Chuck Baldwin at the party 's national convention in Kansas City , Missouri , on April 26 , 2008 . During the convention , the party 's founder , Howard Phillips , gave a controversial speech in which he referred to Keyes as " the Neocon candidate " who " lingered in the Republican Party until a week ago . " Following the defeat , Keyes held an interview with Mike Ferguson in which he compared his defeat to an abortion . Later , Keyes told a group of his supporters that he was " prayerfully considering " making a continued bid for the presidency as an independent candidate , and asserted his refusal to endorse Baldwin 's candidacy .
Instead , Keyes ' supporters formed a new third party , America 's Independent Party , for his presidential candidacy . America 's Independent Party gained the affiliation of a faction of California 's American Independent Party . However , the AIP ticket , which had Brian Rohrbough , father of a victim of the Columbine High School massacre , of Colorado as its vice presidential candidate , was only on the ballot in California , Colorado , and Florida .
In the federal election held on November 4 , 2008 , Keyes received 47 @,@ 694 votes nationally to finish seventh . About 86 % ( 40 @,@ 673 ) of the votes he received were cast in California .
= = Obama citizenship lawsuit = =
On November 14 , 2008 , Keyes filed a lawsuit — naming as defendants California Secretary of State Deborah Bowen , President @-@ elect Barack Obama , Vice President @-@ elect Joe Biden , and California 's 55 Democratic electors — challenging Obama 's eligibility for the U.S. Presidency . The suit requested that Obama provide documentation that he is a natural born citizen of the United States .
Following the inauguration , Keyes alleged that President Obama had not been constitutionally inaugurated , refused to call him president , and called him a " usurper " and a " radical communist " . Keyes also claimed that President Obama 's birth certificate had been forged and he was not qualified to be president .
= = Media and advocacy = =
Keyes has worked as a media commentator and talk show personality . In 1994 , he began hosting a syndicated radio show called The Alan Keyes Show : America 's Wake @-@ Up Call from Arlington , Virginia . The show became simulcast on cable 's National Empowerment Television in 1997 . Keyes also launched various web @-@ based organizations — notably Renew America and the Declaration Foundation , both headquartered in Washington , D.C.
Keyes has served on the board of advisors for the Catholic League , a non @-@ profit , Catholic advocacy group headed by William A. Donohue . In 1997 , he was quoted as calling in that capacity the ABC television show Nothing Sacred " propaganda dressed up as entertainment , the way the Nazis used to make movies . The entertainment elite 's belief that there are no moral absolutes deeply contradicts the religious view of Christianity . "
In 2002 , he hosted a live television commentary show , Alan Keyes Is Making Sense , on the MSNBC cable news channel . The network canceled the show in July , citing poor ratings . The cancellation triggered a currently ongoing boycott led by Jewish education website Mesora.org whose reach numbers more than 72 @,@ 000 email subscribers . The show was unsympathetic to supporters of the al @-@ Aqsa Intifadah — whom Keyes frequently debated on the program — and supported the Israeli crackdown on Palestinians . The show also featured critical discussion of homosexuality and of priests accused in the Catholic Church sex abuse scandals . The last episode was broadcast on June 27 , 2002 . As a result of Keyes 's strong advocacy of Israel on his MSNBC show , in July 2002 the state of Israel awarded him a special honor " in appreciation of his journalistic endeavors and his integrity in reporting " and flew him in to meet Prime Minister Ariel Sharon .
In August 2003 , Keyes came out in defense of Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore , citing both the U.S. Constitution and the Alabama constitution as sanctioning Moore 's ( and Alabama 's ) authority to publicly display the Ten Commandments in the state 's judicial building , in defiance of a court order from U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson . Although the monument was ultimately removed by state authorities , the issue impelled Keyes to spend the next year advocating his understanding of the Constitution 's protection of the right of states to display monuments that reflect the religious sentiments of the people in their states . As a result , he published an essay describing his rationale titled " On the establishment of religion : What the Constitution really says . "
In early 2005 , Keyes sought to intervene in the Terri Schiavo case , arguing that Schiavo 's life was protected by the Florida constitution , and that Governor Jeb Bush had final authority to determine the outcome of the case under state provisions . He attempted to meet with Bush to discuss the provisions of Florida law that authorized the governor to order Schiavo 's feeding tubes reinserted — something Bush claimed he wished to do , but for which he said he lacked authority — but the governor declined to meet with Keyes . Keyes subsequently wrote an essay directed openly at Governor Bush titled " Judicial review and executive responsibility " , days after Schiavo 's feeding tube had been removed .
In November 2006 , Keyes criticized Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney for instituting gay marriage entirely on his own — according to Keyes — with no requirement or authority to do so under Massachusetts law . Keyes said Romney 's actions , which he suggested were due to a complete misunderstanding of his role as governor and of the limitations of the judicial branch of government , were not necessitated by a ruling of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in November 2003 that directed the state legislature to institute same @-@ sex marriage . The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial court had ruled that the state law banning same @-@ sex marriage was not constitutional . The court gave the Massachusetts Legislature 180 days to modify the law ; after it failed to do so , Gov. Mitt Romney ordered town clerks to begin issuing marriage licenses on May 17 , 2004 , in compliance with the court ruling .
Commenting on the issue , Keyes asked rhetorically , " Since the legislature has not acted on the subject , you might be wondering how it is that homosexuals are being married in Massachusetts . It 's because Mitt Romney , who is telling people he 's an opponent of same @-@ sex marriage , forced the justices of the peace and others to perform same @-@ sex marriage , all on his own , with no authorization or requirement from the court . Tells you how twisted our politicians have become . "
Keyes , Olavo de Carvalho , author of a dozen books on philosophical and political matters , and Alejandro Peña Esclusa , president of UnoAmerica , met on 3 March 2009 in Washington D.C. for an informal and friendly talk . In July 2010 , Olavo de Carvalho denounces plot against Alejandro Peña Esclusa , was arrested on terrorism @-@ related charges . According to the website of the Venezuelan Ministry of Communications & Information , Alejandro Peña Esclusa was the head of a plan to murder Pope John Paul II during a visit to Venezuela on 13 November 1984 .
On May 8 , 2009 , Keyes and 21 others were arrested while protesting President Barack Obama 's commencement speech at the University of Notre Dame . Keyes was charged with trespassing and released on $ 250 bond . He was arrested a second time on May 16 .
In December 2009 , Keyes authored a column for the World Net Daily critical of evolution and in support of Intelligent Design .
Keyes also made a widely discussed appearance in the 2006 film Borat . In 2010 , About.com , owned by The New York Times Company , named Keyes one of the top 20 conservatives to follow on Twitter .
Keyes has criticised the papal encyclical Laudato si ' , stating that its demands amount to " ... global penal colony under the totalitarian control of a government with unprecedented global powers " . In the same article Keyes likened Pope Francis to " Marx , Stalin or Mao Zedong . "
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= 2016 Tour of Flanders =
The 2016 Tour of Flanders was a one @-@ day classic cycling race that took place in Belgium on Sunday 3 April 2016 . It was the 100th edition of the Tour of Flanders ; it was the eighth event of the UCI World Tour and the third of the cobbled one @-@ day classics . It was the second Monument race of the 2016 cycling season .
The race started in Bruges and finished in Oudenaarde . The total distance was 255 kilometres ( 158 mi ) , covering 18 categorized climbs and seven flat cobblestoned sectors . The principal favourites for the overall victory were Fabian Cancellara ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) .
After several riders had abandoned the race due to crashes and injuries , the decisive break was formed with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) to go by Sagan , Michał Kwiatkowski ( Team Sky ) and Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . On the last climb of the Oude Kwaremont , Kwiatkowski was dropped ; on the Paterberg , which followed shortly afterwards and was final climb of the race , Sagan dropped Vanmarcke and set off alone towards the finish . Vanmarcke and Cancellara collaborated in an effort to chase him down , but Sagan was able to ride to the finish alone . Cancellara finished second with Vanmarcke third , both more than 20 seconds behind Sagan .
= = Route = =
The route of the 100th edition was presented on 29 November 2015 at Brussels Airport . It contained small changes from previous editions : the Tiegemberg in West Flanders was omitted , while in the Flemish Ardennes the flat cobbled sector of the Holleweg was cut from the race and replaced with the Jagerij cobbled road . The change was needed to keep the iconic Molenberg climb in the route due to roadworks . The recent tradition of announcing a Dorp van de Ronde ( " Village of the Tour " ) was also abandoned , although the route passed through Kanegem and Aarsele in tribute to Briek Schotte and Roger Decock ( the oldest living winner of the Tour of Flanders ) respectively .
The race started in the Market Square in Bruges with a neutralised zone , leaving the town to the south . The racing started outside the city and took the riders southwest through Torhout to Roeselare , then east through Ardooie and Tielt , then south @-@ east to Oudenaarde , passing across the first cobbled sector of the day , the flat Huisepontweg . After Oudenaarde , the route continued into a series of circuits through the hilly area to the south and east . After 103 kilometres ( 64 mi ) came the first climb , the Oude Kwaremont , a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 400 yd ) , partially cobbled climb that would feature twice more later in the race . The route turned north and , following the climb of the non @-@ cobbled Kortekeer , the riders entered a 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) section with several cobbled roads . These included the cobbled climbs of the Eikenberg and the Wolvenberg , then the flat Ruiterstraat , Kerkgate and Jagerij , the climb of the Molenberg , then finally the 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 2 @,@ 500 yd ) of the flat Paddestraat . The route then turned back to the south @-@ west , across the flat Haaghoek cobbles and then the non @-@ cobbled climbs of the Leberg , Berendries , Valkenberg , Kaperij and Kanarieberg . This brought the route back to take on the second ascent of the Oude Kwaremont , followed immediately by the steep cobbled climb of the Paterberg , 360 metres ( 390 yd ) long with an average gradient of 12 @.@ 9 % and sections at over 20 % . At the summit of the Paterberg , there were 51 kilometres ( 32 mi ) left to the finish .
There were six more climbs in the next 40 @-@ kilometre ( 25 mi ) loop . The first of these was the Koppenberg , which includes the steepest roads of the race , with gradients of 22 % . This was followed by the flat cobbles of the Mariaborrestraat and the climbs of the Steenbeekdries and the Taaienberg . The roads took the riders south into Ronse for the climb of the Kruisberg , then north @-@ west to the foot of the Oude Kwaremont . The Oude Kwaremont – Paterberg combination was used for a second time ; at the top of the Paterberg there were 11 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) to the finish . These took place over mainly flat roads , with a long finishing straight on the outskirts of Oudenaarde .
= = = Climbs and cobbled roads = = =
In total , the race included eighteen categorized climbs .
Additionally , there were seven sectors of flat cobbled roads :
= = Participating teams = =
The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and were obliged to participate in the race . An additional seven UCI Professional Continental teams were given wildcard entries : two Belgian teams ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert and Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , a Dutch team ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) , a German team ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , a French team ( Direct Énergie ) , an Italian team ( Wilier Triestina – Southeast ) and a Polish team ( CCC – Sprandi – Polkowice ) . With eight on each team , the peloton at the start of the race included 200 riders . Of these , 118 reached the finish line .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The principal favourites for the race were Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , both of whom had won the race on three previous occasions . Cancellara was in strong form , having won the Strade Bianche and having come fourth in E3 Harelbeke and Gent – Wevelgem the previous week . Boonen , however , was not in strong form : he had not won a major classic since 2012 and had not performed strongly in the previous week 's races . Nevertheless , Cycling Weekly wrote " you can never write the three @-@ time Flanders winner off in a race like this . " The other former winners present at the start were Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , the defending champion , and Cancellara 's teammate Stijn Devolder . Kristoff 's strong sprint gave him an advantage if he was in a group that finished together ; he had , however , been ill in the previous week . Devolder , meanwhile , was expected to work for Cancellara .
The other major favourite for the race was Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) , the reigning world road race champion . Sagan had come second in E3 Harelbeke and first in Gent – Wevelgem . He had the advantage of being able to follow attacks and also to wait to use his strong sprint if he came to the finish with other riders .
Other riders with a chance of victory included Michał Kwiatkowski ( Team Sky ) , who had won E3 Harelbeke ahead of Sagan and who had a strong team with Geraint Thomas , Ian Stannard and Luke Rowe ; Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) ; Boonen 's teammates Niki Terpstra and Zdeněk Štybar ; Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) ; and Tiesj Benoot ( Lotto – Soudal ) .
= = Race summary = =
Before the race began , there was a minute 's silence in memory of Antoine Demoitié , a Wanty – Groupe Gobert rider who had been killed in a crash with a motorbike during Gent – Wevelgem . After 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) , the riders arrived in Hooglede , the birthplace of Daan Myngheer , a rider for Roubaix – Lille Métropole who had died following a heart attack in the Critérium International ; the peloton rode slowly through the town in memory of him .
The day 's breakaway took a long time to form : over an hour into the day 's racing , with more than 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) covered , a six @-@ man move broke free . The riders were Hugo Houle ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Federico Zurlo ( Lampre – Merida ) , Imanol Erviti ( Movistar ) , Lukas Pöstlberger ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Gijs Van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) and Wesley Kreder ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) . They earned a lead of over four minutes , but broke apart as the day 's climbs began .
During the middle part of the race several riders were forced to withdraw after crashes . Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) , the winner of Milan – San Remo , crashed after 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) , while Marcus Burghardt ( BMC ) and Tiesj Benoot crashed on the Wolvenberg shortly afterwards . Less than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) later , several BMC riders crashed together and four were forced to withdraw . These included Greg Van Avermaet , who broke his collarbone .
On the Molenberg , with more than 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) remaining , a hard effort by Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) caused a split in the main peloton , with 25 riders in the front group , but the groups came back together shortly afterwards . André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Nils Politt ( Katusha ) then attacked on the Leberg and were allowed to go ; they were followed by Dmitriy Gruzdev ( Astana ) and Dimitri Claeys ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . These four riders joined up with Houle , Erviti and Van Hoecke from the original break ; Houle was dropped soon afterwards to form a six @-@ man leading group , which had a two @-@ minute lead at the foot of the second ascent of the Oude Kwaremont . On the climb , Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Dylan van Baarle ( Cannondale – Drapac ) attacked from the peloton . Another group , including Sep Vanmarcke and Ian Stannard , attacked before the Koppenberg . Stannard then went solo over the top of the climb . Meanwhile , Vandenbergh and Van Baarle caught up with the group of leaders .
There were several more attacks before the climb of the Taaienberg , where a small group of favourites formed and quickly caught Stannard . Shortly afterwards , with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining , Michał Kwiatkowski and Peter Sagan attacked together and were joined by Sep Vanmarcke . They crossed the Kruisberg together and caught the remainder of the breakaway with 23 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , 40 seconds ahead of the peloton . On the final climb of the Oude Kwaremont , Kwiatkowski was unable to follow Sagan and Vanmarcke , while Cancellara rode clear of the peloton . Sagan was first to the summit with Vanmarcke ; Cancellara was twelve seconds behind . Cancellara was then caught by Niki Terpstra , Erviti and Claeys .
On the final climb , the Paterberg , Sagan rode away from Vanmarcke , who was caught by Cancellara at the top of the climb . They rode in pursuit of Sagan , who had a 15 @-@ second lead at the summit . The chasing pair were unable to bring Sagan back and he rode to the finish to win his first Monument . Cancellara finished second , 25 seconds back , with Vanmarcke allowing him to take second place . Kristoff won the sprint for fourth place , ahead of Luke Rowe ( Sky ) , 49 seconds behind Sagan .
= = Result = =
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
= = = Rider reactions = = =
Sagan celebrated his victory by doing a wheelie after the finishing line . He said afterwards that it was the hardest Tour of Flanders he had ever raced , having been " full gas " throughout and suggested that Cancellara had made a mistake by not following the attack he had made with Kwiatkowski and Vanmarcke . Cancellara was emotional after finishing his final Tour of Flanders . He said that he had " missed this one second " , referring to the attack by Sagan . He said that he and Vanmarcke had done all they could in the chase , but that Sagan was too strong . Vanmarcke , meanwhile , said that he had struggled due to crashes in the middle part of the race and then had suffered cramp when Sagan attacked on the Paterberg . He described the move by Sagan and Kwiatkowski as the " decisive moment in the race " .
Boonen , who finished fifteenth , described Sagan as " really strong " and as the " deserved winner " ; he said " The way [ Sagan ] rode up the Paterberg was a good showcase on how to ride a bike " . Boonen , meanwhile , turned his attention to Paris – Roubaix the following week . Van Avermaet described himself as " really disappointed " following his crash , which ruled him out of Paris – Roubaix . Luke Rowe 's fifth place was Team Sky 's best ever performance in the Tour of Flanders ; he praised Kwiatkowski 's move , but said " there ’ s not much you can do when someone has better legs " ; he described Sagan , Cancellara and Vanmarcke as " the three strongest guys in the race " . Imanol Erviti , who had been in the breakaway for 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) , finished seventh . Cycling Weekly described this as " phenomenal " ; it was Movistar 's best ever result .
= = = World Tour standings = = =
Sagan remained at the top of the 2016 UCI World Tour standings following his victory ; his total of 329 points was more than 100 ahead of the next rider , his teammate Alberto Contador . Cancellara moved up from thirteenth to fourth and Vanmarcke from sixteenth to sixth . Sagan 's total put Slovakia in third place in the nations ' rankings , ahead of Great Britain and Spain , even though he was the only Slovakian to have scored World Tour points .
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= Lynn ( MBTA station ) =
Lynn ( signed as Central Square - Lynn ) is a passenger rail station on the MBTA Commuter Rail Newburyport / Rockport Line in downtown Lynn , Massachusetts , located 11 @.@ 5 route miles from North Station . The station consists of a single center island platform serving the two station tracks on an elevated grade that runs through the downtown area of Lynn . A large parking garage is integrated into the station structure . The present station , built in 1992 , is the latest in a series of depots built on approximately the same Central Square site since 1838 . A number of other stations have also been located on several different rail lines in Lynn .
Lynn is also a major bus transfer point serving 12 MBTA Bus routes in the North Shore region , including routes leading to Salem , Marblehead , Wonderland , and the Liberty Tree Mall as well as downtown Boston .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
After the railroads from Boston to Lowell , Worcester , and Providence were chartered in 1830 and 1831 , railroads to other surrounding cities including Newburyport and Portsmouth were proposed . The Eastern Railroad was chartered on April 14 , 1836 . Work began at East Boston in late 1836 ; it reached Lynn in the spring of 1837 , but constructeion was slowed by the Panic of 1837 and did not reach Salem until 1838 . Service from Salem to East Boston began on August 27 , 1838 , with fares half that of competing stagecoaches .
The line through Lynn was built at surface level . A number of stations have served Lynn , including a series of stations near the current location at Central Square as well as a number of other stations around the city . The first depot at the Central Square location , built in 1838 , was a small wooden building .
On June 16 , 1846 , the stockholders authorized the sale of $ 450 @,@ 000 of new stock to fund various branch lines plus new depots at Salem and Lynn . The 1838 @-@ built station was replaced in 1848 by a brick building with a 2 @-@ track train shed , modeled after the 1847 @-@ built station at Salem but smaller and lacking towers .
In 1845 and 1846 , a line from Malden to Salem via Saugus and Lynnfield was proposed but did not pass the legislature due to bitter objections from the Eastern . Instead , the Saugus Branch Railroad opened from Malden to Lynn Common on February 1 , 1853 . Affiliated with the Eastern 's primary rival , the Boston and Maine Railroad ( B & M ) , it did not initially have a connection with the Eastern . In 1855 , the Eastern acquired the majority stock of the Saugus Branch Railroad to keep it away from the B & M. The connection to the B & M at Malden was severed , and it was connected to the Eastern at South Malden ( Everett ) and West Lynn . Lynn became the primary turnback point for the Saugus Branch after 1855 , though a limited number of trains continued to Salem until World War I.
The first horsecars ran to Lynn in 1854 under the Lynn and Boston Street Railway . Its line ran between its namesake cities ; running through Charlestown on Chelsea Street , Chelsea and Revere on Broadway , then along the Salem Turnpike to Lynn . On July 2 , 1888 , the Lynn & Boston became the first electrified trolley line in the Boston area .
= = = Great Lynn Depot War = = =
When the Eastern Railroad prepared to build a new depot in 1865 , a great deal of controversy erupted – an event later known as the " Great Lynn Depot War " . One faction wanted the replacement station built at the same Central Square location , while another wanted it built at Knight 's Crossing , a block southwest at Market Street . The Central Square faction was aided by a bill passed in the Massachusetts legislature on April 29 , 1865 , which disallowed a railroad from abandoning a station that had been in service more than five years , as well as an 1868 bill that specifically directed the Eastern Railroad to build the replacement station at Central Square .
After a case which reached the Supreme Court in 1871 and a subsequent appeal to the United States Court , a decision was ultimately made to construct stations at both locations . Both the Central Square and Market Street stations were in service by mid @-@ 1872 , but it was untenable for the railroad to serve two stations just several hundred feet apart . The Market Street station was demolished in 1873 and replaced with a wooden shelter that served only a handful of trains .
The depot controversy was a setback for the Eastern Railroad in a city where residents were already dissatisfied with poor service . In 1872 , the Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn Railroad was charted as a direct competitor to the Eastern ; service began from Market Street in 1875 and lasted until 1940 . Service to East Boston had been replaced with direct service to Boston via the Grand Junction Railroad in 1854 , but Lynn - East Boston service was run from 1872 to 1880 to compete with the BRB & L. In 1880 the service was cut to a Revere - East Boston shuttle which lasted until 1905 .
From approximately the 1850s to the 1930s , Lynn was the terminus for some short turn Boston commuter trains . From 1881 to 1892 , some of these trains ran via the Chelsea Beach Branch during the summer .
= = = Track elevation = = =
The 1872 Central Square station burned in 1889 and was replaced with a temporary station until a new depot with a 75 @-@ foot clock tower was built in 1895 on the north side of the tracks off Union Street . This station had two side platforms to serve the line 's two tracks . As early as 1901 , the city began planning to eliminate the numerous grade crossings in downtown Lynn . With 150 trains per day on the main line and 40 on the Saugus Branch , some streets were blocked for as long as half of daylight hours . After legal issues , construction of an elevated viaduct began in September 1909 . However , the New Haven Railroad briefly gained control of the Boston and Maine at this time , and intended to fully four @-@ track the line through Lynn in conjunction with plans including a possible railroad tunnel under the harbor . The municipality initially intended to force the railroad to depress the four @-@ track line below grade , but later reached an agreement with the railroad to modify the two @-@ track viaduct for four tracks .
The New Haven 's plan to four @-@ track the line as far as the branch line splits in Salem and Beverly was stymied by the costs to modify the grade crossings in Chelsea and the single @-@ track tunnel at Salem . The only quadruple track to become operational was at Lynn station itself , with two island platforms to serve trains on all tracks . The depot was modified " not for the better " in conjunction with the elevation project . Many of the four @-@ track bridge spans in Lynn , never used operationally , are still extant .
= = = B & M and MBTA eras = = =
Streetcars service to Lynn continued under the Lynn & Boston until 1901 when it became part of the Boston & Northern Street Railway . By the early 20th century , a number of lines crisscrossed Lynn , with a number of them serving the station . The Bay State Street Railway took over operations in 1911 and joined the Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway in 1919 . Trolley service in Lynn lasted until 1938 .
The Boston and Maine Railroad built a new , more modern station in 1952 but reused the 1914 @-@ built platforms . This single @-@ story building , located on the south side of the tracks at Mt . Vernon and Exchange streets , was in the same flat @-@ roofed brick style as Winchester Center and Wedgemere built five years later . The building was the first on the Boston & Maine system to have radiant heat , and also included a restaurant and newsstand . The 1895 @-@ built station was demolished to make room for a parking lot . Saugus Branch service ended in May 1958 , leaving through service on the Eastern Route as the only trains serving Lynn . Around this time , the third and fourth tracks through the station were removed due to reduced traffic , leaving the station with effectively two side platforms serving two tracks .
By the late 1980s , the nearly @-@ 40 @-@ year @-@ old station and the older platforms were crumbling . Since the Newburyport / Rockport line was no longer a freight clearance route past the General Electric plant in West Lynn , a full @-@ length high @-@ level platform was built to replace the 1952 platforms . The wide platform occupies the width of one former island platform plus one track slot , with the line 's two current tracks on each side . The 800 @-@ foot @-@ long platform is located west of the older low platforms , which are still extant on the viaduct . A 930 @-@ space parking garage with a drop @-@ off lane was built off Market Street ; buses continued to use the former busway on Mount Vernon Street at Central Square . Entrances to the platform are available from the garage and from Central Square . The new facility opened on January 21 , 1992 .
In 2003 , the MBTA spent slightly less than $ 100 @,@ 000 to rehabilitate the deteriorated garage and to convert the drop @-@ off lane into a full busway with shelters , benches , and signage . The busway opened on September 9 , 2003 and 21 MBTA Bus routes were rerouted from Central Square . In late 2005 , the MBTA spent $ 168 @,@ 000 for repairs to the garage roof , which frequently leaked during rain . The 1992 station was built with new concrete ties supporting the tracks connecting to the station , which proved less durable than expected . In September 2008 , the MBTA board authorized a $ 1 million tie replacement and slope stabilization project at the station .
An elevator is available to access the elevated platform from the ground level of the parking garage . This is one of a small number of elevators on the MBTA Commuter Rail system , and along with the pair at Framingham is one of the few on the system maintained by the MBTA rather than Amtrak , Massport , or local Regional Transportation Agencies . As of 2015 , the Lynn garage has the lowest utilization rate of MBTA garages , partially due to safety concerns and partially because it was built to support future Blue Line demand . In 2011 , 20 security cameras were added to the station as a reaction to several assaults in the garage .
= = = Future = = =
Lynn is intended to be the terminus of a future extension of the MBTA Blue Line , which would bring the line 4 @.@ 5 additional miles from Wonderland in Revere to Lynn . This extension has been proposed in various forms for over 80 years . The 1926 Report on Improved Transportation Facilities and 1945 – 47 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that the East Boston Tunnel line , which had been converted to rapid transit from streetcars in 1924 , be extended to Lynn via the Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn right @-@ of @-@ way . Ever since the 1954 Revere extension was cut short to Wonderland , a further extension to Lynn has been planned . Following on the 1926 and 1945 @-@ 47 studies , the 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended that the Blue Line be extended to Lynn , while the 1969 Recommended Highway and Transit Plan proposed that the extension run as far as Salem . An extension was not present in the 1972 Final Report of the Boston Transportation Planning Review , but the 1974 Transportation Plan revived the project with possible termini of Lynn , Salem , or even Route 128 in Peabody . The 1978 Program for Mass Transportation report and 1983 Transportation Plan both continued support for an extension to Lynn . Despite the continued recommendations , however , other projects like extensions of the Red and Orange lines were given funding instead of the Blue Line .
Despite numerous studies on the project and previous bond bills , there is currently no identified funding source ; due to the MBTA 's constrained finances , construction is not likely to begin soon . The 1992 @-@ built Lynn parking garage , designed for the capacity needed for the Blue Line extension , does not fill fully from commuter rail ridership .
= = = Other Lynn stations = = =
Lynn has also been home to eight other stations on different sites - none of which lasted into the MBTA era - plus a ninth that opened in 1965 . Besides its downtown stops , the Eastern Railroad also served East Lynn from 1880 until Marblehead Branch service ended in June 1959 . Stairways from the Chatham Street to the station site still exist , although no station building remains . The 1896 depot was disassembled in 1912 in preparation for the downtown grade separation . It was moved to Durham , New Hampshire , where it now serves as the University of New Hampshire Dairy Bar and a station stop on Amtrak 's Downeaster service . A West Lynn station was located at Commercial Street at the junction with the Saugus Branch Railroad , and Green Street was briefly located just east of Central Square . Neither the West Lynn nor Green Street buildings survive .
The Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn also served its own Lynn depot ( a block away from the Eastern Railroad station ) at Market Street near Broad Street , as well its own West Lynn station adjacent to the Eastern Railroad station just east of Commercial Street . Neither station is still extant .
Service on the Saugus Branch Railroad began from Boston to Lynn ( via Malden ) in 1853 , serving Central Square and West Lynn plus three new stations in northwest Lynn . These included Lynn Common station at Western Avenue , Raddin 's Station at Summer Street and Raddin Grove Avenue , and East Saugus at Lincoln Avenue on the Saugus / Lynn border . Passenger service on the branch ended in May 1958 ; the branch is now abandoned and being turned into a rail trail . None of the station buildings survive , though the surviving Cliftondale station in Saugus was identical to the East Saugus station .
River Works station is located in West Lynn on the Newburyport / Rockport Line . Opened on September 9 , 1965 as G.E. Works , it is for the sole use of GE Aviation employees . Swampscott , located just outside Lynn in Swampscott , Massachusetts , also serves passengers from East Lynn .
= = Bus connections = =
Lynn serves as a major hub and transfer point for MBTA Bus routes serving the North Shore area . All routes pull into the station busway off Route 1A , though some can be caught at Central Square via the station 's Exchange Street / Central Square entrance as well .
426 Central Square , Lynn - Haymarket Station via Cliftondale
426W Central Square , Lynn - Wonderland Station via Cliftondale Square ( weekend version of 426 )
429 Northgate Shopping Center - Central Square , Lynn via Linden Square & Square One Mall
431 Neptune Towers - Central Square , Lynn via Summer Street
435 Liberty Tree Mall - Central Square , Lynn via Peabody Square
436 Liberty Tree Mall - Central Square , Lynn via Goodwins Circle
439 Bass Point , Nahant - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn
441 Marblehead - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn , Paradise Road & Lynnway
442 Marblehead - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn , Humphrey Street & Lynnway
455 Salem Depot - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn
456 Salem Depot - Central Square , Lynn via Highland Avenue
459 Salem Depot - Downtown Crossing via Logan Airport & Central Square , Lynn
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= Martin Ødegaard =
Martin Ødegaard ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈmɑʈɪn ˈøːdəˌɡɔːɾ ] ; born 17 December 1998 ) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for Spanish club Real Madrid Castilla and the Norway national team .
He made his debut for Strømsgodset Toppfotball on 13 April 2014 , becoming the youngest player to feature in Tippeligaen , and became its youngest goalscorer on 16 May . After being a regular part of the team in his first season and training with several foreign clubs , Ødegaard was signed by Real Madrid in January 2015 . He is currently playing for their reserve team , Real Madrid Castilla , but trains mainly with the first team . On 23 May 2015 , he became the youngest player to represent Real Madrid .
Ødegaard made his international debut against the United Arab Emirates on 27 August 2014 , becoming the youngest debutant for the senior team at the age of 15 years and 253 days . On 13 October 2014 , he became the youngest player to feature in a qualifying match for the UEFA European Championship .
= = Club career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Ødegaard spent his first years in the local sports club Drammen Strong . His father , Hans Erik Ødegaard , a former footballer , co @-@ founded a football section in the club , and became the coach of his son 's team . In 2005 , when Ødegaard was six , his parents and others each invested 50 @,@ 000 kroner so that the local club could refit their gravel field , Kjappen , with artificial turf . This has been cited as crucial for his development , as Ødegaard spent countless hours on the field .
Drammen Strong was twice selected by Ødegaard to receive a prize of 50 @,@ 000 kroner ( € 5 @,@ 800 ) , when the young player was given the Statoil talent award for April 2014 and for the 2014 season . Later , in 2015 , Drammen Strong received 250 @,@ 000 kroner , equivalent to approximately € 29 @,@ 000 , as a gift from Strømsgodset Toppfotball when Ødegaard was sold to Real Madrid .
In 2009 , Ødegaard joined the youth division of Strømsgodset . He trained and played with older boys .
The Norwegian FA also organizes young talents in local district teams . Ødegaard played his first matches for the Buskerud team in January 2010 , when he had just turned 11 . The other players on the team , and opponents , were 2 – 3 years older . The coach noted : " Handles things brilliantly . Good choices . Good touch , smart in position game " . Ødegaard trained with this team weekly for the next three years . He mostly played left back , as the coaches felt this would give him a positive experience with many ball touches while still playing against physically much stronger players . In attack , he was given free rein due to his ability to " see solutions and spaces that we as coaches were not even close to thinking about . "
In 2011 , at age 12 , he impressed former football manager Lars Tjærnås during a nationwide tournament for under @-@ 16s :
The best 15 @-@ year @-@ olds in the country were gathered for a tournament between the top clubs ... It was definitely not the first time he had astonished his opponents or the spectators . He was three or four years younger than the others . It was impossible not to realize that we were witnessing something out of the ordinary .
= = = Strømsgodset = = =
Ødegaard began training with the Strømsgodset first team in 2012 , aged 13 . He made his first team debut the same year , in a mid @-@ season friendly against local rivals Mjøndalen IF . He also had short training visits to Bayern Munich and Manchester United . In 2013 , at age 14 , Ødegaard played for both Strømsgodset 's junior team ( normally aged 17 – 19 ) , and the club 's third team at the fifth tier of Norwegian senior football .
In January 2014 , it was agreed that 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ødegaard would be part of Strømsgodset 's first team for the year , but no professional contract was signed . The competition rules state that to play in Tippeligaen , players must have a professional contract to be eligible . However , the club included Ødegaard on the " B @-@ list " for amateur players , which made him eligible for up to three matches per season . Ødegaard was unable to train with Strømsgodset in the daytime since he was still in compulsory education . Thus , as part of the agreement , he trained two evenings a week with Mjøndalen IF , a semi @-@ professional First Division team at the time , where his father was one of the coaches .
He made his league debut for Strømsgodset in a match against Aalesunds FK at Marienlyst Stadion on 13 April 2014 . Aged 15 years and 118 days , he became the youngest footballer ever to play in Tippeligaen . On 5 May , he signed a professional contract with Strømsgodset , lasting until the end of 2015 . This removed the restriction of three matches per season . Eleven days later , he scored his first professional goal and became the youngest goalscorer in Tippeligaen when he scored the fourth goal for Strømsgodset in a 4 – 1 home victory against Sarpsborg 08 FF . He made his European debut on 16 July , replacing Lars Christopher Vilsvik for the final five minutes of the club 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Steaua Bucureşti in the UEFA Champions League second qualifying round .
In late July , an away match at Sandnes Ulf prompted serious discussion in national newspapers VG , Dagbladet and Aftenposten , on his possible call @-@ up to the Norwegian national team . Ødegaard was involved in all three goals for his team , including a goal and an assist . He was also fouled for a penalty which was missed by a teammate . John Arne Riise , the most @-@ capped player on the Norwegian national team , was impressed , and " demanded " Ødegaard should be called up to play against the big nations of Europe . Former manager for Norway , Nils Johan Semb , said after the match that " Martin is one of the best 15 @-@ year @-@ olds in Europe , " but added that he should not be rushed into the national team . Ødegaard himself stated to the press that if he would be asked to play for Norway , he would say yes .
In the away match against IK Start on 15 August the same year , Ødegaard was placed on the right wing , and made all three assists for Strømsgodset , who won 3 – 2 . He scored two goals in a match for the first time in his career in the 2 – 1 win against Lillestrøm SK on 19 October . Strømsgodset finished fourth in the league , qualifying for the first qualifying round of the UEFA Europa League , with Ødegaard having scored 5 goals in 23 league games in addition to 7 assists .
In December 2014 , during the Norwegian close season , he trained with the first teams at Liverpool , Bayern Munich , Manchester United and Manchester City . He also visited Arsenal . In January 2015 , he trained with Real Madrid .
= = = Real Madrid = = =
On 21 January 2015 , Real Madrid reached an agreement to sign Ødegaard from Strømsgodset , for a fee reported by Spanish media as around € 3 million . Norwegian media reported , however , that the fee was 35 million kroner ( approximately € 4 million ) , which could rise to 70 – 75 million kroner ( approximately € 8 – 8 @.@ 5 million ) on certain conditions . In a press conference after the signing , Real Madrid announced that Ødegaard would train with both the club 's first team and the reserves , Real Madrid Castilla . He would play for the latter team , which was managed by Zinedine Zidane at the time .
He made his unofficial debut for the reserves on 4 February , in a 3 – 3 friendly draw with Beijing Guoan . He was subsequently named in the first team 's UEFA Champions League squad . Ødegaard was assigned the number 21 . His official debut for Castilla came on 8 February , coming on in the last 20 minutes as a substitute in the 2 – 2 draw against Athletic Bilbao B in Segunda División B. On 21 February , he scored his first goal for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Barakaldo CF at the Estadio Alfredo Di Stéfano , opening the scoring after seven minutes .
In April , Ødegaard was dropped from Castilla after a run of four defeats , with staff finding problems with him training with the first team while playing for the reserves , in addition to a language barrier . First team manager Carlo Ancelotti called for fans to be patient while Ødegaard settles in a new country . On 29 April , he was included in Real Madrid 's matchday squad for the first time for a home La Liga fixture against UD Almería , as Ancelotti was without Gareth Bale , Luka Modrić and Karim Benzema through injury . However , he did not feature in the 3 – 0 victory .
On 23 May , in the final fixture of the season , he made his debut for Real Madrid , coming @-@ on as a 58th @-@ minute substitute for hat @-@ trick scorer and then @-@ reigning FIFA Ballon d 'Or Cristiano Ronaldo in an eventual 7 – 3 home win over Getafe CF . He became the youngest debutant in the history of the club at 16 years and 157 days old .
Ødegaard was a regular starter for Castilla during the 2015 – 16 season . On 17 April 2016 , he was praised in Diario AS for his performance in a 3 – 0 home win over SD Gernika Club , winning a penalty kick which Mariano scored . The result put the team top of the table . The team won the group ahead of Barakaldo CF on the last day , with Ødegaard scoring his first of the season in a 6 – 1 thrashing of La Roda CF .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Martin Ødegaard featured in the starting line @-@ ups for the two home matches of the Norway national under @-@ 15 football team versus Sweden on 17 and 19 September 2013 . Both matches were won by Norway , 2 – 1 and 2 – 0 .
Ødegaard played for the Norway national under @-@ 16 football team in a tournament with Scotland , the United States and France in Turkey in January 2014 . He played the full 90 minutes in all three matches , which resulted in a win versus Scotland and two losses .
He was promoted to the Norway national under @-@ 17 football team for the away match against Iceland on 28 February 2014 . Ødegaard came on as a substitute in the 62nd minute , and helped secure a 2 – 1 win for his country . Subsequently , he was in the starting line @-@ up for the next three away matches ; in the 3 – 0 win against Iceland on 2 March , in the 2 – 3 loss against Turkey on 25 March and finally in the 0 – 3 loss against Greece on 30 March 2014 .
In September 2014 , he was selected for the Norway national under @-@ 21 football team for the final match of the 2015 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification . He played the full match against Portugal , as a forward , but was unable to prevent the opponents from winning 2 – 1 , despite being named Man of the Match .
An unused substitute for the senior team on 6 September 2015 against Croatia , he joined the under @-@ 21 team again the following day in the 2017 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying match against England . He played the full 90 minutes in the match , which Norway lost 0 – 1 at home after a penalty goal by James Ward @-@ Prowse .
= = = Senior = = =
On 19 August 2014 , Ødegaard was called up for a senior international against the United Arab Emirates in Stavanger and played the entire goalless draw on 27 August , becoming the youngest player to play for Norway at senior level , at 15 years and 253 days . The record was previously held by Tormod Kjellsen , who was 15 years and 351 days on his debut in 1910 .
On 30 September 2014 , he was called up to Norway 's UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying matches against Malta and Bulgaria . He made his competitive debut in the latter , replacing Mats Møller Dæhli in the 64th minute of a 2 – 1 home win . At the age of 15 years and 300 days , this made him the youngest player to ever play in a European Championship qualifier , breaking a record held since 1983 by Icelander Sigurður Jónsson .
On 29 March 2015 , Ødegaard became the youngest player to start a European Championship qualifier at the age of 16 years and 101 days in a 5 – 1 loss to Croatia . On 8 June , he was man of the match in Norway 's 0 – 0 friendly draw with Scandinavian rivals Sweden in Oslo . After Norway came third in their qualification group , Ødegaard was named in their squad for a play @-@ off against Hungary . Unused in the first leg , he was substituted at half time in the second on 15 November , as Norway lost 2 – 1 on the night and 3 – 1 on aggregate .
= = Playing style = =
An article in the Liverpool Echo described Ødegaard as " an attack @-@ minded midfielder very much in the modern mould . Diminutive , quick @-@ footed , with natural balance , pace and , perhaps surprisingly for one so young , excellent shooting power " . David Nielsen , his manager at Strømsgodset , likened him to David Silva and Lionel Messi . Amidst transfer speculation in December 2014 , he opined that the player would develop better with a second season in Norway .
In September 2014 , international teammate and Rosenborg winger Morten Gamst Pedersen dubbed Ødegaard the most talented player he had ever seen , saying " For his age he is unbelievable – his knowledge of the game is unbelievable and his technical skills are fantastic " . Pedersen also stated that Ødegaard needed time to improve at the physical aspects of the sport .
When describing his son , Hans Erik Ødegaard said , " It 's the pace of the game that makes the difference in adjusting to different levels . We 've used so many hours in working with his first and second touch to take off the pressure . We have worked a lot on bringing the ball closely to his feet , so he can change direction quickly , so even if he 's physically weaker than the others he doesn 't get caught because he 's able to get away . "
After Ødegaard signed for Real Madrid , Norwegian former football scout Tor @-@ Kristian Karlsen praised his mentality , stating that he had " overcome every challenge in front of him " . Karlsen called him " so level @-@ headed and mature " and noted his intelligence and performance at school , while also saying that this could be a disadvantage as " The best footballers tend to have a bit of needle , a bit of fire " . While former Norway international Jan Åge Fjørtoft was supportive of the transfer to Real Madrid due to the opportunity to learn from Zidane , he warned that at the age of 16 he needed time to develop : " Comparing Ødegaard to Messi is nonsense from the media . Messi is a player who can make the difference and Martin can do the same , but any comparisons should not be taken seriously " . Ødegaard reacted to the attention on him by saying " If you get carried away now , you won ’ t get far in 10 years . I 'm supposed to be at my best then , not now . That I know " .
= = Personal life = =
Ødegaard is the son of former footballer Hans Erik Ødegaard , who played as a midfielder for Strømsgodset and Sandefjord Fotball and was assistant manager of Mjøndalen IF from 2009 to 2015 . He was still attending a local lower secondary school when he made his professional debut , but has since completed his compulsory education in Norway . He is a supporter of English team Liverpool , whom he has described as his " dream club " . Ødegaard looked up to Barcelona 's Lionel Messi , although on joining their rivals Real Madrid he was reported to have deleted tweets in which he had praised Messi . Due to his age , Ødegaard was absent from the computer game Football Manager 2015 until his father gave permission to use his son 's likeness .
Ødegaard has grown up in a Christian family and has expressed that religious faith is an important part of his life . He was named in Time 's 30 most influential teenagers of 2015 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 16 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of 29 March 2016
= = Honours = =
Individual
Tippeligaen Young Player of the Year : 2014
Idrettsgallaen Breakthrough of the Year : 2014
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= The Boat Race 1947 =
The 93rd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1947 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes , Cambridge won by ten lengths in a time of 23 minutes 1 second , taking the overall record in the event to 49 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1946 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 48 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were R. E. Eason ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race ) , P. C. Mallam ( four @-@ time Blue between 1921 and 1924 ) and Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who rowed three times for Oxford between 1921 and 1923 ) . Cambridge were coached by John Houghton Gibbon ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races ) , Hugh Mason ( who represented Cambridge in the 1936 and 1937 races ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . The umpire for the race was former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1920 , 1921 and 1922 races . Among the spectators were Geoffrey Fisher , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and American actress Paulette Goddard . It was the first year that souvenir programmes were sold , the proceeds of which would help to fund the two boat clubs .
The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that Oxford could win , claiming they had an " embarras de richesse " while Cambridge " started this year with a grievous shortage of material " . In a practice row , the rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian stated that " Cambridge showed much better form " while Oxford " did rather more hard work " , including practicing their start from a stakeboat . Oxford were reported as being favourites in the Dundee Courier , with the prediction that the win could be determined by who won the toss . That view was echoed in the Dundee Evening Telegraph , who also suggested that Oxford were favourites yet " abnormal flooding " would favour the crew who won the toss .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 lb ( 78 @.@ 3 kg ) , 5 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 49 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return to the crew , including J. R. W. Gleave , R. M. A. Bourne , P. N. Brodie and stroke A. J. R. Purssell . Cambridge 's boat contained just one crew member who had taken part in the event before , in cox G. H. C. Fisher . The Cambridge University Boat Club president , M. A. Nicholson was declared unfit to row following a series of bouts of asthma . All participants in the race were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race was started by umpire Raikes at 6 : 15 p.m , in " rain and dismal weather " . Out @-@ rating Oxford by two strokes per minute , the Light Blues took an immediate lead and by Craven Steps they were pulling away from their opponents . As both crews passed the Mile Post , Cambridge were almost clear by two lengths , and despite a spurt from the Dark Blues at the Harrods Furniture Depository , the Light Blues maintained their lead . Oxford trailed Cambridge by three and a half lengths as the Light Blues passed below Hammersmith Bridge and moved into Oxford 's water , effectively ending the race as a contest .
Cambridge continued to build their lead , ahead by six lengths at Chiswick Steps and eight by Barnes Bridge . They passed the finishing post ten lengths ahead in a time of 23 minutes 1 second , their first win since the 1939 race . It was the slowest winning time since the 1877 race and the winning margin was the largest since the 1928 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 49 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour . The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested the " Boat Race was as disappointing as the weather in which it was rowed " .
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= Walter de Coutances =
Walter de Coutances or Walter of Coutances ( died 16 November 1207 ) , also called Walter of Rouen , was a medieval Anglo @-@ Norman bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of Rouen . He began his royal service in the government of Henry II , serving as a vice @-@ chancellor . He also accumulated a number of ecclesiastical offices , becoming successively canon of Rouen Cathedral , treasurer of Rouen , and archdeacon of Oxford . King Henry sent him on a number of diplomatic missions and finally rewarded him with the bishopric of Lincoln in 1183 . He did not remain there long , for he was translated to Rouen in late 1184 .
When Richard I , King Henry 's son , became king in 1189 , Coutances absolved Richard for his rebellion against his father and invested him as Duke of Normandy . He then accompanied Richard to Sicily as the king began the Third Crusade , but events in England prompted Richard to send the archbishop back to England to mediate between William Longchamp , the justiciar whom Richard had left in charge of the kingdom , and Prince John , Richard 's younger brother . Coutances succeeded in securing a peace between Longchamp and John , but further actions by Longchamp led to the justiciar 's expulsion from England , replaced in his role by Coutances , even though he never formally used the title . He remained in the office until late 1193 , when he was summoned to Germany by the king , who was being held in captivity there . Coutances became a hostage for the final payment of Richard 's ransom on the king 's release in February 1194 .
Coutances took no further part in English government after returning from Germany . Instead he became involved in Norman affairs , including a dispute with Richard over the ownership of Andely manor , an archiepiscopal property that Richard desired as a fortress . Eventually the archbishop surrendered it to the king in return for two other manors and the seaport of Dieppe . Richard went on to build the castle of Gaillard on the former archiepiscopal manor . After Richard 's death , Coutances invested Prince John as Duke of Normandy , but was forced to pay 2 @,@ 100 Angevin pounds to secure contested rights from the new king . After John lost control of Normandy in 1204 , the archbishop did not resist the new government of King Philip II of France . Coutances died in November 1207 and was buried in his cathedral .
= = Early life = =
Coutances was born in Cornwall , to Reinfrid and Gonilla . His brother was Roger fitzReinfrid , a layman and royal justice during the reign of King Henry II of England . Although the medieval chronicler and churchman Gerald of Wales related that his friend was descended from Trojan heroes who escaped the Sack of Troy and ended up in Cornwall , that was a flattering invention on Gerald 's part . Coutances ' family was of the knightly class , and probably from Normandy originally .
Coutances was usually given the title of magister , which signified that he had received an education in a school ; most likely he attended the schools of Paris . Gerald of Wales said that Coutances was dedicated to learning , and considered him to be a talented courtier .
= = Service to King Henry = =
Coutances started his career as a clerk to King Henry II of England in the royal chamber . He probably owed the position to his brother , who was already in royal service . Coutances may have been associated with the Beaumont family faction at court before beginning work for the king , but this is not certain .
By 1169 Coutances held a canonry in Rouen Cathedral . During the 1170s a group of royal clerks rose to prominence , among them Coutances , Walter Map , Ralph Diceto , John of Oxford , Richard of Ilchester , and Geoffrey Ridel . Coutances was the chaplain to Henry the Young King , eldest living son of King Henry , but when the younger Henry rebelled against his father in 1173 , Coutances returned to King Henry 's service . He became Archdeacon of Oxford , perhaps by 1173 , certainly by 14 March 1176 . He was named vice @-@ chancellor when Ralph de Warneville became Chancellor of England , which occurred in 1173 . In 1176 and 1177 , King Henry sent Coutances on diplomatic missions to Flanders and the French royal court . Arnulf , the Bishop of Lisieux , alleged that Henry allowed Coutances to use all the administrative machinery of Normandy to drive Arnulf from his diocese , so that Coutances might become bishop there . This happened in early 1178 , but the only real evidence for this effort on Coutances ' part comes from Arnulf 's correspondence , and as Coutances was back in England by July 1178 , it does not appear that the attempt was a sustained one .
On his return to England , Coutances was given custody of the abbeys of Wilton and Ramsey , which were being held by King Henry pending the election of new abbots . He thus acquired the right to collect the abbeys ' revenues in the name of the king , who had the regalian rights to that income . In 1180 Henry sent Coutances to France on another diplomatic mission . In February 1182 Coutances witnessed King Henry II 's will , made before the king travelled to Normandy .
= = Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of Rouen = =
Coutances was elected to the see of Lincoln on 8 May 1183 , selected by King Henry over three other candidates . He was ordained a priest on 11 June 1183 and consecrated bishop on 3 July 1183 at Angers by Richard of Dover , the Archbishop of Canterbury . He was enthroned at Lincoln Cathedral on 11 December 1183 . While at Lincoln , Coutances took part in the election of Baldwin of Forde as the new Archbishop of Canterbury , which took place at a council held in Westminster in 1184 . Writing about Coutances ' time at Lincoln , Gerald of Wales accused the bishop of increasing the debt of the diocese of Lincoln and of squandering its resources . Coutances helped the schools in the city of Lincoln , acting as the patron for scholars such as John of Tynemouth and Simon of Southwell .
On 17 November 1184 Coutances was translated to the diocese of Rouen , becoming Archbishop of Rouen . The original election to Rouen had taken place in the summer . King Henry had initially rejected the Rouen cathedral chapter 's nominees and put forward three English bishops as the royal candidates . The king also indicated his preference that Coutances be elected , a choice that was confirmed by the pope in November . Coutances hesitated about the translation to Rouen , as the see there was poorer than Lincoln , but as an archbishopric rather than a bishopric it was of a higher status . The medieval chronicler William of Newburgh wrote that eventually Coutances ' ambition overcame his greed , and he agreed to the translation . He was received at Rouen on 3 March 1185 . Coutances remained in Henry 's service however , and continued attend the royal court frequently . During the final 10 years of Henry 's reign , only Ranulf de Glanville witnessed more royal charters , and only William de Humez , the constable , equalled the 16 charters that Coutances witnessed .
In the later part of 1186 , after the death of King Henry 's son Geoffrey – who was Duke of Brittany – King Philip II of France demanded that Geoffrey 's daughters be placed in the French king 's custody , and that the duchy of Brittany , which Geoffrey had ruled in right of his wife , be surrendered into French royal custody . Coutances was one of the negotiators sent by King Henry to secure a settlement , but they had to settle for a temporary truce . In January 1188 Coutances took the cross when he pledged to go on Crusade along with King Henry and King Philip of France .
At Whitsun in 1189 , Coutances was a member of a commission appointed by the papal legate John of Anagni to arbitrate the dispute between King Henry II of England and his son , Richard , who was supported by King Philip II of France . Henry and Richard 's conflict stemmed from Richard 's desire to secure his inheritance to the throne of England , which he believed his father was trying to give to his youngest brother , John . The commission met near Le Mans . Richard and Philip insisted that Richard should be married to Philip 's sister Alice , that Henry name Richard as Henry 's heir , and that Richard 's youngest brother John should go on crusade with Richard . Henry rejected those terms , and neither Philip nor Richard would negotiate , even under the legate 's threat of an interdict on France .
= = Service to King Richard = =
Shortly after Richard took the throne he sought absolution for his sins in rebelling against his father , from Baldwin of Forde and Coutances . The two archbishops absolved Richard in a ceremony in Sees . Coutances also invested Richard as Duke of Normandy in a ceremony held in Rouen , before accompanying Richard to England , where he participated in the new king 's coronation , on 3 September 1189 .
In 1189 Coutances held an ecclesiastical synod which legislated , among other things , that the clergy should not hold secular offices , even though Coutances himself had held and continued to hold such offices . On 9 November 1189 Richard appointed Coutances to a commission tasked with deciding the dispute between Baldwin of Forde and the monks of his cathedral chapter over Baldwin 's plan to create a church dedicated to Thomas Becket , the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury , and to staff this church not with monks , but with canons . The monks of Canterbury Cathedral objected to Baldwin 's plan , fearing that it was part of a plot to transfer the right of election from the monastic cathedral chapter to the new church 's canons . Sitting on the commission with Coutances were Hugh de Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , Godfrey de Lucy , the Bishop of Winchester , Hubert Walter , the Bishop of Salisbury , Peter de Leia , the Bishop of St David 's , Richard fitzNigel , the Bishop @-@ elect of London , William Longchamp , the Bishop @-@ elect of Ely , and some abbots . The commission travelled to Canterbury , and on 29 November 1189 , managed to secure a compromise between the parties , which lasted until Hubert Walter , by then Archbishop of Canterbury , revived the plan . In the compromise , Baldwin agreed to give up the idea of a new monastic foundation around Canterbury and the monks agreed to submit to the archbishop 's authority .
When Richard left England in late 1189 , the archbishop accompanied him to Normandy and then to Sicily , where Richard began the Third Crusade . In October 1190 , Coutances was one of the negotiators between the city of Messina and the crusaders , and later was a guarantor of the peace treaty between King Richard and Tancred , the King of Sicily . The archbishop was also appointed one of the treasurers of the crusading army .
While Richard was still in Sicily , word reached the king of the disputes between William Longchamp , whom Richard had left in England , and John , Richard 's younger brother . On 2 April 1191 Richard sent Coutances back from Sicily to England . The archbishop landed in England on 27 June , after a short detour to Rome . Coutances received a release from his crusading vow , and returned to England in the company of Richard 's mother , Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine . He had a number of royal documents authorising him to settle the disputes , and on 28 July a settlement was reached that left Longchamp in control , although John still retained sufficient power to make Longchamp 's grip on the government somewhat insecure . In September , however , Longchamp imprisoned Richard 's bastard half @-@ brother , Geoffrey , Archbishop of York , who was attempting to return to England after having been banished by the king . The imprisonment renewed memories of the murder of Thomas Becket almost 20 years earlier , and Geoffrey was quickly released . Longchamp was brought to a council , headed by Coutances and a number of the clerical and lay lords of England , which took place on 5 October 1191 at Loddon Bridge on the River Thames . Longchamp was deposed and exiled , largely because Coutances had a royal document ordering the magnates to obey Coutances ' if the archbishop 's advice was resisted by Longchamp , which it had been . Although the medieval chronicler Richard of Devizes accused Coutances of duplicity , and of trying to play both sides against the other , the evidence suggests that Coutances was genuinely trying to solve the dispute in the king 's interest . Longchamp fled to Normandy , and he was excommunicated by Coutances .
= = Acting Justiciar = =
After Longchamp 's exile Coutances was named head of a council of regency , which is sometimes equated to the post of Chief Justiciar , although he never referred to himself as such nor is he titled that in any official document . Most modern historians , however , name him as justiciar . He held that power until about 25 December 1193 , when Hubert Walter was appointed Justiciar .
Coutances had long experience in the chancery , but little experience with judicial matters . Most of his efforts while in the justiciarship were centred on raising Richard 's ransom . As evidence of this emphasis on raising money , Coutances sent out few itinerant justices during his time in power . Six groups of justices were sent out in 1192 , but in 1193 none were sent out , and even the justices based in Westminster held few sessions . Of those justices appointed , like his predecessor in the justiciarship , Coutances used justices from a wide range of backgrounds , and many of those sent out on itinerent rounds were local to the area , rather than the increasingly professional justices used under Coutances ' successor Hubert Walter . The justiciarship during this period was less connected to justice and was more closely tied to the Exchequer , or treasury of England , and most of the power in the office derived from its control of the Exchequer .
A new note in Coutances ' administration was his custom of issuing writs not in his own name , as had previously been the practice , but in the king 's name . The archbishop also stressed that his decisions were made with the advice and consent of many of the leading nobles of the realm , as well as the barons of the Exchequer . This was a reaction against Longchamp 's authoritarian method of government .
The archbishop supervised the election of a new Archbishop of Canterbury , as Baldwin of Forde had died while on Crusade in 1190 . Although both Longchamp and Coutances were considered as possible candidates and rivals for the see , the cathedral chapter of Canterbury elected the Bishop of Bath , Reginald fitzJocelin , in November 1191 . Reginald died a month later and the see remained vacant until March 1193 , when the king 's candidate , Hubert Walter , was elected .
During 1191 the citizens of the city of London managed to acquire from Coutances and Prince John the recognition that the city was self @-@ governing , something they had been attempting to secure for a number of years . This however , was not the grant of a complete charter of liberties , which did not occur until 1199 . In February 1193 Coutances summoned a council to Oxford , to address problems of administration and defence after the recently received news of Richard 's captivity in Germany . The council also took oaths of fealty to Richard . Prince John , however , hearing that Richard was in captivity , immediately went to France and swore homage to King Philip for Richard 's lands , and then returned to England and raised a rebellion . Coutances proceeded to besiege Windsor Castle , which was held by Prince John 's men . When John heard that Richard was going to be freed , he left England and went to France .
In February 1194 Coutances was in Germany , at the court of the German emperor , along with Longchamp , who brought letters to Richard , still in captivity . On 4 February , Coutances became a hostage to the German emperor as surety for the payment of the outstanding portion of Richard 's ransom , and the king was released . The king never paid the final instalment of his ransom , and the archbishop had to pay 10 @,@ 000 marks for his own release . From that point onwards Coutances was no longer involved with English politics or government , and spent the rest of his career on Norman affairs . His record of charter witnessing bears this out ; between 1189 and 1194 Coutances was among the most prolific of the witnesses to the king 's English charters , but not after 1194 .
= = Return to Normandy = =
Coutances returned to Normandy , and in December 1195 attempted to secure compensation for the losses his archdiocese had sustained in the warfare between King Richard and King Phillip . He sought compensation from both kings but obtained no satisfaction , and felt so ill @-@ treated by the kings that he abandoned his see . The English and the French kings had required clergymen to guarantee the January 1196 Treaty of Louviers that the two kings arranged for themselves , with Richard nominating Coutances as his surety , or guarantor that the conditions of the treaty would be fulfilled . Part of the treaty laid out that if the archbishop laid an interdict or excommunicated anyone in the lands of King Philip or any subject of King Richard in the archdiocese of Rouen , then the archiepiscopal manor of Andeli should be forfeit to either king until after a special tribunal had determined if the archbishop 's punishment was valid .
When Coutances returned to his diocese in July 1196 , he found that the king had seized the manor of Andely independently of the treaty provisions , and when the archbishop refused to relinquish it to the king , Richard began to fortify the manor . He also built a castle there , now Château Gaillard . On 7 November 1196 , Coutances set off for Rome , to protest the seizure to the pope . Richard sent a royal embassy , and eventually a settlement was reached . The archbishop was ordered to remove the interdict he had placed on the duchy , and in return for the manor received two others and the seaport of Dieppe . The various lands that Coutances ' received in exchange for Andely were worth £ 1 @,@ 405 a year . This episode marked the end of Coutances ' service to the Angevin kings ; for the rest of his life the archbishop focused on protecting and guarding the archiepiscopal properties and rights .
= = Service to King John = =
When Richard died on 6 April 1199 , the archbishop invested Richard 's youngest brother John as duke of Normandy on 25 April 1199 . At the ceremony , John pledged to protect the Norman church , and soon afterwards confirmed the grant of Dieppe and the other manors to the archdiocese . John contested the right of the archbishop to some jurisdictional rights however , as well as forest rights , forcing Coutances to pay 2 @,@ 100 Angevin pounds to secure most of the contested rights . In May 1200 , Coutances was involved in the peace treaty of Le Goulet between King John and King Philip of France , but took no active part in the Angevin defence of Normandy .
In September 1201 one of Coutances ' suffragan bishops , Lisiard , the Bishop of Sées died . King John objected when the cathedral chapter attempted to elect one of their own members as his successor . Coutances refused to recognise the result of the election , and the chapter divided into two parties , one favouring the elected chapter member , the other party another choice . Both parties appealed to the papacy , who eventually approved of the election of the Archdeacon of Sées , Silvester . Coutances had the right to consecrate the bishop however , and he refused to do so , arguing that the king 's choice had been disregarded . Pope Innocent III then ordered another Norman archbishop to consecrate Silvester , but the king refused to allow Silvester to take possession of his see . This led Innocent to order Normandy laid under an interdict , but eventually Silvester was allowed to take possession of Sees .
In May 1202 Pope Innocent III wrote to Coutances , urging him to impose religious punishments on any rebels against King John 's rule in the duchy of Normandy . When John lost the duchy in 1204 , Coutances did not resist the government of King Philip II , although he did not make his complete peace with Philip until March 1207 . In 1206 – 1207 , Coutances , along with his suffragan bishops , petitioned Philip for special legal procedures relating to patronage , which Philip granted .
= = As archbishop = =
Although Coutances was absent from Rouen for most of the period between 1190 and 1194 , he remained an active archbishop . He secured the continued immunity of clergy from secular jurisdiction , and supervised the administration of the archdiocese . He began the custom of keeping records in registers of episcopal judgements from about 1200 , and he appointed the first officials of Rouen . He also oversaw the rebuilding of Rouen Cathedral , which had begun in 1155 , and restarted the work after a fire in 1200 . His relations with his cathedral chapter were evidently excellent , as they remembered him as " a magnificent benefactor of the church of Rouen " .
= = Death and legacy = =
Coutances died on 16 November 1207 and was buried at Rouen Cathedral , in the chapel of Saints Peter and Paul . The inventory of his personal possessions made after his death included a large number of jewels and vestments . He also owned a large library , which contained not only religious works but also legal texts on canon law and works of classical authors such as Juvenal and Ovid .
Coutances ' nephew , John of Coutances , became Archdeacon of Oxford and Dean of Rouen under Walter 's influence , and later Bishop of Worcester . Other nephews were William , successively a canon at Lincoln Cathedral and an archdeacon at Rouen , and Richard , also an archdeacon at Rouen .
The historian John Gillingham called Coutances " one of the great fixers " of his time . Two other historians have argued that it was probably Coutances ' judgement and stability that persuaded the king to trust him . The medieval poet John of Hauville dedicated a satirical poem in 1184 to Coutances called Architrenius . It was on the tribulations of a poor scholar .
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= Tawang Monastery =
Tawang Monastery , in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh , is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa , Tibet . It is situated in the valley of the Tawang River , near the small town of the same name in the northwestern part of Arunachal Pradesh , in close proximity to the Tibetan and Bhutanese border .
Tawang Monastery is known in Tibetan as Galden Namgey Lhatse , which translates to " celestial paradise in a clear night . " It was founded by Merak Lama Lodre Gyatso in 1680 @-@ 1681 in accordance with the wishes of the 5th Dalai Lama , Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso . It belongs to the Gelug school of Mahayana Buddhism and had a religious association with Drepung Monastery of Lhasa , which continued during the period of British rule .
The monastery is three stories high . It is enclosed by a 925 feet ( 282 m ) long compound wall . Within the complex there are 65 residential buildings . The library of the monastery has valuable old scriptures , mainly Kangyur and Tengyur . Of all the festivals celebrated in the monastery , Torgya is the most elaborate and colorful .
= = Etymology = =
The full name of the monastery is Tawang Galdan Namgye Lhatse . ' Ta ' means " horse " , ' wang ' means " chosen " , which together forms the word ' Tawang ' , meaning " the location selected by horse " . Further , ' Galdan ' means " paradise " , ' Namgye ' means " celestial " and ' Lhatse ' means " divine " . Thus , the full meaning of the ' Tawang Galdan Namgye Lhatse ' is the " site chosen by the horse is the celestial divine paradise " .
= = Location = =
The monastery is situated near the top of a mountain , at an elevation of about 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , with a commanding view of the Tawang River valley , which comprises snow @-@ capped mountains and coniferous forest . It is bounded on its southern and western flanks by steep ravines formed by streams , a narrow spur on the north and a gently sloping ground on the east . The monastery is entered from the northern direction along a sloping spur , which has alpine vegetation . Nearby Tawang Town , named after the monastery , is well connected by road , rail and air services . Bhalukpong , which is the nearest rail head , is 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) away by road . Tezpur Airport is the nearest airport at a road distance of 350 kilometres ( 220 mi ) .
= = Legends = =
Three legends are narrated to the establishment of the monastery . In the first legend it is said that location of the present Monastery was selected by a horse which belonged to Merag Lama Lodre Gyatso who was on a mission assigned to him by the 5th Dalai Lama to establish a Monastery . After an intense search , when he failed to locate a suitable place , he retired into a cave to offer prayers seeking divine intervention to choose the site . When he came out of the cave , he found his horse missing . He then went in search of the horse and finally found it grazing at the top of a mountain called Tana Mandekhang , which in the past was the palace of King Kala Wangpo . He took this as a divine and auspicious guidance and decided to establish the monastery at that location . Seeking the help of the local people , Mera Lama established the monastery at that location in the latter part of 1681 .
The second legend of the derivation of the name Tawang is linked to Terton Pemalingpa , diviner of treasures . At this location , he is stated to have given " initiations " of Tamdin and Kagyad , which resulted in the name " Tawang " . ‘ Ta ’ is an abbreviated form for " Tamdin " and ‘ Wang ’ means " initiation " .
According to the third legend , a white horse of the Prince of Lhasa had wandered into Monpa region . People , who went in search of the horse , found the horse grazing at the present location of the monastery . The people of the area then worshipped the horse and the location where it was found and venerated it every year . Eventually , to honour the sacred site , the Tawang Monastery was built at the site .
One more legend narrated is about the goddess painted on a thangka in the monastery which is of Palden Lhamo . This female deity is compared to the Hindu Goddess Kali . Like Kali , Palden Lhamo 's thangka is drawn in black colour , with flaming eyes , dressed in skirt made of tiger skin , and a garland of skulls around her neck . A moon disc adorns her hair , similar to the one seen on Shiva . She is also associated with Goddess Saraswati and Ma Tara . Legend also states that in the past she had lived in Sri Lanka as the consort of a demon king who practiced human sacrifice . As she was not supportive of this practice she fled from the kingdom . As she was running away , the king shot her shot with an arrow , which struck the backside of the mule that she was riding . When she drew out the arrow , it left a gaping hole in the mule 's back , and through this gap Palden Lhamo could watch the teachings of Lord Buddha .
= = History = =
The monastery was founded by Merek Lama Lodre Gyamsto in 1680 @-@ 81 at the behest of the 5th Dalai Lama , who was his contemporary . When Merek Lama was experiencing difficulties in building the monastery at the chosen location of Tsosum , the ancient name for Tawang , the 5th Dalai Lama issued directives to the people of the area to provide him all help . To fix the perimeter of the Dzong , the Dalai Lama had also given a ball of yarn , the length of which was to form the limit of the monastery .
Prior to the dominance of the Gelug sect of Buddhism in Tawang , the Nyingmapa or the Black Hat sect of Buddhism was dominant and this resulted in their hegemony and even hostile approach towards the founder , Merek Lama . This problem was compounded by the Drukpas of Bhutan , who also belonged to the Nyingmapa sect , who even tried to invade and take control of Tawang . Hence , when the Tawang monastery was built like a fort structure , a strategic location was chosen from the defense point of view .
In 1844 , Tawang Monastery had entered into two agreements with the East India Company . One agreement , signed on 24 February , pertained to surrender by the Monpas of their right to the Karlapara Duar in return for an annual fee ( posa ) of Rs 5 @,@ 000 , and another , dated 28 May , related to the Shardukpens to abide by any order of the British administration in India in return for an annual fee of Rs 2 @,@ 526 and seven annas . Tawang officials used to travel almost to the plains of Assam to collect monastic contributions . According to Pandit Nain Singh of the Trignometrical Survey of India , who visited the monastery in 1874 @-@ 75 , the monastery had a parliamentary form of administration , known as the Kato , with the Chief Lamas of the monastery as its members . It was not dependent on the Dzonpan ( head of Tsona Monastery ) and Government of Lhasa , and this aspect was supported by G.A. Nevill who had visited the monastery in 1924 .
Until 1914 , this region of India was under the control of Tibet . However , under the Simla Agreement of 1913 @-@ 14 , the area came under the control of the British Raj . Tibet gave up several hundred square miles of its territory , including the whole of the Tawang region and the monastery , to the British . This disputed territory was the bone of contention for the 1962 India China war , when China invaded India on 20 October 1962 from the northeastern border , forcing the Indian army to retreat . They occupied Tawang , including the monastery , for six months , but did not desecrate it . China claimed that Tawang belonged to Tibet . Before this war , in 1959 , the 14th Dalai Lama had fled from Tibet , and after an arduous journey , crossed into India on 30 March 1959 , and had reached Tawang and taken shelter in the monastery for a few days before moving to Tezpur . 50 years later , in spite of strong protests by China , the Dalai Lama 's visit on 8 November 2009 to Tawang Monastery was a monumental event to the people of the region , and the abbot of the monastery greeted him with much fanfare and adulation .
As of 2006 the monastery had 400 monks , and the number was reported to be 450 in 2010 . Tawang Manuscript Conservation Centre was established in the monastery in August 2006 , which has curated 200 manuscripts , and 31 manuscripts have been treated for preservation . In November 2010 , it was reported that the monastery is threatened by possible landslide risk , with the The Times of India reporting " massive landslides around it " . Professor Dave Petley of Durham University in the United Kingdom ( UK ) , an acknowledged landslide expert , wrote : " the northern flank of the site appears to consist of a landslide scarp ... The reasons for this are clear – the river , which flows towards the south , is eroding the toe of the slope due to the site being on the outside of the bend . In the long term , erosion at the toe will need to be prevented if the site is to be preserved . "
The monastery currently has control over 17 gompas in West Kameng district . The monastery has administrative control over two dzongs , each headed by a monk ; the Darana Dzong built in 1831 and the Sanglem Dzong , also known as Talung Gompa , in the south west part of Kameng district . These dzongs not only collect taxes but also preach Buddhism to the Monpas and Sherdukpens of Kameng . The monastery owns cultivable lands in the villages of Soma and Nerguit and a few patches in some other villages which are tilled and cultivated by farmers , who share the produce with the monastery . The present resident head of the monastery is the incarnate Gyalsy Rinpochey .
= = Features = =
= = = Entrance and outer walls = = =
At the entrance to the monastery there is colourful gate structure , known as the Kakaling , which is built in the shape of a " hut @-@ like structure " , with side walls built of stone masonry . The roof of the Kakaling features mandalas , while the interior walls have murals of divinities and saints painted on them . A distinctive mural , the ninth mural from the southwest west corner of the southern wall , is of Ningmecahn , the protector deity of the Bon religion , who is considered the guardian deity of the Tawang region . Ahead of the main gate of the Kakaling , to its south , is another entry , an open gate .
The main entrance to the monastery , to the south of the open gate , has massive doors fitted on the northern wall . This outer wall is 925 feet ( 282 m ) in length , with heights varying from about 10 – 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Apart from the main gate , the southern side of the monastery has another entry gate , which also has a massive door . Nearer to the gate , there are two small openings in the wall which provide complete view of the exterior part of the eastern wall that connects to the Kakaling . According to a legend , the 5th Dalai Lama had given a roll of thread to be bound around the walls of the monastery to denote the extent to which the monastery should be built .
= = = Main buildings = = =
The monastery , built like a large mansion , is triple storied with a large assembly hall , ten other functional structures and with 65 residential quarters for students , Lamas and monks . The monastery has a school and its own water supply facility , and a centre for Buddhist cultural studies .
The ground floor of the monastery is where ritual dances are performed . The walls of the monastery also have a profusion of thangkas of Buddhist deities and saints . Curtains are suspended over the balcony and these are painted with Buddhist symbols . Within the precincts of the monastery there are residential buildings to accommodate about 700 monks , which now houses 450 monks . The abbot of the monastery resides in a house located near the gate at the southeastern corner of the monastery .
A notable feature on the wall of the front porch on the ground floor is a foot print on a stone slab . It is said that this foot print belonged to a resident of the monastery , who was a water carrier , known as Chitenpa . He served in the monastery for a long time and on one fine day he announced that he had completed his service to the monastery and then stamped his left foot on the stone slab which created a dented formation of his step . This step is venerated as a miracle in view of a belief among the people of the region that such an imprint on a stone slab could only be created by a divine person who was a true devotee of the monastery .
= = = = Main temple ( Dukhang ) = = = =
The main temple in the monastery , to the west of the entry gate , is known as the Dukhang ( ' Du ' means " assembly " and ' Khang ' means " building " ) . It was built in 1860 @-@ 61 . A large image of Buddha of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) height is deified ; it is gilded and decorated , and is in a lotus position . This image is on the northern face of the assembly hall and is installed over a platform and its head extends up to the first floor . Next to the Buddha image there is a silver casket that holds a special thangka of the goddess Sro Devi ( Palden Lhamo ) , which is the guardian deity of the monastery . It is said that it was painted with the blood drawn from the nose of the 5th Dalai Lama , which renders an ethereal " living quality " to the thanka . This thangka image , also known as Dri Devi , was donated to the monastery by the 5th Dalai Lama . The main temple fell into a dilapidated condition and was renovated in 2002 in the traditional Buddhist architectural style . It has been exquisitely decorated with paintings , murals , carvings , sculptures and so forth .
= = = Library and texts = = =
The monastery has a printing press for printing religious books using paper made locally . Wooden blocks are used for printing . The books are used usually by the literate Monpa Lamas who refer to it for conducting religious rituals . The entire second floor houses the library . It contains the scriptures of Gyetengpa , Doduipa , Mamtha , Kangyur , Tengyur and Zungdui , which have been affected due to insect attacks . The collection in the library consists of two printed books of Tengyur ( in 25 volumes ) , which are commentaries on Buddhist teachings ; three sets of Kangyur , the translated version of the canons of Buddhist teachings ; and Chanjia Sangbhums in five volumes . Of the three sets of Kangyur , two are handwritten and one is printed . The printed sets are in 101 volumes . One handwritten set has 131 volumes and the other 125 volumes ; the letters of these 125 books are washed in gold . The religious text , Gyentongpa , has letters washed in gold in all its pages . At some stage , some of the sacred scriptures were lost and the reason was attributed to the monks of the Tsona monastery who used to visit Tawang during winter time . In the past , these monks had demanded that the gilded image of the Buddha be gifted to them . This was not accepted by the Lamas of the Tawang Monastery and as result the Tsona Lamas refused to part with some of the sacred texts and records of the Tawang Monastery which were with them . They again took away more books in 1951 .
= = Customs and festivals = =
Monpas , who belong to the Gelug sect , are the dominant sect of the Kameng region . Many Monpa boys join the monastery and become Lamas . When young boys join the monastery to train , it is on the condition that it is a lifetime commitment . If a monk wishes to leave the monastery , a heavy penalty is levied . According to a past custom , in a family of three sons , the middle son was conscripted to the monastery and in a family of two sons the youngest son was inducted into the monastery .
The main Monpa festivals held in the monastery are the Choksar , Losar , Ajilamu , and Torgya . Choksar is the festival when the Lamas recite religious scriptures in the monasteries . Following the religious recitations , the villagers carry the scriptures on their back and circumambulate their agricultural land seeking blessings for good yield of crops without any infestations by pests and to protect against attack by wild animals . In the Losar festival , which marks the beginning of the Tibetan New Year , people visit the monastery and offer prayers . Torgya , also known as Tawang @-@ Torgya , is an annual festival that is exclusively held in the monastery . It is held according to the Buddhist calendar days of 28th to 30th of Dawachukchipa , which corresponds to 10 to 12 January of the Gregorian calendar , and is a Monpa celebration . The objective of the festival is to ward off evil spirits and ushering all round prosperity and happiness to the people in the ensuing year . During the three @-@ day festival , dances performed by artists in colorful costumes and masks are held in the courtyard , including the Pha Chan and the Losjker Chungiye , the latter of which is performed by the monks of the monastery . Each dance represents a myth and costumes and masks represent animal forms such as cows , tigers , sheep , monkeys and so forth .
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= Emmeline Pankhurst =
Emmeline Pankhurst ( née Goulden ; 15 July 1858 – 14 June 1928 ) was a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote . In 1999 Time named Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century , stating : " she shaped an idea of women for our time ; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back . " She was widely criticised for her militant tactics , and historians disagree about their effectiveness , but her work is recognised as a crucial element in achieving women 's suffrage in Britain .
Born in Moss Side , Manchester to politically active parents , Pankhurst was introduced at the age of 14 to the women 's suffrage movement . On 18 December 1879 , she married Richard Pankhurst , a barrister 24 years her senior known for supporting women 's right to vote ; they had five children over the next ten years . He supported her activities outside the home , and she founded and became involved with the Women 's Franchise League , which advocated suffrage for both married and unmarried women . When that organisation broke apart , she tried to join the left @-@ leaning Independent Labour Party through her friendship with socialist Keir Hardie but was initially refused membership by the local branch on account of her sex . While working as a Poor Law Guardian , she was shocked at the harsh conditions she encountered in Manchester 's workhouses .
In 1903 , five years after her husband died , Pankhurst founded the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , an all @-@ women suffrage advocacy organisation dedicated to " deeds , not words . " The group identified as independent from – and often in opposition to – political parties . It became known for physical confrontations : its members smashed windows and assaulted police officers . Pankhurst , her daughters , and other WSPU activists received repeated prison sentences , where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions . As Pankhurst 's eldest daughter Christabel took leadership of the WSPU , antagonism between the group and the government grew . Eventually the group adopted arson as a tactic , and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family . In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU , among them Pankhurst 's daughters Adela and Sylvia . Emmeline was so furious that she " gave [ Adela ] a ticket , £ 20 , and a letter of introduction to a suffragette in Australia , and firmly insisted that she emigrate . " Adela complied and the family rift was never healed . Sylvia became a socialist .
With the advent of the First World War , Emmeline and Christabel called an immediate halt to militant suffrage activism in support of the British government 's stand against the " German Peril . " They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged young men to fight , becoming prominent figures in the white feather movement . In 1918 the Representation of the People Act granted votes to all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30 . This discrepancy was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War . Pankhurst transformed the WSPU machinery into the Women 's Party , which was dedicated to promoting women 's equality in public life . In her later years , she became concerned with what she perceived as the menace posed by Bolshevism and joined the Conservative Party and was selected as a Conservative Party candidate for Stepney in 1927 . She died on 14 June 1928 , only weeks before the Conservative government 's Representation of the People Act ( 1928 ) extended the vote to all women over 21 years of age on 2 July 1928 . She was commemorated two years later with a statue in London 's Victoria Tower Gardens .
= = Family and birth = =
Emmeline Pankhurst was born on 15 July 1858 in the Manchester suburb of Moss Side . Although her birth certificate states otherwise , she believed that her birthday was a day earlier , on Bastille Day . Most biographies , including those written by her daughters , repeat this claim . Feeling a kinship with the female revolutionaries who stormed the Bastille , she said in 1908 : " I have always thought that the fact that I was born on that day had some kind of influence over my life . " The reason for the discrepancy remains unclear .
The family into which she was born had been steeped in political agitation for generations . Her mother , Sophia Jane Craine , was descended from the Manx people of the Isle of Man and counted among her ancestors men charged with social unrest and slander . In 1881 the Isle of Man was the first country to grant women the right to vote in national elections . Her father , Robert Goulden , came from a modest Manchester merchant family with its own background of political activity . His mother worked with the Anti @-@ Corn Law League , and his father was present at the Peterloo massacre , when cavalry charged and broke up a crowd demanding parliamentary reform .
Their first son died at the age of two , but the Gouldens had ten other children ; Emmeline was the eldest of five daughters . Soon after her birth the family moved to Seedley in Pendleton on the outskirts of Salford , where her father had co @-@ founded a small business . Goulden was active in local politics , serving for several years on the Salford Town Council . He was also an enthusiastic supporter of dramatic organisations including the Manchester Athenaeum and the Dramatic Reading Society . He owned a theatre in Salford for several years , where he played the leads in several plays by William Shakespeare . Pankhurst absorbed an appreciation of drama and theatrics from her father , which she used later in social activism .
= = Childhood = =
The Gouldens included their children in social activism . As part of the movement to end slavery in the US , Goulden welcomed American abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher when he visited Manchester . Sophia Jane Goulden used the novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin – written by Beecher 's sister Harriet Beecher Stowe – as a regular source of bedtime stories for their sons and daughters . In her 1914 autobiography My Own Story , Pankhurst recalls visiting a bazaar at a young age to collect money for newly freed slaves in the United States .
Pankhurst began to read books when she was very young – according to one source , at the age of three . She read the Odyssey at the age of nine and enjoyed the works of John Bunyan , especially his 1678 story The Pilgrim 's Progress . Another of her favourite books was Thomas Carlyle 's three @-@ volume treatise The French Revolution : A History ; she later said the work " remained all my life a source of inspiration . "
Despite her avid consumption of books , however , Emmeline was not given the educational advantages enjoyed by her brothers . Their parents believed that the girls needed most to learn the art of " making home attractive " and other skills desired by potential husbands . The Gouldens deliberated carefully about future plans for their sons ' education , but they expected their daughters to marry young and avoid paid work . Although they supported women 's suffrage and the general advancement of women in society , the Gouldens believed their daughters incapable of the goals of their male peers . Feigning sleep one evening as her father came into her bedroom , Emmeline Goulden heard him pause and say to himself : " What a pity she wasn 't born a lad . "
It was through her parents ' interest in women 's suffrage that Pankhurst was first introduced to the subject . Her mother received and read the Women 's Suffrage Journal , and Pankhurst grew fond of its editor , Lydia Becker . At the age of 14 , she returned home from school one day to find her mother on her way to a public meeting about women 's voting rights . After learning that Becker would be speaking , she insisted on attending . Pankhurst was enthralled by Becker 's address and wrote later : " I left the meeting a conscious and confirmed suffragist . "
A year later she arrived in Paris to attend the École Normale de Neuilly . The school provided its female pupils with classes in chemistry and bookkeeping , in addition to traditionally feminine arts such as embroidery . Her roommate was Noémie , the daughter of Henri Rochefort , who had been imprisoned in New Caledonia for his support of the Paris Commune . The girls shared tales of their parents ' political exploits , and remained good friends for years . Pankhurst was so fond of Noémie and the school that after graduating she returned with her sister Mary as a parlour boarder . Noémie had married a Swiss painter and quickly found a suitable French husband for her English friend . When Robert Goulden refused to provide a dowry for his daughter , the man withdrew his offer of marriage and Pankhurst returned , miserable , to Manchester .
= = Marriage and family = =
In the autumn of 1878 , at the age of 20 , Emmeline Goulden met and began a courtship with Richard Pankhurst , a barrister who had advocated women 's suffrage – and other causes , including freedom of speech and education reform – for years . Richard , 44 years old when they met , had earlier resolved to remain a bachelor to better serve the public . Their mutual affection was powerful , but the couple 's happiness was diminished by the death of his mother the following year . Sophia Jane Goulden chastised her daughter for " throwing herself " at Richard and urged her without success to exhibit more aloofness . Emmeline suggested to Richard that they avoid the legal formalities of marriage by entering into a free union ; he objected on the grounds that she would be excluded from political life as an unmarried woman . He noted that his colleague Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy had faced social condemnation before she formalised her marriage to Ben Elmy . Emmeline Goulden agreed , and they were wed in St Luke 's Church , Pendleton on 18 December 1879 .
During the 1880s , living at the Goulden cottage with her parents in Seedley , Emmeline Pankhurst tended to her husband and children , but still devoted time to political activities . Although she gave birth to five children in ten years , both she and Richard believed that she should not be " a household machine . " Thus a servant was hired to help with the children as Pankhurst involved herself with the Women 's Suffrage Society . Their daughter Christabel was born on 22 September 1880 , less than a year after the wedding . Pankhurst gave birth to another daughter , Estelle Sylvia , in 1882 and their son Francis Henry , nicknamed Frank , in 1884 . Soon afterwards Richard Pankhurst left the Liberal Party . He began expressing more radical socialist views and argued a case in court against several wealthy businessmen . These actions roused Robert Goulden 's ire and the mood in the house became tense . In 1885 the Pankhursts moved to Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock , and their daughter Adela was born . They moved to London the following year , where Richard ran unsuccessfully for election as a Member of Parliament and Pankhurst opened a small fabric shop called Emerson and Company .
In 1888 Francis developed diphtheria and died on 11 September . Overwhelmed with grief , Pankhurst commissioned two portraits of the dead boy but was unable to look at them and hid them in a bedroom cupboard . The family concluded that a faulty drainage system at the back of their house had caused their son 's illness . Pankhurst blamed the poor conditions of the neighbourhood , and the family moved to a more affluent middle class district at Russell Square . She was soon pregnant once more and declared that the child was " Frank coming again . " She gave birth to a son on 7 July 1889 and named him Henry Francis in honour of his deceased brother .
Pankhurst made their Russell Square home into a centre for grieving sisters , attracting activists of many types . She took pleasure in decorating the house – especially with furnishings from Asia – and clothing the family in tasteful apparel . Her daughter Sylvia later wrote : " Beauty and appropriateness in her dress and household appointments seemed to her at all times an indispensable setting to public work . " The Pankhursts hosted a variety of guests including US abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison , Indian MP Dadabhai Naoroji , socialist activists Herbert Burrows and Annie Besant , and French anarchist Louise Michel .
= = Women 's Franchise League = =
In 1888 Britain 's first nationwide coalition of groups advocating women 's right to vote , the National Society for Women 's Suffrage ( NSWS ) , split after a majority of members decided to accept organisations affiliated with political parties . Angry at this decision , some of the group 's leaders , including Lydia Becker and Millicent Fawcett , stormed out of the meeting and created an alternative organisation committed to the " old rules , " called the Great College Street Society after the location of its headquarters . Pankhurst aligned herself with the " new rules " group , which became known as the Parliament Street Society ( PSS ) . Some members of the PSS favoured a piecemeal approach to gaining the vote . Because it was often assumed that married women did not need the vote since their husbands " voted for them , " some PSS members felt that the vote for single women and widows was a practical step along the path to full suffrage . When the reluctance within the PSS to advocate on behalf of married women became clear , Pankhurst and her husband helped organise another new group dedicated to voting rights for all women – married and unmarried .
The inaugural meeting of the Women 's Franchise League ( WFL ) was held on 25 July 1889 , at the Pankhurst home in Russell Square . William Lloyd Garrison spoke at the meeting , warning the audience that the US abolition movement had been hampered by individuals advocating moderation and patience . Early members of the WFL included Josephine Butler , leader of the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts ; the Pankhursts ' friend Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy ; and Harriot Eaton Stanton Blatch , daughter of US suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton .
The WFL was considered a radical organisation , since in addition to women 's suffrage it supported equal rights for women in the areas of divorce and inheritance . It also advocated trade unionism and sought alliances with socialist organisations . The more conservative group that emerged from the NSWS split spoke out against what they called the " extreme left " wing of the movement . The WFL reacted by ridiculing the " Spinster Suffrage party " and insisting that a wider assault on social inequity was required . The group 's radicalism caused some members to leave ; both Blatch and Elmy resigned from the WFL . The group fell apart one year later .
= = Independent Labour Party = =
Pankhurst 's shop never succeeded and he had trouble attracting business in London . With the family 's finances in jeopardy , Richard travelled regularly to northwest England , where most of his clients were . In 1893 the Pankhursts closed the store and returned to Manchester . They stayed for several months in the seaside town of Southport , then moved briefly to the village of Disley and finally settled into a house in Manchester 's Victoria Park . The girls were enrolled in Manchester Girls ' High School , where they felt confined by the large student population and strictly regimented schedule .
Pankhurst began to work with several political organisations , distinguishing herself for the first time as an activist in her own right and gaining respect in the community . One biographer describes this period as her " emergence from Richard 's shadow . " In addition to her work on behalf of women 's suffrage , she became active with the Women 's Liberal Federation ( WLF ) , an auxiliary of the Liberal Party . She quickly grew disenchanted with the group 's moderate positions , however , especially its unwillingness to support Irish Home Rule and the aristocratic leadership of Archibald Primrose .
In 1888 Pankhurst had met and befriended Keir Hardie , a socialist from Scotland . He was elected to parliament in 1891 and two years later helped to create the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) . Excited about the range of issues which the ILP pledged to confront , Pankhurst resigned from the WLF and applied to join the ILP . The local branch refused her admission on the grounds of her sex , but she eventually joined the ILP nationally . Christabel later wrote of her mother 's enthusiasm for the party and its organising efforts : " In this movement she hoped there might be the means of righting every political and social wrong . "
One of her first activities with the ILP found Pankhurst distributing food to poor men and women through the Committee for the Relief of the Unemployed . In December 1894 she was elected to the position of Poor Law Guardian in Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock . She was appalled by the conditions she witnessed first @-@ hand in the Manchester workhouse :
The first time I went into the place I was horrified to see little girls seven and eight years old on their knees scrubbing the cold stones of the long corridors ... bronchitis was epidemic among them most of the time ... I found that there were pregnant women in that workhouse , scrubbing floors , doing the hardest kind of work , almost until their babies came into the world ... Of course the babies are very badly protected ... These poor , unprotected mothers and their babies I am sure were potent factors in my education as a militant .
Pankhurst immediately began to change these conditions , and established herself as a successful voice of reform on the Board of Guardians . Her chief opponent was a passionate man named Mainwaring , known for his rudeness . Recognising that his loud anger was hurting his chances of persuading those aligned with Pankhurst , he kept a note nearby during meetings : " Keep your temper ! "
After helping her husband with another unsuccessful parliamentary campaign , Pankhurst faced legal troubles in 1896 when she and two men violated a court order against ILP meetings at Boggart Hole Clough . With Richard 's volunteering his time as legal counsel , they refused to pay fines , and the two men spent a month in prison . The punishment was never ordered for Pankhurst , however , possibly because the magistrate feared public backlash against the imprisonment of a woman so respected in the community . Asked by an ILP reporter if she were prepared to spend time in prison , Pankhurst replied : " Oh , yes , quite . It wouldn 't be so very dreadful , you know , and it would be a valuable experience . " Although ILP meetings were eventually permitted , the episode was a strain on Pankhurst 's health and caused loss of income for their family .
= = = Richard 's death = = =
During the struggle at Boggart Hole Clough , Richard Pankhurst began to experience severe stomach pains . He had developed a gastric ulcer , and his health deteriorated in 1897 . The family moved briefly to Mobberley , with the hope that country air would help his condition . He soon felt well again , and the family returned to Manchester in the autumn . In the summer of 1898 he suffered a sudden relapse . Pankhurst had taken their oldest daughter Christabel to Corsier , Switzerland , to visit her old friend Noémie . A telegram arrived from Richard , reading : " I am not well . Please come home , my love . " Leaving Christabel with Noémie , Pankhurst returned immediately to England . On 5 July , while on a train from London to Manchester , she noticed a newspaper announcing the death of Richard Pankhurst .
The loss of her husband left Pankhurst with new responsibilities and a significant amount of debt . She moved the family to a smaller house , resigned from the Board of Guardians , and was given a paid position as Registrar of Births and Deaths in Chorlton . This work gave her more insight into the conditions of women in the region . She wrote in her autobiography : " They used to tell me their stories , dreadful stories some of them , and all of them pathetic with that patient and uncomplaining pathos of poverty . " Her observations of the differences between the lives of men and women , for example in relation to illegitimacy , reinforced her conviction that women needed the right to vote before their conditions could improve . In 1900 she was elected to the Manchester School Board and saw new examples of women suffering unequal treatment and limited opportunities . During this time she also re @-@ opened her store , with the hope that it would provide additional income for the family .
The individual identities of the Pankhurst children began to emerge around the time of their father 's death . Before long they were all involved in the struggle for women 's suffrage . Christabel enjoyed a privileged status among the daughters , as Sylvia noted in 1931 : " She was our mother 's favourite ; we all knew it , and I , for one , never resented the fact . " Christabel did not share her mother 's fervour for political work , however , until she befriended the suffrage activists Esther Roper and Eva Gore @-@ Booth . She soon became involved with the suffrage movement and joined her mother at speaking events . Sylvia took lessons from a respected local artist , and soon received a scholarship to the Manchester School of Art . She went on to study art in Florence and Venice . The younger children , Adela and Harry , had difficulty finding a path for their studies . Adela was sent to a local boarding school , where she was cut off from her friends and contracted head lice . Harry also had difficulty at school ; he suffered from measles and vision problems .
= = Women 's Social and Political Union = =
By 1903 Pankhurst believed that years of moderate speeches and promises about women 's suffrage from members of parliament ( MPs ) had yielded no progress . Although suffrage bills in 1870 , 1886 , and 1897 had shown promise , each was defeated . She doubted that political parties , with their many agenda items , would ever make women 's suffrage a priority . She even broke with the ILP when it refused to focus on Votes for Women . It was necessary to abandon the patient tactics of existing advocacy groups , she believed , in favour of more militant actions . Thus on 10 October 1903 Pankhurst and several colleagues founded the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , an organisation open only to women and focused on direct action to win the vote . " Deeds , " she wrote later , " not words , was to be our permanent motto . "
The group 's early militancy took non @-@ violent forms . In addition to making speeches and gathering petition signatures , the WSPU organised rallies and published a newsletter called Votes for Women . The group also convened a series of " Women 's Parliaments " to coincide with official government sessions . When a bill for women 's suffrage was filibustered on 12 May 1905 , Pankhurst and other WSPU members began a loud protest outside the Parliament building . Police immediately forced them away from the building , where they regrouped and demanded passage of the bill . Although the bill was never resurrected , Pankhurst considered it a successful demonstration of militancy 's power to capture attention . Pankhurst declared in 1906 : " We are at last recognized as a political party ; we are now in the swim of politics , and are a political force . "
Before long , all three of her daughters became active with the WSPU . Christabel was arrested after spitting at a policeman during a meeting of the Liberal Party in October 1905 ; Adela and Sylvia were arrested a year later during a protest outside Parliament . Pankhurst was arrested for the first time in February 1908 , when she tried to enter Parliament to deliver a protest resolution to Prime Minister H. H. Asquith . She was charged with obstruction and sentenced to six weeks in prison . She spoke out against the conditions of her confinement , including vermin , meagre food , and the " civilised torture of solitary confinement and absolute silence " to which she and others were ordered . Pankhurst saw imprisonment as a means to publicise the urgency of women 's suffrage ; in June 1909 she struck a police officer twice in the face to ensure she would be arrested . Pankhurst was arrested seven times before women 's suffrage was approved . During her trial on 21 October 1908 she told the court : " We are here not because we are law @-@ breakers ; we are here in our efforts to become law @-@ makers . "
The exclusive focus of the WSPU on votes for women was another hallmark of its militancy . While other organisations agreed to work with individual political parties , the WSPU insisted on separating itself from – and in many cases opposing – parties which did not make women 's suffrage a priority . The group protested against all candidates belonging to the party of the ruling government , since it refused to pass women 's suffrage legislation . This brought them into immediate conflict with Liberal Party organisers , particularly since many Liberal candidates supported women 's suffrage . ( One early target of WSPU opposition was future Prime Minister Winston Churchill ; his opponent attributed Churchill 's defeat in part to " those ladies who are sometimes laughed at . " )
Members of the WSPU were sometimes heckled and derided for spoiling elections for Liberal candidates . On 18 January 1908 , Pankhurst and her associate Nellie Martel were attacked by an all @-@ male crowd of Liberal supporters who blamed the WSPU for costing them a recent by @-@ election to the Conservative candidate . The men threw clay , rotten eggs , and stones packed in snow ; the women were beaten and Pankhurst 's ankle was severely bruised . Similar tensions later formed with Labour . Until party leaders made the vote for women a priority , however , the WSPU vowed to continue its militant activism . Pankhurst and others in the union saw party politics as distracting to the goal of women 's suffrage and criticised other organisations for putting party loyalty ahead of women 's votes .
As the WSPU gained recognition and notoriety for its actions , Pankhurst resisted efforts to democratise the organisation itself . In 1907 a small group of members led by Teresa Billington @-@ Greig called for more involvement from the rank @-@ and @-@ file suffragettes at the union 's annual meetings . In response , Pankhurst announced at a WSPU meeting that elements of the organisation 's constitution relating to decision @-@ making were void and cancelled the annual meetings . She also insisted that a small committee chosen by the members in attendance be allowed to co @-@ ordinate WSPU activities . Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel were chosen ( along with Mabel Tuke and Emmeline Pethick Lawrence ) as members of the new committee . Frustrated , several members including Billington @-@ Greig and Charlotte Despard quit to form their own organisation , the Women 's Freedom League . In her 1914 autobiography Pankhurst dismissed criticism of the WSPU 's leadership structure :
if at any time a member , or a group of members , loses faith in our policy ; if any one begins to suggest that some other policy ought to be substituted , or if she tries to confuse the issue by adding other policies , she ceases at once to be a member . Autocratic ? Quite so . But , you may object , a suffrage organisation ought to be democratic . Well the members of the W. S. P. U. do not agree with you . We do not believe in the effectiveness of the ordinary suffrage organisation . The W. S. P. U. is not hampered by a complexity of rules . We have no constitution and by @-@ laws ; nothing to be amended or tinkered with or quarrelled over at an annual meeting ... The W. S. P. U. is simply a suffrage army in the field .
= = = Tactical intensification = = =
On 21 June 1908 500 @,@ 000 activists rallied in Hyde Park to demand votes for women ; Asquith and leading MPs responded with indifference . Angered by this intransigence and abusive police activity , some WSPU members increased the severity of their actions . Soon after the rally , twelve women gathered in Parliament Square and tried to deliver speeches for women 's suffrage . Police officers seized several of the speakers and pushed them into a crowd of opponents who had gathered nearby . Frustrated , two WSPU members – Edith New and Mary Leigh – went to 10 Downing Street and hurled rocks at the windows of the Prime Minister 's home . They insisted their act was independent of WSPU command , but Pankhurst expressed her approval of the action . When a magistrate sentenced New and Leigh to two months ' imprisonment , Pankhurst reminded the court of how various male political agitators had broken windows to win legal and civil rights throughout Britain 's history .
In 1909 the hunger strike was added to the WSPU 's repertoire of resistance . On 24 June Marion Wallace Dunlop was arrested for writing an excerpt from the Bill of Rights ( 1688 or 1689 ) on a wall in the House of Commons . Angered by the conditions of the jail , Dunlop went on a hunger strike . When it proved effective , fourteen women imprisoned for smashing windows began to fast . WSPU members soon became known around the country for holding prolonged hunger strikes to protest their incarceration . Prison authorities frequently force @-@ fed the women , using tubes inserted through the nose or mouth . The painful techniques ( which , in the case of mouth @-@ feeding , required the use of steel gags to force the mouth open ) brought condemnation from suffragists and medical professionals .
These tactics caused some tension between the WSPU and more moderate organisations , which had coalesced into the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies ( NUWSS ) . That group 's leader , Millicent Fawcett , originally hailed WSPU members for their courage and dedication to the cause . By 1912 , however , she declared that hunger strikes were mere publicity stunts and that militant activists were " the chief obstacles in the way of success of the suffrage movement in the House of Commons . " The NUWSS refused to join a march of women 's suffrage groups after demanding without success that the WSPU end its support of property destruction . Fawcett 's sister Elizabeth Garrett Anderson later resigned from the WSPU for similar reasons .
Press coverage was mixed ; many journalists noted that crowds of women responded positively to speeches by Pankhurst , while others condemned her radical approach to the issue . The Daily News urged her to endorse a more moderate approach , and other press outlets condemned the breaking of windows by WSPU members . In 1906 Daily Mail journalist Charles Hands referred to militant women using the diminutive term " suffragette " ( rather than the standard " suffragist " ) . Pankhurst and her allies seized the term as their own , and used it to differentiate themselves from moderate groups .
The last half of the century 's first decade was a time of sorrow , loneliness and constant work for Pankhurst . In 1907 she sold her home in Manchester and began an itinerant lifestyle , moving from place to place as she spoke and marched for women 's suffrage . She stayed with friends and in hotels , carrying her few possessions in suitcases . Although she was energised by the struggle – and found joy in giving energy to others – her constant travelling meant separation from her children , especially Christabel , who had become the national coordinator of the WSPU . In 1909 , as Pankhurst planned a speaking tour of the United States , Harry was paralysed after his spinal cord became inflamed . She hesitated to leave the country while he was ill , but she needed money to pay for his treatment and the tour promised to be lucrative . On her return from a successful tour , she sat by Harry 's bedside as he died on 5 January 1910 . Five days later she buried her son , then spoke before 5 @,@ 000 people in Manchester . Liberal Party supporters who had come to heckle her remained quiet as she addressed the crowd .
= = = Conciliation , force @-@ feeding , and arson = = =
After the Liberal losses in the 1910 elections , ILP member and journalist Henry Brailsford helped organise a Conciliation Committee for Women 's Suffrage , which gathered 54 MPs from various parties . The group 's Conciliation Bill looked to be a narrowly defined but still significant possibility to achieve the vote for women . Thus the WSPU agreed to suspend its support for window @-@ breaking and hunger strikes while it was being negotiated . When it became clear that the bill would not pass , Pankhurst declared : " If the Bill , in spite of our efforts , is killed by the Government , then ... I have to say there is an end to the truce . " When it was defeated , Pankhurst led a protest march of 300 women to Parliament Square on 18 November . They were met with aggressive police response , directed by Home Secretary Winston Churchill : officers punched the marchers , twisted arms , and pulled on women 's breasts . Although Pankhurst was allowed to enter Parliament , Prime Minister Asquith refused to meet her . The incident became known as Black Friday .
As subsequent Conciliation Bills were introduced , WSPU leaders advocated a halt to militant tactics . In March 1912 the second bill was in jeopardy and Pankhurst joined a fresh outbreak of window @-@ smashing . Extensive property damage led police to raid the WSPU offices . Pankhurst and Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence were tried at the Old Bailey and convicted of conspiracy to commit property damage . Christabel , who by 1912 was the chief coordinator for the organisation , was also wanted by police . She fled to Paris , where she directed WSPU strategy in exile . Inside Holloway Prison Emmeline Pankhurst staged her first hunger strike to improve conditions for other suffragettes in nearby cells ; she was quickly joined by Pethick @-@ Lawrence and other WSPU members . She described in her autobiography the trauma caused by force @-@ feeding during the strike : " Holloway became a place of horror and torment . Sickening scenes of violence took place almost every hour of the day , as the doctors went from cell to cell performing their hideous office . " When prison officials tried to enter her cell , Pankhurst raised a clay jug over her head and announced : " If any of you dares so much as to take one step inside this cell I shall defend myself . "
Pankhurst was spared further force @-@ feeding attempts after this incident , but she continued to violate the law and – when imprisoned – starve herself in protest . During the following two years she was arrested numerous times but was frequently released after several days because of her ill @-@ health . Later , the Asquith government enacted the Cat and Mouse Act , which allowed similar releases for other suffragettes facing ill @-@ health due to hunger strikes . Prison officials recognised the potential public relations disaster that would erupt if the popular WSPU leader were force @-@ fed or allowed to suffer extensively in jail . Still , police officers arrested her during talks and as she marched . She tried to evade police harassment by wearing disguises and eventually the WSPU established a jujutsu @-@ trained female bodyguard squad to physically protect her against the police . She and other escorts were targeted by police , resulting in violent scuffles as officers tried to detain Pankhurst .
In 1912 WSPU members adopted arson as another tactic to win the vote . After Prime Minister Asquith had visited the Theatre Royal in Dublin , suffragette activists Gladys Evans , Mary Leigh , Lizzie Baker and Mabel Capper of Oxford Street , Manchester attempted to cause an explosion using gunpowder and benzine , which resulted in minimal damage . During the same evening Mary Leigh threw an axe at the carriage containing John Redmond , the Lord Mayor , and Prime Minister Asquith . Over the next two years women set fire to a refreshments building in Regent 's Park , an orchid house at Kew Gardens , pillar boxes , and a railway carriage . Although Pankhurst confirmed that these women had not been commanded by her or Christabel , they both assured the public that they supported the arsonist suffragettes . There were similar incidents around the country . One WSPU member , for example , put a small hatchet into the Prime Minister 's carriage inscribed with the words : " Votes for Women , " and other suffragettes used acid to burn the same slogan into golf courses used by MPs . In 1914 Mary Richardson slashed the Velasquez painting Rokeby Venus to protest against Pankhurst 's imprisonment .
= = = Defection and dismissal = = =
The WSPU 's approval of property destruction led to the departure of several important members . The first were Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence and her husband Frederick . They had long been integral members of the group 's leadership but found themselves in conflict with Christabel about the wisdom of such volatile tactics . After returning from a vacation in Canada they found that Pankhurst had expelled them from the WSPU . The pair found the decision appalling , but to avoid a schism in the movement they continued to praise Pankhurst and the organisation in public . Around the same time , Emmeline 's daughter Adela left the group . She disapproved of WSPU endorsement of property destruction and felt that a heavier emphasis on socialism was necessary . Adela 's relationship with her family – especially Christabel – was also strained as a result .
The deepest rift in the Pankhurst family came in November 1913 when Sylvia spoke at a meeting of socialists and trade unionists in support of labour organiser Jim Larkin . She had been working with the East London Federation of Suffragettes ( ELFS ) , a local branch of the WSPU which had a close relationship with socialists and organised labour . The close connection to labour groups and Sylvia 's appearance on stage with Frederick Pethick @-@ Lawrence – who also addressed the crowd – convinced Christabel that her sister was organising a group that might challenge the WSPU in the suffrage movement . The dispute became public , and members of groups including the WSPU , ILP , and ELFS braced themselves for a showdown .
In January Sylvia was summoned to Paris , where Emmeline and Christabel were waiting . Their mother had just returned from another tour of the US , and Sylvia had just been released from prison . All three women were exhausted and stressed , which added considerably to the tension . In her 1931 book The Suffrage Movement Sylvia describes Christabel as an unreasonable figure , haranguing her for refusing to toe the WSPU line :
She turned to me . " You have your own ideas . We do not want that ; we want all our women to take their instructions and walk in step like an army ! " Too tired , too ill to argue , I made no reply . I was oppressed by a sense of tragedy , grieved by her ruthlessness . Her glorification of autocracy seemed to me remote indeed from the struggle we were waging , the grim fight even now proceeding in the cells . I thought of many others who had been thrust aside for some minor difference .
With their mother 's blessing , Christabel ordered Sylvia 's group to dissociate from the WSPU . Pankhurst tried to persuade the ELFS to remove the word " suffragettes " from its name , since it was inextricably linked to the WSPU . When Sylvia refused , her mother switched to fierce anger in a letter :
You are unreasonable , always have been & I fear always will be . I suppose you were made so ! ... Had you chosen a name which we could approve we could have done much to launch you & advertise your society by name . Now you must take your own way of doing so . I am sorry but you make your own difficulties by an incapacity to look at situations from other people 's point of view as well as your own . Perhaps in time you will learn the lessons that we all have to learn in life .
Adela , unemployed and unsure of her future , had become a worry for Pankhurst as well . She decided that Adela should move to Australia , and paid for her relocation . They never saw one another again .
= = First World War = =
When the First World War began in August 1914 , Emmeline and Christabel considered that the threat posed by Germany was a danger to all humanity , and that the British government needed the support of all citizens . They persuaded the WSPU to halt all militant suffrage activities until fighting on the European mainland ended . It was no time for dissent or agitation ; Christabel wrote later : " This was national militancy . As Suffragists we could not be pacifists at any price . " A truce with the government was established , all WSPU prisoners were released , and Christabel returned to London . Emmeline and Christabel set the WSPU into motion on behalf of the war effort . In her first speech after returning to Britain , Christabel warned of the " German Peril " . She urged the gathered women to follow the example of their French sisters , who – while the men fought – " are able to keep the country going , to get in the harvest , to carry on the industries " . Emmeline urged men to volunteer for the front lines .
Sylvia and Adela , meanwhile , did not share their mother 's enthusiasm for the war . As committed pacifists , they rejected the WSPU 's support for the government . Sylvia 's socialist perspective convinced her that the war was another example of capitalist oligarchs exploiting poor soldiers and workers . Adela , meanwhile , spoke against the war in Australia and made public her opposition to conscription . In a short letter , Emmeline told Sylvia : " I am ashamed to know where you and Adela stand . " She had a similar impatience for dissent within the WSPU ; when long @-@ time member Mary Leigh asked a question during a meeting in October 1915 , Pankhurst replied : " [ T ] hat woman is a pro German and should leave the hall . ... I denounce you as a pro German and wish to forget that such a person ever existed . " Some WSPU members were outraged by this sudden rigid devotion to the government , the leadership 's perceived abandonment of efforts to win the vote for women , and questions about how funds collected on behalf of suffrage were being managed with regard to the organisation 's new focus . Two groups split from the WSPU : The Suffragettes of the Women 's Social and Political Union ( SWSPU ) and the Independent Women 's Social and Political Union ( IWSPU ) , each dedicated to maintaining pressure toward women 's suffrage .
Pankhurst put the same energy and determination she had previously applied to women 's suffrage into patriotic advocacy of the war effort . She organised rallies , toured constantly delivering speeches , and lobbied the government to help women enter the work force while men were overseas fighting . Another issue which concerned her greatly at the time was the plight of so @-@ called war babies , children born to single mothers whose fathers were on the front lines . Pankhurst established an adoption home at Campden Hill designed to employ the Montessori method of childhood education . Some women criticised Pankhurst for offering relief to parents of children born out of wedlock , but she declared indignantly that the welfare of children – whose suffering she had seen firsthand as a Poor Law Guardian – was her only concern . Due to lack of funds , however , the home was soon turned over to Princess Alice . Pankhurst herself adopted four children , whom she renamed Kathleen King , Flora Mary Gordon , Joan Pembridge and Elizabeth Tudor . They lived in London , where – for the first time in many years – she had a permanent home , at Holland Park . Asked how , at the age of 57 and with no steady income , she could take on the burden of bringing up four more children , Pankhurst replied : " My dear , I wonder I didn 't take forty . "
= = = Russian delegation = = =
Pankhurst visited North America in 1916 together with the former Secretary of State for Serbia , Čedomilj Mijatović , whose nation had been at the centre of fighting at the start of the war . They toured the United States and Canada , raising money and urging the US government to support Britain and its Canadian and other allies . Two years later , after the US entered the war , Pankhurst returned to the United States , encouraging suffragettes there – who had not suspended their militancy – to support the war effort by sidelining activities related to the vote . She also spoke about her fears of communist insurgency , which she considered a grave threat to Russian democracy .
By June 1917 the Russian Revolution had strengthened the Bolsheviks , who urged an end to the war . Pankhurst 's translated autobiography had been read widely in Russia , and she saw an opportunity to put pressure on the Russian people . She hoped to convince them not to accept Germany 's conditions for peace , which she saw as a potential defeat for Britain and Russia . UK Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed to sponsor her trip to Russia , which she took in June . She told one crowd : " I came to Petrograd with a prayer from the English nation to the Russian nation , that you may continue the war on which depends the face of civilisation and freedom . " Press response was divided between left and right wings ; the former depicted her as a tool of capitalism , while the latter praised her devout patriotism .
In August she met with Alexander Kerensky , the Russian Prime Minister . Although she had been active with the socialist @-@ leaning ILP in years past , Pankhurst had begun to see leftist politics as disagreeable , an attitude which intensified while she was in Russia . The meeting was uncomfortable for both parties ; he felt that she was unable to appreciate the class @-@ based conflict driving Russian policy at the time . He concluded by telling her that English women had nothing to teach women in Russia . She later told the New York Times that he was the " biggest fraud of modern times " and that his government could " destroy civilisation . "
= = Accomplishment of suffrage ( 1918 ) = =
When she returned from Russia , Pankhurst was delighted to find that women 's right to vote was finally on its way to becoming a reality . The 1918 Representation of the People Act removed property restrictions on men 's suffrage and granted the vote to women over the age of 30 ( with several restrictions ) . As suffragists and suffragettes celebrated and prepared for its imminent passage , a new schism erupted : should women 's political organisations join forces with those established by men ? Many socialists and moderates supported unity of the sexes in politics , but Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst saw the best hope in remaining separate . They reinvented the WSPU as the Women 's Party , still open only to women . Women , they said , " can best serve the nation by keeping clear of men 's party political machinery and traditions , which , by universal consent , leave so much to be desired . " The party favoured equal marriage laws , equal pay for equal work , and equal job opportunities for women . These were matters for the post @-@ war era , however . While the fighting continued the Women 's Party demanded no compromise in the defeat of Germany ; the removal from government of anyone with family ties to Germany or pacifist attitudes ; and shorter work hours to forestall labour strikes . This last plank in the party 's platform was meant to discourage potential interest in Bolshevism , about which Pankhurst was increasingly anxious .
= = Post @-@ war activities = =
In the years after the 1918 Armistice , Pankhurst continued to promote her nationalist vision of British unity . She maintained a focus on women 's empowerment , but her days of fighting with government officialdom were over . She defended the presence and reach of the British Empire : " Some talk about the Empire and Imperialism as if it were something to decry and something to be ashamed of . [ I ] t is a great thing to be the inheritors of an Empire like ours ... great in territory , great in potential wealth . ... If we can only realise and use that potential wealth we can destroy thereby poverty , we can remove and destroy ignorance . " For years she travelled around England and North America , rallying support for the British Empire and warning audiences about the dangers of Bolshevism .
Emmeline Pankhurst also became active in political campaigning again when a bill was passed allowing women to run for the House of Commons . Many Women 's Party members urged Pankhurst to stand for election , but she insisted that Christabel was a better choice . She campaigned tirelessly for her daughter , lobbying Prime Minister Lloyd George for his support and at one point delivering a passionate speech in the rain . Christabel lost by a very slim margin to the Labour Party candidate , and the recount showed a difference of 775 votes . One biographer called it " the bitterest disappointment of Emmeline 's life . " The Women 's Party withered from existence soon afterward .
As a result of her many trips to North America , Pankhurst became fond of Canada , stating in an interview that " there seems to be more equality between men and women [ there ] than in any other country I know . " In 1922 she applied for Canadian " permission to land " ( a prerequisite to status as a " British Subject with Canadian Domicile " ) and rented a house in Toronto , where she moved with her four adopted children . She became active with the Canadian National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases ( CNCCVD ) , which worked against the sexual double @-@ standard which Pankhurst considered particularly harmful to women . During a tour of Bathurst , the mayor showed her a new building which would become the Home for Fallen Women . Pankhurst replied : " Ah ! Where is your Home for Fallen Men ? " Before long , however , she grew tired of long Canadian winters , and she ran out of money . She returned to England in late 1925 .
Back in London Emmeline was visited by Sylvia , who had not seen her mother in years . Their politics were by now very different , and Sylvia was living , unmarried , with an Italian anarchist . Sylvia described a moment of familial affection when they met , followed by a sad distance between them . Emmeline 's adopted daughter Mary , however , remembered the meeting differently . According to her version , Emmeline set her teacup down and walked silently out of the room , leaving Sylvia in tears . Christabel , meanwhile , had become a convert to Adventism and devoted much of her time to the church . The British press sometimes made light of the varied paths followed by the once indivisible family .
In 1926 Pankhurst joined the Conservative Party and two years later ran as a candidate for Parliament in Whitechapel and St George 's . Her transformation from a fiery supporter of the ILP and window @-@ smashing radical to an official Conservative Party member surprised many people . She replied succinctly : " My war experience and my experience on the other side of the Atlantic have changed my views considerably . " Her biographers insist that the move was more complex ; she was devoted to a programme of women 's empowerment and anti @-@ communism . Both the Liberal and Labour parties bore grudges for her work against them in the WSPU , and the Conservative Party had a victorious record after the war and a significant majority . Pankhurst 's membership of the Conservative Party may have had as much to do with ensuring her aims of obtaining the vote for women were achieved as with ideology .
= = Illness and death = =
Emmeline Pankhurst 's campaign for Parliament was pre @-@ empted by her ill health and a final scandal involving Sylvia . The years of touring , lectures , imprisonment and hunger strikes had taken their toll ; fatigue and illness became a regular part of Pankhurst 's life . Even more painful , however , was the news in April 1928 that Sylvia had given birth out of wedlock . She had named the child Richard Keir Pethick Pankhurst , in memory of her father , her ILP comrade , and her colleagues from the WSPU respectively . Emmeline was further shocked to see a report from a newspaper in the US that declared that " Miss Pankhurst " – a title usually reserved for Christabel – boasted of her child being a triumph of " eugenics , " since both parents were healthy and intelligent . In the article , Sylvia also spoke of her belief that " marriage without legal union " was the most sensible option for liberated women . These offences against the social dignity which Pankhurst had always valued devastated the elderly woman ; to make matters worse , many people believed the " Miss Pankhurst " in newspaper headlines referred to Christabel . After hearing the news , Emmeline spent an entire day crying ; her campaign for Parliament ended with the scandal .
As her health went downhill , Emmeline Pankhurst moved into a nursing home in Hampstead . She requested that she be treated by the doctor who attended to her during her hunger strikes . His use of the stomach pump had helped her feel better while in prison ; her nurses were sure that the shock of such treatment would severely wound her , but Christabel felt obligated to carry out her mother 's request . Before the procedure could be carried out , however , she fell into a critical condition from which none expected her to recover . On Thursday 14 June 1928 Pankhurst died , at the age of 69 . She was interred in Brompton Cemetery in London .
= = Legacy = =
News of Emmeline Pankhurst 's death was announced around the country , and extensively in North America . Her funeral service on 18 June was filled with her former WSPU colleagues and those who had worked beside her in various capacities . The Daily Mail described the procession as " like a dead general in the midst of a mourning army . " Women wore WSPU sashes and ribbons , and the organisation 's flag was carried alongside the Union Flag . Christabel and Sylvia appeared together at the service , the latter with her child . Adela did not attend . Press coverage around the world recognised her tireless work on behalf of women 's right to vote – even if they didn 't agree on the value of her contributions . The New York Herald Tribune called her " the most remarkable political and social agitator of the early part of the twentieth century and the supreme protagonist of the campaign for the electoral enfranchisement of women . "
Shortly after the funeral , one of Pankhurst 's bodyguards from her WSPU days , Katherine Marshall , began raising funds for a memorial statue . In spring 1930 her efforts bore fruit , and on 6 March her statue in Victoria Tower Gardens was unveiled . A crowd of radicals , former suffragettes , and national dignitaries gathered as former Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin presented the memorial to the public . In his address , Baldwin declared : " I say with no fear of contradiction , that whatever view posterity may take , Mrs. Pankhurst has won for herself a niche in the Temple of Fame which will last for all time . " Sylvia was the only Pankhurst daughter in attendance ; Christabel , touring North America , sent a telegram which was read aloud . While planning the agenda for the day , Marshall had intentionally excluded Sylvia , who in her opinion had hastened Pankhurst 's death .
During the twentieth century Emmeline Pankhurst 's value to the movement for women 's suffrage was debated passionately , and no consensus was achieved . Her daughters Sylvia and Christabel weighed in with books , scornful and laudatory respectively , about their time in the struggle . Sylvia 's 1931 book The Suffrage Movement describes her mother 's political shift at the start of the First World War as the beginning of a betrayal of her family ( especially her father ) and the movement . It set the tone for much of the socialist and activist history written about the WSPU and particularly solidified Emmeline Pankhurst 's reputation as an unreasonable autocrat . Christabel 's " Unshackled : The Story of How We Won the Vote , " released in 1959 , paints her mother as generous and selfless to a fault , offering herself completely to the most noble causes . It provided a sympathetic counterpart to Sylvia 's attacks and continued the polarised discussion ; detached and objective assessment has rarely been a part of Pankhurst scholarship .
Recent biographies show that historians differ about whether Emmeline Pankhurst 's militancy helped or hurt the movement ; however , there is general agreement that the WSPU raised public awareness of the movement in ways that proved essential . Baldwin compared her to Martin Luther and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau : individuals who were not the sum total of the movements in which they took part , but who nevertheless played crucial roles in struggles of social and political reform . In the case of Pankhurst , this reform took place in both intentional and unintentional ways . By defying the roles of wife and mother as the docile companion , Pankhurst paved the way for feminists who would later decry her support for empire and sustainable social values .
Emmeline Pankhurst 's importance to the United Kingdom was demonstrated again in 1929 , when a portrait of her was added to the National Portrait Gallery . In 1987 one of her homes in Manchester was opened as the Pankhurst Centre , an all @-@ women gathering space and museum . In 2002 , Pankhurst was placed at number 27 in the BBC 's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons .
In January 2016 , following a public vote , it was announced that a statue of Emmeline Pankhurst would be unveiled in Manchester in 2019 ; the first woman to be honoured with a statue in the city since Queen Victoria over 100 years ago .
= = In popular culture = =
Pankhurst is mentioned in the lyrics of " Sister Suffragette " sung by Mrs. Banks in the 1964 Walt Disney film Mary Poppins . Mary Poppins is set In Edwardian London , 1910 at the height of the Suffragette movement . The BBC dramatised the life of Emmeline Pankhurst in the six @-@ part serial Shoulder to Shoulder in 1974 , with Welsh actress Siân Phillips in the role . In the 2015 film Suffragette , Pankhurst , played by Meryl Streep , appears in several scenes .
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= Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution =
The Cuban communist revolutionary and politician Fidel Castro took part in the Cuban Revolution from 1953 to 1959 . Following on from his early life , Castro decided to fight for the overthrow of Fulgencio Batista 's military junta by founding a paramilitary organisation , " The Movement " . In July 1953 , they launched a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks , during which many militants were killed and Castro was arrested . Placed on trial , he defended his actions and provided his famous " History Will Absolve Me " speech , before being sentenced to 15 years ' imprisonment in the Model Prison on the Isla de Pinos . Renaming his group the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) , Castro was pardoned by Batista 's government in May 1955 , who no longer considered him a political threat . Restructuring the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he fled to Mexico with his brother Raul Castro , where he met with Argentine Marxist @-@ Leninist Che Guevara , and together they put together a small revolutionary force intent on overthrowing Batista .
In November 1956 , Castro and 81 revolutionaries sailed from Mexico aboard the Granma , crash @-@ landing near to Los Cayuelos . Attacked by Batista 's forces , they fled to the Sierra Maestra mountain range , where the 19 survivors set up an encampment from which they waged guerrilla war against the army . Boosted by new recruits that increased the guerilla army 's numbers to 200 , they co @-@ ordinated their attacks with the actions of other revolutionaries across Cuba , and Castro became an international celebrity after being interviewed by The New York Times . In 1958 , Batista launched a counter @-@ offensive , Operation Verano , but his army 's use of conventional warfare was overwhelmed by Castro 's guerrilla tactics , and the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 eventually pushed out of the Sierra Maestra and took control of most of Oriente and Las Villas . Recognising that he was losing the war , Batista fled to the Dominican Republic while military leader Eulogio Cantillo took control of the country . With revolutionary forces controlling most of Cuba , Castro ordered Cantillo 's arrest , before establishing a provisional government with Manuel Urrutia Lleó as President and José Miró Cardona as Prime Minister , ensuring that they enacted laws to erode the power of the Batistanos .
= = The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack : 1952 – 53 = =
In March 1952 , Cuban military general Fulgencio Batista seized power in a military coup , with the elected President Carlos Prío Socarrás fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " ; Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista 's administration , Castro brought several legal cases against them , arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws . His lawsuits coming to nothing , Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the new government .
Dissatisfied with the Partido Ortodoxo 's non @-@ violent opposition , Castro formed " The Movement " , a group consisting of both a civil and a military committee . The former agitated through underground newspaper El Acusador ( The Accuser ) , while the latter armed and trained anti @-@ Batista recruits . With Castro as the Movement 's head , the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system , with each cell containing 10 members . A dozen individuals formed the Movement 's nucleus , many also dissatisfied Ortodoxo members , although from July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive , gaining around 1 @,@ 200 members in a year , organized into over a hundred cells , with the majority coming from Havana 's poorer districts . Although he had close ties to revolutionary socialism , Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP , fearing it would frighten away political moderates , but kept in contact with several PSP members , including his brother Raúl . He later related that the Movement 's members were simply anti @-@ Batista , and few had strong socialist or anti @-@ imperialist views , something which Castro attributed to " the overwhelming weight of the Yankees ' ideological and advertising machinery " which he believed suppressed class consciousness among Cuba 's working class .
Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks , a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba , Oriente . Castro 's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25 , the festival of St James , when many officers would be away . The rebels would seize control , raid the armory and escape before reinforcements arrived . Supplied with new weaponry , Castro intended to arm supporters and spark a revolution among Oriente 's impoverished cane cutters . The plan was to then seize control of a Santiago radio station , broadcasting the Movement 's manifesto , hence promoting further uprisings . Castro 's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks ; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader and national hero José Martí .
Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission ; 138 stationed in Santiago , the other 27 in Bayamo . Mostly young men from Havana and Pinar del Río , Castro insured that – with the exception of himself – none had children , and ordered his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance . The attack took place on July 26 , 1953 , but ran into trouble ; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there . Reaching the barracks , the alarm was raised , with most of the rebels pinned down outside the base by machine gun fire . Those that got inside faced heavy resistance , and 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat . The rebels had suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties , whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded .
Meanwhile , some rebels took over a civilian hospital ; subsequently stormed by government soldiers , the rebels were rounded up , tortured and 22 were executed without trial . Those that had escaped , including Fidel and Raúl , assembled at their base where some debated surrender , while others wished to flee to Havana . Accompanied by 19 comrades , Castro decided to set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north , where they could establish a guerrilla base . In response to the Moncada attack , Batista 's government proclaimed martial law , ordering a violent crackdown on dissent and imposing strict censorship of the media . Propaganda broadcast misinformation about the event , claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients . Despite this censorship , news and photographs soon spread of the army 's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente , causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval .
= = Trial and History Will Absolve Me : 1953 = =
Over the following days , the rebels were rounded up , with some being executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago . Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone , the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement , putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice , Santiago . Although censored from reporting on it , journalists were permitted to attend , which proved an embarrassment for the Batista administration . Acting as his own defense council , Castro convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army 's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court , proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of " organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State " – was incorrect , for they had risen up against Batista , who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner . When asked who was the intellectual author of the attack , Castro claimed that it was the long deceased national icon José Martí , quoting Martí 's works that justified uprisings .
The trial revealed that the army had tortured suspects , utilizing castration and the gouging out of eyes ; the judges agreed to investigate these crimes , embarrassing the army , which tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further , claiming he was too ill to leave his cell . The trial ended on October 5 , with the acquittal of most defendants ; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years . Castro was sentenced separately , on October 16 , during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me . Although the maximum penalty for leading an uprising was a 20 years , Castro was sentenced to 15 , being imprisoned in the hospital wing of the Model Prison ( Presidio Modelo ) , a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos , 60 miles off of Cuba 's southwest coast .
= = Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement : 1953 – 55 = =
Imprisoned with 25 fellow conspirators , Castro renamed " The Movement " the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) in memory of the Moncada attack 's date . Forming a school for prisoners , the Abel Santamaría Ideological Academy , Castro organized five hours a day of teaching in ancient and modern history , philosophy and English . He read widely , enjoying the works of Karl Marx , Vladimir Lenin , and Martí but also reading books by Freud , Kant , Shakespeare , Munthe , Maugham and Dostoyevsky , analyzing them within a Marxist framework . He began reading about Roosevelt 's New Deal , believing that something similar should be enacted in Cuba . Corresponding with supporters outside of prison , he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me , with an initial print run of 27 @,@ 500 copies . Initially permitted a relatively high amount of freedom within the prison compared to other inmates , he was locked up in solitary confinement after his comrades sang anti @-@ Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954 . Meanwhile , Castro 's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior , having been encouraged to do so by her brother , a friend and ally of Batista 's . This was kept a secret from Castro , who found out through a radio announcement . Appalled , he raged that he would rather die " a thousand times " than " suffer impotently from such an insult " . Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings , with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito ; this angered Castro , who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment .
In 1954 , Batista 's government held presidential elections , but no politician had risked standing against him ; he won , but the election was widely considered fraudulent . It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced , and Castro 's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident 's perpetrators . Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity , and the Congress and Batista agreed . Backed by the U.S. and major corporations , Batista believed Castro to be no political threat , and on May 15 , 1955 the prisoners were released . Returning to Havana , Castro was carried on the shoulders of supporters , and set about giving radio interviews and press conferences ; the government closely monitored him , curtailing his activities . Now divorced , Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters , Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde , each conceiving him a child . Setting about strengthening the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he established an 11 @-@ person National Directorate ; despite these structural changes , there was still dissent , with some questioning Castro 's autocratic leadership . Castro dismissed calls for the leadership to be transferred to a democratic board , arguing that a successful revolution could not be run by committee . Some then abandoned the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , labeling Castro a caudillo ( dictator ) , although the majority remained loyal .
= = Mexico and guerrilla training : 1955 – 56 = =
In 1955 , bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent ; Castro was placed under protective armed guard by supporters , before he and Raúl fled the country . MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members remaining in Cuba were left to prepare cells for revolutionary action and await Castro 's return . He sent a letter to the press , declaring that he was " leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me . Six weeks after being released from prison I am convinced more than ever of the dictatorship 's intention , masked in many ways , to remain in power for twenty years , ruling as now by the use of terror and crime and ignoring the patience of the Cuban people , which has its limits . As a follower of Martí , I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them , to fight instead of pleading for them . " The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico , which had a long history of offering asylum to leftist exiles . Here , Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist @-@ Leninist named Ernesto " Che " Guevara , a proponent of guerrilla warfare keen to join Cuba 's Revolution . Fidel liked him , later describing him as " a more advanced revolutionary than I was . " Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo , a Republican veteran of the Spanish Civil War ; Bayo agreed to teach Fidel 's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare , clandestinely meeting them at Chapultepec for training .
Requiring funding , Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers ; Prío contributed $ 100 @,@ 000 . Castro later claimed that he had been monitored by Batista 's agents , who orchestrated a failed assassination against him . Batista 's government bribed Mexican police to arrest the rebels , however with the support of several Mexican politicians who were sympathetic to their cause , they were soon released . Castro kept in contact with the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 in Cuba , where they had gained a large support base in Oriente . Other militant anti @-@ Batista groups had sprung up , primarily from the student movement ; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil ( DRE ) , founded by the Federation of University Students ( FEU ) President José Antonio Echevarría . Antonio traveled to Mexico City to meet with Castro , but they disagreed on tactics ; Antonio thought that it was legitimate to assassinate anyone connected to the government , something Castro thought rash and ineffective .
After purchasing a decrepit yacht , the Granma , on 25 November 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan , Veracruz , with 81 revolutionaries armed with 90 rifles , 3 machine guns , around 40 pistols and 2 hand @-@ held anti @-@ tank guns . The 1 @,@ 200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh , and in the overcrowded conditions of the ship , many suffered seasickness , and food supplies ran low . At some points they had to bail water caused by a leak , and at another a man fell overboard , delaying their journey . The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days , and on the ship 's scheduled day of arrival , 30 November , MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising against government buildings in Santiago , Manzanillo and several other towns . However , the Granma 's journey ultimately lasted 7 days , and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements , Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks .
= = Guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra : 1956 – 58 = =
The Granma crash @-@ landed in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas , close to Los Cayuelos , on 2 December 1956 . Within a few hours a naval vessel started bombarding the invaders – fleeing inland , they headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente 's Sierra Maestra . At daybreak on 5 December , a detachment of Batista 's Rural Guard attacked them ; the rebels scattered , making their journey to the Sierra Maestra in small groups . Upon arrival , Castro discovered that of the 82 rebels who had arrived on the Granma , only 19 had made it to their destination , the rest having been killed or captured .
Setting up an encampment in the jungle , the survivors , including the Castros , Che Guevara , and Camilo Cienfuegos , began launching raids on small army @-@ posts to obtain weaponry . In January 1957 they overran the outpost near to the beach at La Plata ; Guevara treated the soldiers for any injuries , but the revolutionaries executed the local mayoral ( land @-@ company overseer ) Chicho Osorio , whom the local peasants despised and who boasted of killing one of the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 rebels several weeks previously . Osorio 's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals , who typically hated the mayorals as enforcers of the wealthy landowners , although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries . As trust grew , some locals joined the rebels , although most new recruits came from urban areas . With increasing numbers of volunteers , who now numbered over 200 , in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns , keeping charge of one and giving control of the others to his brother and Guevara . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation , sending supplies to Castro , and on 16 February 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics ; here he met Celia Sánchez , who would become a close friend .
Across Cuba , militant groups rose up against Batista , carrying out bombings and acts of sabotage . Police responded with mass arrests , torture and extrajudicial killings , with corpses hung on trees to intimidate dissidents . In March 1957 , Antonio 's DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace , with Antonio being shot dead ; his death removed a charismatic rival to Castro 's leadership of the revolution . Frank Pais was also killed , leaving Castro the unchallenged leader of the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Castro hid his Marxist @-@ Leninist beliefs , in contrast to Guevara and Raúl , whose beliefs were well known ; in doing so , he hoped to gain the support of less radical dissenters , and in 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo . Castro and Ortodoxo leaders Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos drafted and signed the Sierra Maestra Manifesto , in which they laid out their plans for a post @-@ Batista Cuba . Rejecting the rule of a provisional military junta , it demanded the setting up of a provisional civilian government " supported by all " which would implement moderate agrarian reform , industrialization and a literacy campaign before introducing " truly fair , democratic , impartial , elections " .
Batista 's government censored the Cuban press , and so Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message . Herbert Matthews , a journalist from The New York Times , interviewed Castro , attracting international interest to the rebel 's cause and turning Castro into a celebrity . Other reporters followed , sent by such news agencies as CBS , while a reporter from Paris Match stayed with the rebels for around 4 months , documenting their routine . Castro 's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts , forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region , and by spring 1958 the rebels controlled a hospital , schools , a printing press , slaughterhouse , land @-@ mine factory and a cigar @-@ making factory .
= = Batista 's fall and Cantillo 's military junta : 1958 – 1959 = =
Batista had come under increasing pressure by 1958 . His army 's military failures , coupled with his press censorship and the police and army 's use of torture and extrajudicial executions , were increasingly criticized both domestically and abroad . Influenced by anti @-@ Batista sentiment among their citizens , the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry , leading him to buy arms from the United Kingdom . The opposition used this opportunity to call a general strike , accompanied by armed attacks from the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Beginning on 9 April , it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba , but little elsewhere .
Batista responded with an all @-@ out @-@ attack on Castro 's guerrillas , Operation Verano ( 28 June to 8 August 1958 ) . The army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants , while 10 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra , driving north to the rebel encampments . Despite their numerical and technological superiority , the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare or with the mountainous region . Now with 300 men at his command , Castro avoided open confrontation , using land mines and ambushes to halt the enemy offensive . The army suffered heavy losses and a number of embarrassments ; in June 1958 a battalion surrendered , their weapons were confiscated and they were handed over to the Red Cross . Many of Batista 's soldiers , appalled at the human rights abuses that they were ordered to carry out , defected to Castro 's rebels , who also benefited from popular support in the areas they controlled . In the summer , the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 went on the offensive , pushing the army back , out of the mountain range and into the lowlands , with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago . By November , Castro 's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas , and tightened their grip around the capitals of Santiago and Santa Clara . Through control of Las Villas , the rebels divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines , severely disadvantaging Batista 's forces .
The U.S. realized that Batista would lose the war , and fearing that Castro would displace U.S. interests with socialist reforms , decided to aid Batista 's removal by supporting a rightist military junta , believing that General Cantillo , then commanding most of the country 's armed forces , should lead it . After being approached with this proposal , Cantillo secretly met with Castro , agreeing that the two would call a ceasefire , following which Batista would be apprehended and tried as a war criminal . Double @-@ crossing Castro , Cantillo warned Batista of the revolutionary 's intentions . Wishing to avoid a tribunal , Batista resigned on 31 December 1958 , informing the armed forces that they were now under Cantillo 's control . With his family and closest advisers , Batista fled into exile to the Dominican Republic with over US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Cantillo then entered Havana 's Presidential Palace , proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra as the new President , and began appointing new members of the government .
Still in Oriente , Castro was furious . Recognizing the establishment of a military junta , he ended the ceasefire and continued on the offensive . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 put together a plan to oust the Cantillo @-@ Piedra junta , freeing the high @-@ ranking military officer Colonel Ramón Barquín from the Isle of Pines prison ( where he had been held captive for plotting to overthrow Batista ) , and commanding him to fly to Havana to arrest Cantillo . Accompanying widespread celebrations as news of Batista 's downfall spread across Cuba on 1 January 1959 , Castro ordered the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 to take responsibility for policing the country , in order to prevent widespread looting and vandalism . Whilst Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on 2 January , Castro entered Santiago , accepting the surrender of the Moncada Barracks and giving a speech invoking the wars of independence . He spoke out against the Cantillo @-@ Piedra junta , called for justice against human rights abusers and proclaimed a better era for women 's rights . Heading toward Havana , he met José Antonio Echevarría 's mother , and greeted cheering crowds in every town , giving press conferences and interviews . Foreign journalists commented on the unprecedented level of public adulation , with Castro striking a heroic " Christ @-@ like figure " and wearing a medallion of the Virgin Mary .
= = Provisional government : 1959 = =
Castro had made his opinion clear that lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó should become president , leading a provisional civilian government following Batista 's fall . Politically moderate , Urrutia had defended MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 revolutionaries in court , arguing that the Moncada Barracks attack was legal according to the Cuban constitution . Castro believed Urrutia would make a good leader , being both established yet sympathetic to the revolution . With the leaders of the junta under arrest , Urrutia was proclaimed provisional president , with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by " popular election " ; most of Urrutia 's cabinet were MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members . On January 8 , 1959 , Castro 's army entered Havana . Proclaiming himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency , Castro – along with close aides and family members – set up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel , there meeting with journalists , foreign visitors and government ministers .
Officially having no role in the provisional government , Castro exercised a great deal of influence , largely because of his popularity and control of the rebel army . Ensuring the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy , he did not initially force through any radical proposals . Attempting to rid Cuba 's government of Batistanos , the Congress elected under Batista was abolished , and all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 were banned from politics . The government now ruling by decree , Castro pushed the president to issue a temporary ban on all political parties , but repeatedly stated that they would get around to organizing multiparty elections ; this never occurred . He began meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party , believing they had the intellectual capacity to form a socialist government , but repeatedly denied being a communist himself .
In suppressing the revolution , Batista 's government had orchestrated mass human rights abuses , with most estimates for the death toll typically placing it at around 20 @,@ 000 . Popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice . Although remaining a moderating force and opposing the mass reprisal killings advocated by many , Castro helped set @-@ up trials of many Batistanos , resulting in hundreds of executions . Although widely popular domestically , critics – in particular from the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials , and condemned Cuba 's government as being more interested in vengeance than justice . In response , Castro proclaimed that " revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts , but on moral conviction " , organizing the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17 @,@ 000 at the Sports Palace stadium . He also intervened in other trials to ensure that what he saw as " revolutionary justice " was carried out ; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty at a trial in Santiago de Cuba , Castro ordered a retrial in which they were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment .
Acclaimed across Latin America , Castro traveled to Venezuela to attend the first @-@ anniversary celebrations of Marcos Pérez Jiménez 's overthrow . Meeting President @-@ elect Rómulo Betancourt , Castro proposed greater relations between the two nations , unsuccessfully requesting a loan of $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and a new deal for Venezuelan oil . Returning home , an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out ; the government had banned the National Lottery and closed down the casinos and brothels , leaving thousands of waiters , croupiers and prostitutes unemployed , infuriating Castro . As a result , Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned , going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti @-@ Castro movement .
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= Orjen @-@ class torpedo boat =
The Orjen @-@ class was a class of eight motor torpedo boats built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy ( Jugoslavenska kraljevska ratna mornarica ; JKRM ) . The boats were built by the Lürssen Shipyard based on the German S @-@ 2 motor torpedo boats . At the start of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia , two boats managed to escape to Alexandria in Egypt where they continued serving with Allied forces . The remaining ones were captured by Italian forces and commissioned in the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) .
After the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the boats were taken over by German forces and commissioned in the Kriegsmarine , until they were finally scuttled in October 1944 . The two boats that had escaped to the Allies in 1941 returned to Yugoslavia after the war . They were commissioned in the new Yugoslav Navy and remained in service until the early 1960s .
= = Background and description = =
During the early 1930s , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was facing an economic recession brought on by the Great Depression , which was further complicated by internal political instability . In the mid @-@ 1930s the Yugoslav government sought to improve relations with the Kingdom of Italy , and create new economic opportunities by developing closer ties with Nazi Germany . Cooperation with Germany was soon reflected in the acquisition of new ships for the Royal Yugoslav Navy , which had previously been acquired in France and Great Britain . The first such deal came in 1936 when the Navy placed an order for eight motor torpedo boats that were to be built by the Lürssen Shipyard , based on the existing German design of the S @-@ 2 class motor torpedo boat . An additional order for two Type II submarines was planned , but never happened .
The boats measured 28 m ( 91 ft 10 in ) in length overall , with a 4 @.@ 3 m ( 14 ft 1 in ) beam and a draught of 1 @.@ 51 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . Fully loaded , they displaced 61 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 60 @.@ 7 long tons ) . Main propulsion consisted of three Daimler @-@ Benz petrol engines rated at 3 @,@ 300 hp ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) , giving the boats a maximum speed of 31 kn ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) . An auxiliary engine of unknown power was also installed . Crew size varied between 16 and 22 , depending on the source . Armament consisted of two 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes and a single 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun .
= = Boats = =
Source :
= = Service history = =
= = = Royal Yugoslav Navy service = = =
At the start of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia , all eight Orjen @-@ class boats and the two small Uskok @-@ class boats were assigned to the 2nd Torpedo Division in Šibenik . On 11 April , a naval force consisting of several Orjen @-@ class boats , among other ships , was expected to assist ground forces in attacking the Italian enclave of Zara which the Yugoslav High Command feared would be used as a bridgehead during the invasion . The attack , however , never materialized and the Yugoslav ships were instead attacked by Italian bombers forcing them to retreat to Kotor . By 17 April the complete collapse of Yugoslav defences was imminent , prompting the commander of the 3rd Torpedo Boat Division , Ivan Kern , to suggest that Durmitor , Kajmakčalan , Dinara , Triglav , Rudnik and Suvobor sail out of Boka Kotorska to evade capture by the Axis and continue their fight with Allied forces . Kern approached the commanding officers of Durmitor , Kajmakčalan , Rudnik and Suvobor with the idea , only to be rejected by all of them .
At the same time , unknown perpetrators sabotaged Triglav causing a fire , further deteriorating crew morale already hampered by desertion while Milan Spasić and Sergej Mašera died blowing up the destroyer Zagreb to prevent it from falling into enemy hands . Following this , Kern decided to sail out with just two boats , Durmitor and Kajmakčalan which he deemed had the most trustworthy crews , leaving Boka Kotorska on 17 April . Because both boats were in poor condition and overloaded with personnel , the maximum speed they could achieve was no more than 29 knots . Before passing through the Strait of Otranto , the boats successfully evaded two groups of Italian ships . They finally arrived at Navarino Bay on 19 April before continuing to Souda Bay where they arrived 22 April . In Souda Bay Durmitor and Kajmakčalan were tasked with escorting a convoy to Alexandria protecting it from possible Stuka attacks . Once in Alexandria they reunited with the remaining JKRM forces that managed to escape , forming the JKRM in exile . The boats were first tasked with patrolling the outside of the harbor in anticipation of an attack by Axis coastal craft . In June they operated against Vichy French forces in Syria . In 1944 they were reported as being tasked with escorting convoys between Alexandria and Port Said . However , with time the serviceability of the boats became a problem because of the lack of spare parts needed for their German @-@ built engines .
= = = Axis service = = =
The remaining six boats were captured by Italian forces and commissioned in the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , receiving designations MAS 3 — 8 D , with " MAS " standing for Motoscafo Armato Silurante ( English : Torpedo Armed Motorboat ) and the prefix D denoting they were captured in Dalmatia . Their designations were once again changed in July 1942 , with the prefix " MAS " being replaced with " MS " and new numerals from 41 to 46 . During their Italian service the boat 's weapons were also changed . The original torpedo armament was replaced with two 21 @.@ 7 in ( 550 mm ) torpedo tubes , while the original 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun was removed in favor of two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 guns on MS 41 — 44 or one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / 43 gun and one 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) / 38 machine gun on MS 45 — 46 . The boats were also equipped to carry 12 to 20 depth charges .
Following the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the majority of the boats were taken over by the Kriegsmarine . MS 41 was scuttled by its crew on 9 September at Monfalcone . Sources are inconsistent regarding the boat 's aftermath ; according to Italian sources it was raised and repaired by German forces before being sunk by a mine between Porto Corsini and Porto Garibaldi in October 1944 . German sources on the other hand , claim it was never commissioned by the Kriegsmarine . MS 45 was also scuttled by its crew just a few days later , on 18 September at Cattolica . The remaining four boats , MS 42 — 44 and MS 46 were commissioned with the Kriegsmarine as S 2 — 5 . All four were sunk in October 1944 at Salonika .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
After the end of the war , Durmitor and Kajmakčalan , along with other JKRM ships and personnel in exile , returned to Šibenik in May 1945 . They were commissioned in the new Yugoslav Navy ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslavenska ratna mornarica ; JRM ) as TČ 5 and TČ 6 , later being redesignated as TČ 391 and TČ 392 . Both were stricken in 1963 .
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= Fantastic Light =
Fantastic Light ( foaled February 13 , 1996 ) is a retired Thoroughbred racehorse and active sire . He was foaled in the United States but was trained in England and Dubai during his racing career , which ran from August 1998 to his retirement following the Breeders ' Cup Turf on October 2001 . He raced in six countries , winning Group One / Grade I races in five of them and was a dual winner of the Emirates World Series Racing Championship . He was named United States Champion Male Turf Horse , European Horse of the Year and European Champion Older Horse in 2001 . He was also well known for his two races against the 2001 Epsom Derby winner Galileo . In August 2012 it was announced that he had been pensioned from stallion duty while in Japan and would return to Dalham Hall in England to live out his days as a pensioner .
In his early racing career , when trained by Michael Stoute , he won the Sandown Classic Trial , the Great Voltigeur Stakes , the Arc Trial and the Dubai Sheema Classic . In 2000 after his transfer to Godolphin he won the Man O ' War Stakes and the Hong Kong Cup . In his championship season in 2001 Fantastic Light won four of his six races ; the Tattersalls Gold Cup , the Prince of Wales 's Stakes , the Irish Champion Stakes and the Breeders ' Cup Turf .
= = Background = =
Fantastic Light , a bay horse with an irregular white blaze and three white feet , was bred in Kentucky by Maktoum Al Maktoum 's Gainsborough Stud .
His sire , Rahy ( 1985 – 2011 ) , sired the winners of over three hundred races , including more than thirty at Group One / Grade I level . Apart from Fantastic Light , his best progeny have included Noverre , Serena 's Song and Hawksley Hill . Fantastic Light 's dam , Jood , a daughter of Nijinsky , failed to win a race , but came from a good family , being closely related to Swain .
Until early 2000 , Fantastic Light raced in the colours of Maktoum Al Maktoum and was trained by Michael Stoute at Newmarket , Suffolk . His ownership was then transferred to Godolphin Racing , and he was trained from that point on by Saeed bin Suroor .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1998 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light never ran in a maiden race , instead making his debut against more experienced colts in a minor stakes race at Sandown in August 1998 . He started slowly and showed his inexperience ( " ran green " ) before taking the lead in the closing stages and winning by one and three quarter lengths from Sicnee , with the future Diadem Stakes winner , Sampower Star in third . He followed up in a similar event at the same course three weeks later , beating Aesops by three quarters of a length after leading close to the finish . This performance attracted some attention , with one commentator identifying him as " a promising young stayer " . On his last start of the year he was moved up to Listed class , and finished last of the three starters in the Stardom Stakes at Goodwood .
= = = 1999 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light began his three @-@ year @-@ old season with his first Group race win in the Sandown Classic Trial . Ridden by Daryll Holland , he took the lead a furlong out and was eased in the closing stages to win by a short head . Speculation that he might develop into a Derby contender ended in his next race , when he was stepped up to one and a half miles for the first time and finished fourth of the five runners in the Lingfield Derby Trial .
Fantastic Light was brought back to a mile and a quarter , and produced placed efforts on his next two starts . At Royal Ascot in June , he was beaten a head by Lear Spear in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes ( then a Group Two race ) , and at Sandown three weeks later he finished third , beaten a neck and half a length behind Compton Admiral and Xaar in the Group One Eclipse Stakes .
In August Fantastic Light recorded his first win at Group Two level as he led three furlongs out and ran on to win a strongly contested Great Voltigeur Stakes from Bienamado ( Hollywood Turf Cup Stakes , San Juan Capistrano Handicap , Charles Whittingham Memorial Handicap ) and the future St Leger winner Mutafaweq . A month later , he won a third important race by holding off the 1998 Epsom Derby winner High @-@ Rise by three quarters of a length in the Listed Arc Trial at Newbury .
On his final start of the season , Fantastic Light was moved up to the highest level for the Prix de l 'Arc de Triomphe and finished a remote eleventh of the thirteen runners behind Montjeu .
= = = 2000 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light 's first run of 2000 was also his last for the Stoute stable . He was sent to Dubai for the Sheema Classic , in which he faced a field including runners from Britain , France , Germany , Japan , New Zealand and Argentina . Ridden by Kieren Fallon , he took the lead in the straight ( " far too soon " according to his jockey ) and went clear to beat the German horse Caitano by three lengths , with High @-@ Rise third . In winning , Fantastic Light broke the Nad Al Sheba track record for one and a half miles by more than a second . Shortly after the race it was announced that Fantastic Light would not return to Michael Stoute , but would be transferred to Sheikh Mohammed 's Godolphin Racing team and be trained by Saeed Bin Suroor .
Fantastic Light was then returned to England for a summer campaign . In the Coronation Cup at Epsom in June he finished second to Daliapour and then came fifth of the eight runners behind Giant 's Causeway in the Eclipse Stakes . He was then sent to Ascot for the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes , where he finished second , reversing the Epsom form with Daliapour , but having no chance against the favourite Montjeu .
In Autumn , Godolphin campaigned Fantastic Light in the United States . At Belmont Park in September he started odds @-@ on favourite and won the Man o ' War Stakes " comfortably " , to record his first Grade I victory . In this race he was ridden by Jerry Bailey , who claimed that he had always had the other runners " at his mercy " despite having to come round the outside of the field . In all his remaining ten starts Fantastic Light was ridden by Frankie Dettori . He disappointed in a return to Belmont for the Turf Classic , finishing fourth to John 's Call , a horse he had beaten in the Man o ' War . He then finished to fifth Kalanisi in the Breeders ' Cup Turf at Churchill Downs , although in this case he had a legitimate excuse , having been blocked twice when Dettori attempted to find space for a challenge .
For his last two starts of the year , Fantastic Light was sent to East Asia . In November , in the Japan Cup he stayed on strongly in the closing stages to finish a close third , beaten a neck and a nose by T M Opera O and Meisho Doto . Dettori reportedly felt that the slow pace was the reason for his defeat . Despite three successive defeats , Fantastic Light still managed to end the season with a major victory . In December he was sent to Sha Tin for the Hong Kong Cup and justified favouritism by leading in the straight and staying on strongly to beat Greek Dance and Jim and Tonic . The win earned Fantastic Light top place in the Emirates World Series , a competition in which points were awarded for performances in a number of international races .
= = = 2001 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
= = = = Spring = = = =
Like a previous Godolphin champion , Daylami , Fantastic Light proved himself to be better than ever as a five @-@ year @-@ old ( see Assessment below ) .
In March he attempted to win a second Sheema Classic and almost succeeded , taking the lead a furlong out , but being caught on the line and beaten a nose by the Japanese outsider Stay Gold . Despite the defeat , his connections announced that they were " delighted " with the performance . As in 2000 , Fantastic Light spent the middle of the season racing in Europe . At the end of May he was sent to Ireland where he won the Tattersalls Gold Cup , taking the lead a furlong from the finish and beating Golden Snake by a neck with Kalanisi third . After the race , Godolphin 's racing manager , Simon Crisford , said that Fantastic Light would be aimed at the top middle distance races in Europe , calling him " very special ... a fantastic horse " .
= = = = Summer = = = =
Despite this result , Kalanisi was made favourite when the horses met again in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes ( by this time a Group One race ) at Royal Ascot , a contest that was expected to be one of the best of the meeting . Fantastic Light raced behind the leaders before being moved up by Dettori to take the lead in the straight . He soon went clear with what the Telegraph described as a " ruthless display of speed " , and although Kalanisi attempted to challenge , Fantastic Light stayed on to win " comfortably " by two and a half lengths . After the race , Sheikh Mohammed talked confidently about a meeting with the unbeaten Derby winner Galileo .
Fantastic Light and Galileo did meet at Ascot in the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes , for which the Aidan O 'Brien @-@ trained three @-@ year @-@ old was sent off the 1 / 2 favourite ahead of Fantastic Light at 7 / 2 . The race was the subject of considerable advance publicity , and was portrayed as a clash between the two most powerful forces in European racing ; Godolphin , represented by Fantastic Light , and Ballydoyle / Coolmore represented by Galileo . As in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes , Dettori settled Fantastic Light in the early stages before moving him out to challenge in the straight . Galileo had already taken the lead but Fantastic Light moved up and went level a furlong out . The two horses raced side @-@ by @-@ side for several strides , but Galileo then pulled ahead to win by two lengths .
= = = = Autumn = = = =
The second meeting between Fantastic Light and Galileo was scheduled for the Irish Champion Stakes at Leopardstown in September and was highly anticipated . This time Dettori rode Fantastic Light more positively as part of an agreed Godolphin plan , sending him past the Ballydoyle pacemaker to take the lead two furlongs out . Michael Kinane immediately brought Galileo to challenge and the two horses raced alongside each other all the way to the line . Galileo appeared to gain a slight advantage , but Fantastic Light , stayed on strongly under pressure to regain the lead and win by a head in a " thrilling " contest . The British Horseracing Authority described the event as " one of the greatest races witnessed throughout the current decade " , whilst readers of the Racing Post placed it seventh ( the third highest for a flat race ) in their list of the 100 Greatest Races .
For Fantastic Light 's final start , he was sent back to America for a second attempt at the Breeders ' Cup , held in October 2001 at Belmont Park . It was expected that he would run against Galileo again in the Classic , while Godolphin 's Prix de l 'Arc de Triomphe winner , Sakhee was aimed for the Breeders ' Cup Turf . Shortly before the race , however , the two Godolphin horses switched targets , the rationale apparently being that Sakhee would be better suited by the dirt surface . In the Turf , Dettori placed Fantastic Light just behind the pace as the race was led first by With Anticipation and then by Timboroa . Making his challenge in the straight , Fantastic Light took the lead just over a furlong out and held off the strong late challenge of the St Leger winner Milan to win by three quarters of a length , with the rest of the runners more than five lengths further back . The time of 2 : 24 @.@ 36 was a new course record . Summarising Fantastic Light 's career , Crisford called him " the ultimate modern @-@ day racehorse . "
A projected run in the Japan Cup did not materialise and his retirement was announced shortly afterwards . He had already amassed sufficient points to secure a second Emirates World Series .
= = Race record = =
= = Assessment , honours and awards = =
From the mid @-@ 1990s the International Classification Committee ( representing Europe ) and the North American Rating Committee drew up an annual International Classification which included all horses who raced in Europe , North America and Japan . These ratings did not include Southern Hemisphere horses and were not therefore , " World " rankings .
In the 2000 International Classification , Fantastic Light was assessed at 124 , placing him fourteenth in the ratings ( eighth in Europe ) , ten pounds below Dubai Millennium . In the 2001 International Classification Fantastic Light was assessed at 129 ( equal with Galileo ) , making him the third highest rated horse behind Sakhee and Point Given .
Fantastic Light was assessed at 134 by Timeform . A rating in excess of 130 is considered the mark of an above average Group One winner .
In 2001 he was named European Champion Older Horse and European Horse of the Year at the Cartier Racing Awards .
In February 2002 Fantastic Light was voted the Eclipse Award for American Champion Male Turf Horse in the Eclipse Awards , beating Val Royal and With Anticipation in the voting .
= = Stud career = =
Retired at the end of the 2001 racing season , Fantastic Light stood for the Darley Stud stud at Dalham Hall in Newmarket , England , before being moved to their Japanese base in Hokkaido for the 2007 season .
He has also been shuttled to stand in Australia for the Southern Hemisphere breeding season . During five seasons at stud in Australia he was the sire of 427 live foals that included Mission Critical , who won the group one Waikato Race Club 's International Stakes .
He has sired the winners of more than three hundred races including Scintillo , winner of the Winter Derby , the Gran Criterium and the Grand Prix de Chantilly ( Group 2 ) .
= = Pedigree = =
Although there is no inbreeding visible in the table above , four of the horses in the fourth generation ( Narsullah , Hail To Reason , Nearctic and Nangela ) are direct descendants of Nearco , who as a result appears twice in the fifth , and twice in the sixth generation of Fantastic Light 's extended pedigree .
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= Gjirokastër =
Gjirokastër is a town and a municipality in southern Albania . Lying in the historical region of Epirus , it is the capital of Gjirokastër County . Its old town is a World Heritage Site described as " a rare example of a well @-@ preserved Ottoman town , built by farmers of large estate . " Gjirokastër is situated in a valley between the Gjerë mountains and the Drino , at 300 metres above sea level . The city is overlooked by Gjirokastër Fortress , where the Gjirokastër National Folklore Festival is held every five years . Gjirokastër is the birthplace of former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha and notable writer Ismail Kadare . It hosts the Eqrem Çabej University .
The present municipality was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities of Antigonë , Cepo , Gjirokastër , Lazarat , Lunxhëri , Odrie and Picar , that became municipal units . The seat of the municipality is the town Gjirokastër . The total population is 25 @,@ 301 ( 2011 census ) , in a total area of 469 @.@ 25 square kilometres ( 181 @.@ 18 sq mi ) . The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 19 @,@ 836 .
The city appears in the historical record in 1336 by its Greek name , Argyrokastro ( Αργυρόκαστρο , often written Argyrocastro or Argyro @-@ Castro ) , as part of the Byzantine Empire . It later became the center of the principality ruled by John Zenevisi ( 1373 @-@ 1417 ) before falling under Ottoman rule for the next five centuries . Taken by the Hellenic Army during the Balkan Wars of 1912 @-@ 3 on account of its large Greek population , it was eventually incorporated into the newly independent state of Albania in 1913 . This proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population , who rebelled ; after several months of guerrilla warfare , the short @-@ lived Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was established in 1914 with Gjirokaster as its capital . It was definitively awarded to Albania in 1921 . In more recent years , the city witnessed anti @-@ government protests that lead to the Albanian civil war of 1997 .
Alongside Albanians , the city is home to a substantial Greek minority . Gjirokastër , together with Sarandë , is considered one of the centers of the Greek community in Albania , and there is a consulate of Greece .
= = Etymology = =
The city appeared for the first time in historical records under its medieval Greek name of Argyrocastron ( Greek : Αργυρόκαστρον ) , as mentioned by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336 . The name comes from the Medieval Greek ἀργυρόν ( argyron ) , meaning " silver " , and κάστρον ( kastron ) , from the Latin castrum meaning " castle " or " fortress " , thus " silver castle " . The theory that the city took the name of the Princess Argjiro , a legendary figure about whom 19th century author Kostas Krystallis wrote a short novel and Ismail Kadare wrote a poem in the 1960s . It is considered a folk etymology , since the princess is said to have lived later , in the 15th century .
The definite Albanian form of the name of city is Gjirokastra , while in the Gheg Albanian dialect it is known as Gjinokastër , both of which derive from the Greek name . Alternative spellings found in Western sources are Girokaster and Girokastra . In Aromanian the city is known as Ljurocastru , while in modern Greek it is known Αργυρόκαστρο ( Argyrokastro ) . During the Ottoman era the town was known in Turkish as Ergiri .
= = History = =
Archaeological evidence points out that during the Bronze Age the region was inhabited by populations that probably spoke a northwestern Greek dialect . Archaeologists have found pottery objects of the early Iron Age in Gjirokastër , which first appeared in the late Bronze Age in Pazhok , Elbasan District , and are found throughout Albania . The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area around Gjirokastër were the Greek tribe of the Chaonians .
The city 's walls date from the third century . The high stone walls of the Citadel were built from the sixth to the twelfth century . During this period , Gjirokastër developed into a major commercial center known as Argyropolis ( Ancient Greek : Ἀργυρόπολις , meaning " Silver City " ) or Argyrokastron ( Ancient Greek : Ἀργυρόκαστρον , meaning " Silver Castle " ) .
The city was part of the Despotate of Epirus and was first mentioned by the name Argyrokastro by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336 . During 1386 – 1418 it became the capital of the Principality of Gjirokastër of John Zenevisi . In 1417 it became part of the Ottoman Empire and in 1419 it became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania . During the Albanian Revolt of 1432 – 36 it was besieged by forces under Thopia Zenevisi , but the rebels were defeated by Ottoman troops led by Turahan Bey In 1570s local nobles Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos , discussed as Greek representative of enslaved Greece and Albania with the head of the Holy League , John of Austria and various other European rulers , the possibility of an anti @-@ Ottoman armed struggle , but this initiative was fruitless .
According to Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi , who visited the city in 1670 , at that time there were 200 houses within the castle , 200 in the Christian eastern neighborhood of Kyçyk Varosh ( meaning small neighborhood outside the castle ) , 150 houses in the Byjyk Varosh ( meaning big neighborhood outside the castle ) , and six additional neighborhoods : Palorto , Vutosh , Dunavat , Manalat , Haxhi Bey , and Memi Bey , extending on eight hills around the castle . According to the traveller , the city had at that time around 2000 houses , eight mosques , three churches , 280 shops , five fountains , and five inns .
In 1811 , Gjirokastër became part of the Pashalik of Yanina , then led by the Albanian @-@ born Ali Pasha , and was transformed into a semi @-@ autonomous fiefdom in the southwestern Balkans until his death in 1822 . After the fall of the pashalik in 1868 , the city was the capital of the sanjak of Ergiri ( the Turkish name for Gjirokastër ) . On 23 July 1880 , southern Albanian committees of the League of Prizren held a congress in the city , in which was decided that if Albanian @-@ populated areas of the Ottoman Empire were ceded to neighbouring countries , they would revolt . During the Albanian National Awakening ( 1831 – 1912 ) , the city was a major centre of the movement , and some groups in the city were reported to carry portraits of Skanderbeg , the national hero of the Albanians during this period .
Given its large Greek population , the city was claimed and taken by Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912 – 1913 , following the retreat of the Ottomans from the region . However , it was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Treaty of London of 1913 and the Protocol of Florence of 17 December 1913 .
This turn of events proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population , and their representatives under Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos formed the Panepirotic Assembly in Gjirokastër in protest . The Assembly , short of incorporation with Greece , demanded either local autonomy or an international occupation by forces of the Great Powers for the districts of Gjirokastër , Sarandë , and Korçë .
In March 1914 , the Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence was announced in Gjirokastër and it was confirmed in the Protocol of Corfu . The Republic , however , was short @-@ lived , as Albania collapsed at the beginning of World War I. The Greek military returned in October – November 1914 , and again captured Gjirokastër , along with Saranda and Korçë . In April 1916 , the territory referred to by Greeks as Northern Epirus , including Gjirokastër , was annexed to Greece . The Paris Peace Conference , 1919 restored the pre @-@ war status quo , essentially upholding the border line decided in the 1913 Protocol of Florence , and the city was again returned to Albanian control .
In April 1939 , Gjirokastër was occupied by Italy following the Italian invasion of Albania . In December 8 , 1940 , during the Greco @-@ Italian War , the Hellenic Army entered the city and stayed for a five @-@ month period before capitulating to Nazi Germany in April 1941 and returning the city to Italian command . After the capitulation of Italy in the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943 , the city was taken by German forces and eventually returned to Albanian control in 1944 .
The postwar communist regime developed the city as an industrial and commercial centre . It was elevated to the status of a museum town , as it was the birthplace of the leader of the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania , Enver Hoxha , who had been born there in 1908 . His house was converted into a museum .
The demolition of the monumental statue of the authoritarian leader Enver Hohxa in Gjirokastër by members of the local Greek community in August 1991 marked the end of the one @-@ party state . Gjirokastër suffered severe economic problems following the end of communist rule in 1991 . In the spring of 1993 , the region of Gjirokastër became a center of open conflict between Greek minority members and the Albanian police . The city was particularly affected by the 1997 collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which destabilised the entire Albanian economy . The city became the focus of a rebellion against the government of Sali Berisha ; violent anti @-@ government protests took place which eventually forced Berisha 's resignation . On 16 December 1997 , Hoxha 's house was damaged by unknown attackers , but subsequently restored .
= = Religion and culture = =
In 1925 , Albania became the world center of the Bektashi Order , a Muslim sect . The sect was headquartered in Tirana , and Gjirokastër was one of six districts of the Bektashi Order in Albania , with its center at the tekke of Baba Rexheb . The city retains a large Bektashi and Sunni population . Historically there were 15 and tekkes and mosques , of which 13 were functional in 1945 . Only Gjirokastër Mosque has survived ; the remaining 12 were destroyed or closed during the Cultural Revolution of the communist government in 1967 .
The city is home to a diocese of the Eastern Orthodox Church , part of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania .
17th @-@ century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi , who visited the city in 1670 , described the city in detail . One Sunday , Çelebi heard the sound of a vajtim , the traditional Albanian lament for the dead , performed by a professional mourner . The traveller found the city so noisy that he dubbed Gjirokastër the " city of wailing " .
The novel Chronicle in Stone by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare tells the history of this city during the Italian and Greek occupation in World War I and II , and expands on the customs of the people of Gjirokastër . At the age of twenty @-@ four , Albanian writer Musine Kokalari wrote an 80 @-@ page collection of ten youthful prose tales in her native Gjirokastrian dialect : As my old mother tells me ( Albanian : Siç me thotë nënua plakë ) , Tirana , 1941 . The book tells the day @-@ by @-@ day struggles of women of Gjirokastër , and describes the prevailing mores of the region .
Gjirokastër , home to both Albanian and Greek polyphonic singing , is also home to the National Folklore Festival ( Albanian : Festivali Folklorik Kombëtar ) that is held every five years . The festival started in 1968 and was most recently held in 2009 , its ninth season . The festival takes place on the premises of Gjirokaster Fortress . Gjirokaster is also where the Greek language newspaper Laiko Vima is published . Founded in 1945 , it was the only Greek @-@ language printed media allowed during the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania .
= = Landmarks = =
The city is built on the slope surrounding the citadel , located on a dominating plateau . Although the city 's walls were built in the third century and the city itself was first mentioned in the 12th century , the majority of the existing buildings date from 17th and 18th centuries . Typical houses consist of a tall stone block structure which can be up to five stories high . There are external and internal staircases that surround the house . It is thought that such design stems from fortified country houses typical in southern Albania . The lower storey of the building contains a cistern and the stable . The upper storey is composed of a guest room and a family room containing a fireplace . Further upper stories are to accommodate extended families and are connected by internal stairs . Since Gjirokastër 's membership to UNESCO , a number of houses have been restored , though others continue to degrade .
Many houses in Gjirokastër have a distinctive local style that has earned the city the nickname " City of Stone " , because most of the old houses have roofs covered with flat dressed stones . A very similar style can be seen in the Pelion district of Greece . The city , along with Berat , was among the few Albanian cities preserved in the 1960s and 1970s from modernizing building programs . Both cities gained the status of " museum town " and are UNESCO World Heritage sites .
Gjirokastër Fortress dominates the town and overlooks the strategically important route along the river valley . It is open to visitors and contains a military museum featuring captured artillery and memorabilia of the Communist resistance against German occupation , as well as a captured United States Air Force plane , to commemorate the Communist regime 's struggle against the imperialist powers . Additions were built during the 19th and 20th centuries by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the government of King Zog I of Albania . Today it possesses five towers and houses a clock tower , a church , water fountains , horse stables , and many more amenities . The northern part of the castle was turned into a prison by Zog 's government and housed political prisoners during the communist regime .
Gjirokastër features an old Ottoman bazaar which was originally built in the 17th century ; it was rebuilt in the 19th century after a fire . There are more than 500 homes preserved as " cultural monuments " in Gjirokastër today . The Gjirokastër Mosque , built in 1757 , dominates the bazaar .
When the town was first proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage list in 1988 , International Council on Monuments and Sites experts were nonplussed by a number of modern constructions which detracted from the old town 's appearance . The historic core of Gjirokastër was finally inscribed in 2005 , 15 years after its original nomination .
= = Climate = =
Gjirokastër is situated between the lowlands of western Albania and the highlands of the interior , and has thus a hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate , though , ( as is normal for Albania ) , much heavier rainfall than usual for this climate type .
= = Economy = =
Gjirokastër is principally a commercial center with some industries , notably the production of foodstuffs , leather , and textiles . Recently a regional agricultural market that trades locally produced groceries has been built in the city . Given the potential of southern Albania to supply organically @-@ grown products , and its relationship with Greek counterparts of the nearby city of Ioannina , it is likely that the market will dedicate itself to organic farming in the future . However , currently trademarking and marketing of such products are far from European standards . The Chamber of Commerce of the city , created in 1988 , promotes trade with the Greek border areas . As part of the financial support from Greece to Albania , the Hellenic Armed Forces built a hospital in the city .
In recent years , many traditional houses are being reconstructed and owners lured to come back , thus revitalizing tourism as a potential revenue source for the local economy . However , some houses continue to degrade from lack of investment , abandonment or inappropriate renovations as local craftsmen are not part of these projects . In 2010 , following the Greek economic crisis , the city was one of the first areas in Albania to suffer , since many Albanian emigrants in Greece are becoming unemployed and thus are returning home .
= = Education = =
The first school in the city , a Greek language school , was erected in the city in 1663 . It was sponsored by local merchants and functioned under the supervision of the local bishop . In 1821 , when the Greek War of Independence broke out , it was destroyed , but it was reopened in 1830 . In 1727 a madrasa started to function in the city , and it worked uninterruptedly for 240 years until 1967 , when it was closed due to the Cultural Revolution applied in communist Albania . In 1861 – 1862 a Greek language school for girls was founded , financially supported by the local Greek benefactor Christakis Zografos . The first Albanian school in Gjirokastër was opened in 1886 . Today Gjirokastër has seven grammar schools , two general high schools ( of which one is the Gjirokastër Gymnasium ) , and two professional ones .
The city is home to the Eqrem Çabej University , which opened its doors in 1968 . The university has recently been experiencing low enrollments , and as a result the departments of Physics , Mathematics , Biochemistry , and Kindergarten Education did not function during the 2008 – 2009 academic year . In 2006 , the establishment of a second university in Gjirokastër , a Greek @-@ language one , was agreed upon after discussions between the Albanian and Greek governments . The program had an attendance of 35 students as of 2010 , but was abruptly suspended when the University of Ioannina in Greece refused to provide teachers for the 2010 school year and the Greek government and the Latsis foundation withdrew funding .
= = Sports = =
Football ( soccer ) is popular in Gjirokastër : the city hosts Luftëtari Gjirokastër , a club founded in 1929 . The club has competed in international tournaments and played in the Albanian Superliga until 2006 – 2007 . Currently the team plays in the Albanian First Division . The soccer matches are played in Gjirokastër Stadium , which can hold up to 8 @,@ 500 spectators .
= = Demographics = =
The town has 43 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Gjirokastër is home to an ethnic Greek community that according to one source numbered about 4000 in 1989 , although Greek spokesmen have claimed that up to 34 % of the town is Greek . Gjirokastër is considered the center of the Greek community in Albania . Given the large Greek population in the town and surrounding area , there is a Greek consulate in the town .
= = Transport = =
Gjirokastër is served by the SH4 Highway , which connects it to Tepelenë in the north and the Dropull region and Greek border 30 km ( 19 mi ) to the south .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Gjirokastër is twinned with :
Sarandë , Albania
= = Notable people = =
= = Gallery = =
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= Giant Schnauzer =
The Giant Schnauzer is a working breed of dog developed in the 17th century in Germany . It is the largest of the three breeds of Schnauzer — the other two breeds being the Standard Schnauzer and the Miniature Schnauzer . Numerous breeds were used in its development , including the black Great Dane , the Bouvier des Flandres , and the German Pinscher . Originally bred to assist on farms by driving livestock to market and guarding the farmer 's property , the breed eventually moved into the city , where it worked guarding breweries , butchers ' shops , stockyards and factories . It was unknown outside of Bavaria until it became popular as a military dog during World War I and World War II .
They have dense coarse coat that protects them from the weather and from vermin . Giant Schnauzers come in two color patterns : Solid black , and a color known as pepper and salt , with banded hairs of alternating white and black , appearing gray hairs at a distance . Where legal , they are shown with cropped ears and docked tails . Like other schnauzers , they have a distinct beard and eyebrows . Today , the Giant Schnauzer participates in numerous dog sports , including Schutzhund . It is also used as a police dog .
= = History = =
The first Giant Schnauzers emerged from Swabia in the German state of Bavaria , and Württemberg in the 17th century . These original Giant Schnauzers were considered a rough @-@ coated version of the German pinscher breeds , and their hair was thought to help them withstand the harsh German winters and bites from vermin . The origins of the breed are unclear , but sources speculate it originated through some combination of black Great Danes , German Shepherds , Rottweilers , Dobermans , Boxers , Bouvier des Flandres , Thuringian Shepherds , and the Standard Schnauzer .
The Giant Schnauzer was originally bred as a multipurpose farm dog for guarding property and driving animals to market . By the turn of the 20th century the Giant Schnauzer was being used as a watchdog at factories , breweries , butcheries , and stockyards throughout Bavaria . It was unknown outside Bavaria until it was used as a military dog in World War I and World War II . The first Giant Schnauzers were imported to America in the 1930s , but they remained rare until the 1960s , when the breed became popular . In 1962 , there were 23 new Giant Schnauzers registered with the American Kennel Club ; in 1974 this number was 386 ; in 1984 it was over 800 and in 1987 it was around 1000 animals . In 2012 , there were 94 new dogs registered , down from 95 in 2011 .
In modern times , the Giant Schnauzer is used as a police dog ; is trained for obedience , dog agility , herding , search and rescue , and schutzhund ; and is shown in conformation shows . They are also used for carting . In Europe , the breed is considered to be more of a working dog than a show dog . The focus in many European Schnauzer clubs is not so much on conformation shows , but on the working ability of the breed . In several countries , including Germany , dogs must achieve a Schutzhund Champion title before they can qualify to be a conformation champion .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Although the Giant Schnauzer is called ' Giant ' , this is not in comparison to other large dog breeds such as the Great Dane or the Rottweiler , but instead in comparison to the Standard and Miniature Schnauzers . The AKC breed standard calls for males to stand from 25 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 5 inches ( 65 to 70 cm ) at the withers , and for females to stand from 23 @.@ 5 to 25 @.@ 5 inches ( 60 to 65 cm ) . Giant Schnauzers are square in shape , and should resemble a larger version of the Standard Schnauzer . The tail is long and the ears are small button ears carried high on the head . Where it is legal , it is possibly docked and the ears cropped .
The head is 1 / 2 the length of the dog 's back , when the back is measured from the withers to the base of the tail . The cheeks are flat , but well muscled . The coat is dense , wiry , and weather resistant . The fur on the Giant Schnauzer 's face forms a distinct " beard " and eyebrows . Its stride is long and crisp .
Giant Schnauzers come in two colors : solid black , and a pattern called pepper and salt , where banded hairs of black and white hairs cover the body , giving it the appearance of having been peppered and salted .
= = = Temperament = = =
Giant Schnauzers are usually a quiet breed . Due to its breeding , the Giant Schnauzer is inherently suspicious of strangers and can be very territorial . Once introduced , it is usually accepting of novel people or situations . It has the potential to be aggressive , but Giant Schnauzers are usually reserved - they are " amiable in repose , and a commanding figure when aroused "
Giant Schnauzers have been described as trustworthy with children . They are very intelligent , and can become bored easily . They are also very energetic and highly spirited , which , when coupled with boredom , can lead to unwanted and destructive behavior . They are easily trained , and deeply loyal to their owner . Some breeders believe that pepper and salt colored Giant Schnauzers are more docile than their black @-@ furred counterparts .
= = Health = =
Giant Schnauzers require regular grooming . Their beard can collect drool and food particles , making frequent cleanings essential . If being shown , their coat needs to be stripped every two to four weeks . If they are simply a companion animal , the coat can be clipped instead . Some Giant Schnauzers have an allergy to shampoo .
Hip and elbow dysplasia are common . Giant Schnauzers are also prone to eye problems such as keratoconjunctivitis sicca , glaucoma , cataracts , multifocal retinal dysplasia , and generalized progressive retinal atrophy . They are also prone to skin diseases , such as seasonal flank alopecia , vitiligo , and follicular cysts . Cancer of the skin is common in dark @-@ colored dogs , with the most frequently occurring varieties being melanoma of the limbs and digits , and squamous cell carcinoma of the digit . This susceptibility occurs because melanoma is caused by a defect in the melanocytes , the cells that darken the color of the skin . Noncancerous skin tumors are also common .
Some Giant Schnauzers develop central diabetes insipidus , autosomal recessive hypothyroidism , selective malabsorption of cobalamin , narcolepsy , cataplexy , and various seizure disorders . Some are also sensitive to sulphonamides and gold . Bone diseases and joint problems are also an issue . The most common causes of death in Giant Schnauzers are lymphoma and liver cancer , followed by heart attacks and heart failure .
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= Inchoate offences in English law =
Inchoate offences in English law are offences in England and Wales that cover illegal acts which have yet to be committed , primarily attempts to commit crimes , incitement to commit crimes , and conspiracy to commit crimes . Attempts , governed by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 , are defined as situations where an individual who intends to commit an offence does an act which is " more than merely preparatory " in the offence 's commission . Traditionally this definition has caused problems , with no firm rule on what constitutes a " more than merely preparatory " act , but broad judicial statements give some guidance . Incitement , on the other hand , is an offence under the common law , and covers situations where an individual encourages another person to engage in activities which will result in a criminal act taking place , and intends for this act to occur . As a criminal activity , incitement had a particularly broad remit , covering " a suggestion , proposal , request , exhortation , gesture , argument , persuasion , inducement , goading or the arousal of cupidity " . It was abolished by the Serious Crime Act 2007 , but continues in other offences and as the basis of the new offence of " encouraging or assisting " the commission of a crime .
Conspiracy is both a statutory and common law offence . In its statutory form , under the Criminal Law Act 1977 , it consists of any agreement between two or more people to commit a criminal offence . Common law conspiracy , on the other hand , covers " conspiracy to defraud " and " conspiracy to corrupt public morals " , although the latter has no substantive case law and is not seen as an offence that individuals are likely to be prosecuted for . All three inchoate offences require a mens rea of intent , and upon conviction , the defendant is sentenced as if they had succeeded in committing the attempted , incited or conspired crime in question .
= = Definition = =
Inchoate means " just begun " or " undeveloped " , and is used in English criminal law to refer to situations where , although a substantial offence has not been committed , the defendant has taken steps to commit it , or encouraged others to do so . These situations are generally divided into three categories ; attempts , where the defendant has taken steps " towards carrying out a complete crime " , incitement , where the defendant has encouraged others to commit a crime , and conspiracy , where the defendant has agreed with others to commit a crime . In each case , the defendant " has not himself performed the actus reus but is sufficiently close to doing so , or persuading others to do so , for the law to find it appropriate to punish him " .
= = Offences = =
= = = Attempt = = =
Attempts are governed by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 , which states that " if , with intent to commit an offence to which [ the act applies ] , a person does an act which is more than merely preparatory to the commission of the offence , he is guilty of attempting to commit the offence " . A required element is intent , or mens rea . In R v Pearman , the Court of Appeal of England and Wales confirmed that the definition of intent in the 1981 Act is the same as the definition in the common law . The common law gives intention " its normal meaning : purpose or aim " , with judges advised not to , in the majority of cases , attempt to complicate the definition . Conditional intent – where somebody has an intent to commit a crime only in certain circumstances – has also been deemed acceptable for an indictment for attempting a crime . In Attorney @-@ General 's Reference ( Nos. 1 and 2 of 1979 ) , the Court of Appeal explained that the intention to steal " anything that was worth stealing could form the basis of an attempt charge if the indictment was drafted carefully " . This was a procedural solution to a previous apparent contradiction , but the suggested drafting may not demonstrate sufficient proximity between the defendant 's actions and what he was planning to steal . A mens rea requirement is added to the attempt of crimes of strict liability ( where there is no intent or merely objective recklessness ) , although the ruling in Attorney General 's Reference ( No. 3 of 1992 ) makes this less certain .
Section 1 ( 1 ) also provides that the actus reus must be " more than merely preparatory " . In practice , academic Jonathan Herring notes that " there is no hard and fast rule about when an act may be more than merely preparatory " , although there are several cases which give broad guidance . In R v Geddes , a man entered the toilets in a school in Brighton with a large knife , some rope and a roll of masking tape ; it was alleged that he was intending to kidnap a pupil . The Court of Appeal confirmed that this was not enough for a conviction . However , certain general rules have been laid down ; if the defendant has committed the last act before completing his offence , it constitutes an attempt , as in R v Jones . This is not , however , necessary in all situations , as in R v Gullefer . The actus reus of the full offence is also taken into account ; in R v Toothill , the defendant was charged with attempted burglary after trespassing into the victim 's garden and knocking on their door . He was found guilty , because he had entered the property – the actus reus for burglary – and his actions were thus more than merely preparatory . The wording " does an act " prevents liability for omissions , a distinction that the Law Commission has looked to remove , at least in the case of attempted murder .
Certain things cannot be attempted . These include conspiracy , under section 1 ( 4 ) of the 1981 Act , assisting a criminal , under section 4 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Law Act 1967 , aiding in the commission of an offence , or most summary offences , with the logic being that they are too minor for attempts to justify a criminal conviction . A small number of separate statutory offences have been created to cover attempts concerning individual summary offences , in which case , usual attempt law and procedure applies .
If someone is found guilty of an attempt , they are sentenced under section 4 ( 1 ) of the 1981 Act . This provides that anyone who attempts to commit an offence will be punished with the same period in prison as if they had succeeded ; since theft carries a maximum penalty of seven years in prison , for example , someone convicted of attempted theft would also find themselves sentenced to a maximum of seven years .
= = = Encouraging or assisting = = =
The offences of " encouraging or assisting a crime " under the Serious Crime Act 2007 are inchoate offences . In each case , the actus reus requirement is that the defendant carry out an act capable of " encouraging or assisting " the commission of another offence . An offence is committed under section 44 , if this is done with intent to do the same ; under section 45 if it is done " believing that the offence will be committed and that the act will encourage or assist its commission " ; or under section 46 where there are multiple possible offences being encouraged or assisted , and at least one is foreseen . There is no need for the defendant to have successfully communicated his thoughts to anyone else . Since this is very wide , the courts will have to narrow it by some criterion , probably by reference to the remoteness of the encouragement to the crime . Failing to act when under a duty to do so would also qualify .
" Encouraging " is not defined in the statute and can be considered in the same way as the previous crime of incitement . It does not matter if the encouragement or assistance has no effect . " Assisting " is likely to be considered similar to " aiding " in accessorial liability . Assistance can be provided indirectly , for example through a third person .
Whereas incitement can only be committed when the defendant incites the principal offender , the crime of " encouraging or assisting " includes helping an accessory . Whilst a section 44 offence can be committed in relation to other inchoate offences ( including itself ) , sections 45 and 46 cannot . Crimes which are , in fact rather than law , impossible to commit yet – but will be – also fall under this offence .
In terms of mens rea , any form of recklessness , including virtual certainty , is insufficient for an offence under Section 44 , in part due to the existence of Section 45 and 46 which aid its interpretation . Offences under Sections 45 and 46 are only committed if the defendant believes that both the crime will be committed , and that the act will encourage or assist the offender : that they might do so is not enough . However , it is also possible to commit these offences if the defendant commits an act capable of encouraging or assisting the commission of a crime , intending or believing that the principal offender would carry out the " act " , where that may not in itself constitute a crime . However , it is necessary that the defendant intend or be reckless to any required circumstances or consequences – for example , that death was a result . Additionally , the prosecution must show that the defendant believed that ( or was reckless to ) whether the act would be done with the required mens rea , or that the defendant himself has the required mens rea for the offence . These amount to very complex provisions .
There is no defence of later withdrawing from the act ; however , there is one of " acting reasonably " under Section 50 . This takes two forms : either that the acts themselves were reasonable ; or that the defendant reasonably believed in circumstances which did not exist and acted reasonably under those circumstances . The existence of this defence has been attacked by Andrew Simester and Bob Sullivan on the grounds it may be acting as a " sop " to counteract excess brevity in other sections of the act . Victims are extended the " Tyrell " defence – that one cannot aid , abet , counsel or procure an offence against oneself – although exactly when a victim is protected can be unclear .
= = = Incitement = = =
The common law offence of inciting the commission of another offence was abolished on 1 October 2008 , except in relation to offences committed wholly or partly before that date . However , the language of incitement is retained in other statutory offences , such as inciting a child under 13 to engage in sexual activity contrary to section 8 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 . The same rules are applied in these cases as the existing body of law on incitement .
The Court of Appeal considers incitement to consist of a situation in which a defendant " incites another to do or cause to be done an act or acts which , if done , will involve the commission of the offence or offences by the other ; and he intends or believes that the other , if he acts as incited , shall or will do so with the fault required for the offence or offences " . Unlike attempts , incitement is a common law offence . Incitement has a particularly broad actus reus ; it has been interpreted to include " a suggestion , proposal , request , exhortation , gesture , argument , persuasion , inducement , goading or the arousal of cupidity " . While it must include an act of incitement , this can be both express and implied . For an offence to be committed , the incited act must be criminal in nature , and an offence not only for the person doing the incitement but the person incited . Some exceptions are made ; under section 5 ( 7 ) of the Criminal Law Act 1977 , incitement to conspire is not an offence , and incitement to an aid or attempt are similarly not specifically given as criminal acts . In terms of mens rea , the defendant must have intended the incited offence to be committed , and also be aware of the likely consequences . It has been suggested that intent should not be necessary ; if the defendant knew that his advice would be followed , and this would result in a crime , he should be found guilty .
= = = Conspiracy = = =
Statutory conspiracy consists of an agreement between two or more people to commit a criminal offence , under section 5 ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) of the 1977 Act . For statutory conspiracies , there must be three elements : an agreement , to pursue a course of conduct which involves the commission of a crime , where the parties to the agreement intended to commit the crime . Even if the parties later decide not to go through with the plan , since the actus reus is to reach an agreement , they can still be charged . There are certain categories of agreement which cannot amount to a criminal conspiracy , however ; an agreement between a husband and wife is not a conspiracy , under section 2 ( 2 ) ( a ) of the 1977 Act , and neither is an agreement with a person under the age of criminal responsibility , or with the intended victim of the crime .
There is no need , under Churchill v Walton , to show that the conspirators knew that their proposed course of conduct amounted to a crime , but they must have intended the consequences ; if two people conspire to put poison in the victim 's tea , this is not a conspiracy to murder unless the poison was intended to kill the victim . The defendants will similarly not be found guilty if they are unaware that a crime will result ; if two people agree to grow plants , unaware that the plants are illegal , they have not engaged in a conspiracy . On the other hand , if the two people believe the plants to be illegal even though they are not , they could be found guilty .
Common law conspiracies , on the other hand , fall into two categories ; " conspiracy to defraud " and " conspiracy to corrupt public morals " . A third category which existed at the time of the 1977 Act , " conspiracy to outrage public decency " , has now become a statutory offence . Indeed , corrupting public morals may have become a statutory offence ; the situation is unclear . The standard definition of a conspiracy to defraud was provided by Lord Dilhorne in Scott v Metropolitan Police Commissioner , when he said that
it is clearly the law that an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to deprive a person of something which is his or to which he is or would be entitled and an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to injure some proprietary right of his , suffices to constitute the offence of conspiracy to defraud .
Conspiracy to defraud therefore contains two key elements ; that the conspiracy involved dishonesty , and that if the conspiracy was undertaken , the victim 's property rights would be harmed . This does not require the defendants ' actions to directly result in the fraud ; in R v Hollinshead , the House of Lords held that producing devices designed to alter electricity meter readings constituted conspiracy to defraud , even though the actual fraud would be carried out by members of the public rather than the conspirators . In two situations , it will not even be necessary for the actions to directly lead to any kind of financial loss for the victim ; these are when the conspirators plan to deceive a person holding public office into acting counter to their duties , and when the conspirators know that their actions put the victim 's property at risk , even if the risk never materialises . Conspiracy to " corrupt public morals " has no definitive case law ; it is unknown whether or not it is a substantive offence , and Herring sees it as unlikely that conspirators will be prosecuted for this offence .
= = Defence of impossibility = =
Some exceptions are also made for " impossible attempts " , which are divided into legal impossibility , impossibility through ineptitude and physical impossibility . Cases of legal impossibility occur when the defendant attempts to do something which he believes to be illegal , which is in fact not ; this does not constitute a crime . This defence does , however , remain for common law conspiracies . Impossibility through ineptitude is where the defendant attempts to commit a crime with inadequate means , in which case he can be found guilty . However , prosecutors ' discretion is likely to be a factor , since some plans – for example murder through a voodoo doll – may be simply too removed from the attempted crime . Physical impossibility covers situations where not only is the action inadequate , but impossible ; an example is the attempted murder of ( or conspiracy to murder ) someone who is , in fact , already dead . Such actions are governed by section 1 ( 2 ) and 1 ( 3 ) of the 1981 Act , which provides that they do constitute a crime if the actions , were the facts of the case to be as the defendant believed them to be , would have led to a valid attempt ; as Herring states , " if the defendant believes he is dealing in illegal drugs he can be convicted of an attempted drug @-@ dealing offence , even if in fact what he is selling is chalk " . A plan which successfully comes to fruition without the offence the defendant intended coming to pass may also relieve the defendant of liability , although this ruling from Haughton v Smith has proved hard to distinguish from the abolition of other defences of impossibility .
= = Theory = =
As a general principle of the law , criminal liability is normally only imposed upon " a blameworthy actor who causes a prohibited harm " , and while those who attempt crimes may be blameworthy , it can be argued that there is no harm caused ; attempted burglary , for example , does not lead to anything being stolen . Many theorists who make the distinction between successful and failed attempts do still consider the defendant partially liable , for example advocating a lesser punishment . However , there have been two distinct counterarguments advanced against making such a distinction . The first is that when a crime is attempted , there is a harm , namely a threat to security . Individuals have the right to security , both of themselves and their property , and an attempt to commit a crime infringes on this right . The second is that , regardless of the harm principle , criminal liability for attempts can be justified in utilitarian terms . A person who tries to commit a crime has shown themselves to be dangerous , and must be restrained and rehabilitated to provide a deterrence for them and for others . Although a differing approach is taken in some United States jurisdictions , intervention can happen very early in a conspiracy and the defendants can still be held liable . The earlier the liability , the more controversial .
For conspiracy , the standard justification is the " group @-@ danger " rationale , which states that since the objective of the criminal law is to protect harm to the community , and the community is at more risk from a group of people with harmful intentions than an individual with those same intentions , conspiracies themselves must be made a crime . The criminalisation of incitement is justified with the argument that incitement constitutes an attempt at conspiracy ; the inciter 's objective is to persuade others to engage in criminal acts , with his knowledge and cooperation , and as such is " more dangerous than a direct attempt , because it may give rise to that cooperation among criminals which is a special hazard " .
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= Sigi Schmid =
Siegfried " Sigi " Schmid ( pronounced [ ˈziːkfʀiːt ˈziːɡiː ʃmiːt ] ; born March 20 , 1953 ) is a German @-@ American soccer coach who most recently coached Seattle Sounders FC in Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . Born in Tübingen , West Germany , he moved to the United States with his family when he was a child . He played college soccer from 1972 to 1975 at the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , where he was a starting midfielder in each of his four years . He coached his former college team , the UCLA Bruins , between 1980 and 1999 . During that period , he became one of the most successful collegiate coaches of all time , leading the Bruins to a record of 322 – 63 – 33 ( wins – losses – draws ) . The team made 16 consecutive playoff appearances from 1983 to 1998 , winning the national championship in 1985 , 1990 , and 1997 . Schmid also worked with US Soccer throughout the 1990s .
Schmid coached the Los Angeles Galaxy and the Columbus Crew in MLS , before becoming the head coach of Seattle Sounders FC in 2009 . Despite never having played soccer at a professional level , he has the most coaching wins in MLS history and was the recipient of the MLS Coach of the Year Award in 1999 and 2008 . Throughout his career , Schmid has received praise from critics for his ability to identify new talent . His defensive tactics are also highly regarded in the press and often cited as a factor in his success . However , their deployment in his final two seasons with Los Angeles led directly to the termination of his contract .
With a Bachelor of Economics degree from UCLA and a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Southern California , he was a Certified Public Accountant ( CPA ) before coaching full @-@ time . Schmid and his wife have four children , and he has a younger brother named Roland Schmid .
= = Early life = =
Sigi Schmid was born in Tübingen , West Germany , on March 20 , 1953 . At the age of four , he moved with his family to the United States ; they took up residence in Torrance , California , in 1962 . Schmid 's father , Fritz , a prisoner of war during World War II , worked at Pabst Brewing ; his mother , Doris , ran a Los Angeles @-@ based German deli , where Schmid worked on weekends . Schmid 's family spoke German at home , making him feel German despite spending so much of his life in America . He began school in the United States with little understanding of English and a stuttering speech disorder he did not overcome until high school . In his youth , Schmid visited Germany every summer , playing soccer with the local children and watching Bundesliga clubs play exhibition matches in neighboring towns . In 1964 , Schmid played for the inaugural American Youth Soccer Organization team , an achievement for which he was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame in 1996 .
Despite Schmid 's early soccer experience , his parents thought a career in the sport was unfeasible and encouraged him to pursue business . He enrolled at UCLA in 1972 and was a starting midfielder for the UCLA Bruins from 1972 to 1975 . In his first two seasons , the Bruins were national runners @-@ up in the championships , and advanced to the national semifinals in 1974 . In his senior year , Schmid was selected to the 1975 All Far @-@ West team . Schmid completed his playing career at UCLA ranked 11th in all @-@ time assists at the school .
He received his Bachelor of Economics degree in 1976 before earning a Master of Business Administration from the University of Southern California . Between 1978 and 1984 , he worked eight months of the year as a Certified Public Accountant ( CPA ) .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = UCLA and US Soccer = = =
Schmid 's first coaching experience was in 1975 for Bishop Montgomery High School . He also founded and coached a small club called the South Bay Vikings . Between 1977 and 1979 , he served as an assistant coach under Steve Gay at UCLA . Schmid took over as head coach after Gay left the position in 1980 . He began focusing solely on coaching before the 1984 season and was named " Coach of the Year " by the magazine Soccer America . UCLA then won the 1985 NCAA Division I championship by defeating American University 1 – 0 after eight periods of overtime . In his first 10 years as coach , the Bruins won or tied 85 percent of their games .
The Bruins won the 1990 national championship by defeating Rutgers 4 – 3 on penalty kicks after a scoreless regulation , two sessions of overtime , and another two periods of sudden @-@ death . During the 22 @-@ game season , UCLA outscored their opponents 61 – 16 . The team continued to thrive in the following season , part of their success coming from Schmid 's decision to move Cobi Jones from a midfield position to forward . Jones later played for Schmid in the MLS and became a top player for the national team . Schmid was named the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation Coach of the Year for three years straight ( 1995 – 97 ) , and NCAA Coach of the Year in 1997 after UCLA defeated the University of Virginia to win a third NCAA championship . A reporter for the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch wrote that after winning just two titles in 17 postseason appearances , UCLA had finally shed " its ' underachiever ' label " . The writer also applauded Schmid 's decision to move the team 's leading striker into a midfield position which led to the player scoring the winning goal .
Schmid spent 19 seasons as the head coach at UCLA , accumulating a record of 322 – 63 – 33 ( wins – losses – draws ) , and reaching 16 consecutive playoffs between 1983 and 1998 . He earned a reputation for producing some of the nation 's best goalkeepers when David Vanole , Brad Friedel , and Matt Reis came through the university . By 1994 , he had coached 16 players at UCLA who were later selected for the US national team . Schmid avoided recruiting foreign talent to bolster his squad . He relied mainly on players from California , whom he believed to be less physically aggressive but more creative and attacking .
While coaching at UCLA , Schmid began to work with the US national team . He was the assistant coach at the 1991 World University Games and traveled with the team to Germany in the fall of 1992 . In January 1993 , he was selected as an assistant to Bora Milutinović for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , during which five of Schmid 's UCLA players appeared for the national team . He continued as an assistant during the 1995 Pan American Games . After being appointed US Under @-@ 20 national team coach in January 1998 , Schmid built his squad around defensive tactics . The team achieved second place in their group during the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship , defeating England and Cameroon , but were eliminated by the eventual champions Spain in the opening knockout round . Schmid returned to coach the U @-@ 20 national team at the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship . The US won the group in the opening stage of the tournament without conceding a goal , but lost to Italy in the first round of the knockout stage . One of the forwards on the national team , Eric Wynalda , said that Schmid 's organization on the field was disciplined . Wynalda commented that Schmid had a " great handle on the defensive side of the game " while he also admired that the strikers were allowed to be creative . Schmid was inducted into the UCLA Hall of Fame in 2004 after working with UCLA , the national team , and the Los Angeles Galaxy .
= = = LA Galaxy = = =
Schmid left UCLA to replace Octavio Zambrano as head coach of the Los Angeles Galaxy five games into the 1999 MLS season . At the time , the team was ranked fifth in the Western Conference with a tally of only three goals . Under Schmid in the remainder of the season , the team had a record of 17 – 9 , finished with the second @-@ best record in the league and won their conference , earning him the MLS Coach of the Year Award . The team 's captain , Robin Fraser , gave credit to Schmid 's emphasis on defense after being named the MLS defender of the year . Los Angeles lost 2 – 0 to D.C. United in that year 's MLS Cup . Schmid made critical comments of the referees after the match ; he received a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine and suspension for the first game of the following season .
In 2000 , Schmid guided Los Angeles to the playoffs but lost in the semifinals to the Kansas City Wizards . The team also played in that year 's CONCACAF Champions ' Cup , a competition consisting of the best clubs from North America , Central America , and the Caribbean . The Galaxy defeated the Honduran champion Olimpia 3 – 2 to win the Cup . Schmid was forced to play an atypical squad since the final was held during the MLS off @-@ season while adjustments to the following season 's lineup were being made .
His successful team of 2001 enjoyed attacking play . The squad included experienced players such as Cobi Jones , Sasha Victorine , Luis Hernández , Simon Elliott , and Mauricio Cienfuegos . The Galaxy won the conference by two points and finished fourth overall with a 14 – 7 – 5 record . The team went on to lose to the San Jose Earthquakes in the MLS Cup , but won the US Open Cup a week later with a 2 – 1 overtime victory against the New England Revolution .
Success followed in 2002 when the Galaxy won the Supporters ' Shield for having the best regular season record in the league . Schmid was lauded for his defensive tactics after adjusting the team 's standard formation to a 3 – 5 – 2 early in the season . The shift allowed Alexi Lalas to play as a sweeper without specific marking responsibilities in the three @-@ man defensive line . Schmid also brought Guatemalan forward Carlos Ruiz to the team ; Ruiz won league Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) award that year . Amidst criticism for failing to win in previous years , the franchise won its first MLS Cup with a 1 – 0 overtime victory against New England . The team again reached the Open Cup final but lost to the Columbus Crew .
Victory in the MLS Cup earned the team another berth in the 2003 CONCACAF Champions ' Cup . Los Angeles advanced past Motagua in the first round but fell against Necaxa in the quarterfinals . In MLS , the club had its first losing season with a 9 – 12 – 9 record and no victories on the road . The Galaxy failed to score goals consistently during the year , managing only a fourth @-@ place finish in the five @-@ team Western Conference . In the first round of the playoffs , Los Angeles defeated San Jose 2 – 0 in the first leg , but during the second leg , conceded five goals in the second half of the match and were eliminated . Schmid was criticized by fans and the press speculated he would not return in 2004 . A local writer put some of the blame on a switch to defensive style of play while some players questioned his tactics . After it was announced that he would remain in his role next season , Schmid expected a year of rebuilding the team . The following year , he was picked to coach the Western Conference in the All @-@ Star game . Midway through the season , with the Galaxy in first place , Schmid was fired after a five @-@ game stretch without any wins , in which the team scored only three goals . General manager Doug Hamilton said that the team had a mission " to compete for and win championships " , and that " a more entertaining and attractive product on the field . " was needed . Schmid left with an overall record of 79 – 53 – 32 with a 16 – 7 – 3 mark in the playoffs .
Reflecting on his demeanor in Los Angeles , Lalas said Schmid had " epic explosions " . One reporter called him " combustible " , while another referred to him as " fiery " . Lalas also commented that playing for Schmid in Los Angeles required professionalism on and off the field .
= = = Columbus Crew = = =
Schmid returned to the league as coach of the Columbus Crew in 2006 , rated by the team 's general manager Mark McCullers as " the best coach in America " . The team contained young talent but lacked depth and had no star players . In August , after a streak of 13 winless matches , Schmid considered resigning . The team suffered from injuries and inconsistent lineups throughout the season , finishing last in the Eastern Conference with just 30 goals , the lowest in the league .
By the start of 2007 , Schmid had rebuilt the roster , keeping only three players he had inherited and acquiring Argentine attacker Guillermo Barros Schelotto . Schmid cut the Crew 's goalkeeper , Jon Busch , who had been with the team for five years . Schmid had concerns over Busch 's playing style and fitness . Busch later criticised Schmid 's management skills , and said he would never work for the coach again , but gave credit to Schmid 's tactical approach . Scheletto 's contributions were crucial to Columbus 's improvement that season , but the team failed to make the playoffs . A writer for ESPN speculated that the Crew suffered because the team management would not spend more money , while Schmid lamented that he could not attract a foreign star to the little @-@ known city of Columbus .
The Crew 's performance improved remarkably in the 2008 season . Schmid adjusted their offensive tactics to be based on ball possession and flank speed . He made Schelotto a central part of the plan in a roaming playmaker position , a role in which Schelotto excelled and the Argentinian was named the league 's MVP . With a 1 – 0 victory over the Houston Dynamo at Crew Stadium on April 26 , Schmid became the second MLS coach to win 100 regular @-@ season games . The Crew went on to win the Supporters ' Shield with the best record in the league . In the playoffs , Columbus defeated the New York Red Bulls 3 – 1 at Schmid 's former home stadium , Los Angeles 's Home Depot Center , to win the MLS Cup . Schmid received the Coach of the Year Award for the second time . Part of the success was attributed to Schmid 's restructuring of the squad in 2006 and 2007 .
Schmid declined a contract offer from Columbus after the 2008 season and became coach of Seattle Sounders FC . The Crew 's ownership believed that Schmid had been in contact with Sounders FC despite being denied permission to talk to other teams during the season . It was also alleged that he shared confidential information with Seattle after his contract with the Crew had ended . The MLS ruled that no tampering had occurred , but ordered Sounders FC to financially compensate the Crew .
= = = Seattle Sounders FC = = =
Schmid was named the first coach of the new expansion franchise , Seattle Sounders FC . In their 2009 inaugural season , Seattle defeated D.C. United to win the US Open Cup . On October 24 , 2009 , Seattle defeated FC Dallas 2 – 1 , giving Schmid his 125th career MLS regular season win ; this win moved Schmid past Bob Bradley for the most wins in MLS history . He led Seattle to the playoffs where , in the first round , the Dynamo defeated the team 1 – 0 in overtime of the second leg . Seattle was the first expansion team to make the playoffs in an inaugural season since the 1998 Chicago Fire , when the league was just two years old .
The team began the 2010 MLS season slowly with injuries to key players that impacted Schmid 's starting lineups . The team had a record of 4 – 8 – 3 over the first 15 games . The Sounders also advanced through the preliminary round of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League but failed to get past the group stage . The 2010 US Open Cup campaign culminated in Schmid winning his third championship with a 2 – 1 victory over the Crew at Seattle 's Qwest Field . No MLS team had previously won back @-@ to @-@ back Open Cups . The Sounders rebounded in the second half of the regular season with a 10 – 2 – 3 record to qualify for the playoffs . The team faced Bruce Arena 's Galaxy in the two @-@ legged quarter @-@ final . Both coaches are considered to be among the best in the MLS , and it was the first meeting between the two in the playoffs . The Sounders lost by a 3 – 1 aggregate and Arena moved within one game of Schmid 's MLS postseason record of 19 wins .
In 2011 , Schmid 's Sounders FC had many setbacks and a slow start to the season ( the club won just 3 of its first 10 matches ) . Schmid signed a long @-@ term contract extension on July 14 , 2011 , which could keep him with the club through the 2015 MLS season . The extension is dependent on some club options and performance triggers . Although some fans had become frustrated with what they saw as tactical inflexibility and mismanagement of players , general manager Adrian Hanauer praised Schmid 's professionalism and success . The Sounders went on to finish the regular season with the second @-@ best record in the league at 18 wins , 9 draws , 7 losses , and qualified for the playoffs for a third consecutive year . Schmid again led his club to the final of the U.S. Open Cup tournament . They defeated the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 to become the first team since 1968 to win the tournament three times consecutively . Seattle also advanced to the knock @-@ out stages of the CONCACAF Champions League . However , in the MLS playoffs , Sounders FC was again eliminated from the MLS Cup playoffs in the conference semifinal round by Real Salt Lake .
In 2012 , Seattle lost in the 2 @-@ legged 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League quarter finals by an aggregate score of 7 – 3 to Santos Laguna . The Sounders advanced to the finals of the Open Cup where they were defeated by Sporting Kansas City after penalty kicks . Schmid was furious over what he saw as a controversial call that handed Kansas City the victory . The team finished the regular season with a 15 – 8 – 11 record to make the playoffs where they advanced past Real Salt Lake to reach the conference championship series against the Galaxy . The team played defensive and suffered a 3 – 0 blowout in the first leg . They won on the return leg but lost on aggregate .
The Sounders began the 2013 regular season without a win until their sixth match . After advancing through the early stages of the 2012 – 13 CONCACAF Champions League the year prior , Seattle lost in the semifinals to Santos Laguna . The team was knocked out of the 2013 Open Cup in their first match against the lower division Tampa Bay Rowdies . Seattle would rally during the middle of the season to put the Supporter 's Shield and the regional Cascadia Cup in reach . However , the team ended the season on a skid of seven matches without a win that included substantial losses to both Colorado and rival Vancouver . The Sounders beat Colorado in the knockout round of the 2013 MLS Cup Playoffs before losing two matches against arch @-@ rival Portland . At the end of the season , a poll in The Seattle Times showed that many fans wanted to see Schmid fired . Pundits speculated on the possibility of his termination based on what they saw as poor tactics , a history of mismanaging skilled players , and a fan base that had higher expectations . Owner Joe Roth held a post @-@ season meeting with Hanauer and Schmid . Roth later said that the possibility of Schmid losing his job was " close " , but instead opted for personnel changes to the squad .
After the collapse of the 2013 season , the coach met with Osvaldo Alonso , Clint Dempsey , and Evans since they were a core group of players . The group agreed on the aforementioned changes to the team . Starting striker Eddie Johnson was later traded while a new central defender , winger , midfielder , goalkeeper , and depth at the forward position were brought in . The team played 2014 with Dempsey and Obafemi Martins playing more through the middle as the Sounders won the US Open Cup and the Supporters Shield .
During the first half of the 2016 season , the Sounders failed to meet expectations , placing near the bottom of the league with 6 wins , 12 losses , and 12 draws . After a 3 – 0 loss on July 24 to Sporting Kansas City , in which the Sounders had only one shot , Schmid left the club on mutual terms and replaced by assistant coach Brian Schmetzer .
= = Personal life = =
Schmid lives in Bellevue , Washington , during the football season . He is married to Valerie and has four children : Erik , Lacey , Kurt , and Kyle . Kurt is currently the head scout for Sounders FC . Kyle played as a defender at UC Irvine and was in the USL Premier Development League with Orange County Blue Star . Kyle is now an assistant coach at Cal State Fullerton . Sigi has rarely missed game days in the MLS , but took time off for Lacey and Kurt 's weddings and Kurt 's college graduation . Schmid 's younger brother , Roland , lives in Sammamish , Washington , and having family in the area was one of the factors which persuaded Schmid to accept the job at Seattle . He also has a nephew and a niece named Graham and Mackenze .
= = Honors = =
= = = Individual = = =
National Soccer Hall of Fame : 2015
NCAA Coach of the Year : 1997
MLS Coach of the Year Award : 1999 , 2008
UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame inductee : 1996
= = = Managerial = = =
College Cup : 1985 , 1990 , 1997
CONCACAF Champions ' Cup : 2000
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup : 2001 , 2009 , 2010 2011 , 2014
MLS Supporters ' Shield : 2002 , 2008 , 2014
MLS Cup : 2002 , 2008
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= Michael Scott Paper Company =
" Michael Scott Paper Company " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 95th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 9 , 2009 .
In the episode , Michael , Pam and Ryan try to get their new paper company off the ground , but end up bickering among themselves due to the stress and cramped office space . Meanwhile , Jim tries to do a " rundown " for new boss Charles Miner without admitting he does not know what a rundown is , while Dwight and Andy compete for the affections of the new receptionist , Erin , played by Ellie Kemper .
The episode was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Gene Stupnitsky . It included a guest appearance by Idris Elba , who played new Dunder Mifflin vice president Charles Miner . The episode aired the same day as the Office episode " Dream Team " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . " Michael Scott Paper Company " included a new title sequence with footage of the series characters in the new Michael Scott Paper Company office setting , rather than the Dunder Mifflin setting from previous episodes . The episode received mostly positive reviews . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 8 million viewers and captured the most viewers in its time slot for adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . " Michael Scott Paper Company " received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) , Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , and Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) are struggling to adjust to the work environment of the new Michael Scott Paper Company . The office space used to be a closet ; water pipes run through the room , so they can hear the toilets flush from the Dunder Mifflin bathrooms above them . Ryan openly goofs off in front of Pam and Michael and insults both of them in their presence during phone conversations . Pam and Ryan bicker over who is responsible for making copies until Michael separates them into corners . Pam , who joined the company as a saleswoman , is given the corner where the photocopier sits . She is concerned that Michael will force her to be the receptionist , which is why she quit Dunder Mifflin in the first place . She goes upstairs and asks Charles Miner ( Idris Elba ) for her job back , but Charles has already given the job to a new employee , Kelly " Erin " Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) .
Michael hosts a pancake luncheon to introduce the company to potential clients , but only one person and the Dunder Mifflin employees show up . When Michael , Pam , and Ryan come close to giving up , the potential client from the luncheon calls asking for paper . Pam closes the sale and the three cheer in celebration .
In the Dunder Mifflin office , Charles asks Jim ( John Krasinski ) for a " rundown " of his client information . Jim does not know what a rundown is , but is too embarrassed to ask because he has been making such a poor impression with Charles . Jim spends much of the day trying to figure out what a rundown is , making several failed attempts to figure it out by chatting vaguely about it with Charles and other coworkers . When he finally finishes what he believes is a rundown , Charles does not look at it and simply asks Jim to fax it to everyone on the distribution list . Jim does not know what the distribution list is either , but rather than asking Charles , he simply faxes the rundown to his father .
Meanwhile , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy ( Ed Helms ) plan a hunting trip , but their new friendship is tested by their mutual romantic interest in Erin . Both make passes at her , but eventually agree their friendship is more valuable than a romantic interest . However , they end up trying simultaneously to impress Erin during a competitive duet of John Denver 's " Take Me Home , Country Roads " , with Andy on a banjo and Dwight playing guitar ; both sing , and Dwight sings part of the song in German . Erin is initially impressed with both of them , but winds up awkwardly sneaking out of the room as they play . The loud duet is finally stopped by a frustrated Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) . Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) is visibly annoyed by Dwight and Andy 's budding friendship .
= = Production = =
" Michael Scott Paper Company " was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Gene Stupnitsky . It originally aired April 9 , 2009 , the same day as the episode " Dream Team " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . " Michael Scott Paper Company " was the fourth of six episodes guest starring Idris Elba , best known as Stringer Bell from The Wire . Elba said he did not watch the episode after it aired because " I 'm hypercritical about my work , so I try not to torture myself . " According to the Season 5 DVD episode commentary , B.J. Novak came up with the story idea involving Jim and the " run @-@ down " and worked it into Spitzer 's final script . The episode included a new title sequence with footage of the series characters in the new Michael Scott Paper Company office setting , rather than the Dunder Mifflin setting from the previous episodes . Rainn Wilson and Ed Helms practiced the guitar competition in Ed Helms ' trailer during lunch the day of the filming ; Helms , a proficient bluegrass banjo player , coached Wilson , who is proficient at guitar and drums . Wilson said he proposed doing a full studio cover of the song , with Creed Bratton providing backup guitar and vocals , and selling it on iTunes for charity . Helms said he was happy to have the opportunity to play banjo on screen , but did not feel the instrument made much sense for his character ; Helms said , " It 's so fun and weird , but he 's a Connecticut preppy guy . How did he pick up a banjo ? It 's one of Andy 's many mysteries , not all of which I even understand . "
Prior to the episode 's airing , NBC set up a web site for the new Michael Scott Paper Company at www.michaelscottpapercompany.com , which included a mission statement for the company , photos of the new office space and a downloadable copy of the coupon for " unparalleled customer service " featured in the episode . The official website for The Office included four cut scenes from " Michael Scott Paper Company " within a week of the episode 's original release . In one 85 @-@ second clip , Dwight and Andy pretend to shoot , stab and throw grenades at each other in pantomime in anticipation of their hunting trip ; they pretend to kill Jim and pester him until he plays dead , after which Charles walks in and believes he is napping . A second one @-@ minute clip includes Pam and Ryan fighting around the new office until they are interrupted by a janitor who believes the room is still a closet and leaves water jugs on the floor . In a third , 40 @-@ second clip , Jim asks Charles directly what a " run @-@ down " is , but when an annoyed Charles asks if this is " one of your pranks " , Jim gives up and leaves . The fourth and final clip , which is 85 seconds long , features Andy and Dwight both making passes at Erin ; Andy discusses how easy it would be to learn sign language , while Dwight tells her to be careful not to get her hair or clothes caught in the nearby paper shredder .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight and Andy sing and perform the John Denver song " Take Me Home , Country Roads " while trying to impress the new receptionist . At one point , Toby is overheard through a vent discussing and praising the FX show Damages while on the phone in a bathroom . He said it is as good as anything on HBO , a premium television channel known for such shows as The Sopranos , Six Feet Under and The Wire . During the workday , Ryan watches a YouTube video of a rap music commercial for Flea Market Montgomery ; the low @-@ budget rap music advertisement for the Montgomery , Alabama flea market gained Internet fame . Michael uses Evite , social @-@ planning website for creating online invitations , to invite people to his pancake luncheon . On a whiteboard , Michael writes a quote of himself quoting Wayne Gretzky , the popular ice hockey player who said " You miss 100 % of the shots you don ’ t take " The new paper company office included Apple computers and a Nerf basketball hoop . During a phone conversation , Ryan said he wants an iPod music player that also serves as a phone , but not an iPhone , which is essentially that very product ; both items are Apple products . Michael listens to " Just Dance " , a Lady Gaga song , while driving his convertible to work , which he mistakes for a Britney Spears song . Near the end of the episode , when Andy states that every song sounds better a cappella , Dwight asks about the songs " Cherry Pie " by Warrant , " Enter Sandman " by Metallica and " Rebel Yell " by Billy Idol .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 9 , 2009 , " Michael Scott Paper Company " was watched by 8 million overall viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode earned more ratings than " Dream Team " , the other Office episode of the night , which had 7 @.@ 2 million viewers . It also performed better than the Parks and Recreation pilot , which ran between the two Office episodes and had 6 @.@ 8 million viewers . " Michael Scott Paper Company " , as well as " Dream Team " , had the most viewers in its time slot among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Travis Fickett of IGN said this and other recent episodes are " proving that the show has plenty of life in it and ( that ) The Office has still got it . " He said the funniest element of the show was the emerging " bro @-@ mance " between Dwight and Andy . Will Leitch of New York magazine said , " The Office kind of needed this sort of shake @-@ up , even if it ’ s something as simple as another room to put all our characters in . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said he liked the plot aspects involve the new company , particularly the pancake breakfast and the first successful sales call : " I know the series probably has to revert to something like the old status quo at some point , but I almost wish it could stay in that dank little corner a little longer . " Phipps , who gave the episode a B + grade , said the " rundown " subplot between Jim and Charles was a bit strained by the end . Steven Mullen of The Tuscaloosa News called the episode " stellar " and particularly praised the comedic chemistry between Andy and Dwight .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said he was enjoying the new paper company storyline , but that " Michael Scott Paper Company " was not as funny as " Dream Team " , which aired the same day . Sepinwall praised particular scenes such as Dwight and Andy 's competitive duet and Kelly 's plan to make Charles want her . She criticized the cramped new office space jokes as being less funny than those in previous episodes . Sepinwall also said the storyline between Jim and Charles was getting repetitive and , " It would help if the writers ever gave Idris Elba something funny to do . " Margaret Lions of Entertainment Weekly said , " This episode wasn 't one of my favorites ... No bombs , no bits that failed , and by The Office 's standards , nothing even particularly cringe worthy . But ' TMSPC ' is more groundwork than payoff . " She said Dwight 's rendition of " Take Me Home , Country Roads " in German was " the absolute funniest moment of the episode " .
In her list of the top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office , phillyBurbs.com writer Jen Wielgus ranked Michael 's formation of the Michael Scott Paper Company in the downstairs storage closet as the number one , citing the " Dream Team " , " Michael Scott Paper Company " and " Heavy Competition " episodes in particular . She also said she specifically enjoyed the paper @-@ shaped pancakes from " Michael Scott Paper Company " . " Michael Scott Paper Company " was voted the twelfth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 27 out of 10 .
This episode received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . " Michael Scott Paper Company " accounted for one of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations The Office received for the show 's fifth season at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which were held on September 20 , 2009 .
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= Tropical Storm Debby ( 2012 ) =
Tropical Storm Debby caused extensive flooding in North Florida and Central Florida during late June 2012 . The fourth tropical cyclone and named storm of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season , Debby developed from a trough of low pressure in the central Gulf of Mexico on June 23 . The formation into a tropical storm was the earliest formation on record of the fourth named storm within the Atlantic basin until this record was beaten by Tropical Storm Danielle in 2016 . Despite a projected track toward landfall in Louisiana or Texas , the storm headed the opposite direction , moving slowly north @-@ northeast and northeastward . The storm slowly strengthened , and at 1800 UTC on June 25 , attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Dry air , westerly wind shear , and upwelling of cold waters prevented further intensification over the next 24 hours . Instead , Debby weakened , and by late on June 26 , it was a minimal tropical storm . At 2100 UTC , the storm made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Once inland , the system continued to weaken while crossing Florida , and dissipated shortly after emerging into the Atlantic on June 27 .
The storm dropped immense amounts of precipitation near its path . Rainfall peaked at 28 @.@ 78 inches ( 731 mm ) in Curtis Mill , Florida , located in southwestern Wakulla County . The Sopchoppy River , which reached its record height , flooded at least 400 structures in Wakulla County . Additionally , the Suwannee River reached its highest level since Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Further south in Pasco County , the Anclote River and Pithlachascotee River overflowed , flooding communities with " head deep " water and causing damage to 106 homes . An additional 587 homes were inundated after the Black Creek overflowed in Clay County . Several roads and highways in North Florida were left impassable , including Interstate 10 and U.S. Route 90 . U.S. Routes 19 and 98 were also inundated by coastal flooding . In Central and South Florida , damage was primarily caused by tornadoes , one of which caused a fatality . Overall , Debby caused at least $ 250 million in losses and 10 deaths , 8 in Florida and 1 each in Alabama and South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
During mid @-@ June , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) made its annual migration northward into the southern Gulf of Mexico . Coinciding with a Madden – Julian oscillation , a weak surface low pressure area developed on June 19 , and subsequently moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula . While the system crossed the peninsula , a tropical wave moved through the northwestern Caribbean Sea on June 18 . The wave reached the Gulf of Mexico on June 20 and merged with the low a few days later , spawning a trough of low pressure on June 22 . Located in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , moderate vertical wind shear caused the system to remain disorganized . Nonetheless , Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft indicated that the trough acquired a low @-@ level circulation on June 23 , while ships in the area reported tropical storm force winds . Thus , it is estimated that Tropical Storm Debby developed at 1200 UTC on June 23 , centered about 290 miles ( 470 km ) south of mouth of the Mississippi River .
Becoming a tropical storm on June 23 , Debby became the earliest fourth named storm in the Atlantic basin , surpassing the old record set by Hurricane Dennis on July 5 , 2005 , however with 2016 's Danielle the record was beaten by three days . Initially , Debby was predicted to curve westward and potentially threaten Texas . A deepening trough would curve the storm westward , while wind shear was predicted to decrease . Although the storm generated very cold cloud tops , much of the convection was located more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the center and still displaced to the east . By 1200 UTC on June 24 , the forecast path was shifted from east @-@ central Texas to southeastern Louisiana . Despite persistent wind shear , Debby was strengthening and around that time , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Later on June 24 , the National Hurricane Center noted in its next advisory that this " is a very difficult and highly uncertain forecast " , citing Debby 's slow movement and widespread computer forecast models .
The forecast track for Debby was shifted significantly to the east late on June 24 , and it was predicted that the storm would move northward and make landfall near Panama City , Florida . Based on a dropsonde estimate , Debby attained its minimum barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on June 25 . However , the storm began to weaken due to increasing wind shear , drier air , and upwelling of cold water , caused by Debby 's slow movement . It was initially composed of multiple small swirls , but consolidated into one well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation by early on June 25 . Due to its excessively slow movement and no prediction for acceleration , the National Hurricane Center remarked that , " the cyclone does not seem to be going anywhere anytime soon . " A burst in deep convection occurred later on June 25 , though adverse environmental conditions prevented re @-@ intensification . Debby began curving east @-@ northeastward and began to speed up on June 26 , in response to a mid @-@ latitude trough digging into the western Atlantic Ocean . While approaching the Florida Big Bend , Debby produced only a small area of deep convection on satellite imagery .
At 2100 UTC June 26 , Debby made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm weakened quickly after moving inland , and by early on June 27 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression , while located about 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Gainesville , Florida . Debby maintained tropical cyclone status while crossing Florida , but degenerated into a trough of low pressure by 1800 UTC on June 27 . In the final advisory issued by the National Hurricane Center three hours later , the agency noted that Debby could eventually reacquire tropical characteristics . After its dissipation , however , the remnants did not regenerate into a tropical cyclone , but re @-@ developed a new center of circulation and strengthened slightly due to baroclinic conditions . As it accelerated northward , Debby 's remnants became increasingly frontal in nature , and once again degenerated into an open trough at 1800 UTC on June 30 ; at this time , the disturbance was located south of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
Upon development of Debby on June 23 , a tropical storm warning was issued from the mouth of the Pearl River to Morgan City , Louisiana , excluding New Orleans or Lake Pontchartrain . On the following day , a separate tropical storm warning was put into effect from the Mississippi and Alabama border to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River in Florida . At 1500 UTC on June 24 , the tropical storm warning was extended to the mouth of the Suwannee River . Simultaneously , a tropical storm watch was issued from the Suwannee River to Anclote Key . These were all canceled at 1500 UTC on June 25 , though a tropical storm warning was then implemented from Destin to Englewood , Florida . Early on June 26 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Mexico Beach to Englewood , Florida . By 2100 UTC that day , the tropical storm warning was extended to the mouth of Steinhatchee River in Florida . This was discontinued after Debby became a tropical depression .
Several additional preparations took place in addition to tropical cyclone warnings and watches . According to the Federal government of the United States , nearly 25 % of crude oil and natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico was shutdown . In Louisiana , Governor Bobby Jindal declared a state of emergency . On June 24 , voluntary evacuations were issued for several areas in northwest Florida during the approach of the storm , especially Taylor and Wakulla Counties . Governor of Florida Rick Scott also declared a state of emergency on June 25 . Additionally , mandatory evacuations were issued for St. George Island , Alligator Point , and other low @-@ lying areas of Franklin County .
= = Impact = =
Throughout the Southeastern United States , nine people were killed in relation to Tropical Storm Debby . Of these , seven took place in Florida and one each in Alabama and South Carolina . Throughout Central and South Florida , the outerbands of the storm spawned 13 tornadoes : five in Collier County , two in Glades County , one in Hardee County , two in Highlands County , one in Miami @-@ Dade County , and two in Palm Beach County . Overall , losses from the storm were estimated to have reached at least $ 250 million .
= = = Florida = = =
= = = = North Florida and Panhandle = = = =
Throughout June 25 , an intense complex of thunderstorms developed to the north of Debby 's center and produced torrential rains over the Florida Panhandle for much of the day . Many areas received rainfall in excess of 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . Precipitation peaked at 28 @.@ 78 inches ( 731 mm ) in Curtis Mill , which is located in Wakulla County . In Panacea , a Mesonet station recorded a 24 ‑ hour rainfall of 20 @.@ 63 inches ( 524 mm ) . Rainfall caused numerous small creeks , streams , and rivers to rapidly exceed their banks and flood adjacent communities . The Sopchoppy River crested at 36 @.@ 8 feet ( 11 @.@ 2 m ) , which was a record height . Numerous homes were flooded , some up to the second story . Two bridges were damaged , and numerous roads around the county were washed out or closed . Over 400 structures were affected by flooding , including more than 170 mobile homes and nearly 200 single @-@ family residences . Of these structures , 40 were destroyed , 61 had major flood damage , 41 suffered minor flood damage , and 271 were affected by flooding . Additionally , coastal flooding impacted the county , with a storm surge of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) and tides up 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) in St. Marks . Numerous roads were underwater and several area businesses received water intrusion in that city . U.S. Route 98 was over @-@ washed just north of St. Marks . As a result , mandatory evacuations were ordered south of U.S. Route 98 and around the Sopchoppy River . In total , 67 people required rescuing . Losses throughout the county were assessed at $ 9 @.@ 09 million .
The storm also produced adverse effects in Franklin County . In Apalachicola , a gust of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) was observed as well as 6 @.@ 03 inches ( 153 mm ) of rainfall on June 24 , resulting in widespread flash flooding . The John Gorrie Memorial Bridge connecting Apalachicola to Eastpoint was closed on June 24 due to high winds . A wind gust of 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) was reported at the Apalachicola Regional Airport . The St. George Island Bridge , a 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) bridge connecting Eastpoint to St. George Island over the Apalachicola Bay , was also closed on June 24 due to high winds . The bridge was opened later that day as both St. George Island and Alligator Point were put under a mandatory evacuation , requiring all people to leave immediately , and those remaining on the islands subject to arrest . St. George Island , a popular resort community and tourist destination , lost all power on June 24 due to high winds destroying three power poles in the Apalachicola Bay ; a Progress Energy spokesperson stated that it could be days before power was restored because the conditions are too unsafe for workers . In Bay County , moderate beach erosion occurred , with a storm surge reaching 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) and storm tide of 2 @.@ 42 feet ( 0 @.@ 74 m ) in Panama City . Flooding forced the closure of a few roads in Jefferson County , including U.S. Route 27 west of U.S. Route 19 .
In Madison County , one house was surrounded by in overflowing retention pond near the city of Madison . State Road 51 in Lafayette County flooded , caused by the Steinhatchee River exceeding its banks . In Dixie County , several roads north of Cross City experienced flooding , while water entered at least 40 homes along the Steinhatchee River . Moderate coastal flooding occurred in Horseshoe Beach , due to an estimated storm surge of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , with tides reaching 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal . Water entered several homes near the coast and surrounded outbuildings by up to 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) . In Columbia County , preliminary losses were placed in excess of $ 20 million as of July 3 and did not take into account hundreds of homes that remained flooded at the time . Several bridges were washed out due to the heavy rain ; both U.S. Route 319 and U.S. Route 98 were closed due to flooding . In Suwannee County , the Suwannee River at Live Oak reached its highest crest since Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Gainesville received its second @-@ highest daily rain total of 6 @.@ 95 inches ( 177 mm ) on June 24 . In Marion County , up to 10 @.@ 25 inches ( 260 mm ) of rain was reported near Fellowship . As a result , State Road 40 was closed due to high water . Additionally , as many as 52 sinkholes were reported to have formed along roadways in the county . Flooding also occurred in Duval County . The public reported that water entered a home on Rose Street in Jacksonville . Streets were flooded in Orange Park , and water approached the doors of houses , forcing some residents to evacuate . The St. Marys River reached historic heights and flooded a lot homes in Baker and Nassau Counties .
= = = = Central Florida = = = =
In Levy County , tropical storm force winds were felt along the coast . Heavy rainfall was reported across the county , with the CoCoRaHS site near Chiefland of receiving 13 @.@ 42 inches ( 341 mm ) . At Cedar Key , tides reached 6 @.@ 78 feet ( 2 @.@ 07 m ) mean lower low water on June 25 . The highest storm surge was estimated to have peaked at 4 @.@ 49 feet ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) mean lower low water . A few buildings were flooded by the storm surge at Cedar Key and Yankeetown . In total , damage to public property was approximately $ 175 @,@ 000 . Rainfall was generally above 9 inches ( 230 mm ) across Citrus County , and peaked at 12 @.@ 07 inches ( 307 mm ) near Hernando . Several homes were flooded with 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water . Significant street flooding was reported at Kings Bay , while several streets were inundated by up to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in Homosassa . Overall , damage was minor , reaching about $ 127 @,@ 000 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Hernando County , with 15 @.@ 53 inches ( 394 mm ) in Spring Hill . A portion of State Road 589 was shutdown between State Road 50 and U.S. Route 98 , with as much as 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water on that stretch of the highway . Along the Anclote and Pithlachascotee Rivers in Pasco County , emergency managers ordered mandatory evacuations for 14 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 people as the rivers rose dramatically . The Anclote River rose from 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) to 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , well above major flood stage , leaving surrounding areas in " head @-@ deep " water . At least 106 homes in the county were damaged by flood waters . Additionally , a tornado near New Port Richey caused major damage to five homes . Throughout the county , damage to private property was $ 1 @.@ 5 million , while public property losses were estimated at $ 26 million .
A man drowned near Lake Dorr in Lake County after his canoe capsized along a river in Ocala National Forest . In Polk County , a woman died after her car hydroplaned on a flooded road . Another person drowned on a river in the after his canoe capsized ; however , it is unknown whether or not his death was attributable to Debby . Throughout Polk County , 115 homes were damaged , mainly as a result of tornadoes , and losses were estimated at $ 5 million . A tornado in Hardee County felled several trees and damaged a tractor and a barn . In Glades County , one tornado caused minor roof damage to a barn in Muce , while the other resulted in no effects . In Highlands County , four homes were destroyed and twenty @-@ four more were damaged to varying degrees by two tornadoes . Losses in the county reached approximately $ 1 @.@ 4 million . Several homes were damaged by the two twisters in Highlands County , with one resulting in a fatality near Venus . In St. Petersburg , a gust of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) was observed , while 1 @.@ 88 inches ( 48 mm ) of rain fell in a one @-@ hour period . With the substantial loss of beaches , tourism in the region is expected to suffer significantly . Portions of Upham Beach in Pinellas County were completely eroded up to the seawall and other areas in that county had lost 20 to 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) of sand . On Treasure Island , coastal dunes were eroded by 10 to 15 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) . In Pass @-@ a @-@ Grille , Debby 's storm surge flooded coastal hotels with ankle @-@ deep water as the dunes were washed away . Throughout St. Pete Beach , 30 – 40 homes were damaged by a tornado spawned by Debby . Losses throughout the city were estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million . In Hillsborough County , wind gusts of 39 to 51 mph ( 63 to 82 km / h ) were measured at MacDill Air Force Base . Rainfall was at least 5 inches ( 130 mm ) across much of the county and peaked at 11 @.@ 91 inches ( 303 mm ) near Citrus Park . The storm damage 74 buildings , 6 of which were destroyed . The highest storm surge was estimated to have reached 4 @.@ 07 feet ( 1 @.@ 24 m ) in height . As a result , portions of Bay Shore Boulevard were inundated for three days .
On Anna Maria Island in Manatee County , water reached the retention walls of several condos , some of which were undermined , allowing water to enter beach @-@ side pools . The most significant losses were on the south side of the island where up to half of the dunes were lost . In Sarasota County , as much as 10 @.@ 9 inches ( 280 mm ) of rain fell near the city of Sarasota . Wind and floods damaged 52 structures , with losses reaching $ 540 @,@ 000 . At Lido Beach , high water flooded a parking lot . Damage to area beaches from erosion was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 9 million . A state of emergency was declared due to storm surge damage in the county . The first tornado in Collier County caused minor roof damage to a few structures near Naples on June 23 . A second tornado in the county later that day broke light poles and snapped tree limbs in North Naples , with one person being injured by a falling branch . Three others twisters were spawned in Collier County on June 24 , though damage was no more than a few downed trees . The Charlotte County Airport recorded a 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) wind gust , while the highest rainfall total was 5 @.@ 25 inches ( 133 mm ) near Englewood . Damage reached $ 2 @.@ 5 million and was mostly from beach erosion and coastal flooding . In Lee County , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 95 inches ( 126 mm ) in Cape Coral . Rough tides and storm surge caused beach erosion and coastal flooding , especially at Captiva and Sanibel Islands . The county suffered approximately $ 2 @.@ 3 million in losses .
= = = South Florida and Elsewhere = = =
At the Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach , 1 @.@ 51 inches ( 38 mm ) of precipitation fell in only one hour . Further south in Pompano Beach , 4 @.@ 32 inches ( 110 mm ) of rain was reported in a 24 @-@ hour period . A tornado in Palm Beach County damaged a few houses and some vegetation in Lake Worth . The other twister in Palm Beach County snapped some trees , blew a gate across a street , and broke a railroad crossing arm . A waterspout offshore Miami @-@ Dade County moved inland near Golden Beach and twisted three gates and blew open a garage door . Offshore in the Gulf of Mexico , nine oil production platforms and one drilling rig were damaged . Overall , United States oil production decreased by 2 % . On June 25 , 44 % of the daily oil and 33 % of the daily natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico was shut down . The following day , companies began returning employees to platforms and production was rapidly restored . A man in Orange Beach , Alabama drowned after being swept away by heavy surf . Off the coast of South Carolina , one person went missing and is presumed dead after rescuers failed to find him after several days . Heavy rainfall from Debby extended northward into southern Georgia , peaking at 12 @.@ 7 inches ( 320 mm ) in Fargo . Localized and isolated flooding occurred in nearby Lowndes County , with up to 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water in the parking lot at a Sonny 's restaurant in Lake Park . The remnants of Debby passed about 90 miles ( 140 km ) north of Bermuda on June 29 and produced tropical storm force winds on the island , but caused no damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , President of the United States Barack Obama issued a disaster declaration for Baker , Bradford , Citrus , Clay , Columbia , Duval , Franklin , Gilchrist , Hernando , Highlands , Hillsborough , Lafayette , Manatee , Nassau , Pasco , Pinellas , Polk , Sarasota , Suwannee , Taylor , Union , and Wakulla Counties of Florida . In Citrus County , total individual assistance of $ 127 @,@ 000 was paid out to 140 residents , including $ 112 @,@ 000 in damage to housing . A total of 1 @,@ 671 applications for individual assistance were filed in Pinellas County , totaling $ 900 @,@ 000 .
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= Cloudy catshark =
The cloudy catshark ( Scyliorhinus torazame ) is a common species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . It is a bottom @-@ dweller that inhabits rocky reefs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , from the shore to a depth of 320 m ( 1 @,@ 050 ft ) . Growing up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long , this small , slim shark has a narrow head with a short blunt snout , no grooves between the nostrils and mouth , and furrows on the lower but not the upper jaw . It is also characterized by extremely rough skin and coloration consisting of a series of dark brown saddles along its back and tail , along with various darker and lighter spots in larger individuals .
The diet of the cloudy catshark consists of molluscs , crustaceans , and bony fishes . It is oviparous , with females laying encapsulated eggs two at a time in nursery areas . The claspers of the male bear numerous hooks that likely serve to facilitate copulation . This harmless shark can be readily maintained in captivity and is used as a model organism for biological research . It is caught incidentally , and generally discarded , by commercial fisheries . These activities do not appear to have negatively affected its population , leading it to be listed under Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The original description of the cloudy catshark was published in 1908 by Shigeho Tanaka in the Journal of the Faculty of Science , University of Tokyo . He gave it the specific epithet torazame , which is its Japanese name ( 虎鮫 , literally " tiger shark " ) , and assigned it to the genus Catulus . The type specimen was a 45 cm ( 18 in ) long adult male caught off Misaki , Kanagawa , Japan . Subsequent authors have synonymized Catulus with Scyliorhinus .
= = Description = =
The cloudy catshark reaches 50 cm ( 20 in ) long and has a thin , deep , and firm body . The narrow head makes up slightly under one @-@ sixth of the total length , and is two @-@ thirds as wide as it is long . The snout is short and rounded . The large nostrils are preceded by small , triangular flaps of skin that do not reach the wide mouth . The medium @-@ sized eyes are horizontally oval , equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and followed by moderate spiracles . There are no grooves between the nostrils and the mouth . There are furrows extending from the corners of the mouth over the lower jaw only . The small teeth have a long central cusp typically flanked by two pairs of cusplets . The five pairs of gill slits are short , with the fourth pair over the pectoral fin origins .
The two dorsal fins are placed towards the back of the body , with the first originating over the rear of the pelvic fin bases . The first dorsal fin has a rounded apex and is larger than the second dorsal fin , which has a more angular shape . The pectoral and pelvic fins are moderate in size . In males , the inner margins of the pelvic fins are merged to form an " apron " over the long , cylindrical claspers . The origin of the anal fin lies approximately between the dorsal fins . The caudal peduncle is about as deep as the body , and leads to a low caudal fin with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The skin is thick and very rough due to the dermal denticles , which are large and upright with three backward @-@ pointing teeth . This species is brown on the back and sides , with 6 – 10 indistinct darker dorsal saddles , and plain yellowish on its ventral side . Larger sharks also have many large , irregularly shaped light and dark spots .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The cloudy catshark is common in the northwestern Pacific off Japan , Korea , China , and possibly the Philippines . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , this species can be found from the shore out to a depth of 320 m ( 1 @,@ 050 ft ) on the continental shelf and upper continental slope . It favors rocky reefs and does not appear to be migratory .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The cloudy catshark feeds primarily on molluscs , followed by crustaceans and bony fishes . A predator of both this shark and its egg cases is the blotchy swell shark ( Cephaloscyllium umbratile ) . A known parasite of this species is the myxosporidian Chloromyxum scyliorhinum . Reproduction is oviparous ; adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional oviducts . As a prelude to mating , the male bites at the female 's pectoral fin , side , and gill region . Once he has a grip , he wraps his body around hers and inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca . Copulation may last between 15 seconds and 4 minutes . The claspers of the male are unusual in that each has a row of around a hundred hooks running along the inner margin . These hooks likely serve to anchor the male to the female during copulation . The female is capable of storing sperm within her nidamental gland ( an organ that secretes egg cases ) for many months .
Females produce two mature eggs at a time , one per oviduct . The eggs are enclosed in smooth , translucent yellow , vase @-@ shaped capsules measuring 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) across and 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long . There are long tendrils at the four corners of the capsule . The eggs are laid in defined nursery areas : One such area is located at a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) off Hakodate . When the embryo is 3 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long , it has external gills , undeveloped fins , and no pigmentation . At an embryonic length of 5 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 in ) , the external gills have all but disappeared , and a covering of small denticles is present . By a length of 7 @.@ 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , the embryo has well @-@ developed fins and pigmentation , and generally resembles the adult . The eggs take 15 months to hatch at 11 @.@ 3 ° C ( 52 @.@ 3 ° F ) , and 7 – 9 months to hatch at 14 @.@ 5 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 ° F ) . The newly hatched shark measures 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long or more . Maturation size tends to increase with decreasing water temperature : Off northerly Hakodate , both sexes mature at over 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , while some females remain immature even at 47 cm ( 19 in ) long . By contrast , off southerly Tsushima Island both sexes mature at around 33 cm ( 13 in ) long . The maximum lifespan is at least 12 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the cloudy catshark adapts well to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium . It is often used as a model organism in physiology research . On September 25 , 1995 , Masuda Motoyashi and colleagues used this species to perform the first successful artificial insemination of a shark or ray . The cloudy catshark is caught incidentally by commercial fisheries with bottom fishing nets including trawls and gillnets , as well as on bottom longlines . Captured individuals are typically discarded , possibly with a high survival rate due to their hardiness . Some 40 % of the fish discarded in Yamaguchi Prefecture fisheries are of this species . The bottom trawl fishery operating off Fukushima Prefecture may catch over a ton of cloudy catsharks annually , which are also discarded .
Despite heavy fishing pressure within its range , the cloudy catshark remains common , perhaps because it may be more biologically productive than most other sharks . As a result , it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Cloudy catsharks from a number of locations off Japan have been found to be contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene ( DDEs ) , which they acquire from their food . One likely source of these pollutants is the use of the pesticide DDT by developing nations in southern Asia .
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= Performance Review =
" Performance Review " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fourteenth episode overall . It was written by Larry Wilmore and directed by Paul Feig . It first aired on November 15 , 2005 on NBC . The episode guest stars Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) conducts job performance reviews with his employees , and struggles to get Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) to talk about their romantic relationship from the previous episode . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) trick Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) into thinking that it is Friday , when it is in fact Thursday .
The episode was originally going to be about " weight loss " and be one of the very first episodes of the second season . Several scenes were created due to onset accidents and ad @-@ libbing , such as Dwight 's fitness orb popping and Michael grabbing Jan 's breast accidentally . " Performance Review " contained several pop culture references . It received mostly positive reviews from critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 8 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) meets with each of his employees to discuss their job performance . He plunders the employee suggestion box for ideas to impress his own boss , Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) , but the ruse backfires and he embarrasses himself . Michael relentlessly pesters Jan about their previous romantic connection but she bluntly rejects him , especially when , during the office 's suggestion box meeting , she discovers that everyone in the Scranton branch is aware of the incident . As Jan storms out of the office , she admonishes Michael before complimenting him and reluctantly stating that she is not ready for a relationship . Meanwhile , the stunned staff listens in .
Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) attempts to have a successful performance review in order to get a raise . He makes elaborate posters , prepares a ridiculous speech , and pumps himself up in the office 's hallway . Unfortunately for him , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) successfully prank him by making him believe that it is a Friday instead of a Thursday . He arrives at the office very late the next day , much to Michael 's annoyance .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Larry Wilmore , making it his first and only writing contribution to the series . Wilmore had previously guest starred in the series as Mr. Brown , the diversity instructor who gives a presentation to the office in the first season episode " Diversity Day " . The episode was originally going to be about " weight loss " and be one of the very first episodes of the second season aired . However , after " The Dundies " and " The Fire " , series creator and developer Greg Daniels decided to hold the episode off and combine it with elements of " The Client " . When " Performance Review " was being formulated , Wilmore had " four different ideas that were scrunched together to make an episode " . One of the ideas was on a card that said " Thursday Friday " . After inquiring about the meaning , Wilmore loved the idea and noted that it " would be great " in the episode and a " real funny thing to pull on Dwight " . Originally , the episode contained a subplot wherein Pam attempts to get a new chair approved by Michael . The scenes , in fact , were shot , but were never aired .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was directed by Paul Feig , making it his third episode directed for The Office after " Office Olympics " and " Halloween " . During the filming of the episode , Jenna Fischer came down with a cold . Instead of postponing , however , Fischer memorized and performed all her lines , resulting in fellow cast member Angela Kinsey calling her a " trooper " .
Several scenes were created due to onset accidents and ad @-@ libbing . In the cold opening , Dwight tries to impress Jim with his recently purchased " fitness orb " . Initially dismissive , Jim pops the ball after Dwight becomes increasingly obnoxious and troublesome . Before filming , the scene had been successfully rehearsed " about ten times " ; each time , when Krasinski punctured the plastic , the ball slowly deflated . However , when it came time to film the scene , Krasinski accidentally hit the ball " right on the seam " , resulting in Wilson quickly — and dramatically — hitting the carpet . In fact , several of the cast members in the background can be seen laughing , due to the unexpected nature of the shot . Initially , the cut was relegated to the blooper reel , but Wilmore pleaded with Daniels to include it in the finished episode . " The accidental boob grap " scene was based on a mistake made by Carell during a rehearsal . Originally , he was supposed to pat Hardin 's shoulder . Instead , however , he accidentally brushed past her breast . Hardin , finding the accident " hilarious " , demanded that Carell do it during the actual shooting . Furthermore , several of the scenes were improvised beyond the initial lines given to Steve Carell and Melora Hardin , such as the ending wherein Michael and Jan have a discussion about Michael 's flaws . Wilson recounts that he had to sit at his desk for " an hour and a half " due to the ad libbing .
During the suggestion box scene , Larry Wilmore envisioned Dwight as an Ed McMahon @-@ type character , repeating everything Michael said . Paul Lieberstein claimed that figuring out the logistics for the conference room scene was " the heart " of the episode . Hardin recalled that it was extremely difficult to stay in character , due to the humorous nature of the dialogue and the cast members ' reactions . In fact , the cast broke more than usual during filming . During the scene , Michael reads a suggestion from someone named Tom , who asks for better help for people with mental disorders . After inquiring who this mysterious Tom is , Phyllis tells Michael that he worked in accounting several years ago and committed suicide . Wilmore claimed during the DVD commentary for the episode that the writers would be bringing him back in the show 's third season , in which his backstory would be explained , although this never panned out . However , during the Writer 's Block Q & A session at The Office Convention in 2007 , the writers , perhaps sardonically , suggested that Tom 's death was the reason that Ryan was brought in as a temporary worker . Tom 's name is briefly seen on Dwight 's organization chart in the fourth season episode " Did I Stutter " , where his name is revealed to be Tom Peets .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael giving Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) his performance review , Dwight giving Jim advice for his performance review , an extension of Dwight psyching himself up in the stairwell , Michael calling Jan 's ex @-@ husband and her reaction , and Michael describing the office with a confused metaphor involving organs of the body .
= = Cultural references = =
To summarize why he deserves a raise , Dwight utilizes a Lex Luthor quote from the " Hothead " episode of Smallville . Writer Jason Kessler was tasked with searching on the internet in order to get the right line . Kinsey was pleased with the inclusion of the Smallville quote . In order to trick Dwight into thinking that Thursday was actually Friday , Pam and Jim discuss who Donald Trump fired on The Apprentice , which was in its fourth season at the time the episode aired . Before his review , Dwight pumps himself up by listening to glam metal band Mötley Crüe .
= = Reception = =
" Performance Review " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 15 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 8 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 6 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 percent share and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 7 million viewers .
" Miss Alli " from Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A – " rating . Dan Phillips of IGN named " Dwight 's First Day Late " as the tenth greatest prank on the show . He noted , " Seeing a disheveled , unshaven Dwight run desperately towards the office in hopes of saving his perfect performance record was enough to land this prank on the list despite its lack of complexity . " Diane Holloway of the Austin American @-@ Statesman wrote positively of the episode , and cited it as an example of how The Office , along with My Name is Earl , has " restored the comedy hour to NBC " . Michael Sciannamea of Huffpost TV wrote that he " liked the idea of having a continuation of a storyline " from " The Client " , but that the subplot of Dwight mistaking a Thursday for a Friday " really didn 't go anywhere . " He also noted that " Dwight 's behavior was over the top again " , a fact which " can really be disconcerting . " Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon named the entry the ninth best episode of the series , praising the comedic confrontation between Michael and Jan , as well as being a " strong Dwight episode " . Furthermore , Seitz praised the cold opening , calling it " a classic Jim prank " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " , and wrote that the episode was " squarely invested in advancing the pieces on The Office 's game board — all the while keeping its gaze fixed on the events of the previous episode . " Adams felt that the A @-@ story was largely dramatic , but was successfully balanced by the simplistic yet humorous B @-@ story which " helps that A @-@ story find its best beats . " Ultimately , he felt that " the episode sets up a portion of the season where secrets and snooping become recurring components — fitting for a show grounded in the truth @-@ telling conventions of documentary film .
Holloway highlighted Michael 's review of Angela , wherein he tells her " You 're adequate " , as the best line in the episode . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the quotes for the episode . The site ranked Angela 's monologue about how much she loves being judged , as well as Jim 's revelation that Dwight thinks a Thursday is really a Friday , a four out of five . TV Fanatic awarded the conversation between Stanley and Michael — wherein Stanley tells Michael how to properly listen for subtext in a voicemail — as well as Dwight 's frustration that he went out and got drunk with his laser tag team , a five out of five . Wilson later claimed that Dwight 's line about laser tag caused " quite a buzz " online .
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= Harriet Tubman =
Harriet Tubman ( born Araminta Ross ; c . 1822 – March 10 , 1913 ) was an American abolitionist , humanitarian , and an armed scout and spy for the United States Army during the American Civil War . Born into slavery , Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved families and friends , using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad . She later helped abolitionist John Brown recruit men for his raid on Harpers Ferry , and in the post @-@ war era was an active participant in the struggle for women 's suffrage .
Born a slave in Dorchester County , Maryland , Tubman was beaten and whipped by her various masters as a child . Early in life , she suffered a traumatic head wound when an irate slave owner threw a heavy metal weight intending to hit another slave and hit her instead . The injury caused dizziness , pain , and spells of hypersomnia , which occurred throughout her life . She was a devout Christian and experienced strange visions and vivid dreams , which she ascribed to premonitions from God .
In 1849 , Tubman escaped to Philadelphia , then immediately returned to Maryland to rescue her family . Slowly , one group at a time , she brought relatives with her out of the state , and eventually guided dozens of other slaves to freedom . Traveling by night and in extreme secrecy , Tubman ( or " Moses " , as she was called ) " never lost a passenger " . After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed , she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America , and helped newly freed slaves find work .
When the Civil War began , Tubman worked for the Union Army , first as a cook and nurse , and then as an armed scout and spy . The first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war , she guided the raid at Combahee Ferry , which liberated more than 700 slaves . After the war , she retired to the family home on property she had purchased in 1859 in Auburn , New York , where she cared for her aging parents . She was active in the women 's suffrage movement until illness overtook her and she had to be admitted to a home for elderly African Americans that she had helped to establish years earlier . After she died in 1913 , she became an icon of American courage and freedom . On April 20 , 2016 , the U.S. Treasury Department announced a plan for Tubman to replace Andrew Jackson as the portrait gracing the $ 20 bill .
= = Early life and education = =
Tubman was born Araminta " Minty " Ross to slave parents , Harriet ( " Rit " ) Green and Ben Ross . Rit was owned by Mary Pattison Brodess ( and later her son Edward ) . Ben was held by Anthony Thompson , who became Mary 's second husband , and who ran a large plantation near Blackwater River in Madison , Maryland . As with many slaves in the United States , neither the exact year nor place of Araminta 's birth is known , and historians differ as to the best estimate . Kate Larson records the year as 1822 , based on a midwife payment and several other historical documents , including her runaway advertisement , while Jean Humez says " the best current evidence suggests that Tubman was born in 1820 , but it might have been a year or two later . " Catherine Clinton notes that Tubman reported the year of her birth as 1825 , while her death certificate lists 1815 and her gravestone lists 1820 . In her Civil War widow 's pension records , Tubman claimed she was born in 1820 , 1822 , and 1825 , an indication , perhaps , that she had only a general idea of when she was born .
Modesty , Tubman 's maternal grandmother , arrived in the United States on a slave ship from Africa ; no information is available about her other ancestors . As a child , Tubman was told that she was of Ashanti lineage ( from what is now Ghana ) , though no evidence exists to confirm or deny this assertion . Her mother Rit ( who may have had a white father ) was a cook for the Brodess family . Her father Ben was a skilled woodsman who managed the timber work on Thompson 's plantation . They married around 1808 and , according to court records , they had nine children together : Linah , Mariah Ritty , Soph , Robert , Minty ( Harriet ) , Ben , Rachel , Henry , and Moses .
Rit struggled to keep her family together as slavery threatened to tear it apart . Edward Brodess sold three of her daughters ( Linah , Mariah Ritty , and Soph ) , separating them from the family forever . When a trader from Georgia approached Brodess about buying Rit 's youngest son , Moses , she hid him for a month , aided by other slaves and free blacks in the community . At one point she confronted her owner about the sale . Finally , Brodess and " the Georgia man " came toward the slave quarters to seize the child , where Rit told them , " You are after my son ; but the first man that comes into my house , I will split his head open . " Brodess backed away and abandoned the sale . Tubman 's biographers agree that stories told about this event within the family influenced her belief in the possibilities of resistance .
= = Childhood = =
Tubman 's mother was assigned to " the big house " and had scarce time for her family ; consequently , as a child Tubman took care of a younger brother and baby , as was typical in large families . When she was five or six years old , Brodess hired her out as a nursemaid to a woman named " Miss Susan " . She was ordered to keep watch on the baby as it slept ; when it woke up and cried , she was whipped . She later recounted a particular day when she was lashed five times before breakfast . She carried the scars for the rest of her life . She found ways to resist , running away for five days , wearing layers of clothing as protection against beatings , and fighting back .
As a child , Tubman also worked at the home of a planter named James Cook . She had to check the muskrat traps in nearby marshes , even after contracting measles . She became so ill that Cook sent her back to Brodess , where her mother nursed her back to health . Brodess then hired her out again . She spoke later of her acute childhood homesickness , comparing herself to " the boy on the Swanee River " , an allusion to Stephen Foster 's song " Old Folks at Home " . As she grew older and stronger , she was assigned to field and forest work , driving oxen , plowing , and hauling logs .
= = = Religion = = =
As an illiterate child , she had been told Bible stories by her mother . The particular variety of her early Christian belief remains unclear , but she acquired a passionate faith in God . She rejected the teachings of the New Testament that urged slaves to be obedient and found guidance in the Old Testament tales of deliverance . Tubman was devout , and when she began experiencing visions and vivid dreams , she interpreted them as revelations from God . This religious perspective informed her actions throughout her life .
= = = Head injury = = =
As a child in Dorchester County , Maryland , Tubman was beaten by masters to whom she was hired out . Early in her life , she suffered a severe head wound when hit by a heavy metal weight . The injury caused disabling epileptic seizures , headaches , powerful visions , and dream experiences , which occurred throughout her life .
One day , the adolescent Tubman was sent to a dry @-@ goods store for supplies . There , she encountered a slave owned by another family , who had left the fields without permission . His overseer , furious , demanded that she help restrain him . She refused , and as he ran away , the overseer threw a two @-@ pound weight at him . He struck her instead , which she said " broke my skull " . She later explained her belief that her hair – which " had never been combed and ... stood out like a bushel basket " – might have saved her life . Bleeding and unconscious , she was returned to her owner 's house and laid on the seat of a loom , where she remained without medical care for two days . She was sent back into the fields , " with blood and sweat rolling down my face until I couldn 't see " . Her boss said she was " not worth a sixpence " and returned her to Brodess , who tried unsuccessfully to sell her . She began having seizures and would seemingly fall unconscious , although she claimed to be aware of her surroundings while appearing to be asleep . These episodes were alarming to her family , who were unable to wake her when she fell asleep suddenly and without warning . This condition remained with her for the rest of her life ; Larson suggests she may have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy as a result of the injury .
= = Family and marriage = =
By 1840 , Tubman 's father , Ben , was manumitted from slavery at the age of 45 , as stipulated in a former owner 's will , though his actual age was closer to 55 . He continued working as a timber estimator and foreman for the Thompson family , who had held him as a slave . Several years later , Tubman contacted a white attorney and paid him five dollars to investigate her mother 's legal status . The lawyer discovered that a former owner had issued instructions that Rit , like her husband , would be manumitted at the age of 45 . The record showed that a similar provision would apply to Rit 's children , and that any children born after she reached 45 years of age were legally free , but the Pattison and Brodess families had ignored this stipulation when they inherited the slaves . Challenging it legally was an impossible task for Tubman .
Around 1844 , she married a free black man named John Tubman . Although little is known about him or their time together , the union was complicated because of her slave status . Since the mother 's status dictated that of children , any children born to Harriet and John would be enslaved . Such blended marriages – free people of color marrying enslaved people – were not uncommon on the Eastern Shore of Maryland , where by this time , half the black population was free . Most African @-@ American families had both free and enslaved members . Larson suggests that they might have planned to buy Tubman 's freedom .
Tubman changed her name from Araminta to Harriet soon after her marriage , though the exact timing is unclear . Larson suggests this happened right after the wedding , and Clinton suggests that it coincided with Tubman 's plans to escape from slavery . She adopted her mother 's name , possibly as part of a religious conversion , or to honor another relative .
= = Escape from slavery = =
In 1849 , Tubman became ill again , which diminished her value as a slave . Edward Brodess tried to sell her , but could not find a buyer . Angry at him for trying to sell her and for continuing to enslave her relatives , Tubman began to pray for her owner , asking God to make him change his ways . She said later : " I prayed all night long for my master till the first of March ; and all the time he was bringing people to look at me , and trying to sell me . " When it appeared as though a sale was being concluded , " I changed my prayer , " she said . " First of March I began to pray , ' Oh Lord , if you ain 't never going to change that man 's heart , kill him , Lord , and take him out of the way . ' " A week later , Brodess died , and Tubman expressed regret for her earlier sentiments .
As in many estate settlements , Brodess 's death increased the likelihood that Tubman would be sold and her family broken apart . His widow , Eliza , began working to sell the family 's slaves . Tubman refused to wait for the Brodess family to decide her fate , despite her husband 's efforts to dissuade her . " [ T ] here was one of two things I had a right to , " she explained later , " liberty or death ; if I could not have one , I would have the other . "
Tubman and her brothers , Ben and Henry , escaped from slavery on September 17 , 1849 . Tubman had been hired out to Dr. Anthony Thompson , who owned a large plantation in an area called Poplar Neck in neighboring Caroline County ; it is likely her brothers labored for Thompson as well . Because the slaves were hired out to another household , Eliza Brodess probably did not recognize their absence as an escape attempt for some time . Two weeks later , she posted a runaway notice in the Cambridge Democrat , offering a reward of up to 100 dollars for each slave returned . Once they had left , Tubman 's brothers had second thoughts . Ben may have just become a father . The two men went back , forcing Tubman to return with them .
Soon afterward , Tubman escaped again , this time without her brothers . Beforehand , she tried to send word to her mother of her plans . She sang a coded song to Mary , a trusted fellow slave , that was a farewell . " I 'll meet you in the morning , " she intoned , " I 'm bound for the promised land . " While her exact route is unknown , Tubman made use of the network known as the Underground Railroad . This informal but well @-@ organized system was composed of free and enslaved blacks , white abolitionists , and other activists . Most prominent among the latter in Maryland at the time were members of the Religious Society of Friends , often called Quakers . The Preston area near Poplar Neck in Caroline County contained a substantial Quaker community , and was probably an important first stop during Tubman 's escape . From there , she probably took a common route for fleeing slaves – northeast along the Choptank River , through Delaware and then north into Pennsylvania . A journey of nearly 90 miles ( 145 kilometers ) , her traveling by foot would have taken between five days and three weeks .
Tubman had to travel by night , guided by the North Star , and trying to avoid slave catchers eager to collect rewards for fugitive slaves . The " conductors " in the Underground Railroad used deceptions for protection . At an early stop , the lady of the house ordered Tubman to sweep the yard so as to seem to be working for the family . When night fell , the family hid her in a cart and took her to the next friendly house . Given her familiarity with the woods and marshes of the region , Tubman during the day likely hid in these locales . Tubman only later described her routes because other fugitive slaves used them .
Particulars of her first journey remain shrouded in secrecy . She crossed into Pennsylvania with a feeling of relief and awe , and recalled the experience years later :
When I found I had crossed that line , I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person . There was such a glory over everything ; the sun came like gold through the trees , and over the fields , and I felt like I was in Heaven .
= = Nicknamed " Moses " = =
In honor of her courageous efforts to rescue family and friends from slavery , abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison named her " Moses " , alluding to the prophet in the Book of Exodus who led the Hebrews to freedom from Egypt . Though nicknamed " Moses " , Tubman 's daring missions to Maryland remained virtually unknown , and her identity was a carefully guarded secret . She did sing a version of " Go Down Moses " to signal to her refugees along the path to freedom — she changed the tempo to indicate that it was either safe or too dangerous to proceed . Like other Underground Railroad conductors , Tubman used various methods of communication specific to her own needs . Contrary to current popular belief , there were no common " codes " used by conductors . In the north , however , the song " Go Down Moses " was openly sung by Black regiments during the Civil War . After the war , various black @-@ faced minstrels included the song in their acts which helped popularize it . During the 20th century , people of all races sang it as a spiritual to pay tribute to Tubman or to various struggles for freedom .
After reaching Philadelphia , Tubman thought of her family . " I was a stranger in a strange land , " she said later . " [ M ] y father , my mother , my brothers , and sisters , and friends were [ in Maryland ] . But I was free , and they should be free . " She worked odd jobs and saved money . The U.S. Congress meanwhile passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 , which heavily punished abetting escape and forced law enforcement officials — even in states that had outlawed slavery — to assist in their capture . The law increased risks for escaped slaves , more of whom therefore sought refuge in Southern Ontario ( then called the United Province of Canada ) , which , as part of the British Empire , had abolished slavery . Racial tensions were also increasing in Philadelphia as waves of poor Irish immigrants competed with free blacks for work .
In December 1850 , Tubman was warned that her niece Kessiah and her two children , six @-@ year @-@ old James Alfred , and baby Araminta , soon would be sold in Cambridge . Tubman went to Baltimore , where her brother @-@ in @-@ law Tom Tubman hid her until the sale . Kessiah 's husband , a free black man named John Bowley , made the winning bid for his wife . Then , while the auctioneer stepped away to have lunch , John , Kessiah and their children escaped to a nearby safe house . When night fell , Bowley sailed the family on a log canoe 60 miles ( 97 kilometres ) to Baltimore , where they met with Tubman , who brought the family to Philadelphia .
The next spring she returned to Maryland to help guide away other family members . During her second trip , she recovered her brother Moses and two unidentified men . Tubman likely worked with abolitionist Thomas Garrett , a Quaker working in Wilmington , Delaware . Word of her exploits had encouraged her family , and biographers agree that with each trip to Maryland , she became more confident .
While being interviewed by author Wilbur Siebert in 1897 , Tubman named some of the people who helped her and places that she stayed along the Underground Railroad . She stayed with Sam Green , a free black minister living in East New Market , Maryland ; she also hid near her parents ' home at Poplar Neck in Caroline County , Maryland . She would travel from there northeast to Sandtown and Willow Grove , Delaware , and to the Camden area where free black agents , William and Nat Brinkley and Abraham Gibbs , guided her north past Dover , Smyrna , and Blackbird , where other agents would take her across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal to New Castle and Wilmington . In Wilmington , Quaker Thomas Garrett would secure transportation to William Still 's office or the homes of other Underground Railroad operators in the greater Philadelphia area . Still , a famous black agent , is credited with aiding hundreds of freedom seekers escape to safer places farther north in New York , New England , and present @-@ day Southern Ontario .
In the fall of 1851 , Tubman returned to Dorchester County for the first time since her escape , this time to find her husband , John . She once again saved money from various jobs , purchased a suit for him , and made her way south . John , meanwhile , had married another woman named Caroline . Tubman sent word that he should join her , but he insisted that he was happy where he was . Tubman at first prepared to storm their house and make a scene , but then decided he was not worth the trouble . Suppressing her anger , she found some slaves who wanted to escape and led them to Philadelphia . John and Caroline raised a family together , until he was killed 16 years later in a roadside argument with a white man named Robert Vincent .
Because the Fugitive Slave Law had made the northern United States a more dangerous place for escaped slaves to remain , many escaped slaves began migrating to Southern Ontario . In December 1851 , Tubman guided an unidentified group of 11 fugitives , possibly including the Bowleys and several others she had helped rescue earlier , northward . There is evidence to suggest that Tubman and her group stopped at the home of abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass . In his third autobiography , Douglass wrote : " On one occasion I had eleven fugitives at the same time under my roof , and it was necessary for them to remain with me until I could collect sufficient money to get them on to Canada . It was the largest number I ever had at any one time , and I had some difficulty in providing so many with food and shelter .... " The number of travelers and the time of the visit make it likely that this was Tubman 's group .
Douglass and Tubman admired one another greatly as they both struggled against slavery . When an early biography of Tubman was being prepared in 1868 , Douglass wrote a letter to honor her . It read in part :
You ask for what you do not need when you call upon me for a word of commendation . I need such words from you far more than you can need them from me , especially where your superior labors and devotion to the cause of the lately enslaved of our land are known as I know them . The difference between us is very marked . Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has been in public , and I have received much encouragement at every step of the way . You , on the other hand , have labored in a private way . I have wrought in the day — you in the night . ... The midnight sky and the silent stars have been the witnesses of your devotion to freedom and of your heroism . Excepting John Brown — of sacred memory — I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than you have .
= = = Journeys and methods = = =
Over eleven years , Tubman returned repeatedly to the Eastern Shore of Maryland , rescuing some 70 slaves in about thirteen expeditions , including her three other brothers , Henry , Ben , and Robert , their wives and some of their children . She also provided specific instructions to 50 to 60 additional fugitives who escaped to the north . Tubman 's dangerous work required tremendous ingenuity ; she usually worked during winter months , to minimize the likelihood that the group would be seen . One admirer of Tubman said : " She always came in the winter , when the nights are long and dark , and people who have homes stay in them . " Once she had made contact with escaping slaves , they left town on Saturday evenings , since newspapers would not print runaway notices until Monday morning .
Her journeys into the land of slavery put her at tremendous risk , and she used a variety of subterfuges to avoid detection . Tubman once disguised herself with a bonnet and carried two live chickens to give the appearance of running errands . Suddenly finding herself walking toward a former owner in Dorchester County , she yanked the strings holding the birds ' legs , and their agitation allowed her to avoid eye contact . Later she recognized a fellow train passenger as another former master ; she snatched a nearby newspaper and pretended to read . Since Tubman was known to be illiterate , the man ignored her .
Tubman 's religious faith was another important resource as she ventured repeatedly into Maryland . The visions from her childhood head injury continued , and she saw them as divine premonitions . She spoke of " consulting with God " , and trusted that He would keep her safe . Thomas Garrett once said of her , " I never met with any person of any color who had more confidence in the voice of God , as spoken direct to her soul . " Her faith in the divine also provided immediate assistance . She used spirituals as coded messages , warning fellow travelers of danger or to signal a clear path .
Tubman also carried a revolver , and was not afraid to use it . The gun afforded some protection from the ever @-@ present slave catchers and their dogs ; however , she also purportedly threatened to shoot any escaped slave who tried to turn back on the journey since that would threaten the safety of the remaining group . Tubman told the tale of one man who insisted he was going to go back to the plantation when morale got low among a group of fugitive slaves . She pointed the gun at his head and said , " You go on or die . " Several days later , he was with the group as they entered the United Province of Canada .
Slaveholders in the region , meanwhile , never knew that " Minty " , the petite , five @-@ foot @-@ tall , disabled slave who had run away years before and never come back , was behind so many slave escapes in their community . By the late 1850s , they began to suspect a northern white abolitionist was secretly enticing their slaves away . They considered that John Brown himself had come to the Eastern Shore to lure slaves away before his ill @-@ fated raid on Harper 's Ferry in October 1859 .
While a popular legend persists about a reward of US $ 40 @,@ 000 for Tubman 's capture , this is a manufactured figure . In 1868 , in an effort to drum up support for Tubman 's claim for a Civil War military pension , a former abolitionist named Salley Holley wrote an article claiming US $ 40 @,@ 000 " was not too great a reward for Maryland slaveholders to offer for her " . Such a high reward would have garnered national attention , especially at a time when a small farm could be purchased for a mere US $ 400 . No such reward has been found in period newspapers . ( The federal government offered $ 25 @,@ 000 for the capture of each of John Wilkes Booth 's co @-@ conspirators in Lincoln 's assassination . ) A reward offering of US $ 12 @,@ 000 has also been claimed , though no documentation exists for that figure either . Catherine Clinton suggests that the US $ 40 @,@ 000 figure may have been a combined total of the various bounties offered around the region .
Despite the best efforts of the slaveholders , Tubman was never captured , and neither were the fugitives she guided . Years later , she told an audience : " I was conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years , and I can say what most conductors can 't say – I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger . " One of her last missions into Maryland was to retrieve her aging parents . Her father , Ben , had purchased Rit , her mother , in 1855 from Eliza Brodess for 20 dollars . But even when they were both free , the area became hostile to their presence . Two years later , Tubman received word that her father had harbored a group of eight escaped slaves , and was at risk of arrest . She traveled to the Eastern Shore and led them north to St. Catharines , Ontario , where a community of former slaves ( including Tubman 's brothers , other relatives , and many friends ) had gathered .
= = John Brown and Harpers Ferry = =
In April 1858 , Tubman was introduced to the abolitionist John Brown , an insurgent who advocated the use of violence to destroy slavery in the United States . Although she never advocated violence against whites , she agreed with his course of direct action and supported his goals . Like Tubman , he spoke of being called by God , and trusted the divine to protect him from the wrath of slaveholders . She , meanwhile , claimed to have had a prophetic vision of meeting Brown before their encounter .
Thus , as he began recruiting supporters for an attack on slaveholders , Brown was joined by " General Tubman " , as he called her . Her knowledge of support networks and resources in the border states of Pennsylvania , Maryland and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and his planners . Although other abolitionists like Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison did not endorse his tactics , Brown dreamed of fighting to create a new state for freed slaves , and made preparations for military action . After he began the first battle , he believed , slaves would rise up and carry out a rebellion across the south . He asked Tubman to gather former slaves then living in present @-@ day Southern Ontario who might be willing to join his fighting force , which she did .
On May 8 , 1858 , Brown held a meeting in Chatham @-@ Kent , Ontario , where he unveiled his plan for a raid on Harpers Ferry , Virginia . When word of the plan was leaked to the government , Brown put the scheme on hold and began raising funds for its eventual resumption . Tubman aided him in this effort , and with more detailed plans for the assault .
Tubman was busy during this time , giving talks to abolitionist audiences and tending to her relatives . In the autumn of 1859 , as Brown and his men prepared to launch the attack , Tubman could not be contacted . When the raid on Harpers Ferry took place on October 16 , Tubman was not present . Some historians believe she was in New York at the time , ill with fever related to her childhood head injury . Others propose she may have been recruiting more escaped slaves in Ontario , and Kate Clifford Larson suggests she may have been in Maryland , recruiting for Brown 's raid or attempting to rescue more family members . Larson also notes that Tubman may have begun sharing Frederick Douglass 's doubts about the viability of the plan .
The raid failed ; Brown was convicted of treason and hanged in December . His actions were seen by abolitionists as a symbol of proud resistance , carried out by a noble martyr . Tubman herself was effusive with praise . She later told a friend : " [ H ] e done more in dying , than 100 men would in living . "
= = Auburn and Margaret = =
In early 1859 , abolitionist Republican U.S. Senator William H. Seward sold Tubman a small piece of land on the outskirts of Auburn , New York , for US $ 1 @,@ 200 . The city was a hotbed of antislavery activism , and Tubman seized the opportunity to deliver her parents from the harsh Canadian winters . Returning to the U.S. meant that escaped slaves were at risk of being returned to the south under the Fugitive Slave Law , and Tubman 's siblings expressed reservations . Catherine Clinton suggests that anger over the 1857 Dred Scott decision may have prompted Tubman to return to the U.S. Her land in Auburn became a haven for Tubman 's family and friends . For years , she took in relatives and boarders , offering a safe place for black Americans seeking a better life in the north .
Shortly after acquiring the Auburn property , Tubman went back to Maryland and returned with her " niece , " an eight @-@ year @-@ old light @-@ skinned black girl named Margaret . The circumstances of this expedition remain clouded in mystery . There is great confusion about the identity of Margaret 's parents , although Tubman indicated they were free blacks . The girl had left behind a twin brother and a loving home in Maryland . Years later , Margaret 's daughter Alice called Tubman 's actions selfish , saying , " she had taken the child from a sheltered good home to a place where there was nobody to care for her . " Indeed , Alice described it as a " kidnapping " .
However , both Clinton and Larson present the possibility that Margaret was in fact Tubman 's daughter . Larson points out that the two shared an unusually strong bond , and argues that Tubman – knowing the pain of a child separated from her mother – would never have intentionally caused a free family to be split apart . Clinton presents evidence of strong physical similarities , which Alice herself acknowledged . Both historians agree that no concrete evidence exists for such a possibility , and the mystery of Tubman 's relationship with young Margaret remains to this day .
In November 1860 , Tubman conducted her last rescue mission . Throughout the 1850s , Tubman had been unable to effect the escape of her sister , Rachel , and Rachel 's two children , Ben and Angerine . Upon returning to Dorchester County , Tubman discovered that Rachel had died , and the children could be rescued only if she could pay a US $ 30 bribe . She had no money , so the children remained enslaved . Their fates remain unknown . Never one to waste a trip , Tubman gathered another group , including the Ennalls family , ready and willing to take the risks of the journey north . It took them weeks to safely get away because of slave catchers , forcing them to hide out longer than expected . The weather was unseasonably cold and they had little food . The children were drugged with paregoric to keep them quiet while slave patrols rode by . They safely reached the home of David and Martha Wright in Auburn , New York , on December 28 , 1860 .
= = American Civil War = =
When the American Civil War broke out in 1861 , Tubman saw a Union victory as a key step toward the abolition of slavery . General Benjamin Butler , for instance , aided escaped slaves flooding into Fort Monroe . Butler had declared these fugitives to be " contraband " – property seized by northern forces – and put them to work , initially without pay , in the fort . Tubman hoped to offer her own expertise and skills to the Union cause , too , and soon she joined a group of Boston and Philadelphia abolitionists heading to the Hilton Head District in South Carolina . She became a fixture in the camps , particularly in Port Royal , South Carolina , assisting fugitives .
Tubman met with General David Hunter , a strong supporter of abolition . He declared all of the " contrabands " in the Port Royal district free , and began gathering former slaves for a regiment of black soldiers . U.S. President Abraham Lincoln , however , was not prepared to enforce emancipation on the southern states , and reprimanded Hunter for his actions . Tubman condemned Lincoln 's response and his general unwillingness to consider ending slavery in the U.S. , for both moral and practical reasons . " God won 't let master Lincoln beat the South till he does the right thing , " she said .
Master Lincoln , he 's a great man , and I am a poor negro ; but the negro can tell master Lincoln how to save the money and the young men . He can do it by setting the negro free . Suppose that was an awful big snake down there , on the floor . He bite you . Folks all scared , because you die . You send for a doctor to cut the bite ; but the snake , he rolled up there , and while the doctor doing it , he bite you again . The doctor dug out that bite ; but while the doctor doing it , the snake , he spring up and bite you again ; so he keep doing it , till you kill him . That 's what master Lincoln ought to know .
Tubman served as a nurse in Port Royal , preparing remedies from local plants and aiding soldiers suffering from dysentery . She rendered assistance to men with smallpox ; that she did not contract the disease herself started more rumors that she was blessed by God . At first , she received government rations for her work , but newly freed blacks thought she was getting special treatment . To ease the tension , she gave up her right to these supplies and made money selling pies and root beer , which she made in the evenings .
= = = Scouting and the Combahee River Raid = = =
When President Lincoln finally issued the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 , Tubman considered it an important step toward the goal of liberating all black men , women , and children from slavery . She renewed her support for a defeat of the Confederacy , and before long she was leading a band of scouts through the land around Port Royal . The marshes and rivers in South Carolina were similar to those of the Eastern Shore of Maryland ; thus her knowledge of covert travel and subterfuge among potential enemies were put to good use . Her group , working under the orders of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , mapped the unfamiliar terrain and reconnoitered its inhabitants . She later worked alongside Colonel James Montgomery , and provided him with key intelligence that aided the capture of Jacksonville , Florida .
Later that year , Tubman became the first woman to lead an armed assault during the Civil War . When Montgomery and his troops conducted an assault on a collection of plantations along the Combahee River , Tubman served as a key adviser and accompanied the raid . On the morning of June 2 , 1863 , Tubman guided three steamboats around Confederate mines in the waters leading to the shore . Once ashore , the Union troops set fire to the plantations , destroying infrastructure and seizing thousands of dollars worth of food and supplies . When the steamboats sounded their whistles , slaves throughout the area understood that it was being liberated . Tubman watched as slaves stampeded toward the boats . " I never saw such a sight , " she said later , describing a scene of chaos with women carrying still @-@ steaming pots of rice , pigs squealing in bags slung over shoulders , and babies hanging around their parents ' necks . Although their owners , armed with handguns and whips , tried to stop the mass escape , their efforts were nearly useless in the tumult . As Confederate troops raced to the scene , steamboats packed full of slaves took off toward Beaufort .
More than 750 slaves were rescued in the Combahee River Raid . Newspapers heralded Tubman 's " patriotism , sagacity , energy , [ and ] ability " , and she was praised for her recruiting efforts – most of the newly liberated men went on to join the Union army . Tubman later worked with Colonel Robert Gould Shaw at the assault on Fort Wagner , reportedly serving him his last meal . She described the battle by saying : " And then we saw the lightning , and that was the guns ; and then we heard the thunder , and that was the big guns ; and then we heard the rain falling , and that was the drops of blood falling ; and when we came to get the crops , it was dead men that we reaped . "
For two more years , Tubman worked for the Union forces , tending to newly liberated slaves , scouting into Confederate territory , and nursing wounded soldiers in Virginia . She also made periodic trips back to Auburn , to visit her family and care for her parents . The Confederacy surrendered in April 1865 ; after donating several more months of service , Tubman headed home to Auburn , New York .
During a train ride to New York , the conductor told her to move into the smoking car . She refused , explaining her government service . He cursed at her and grabbed her , but she resisted and he summoned two other passengers for help . While she clutched at the railing , they muscled her away , breaking her arm in the process . They threw her into the smoking car , causing more injuries . As these events transpired , other white passengers cursed Tubman and shouted for the conductor to kick her off the train .
Despite her years of service , she had never received a regular salary and was for years denied compensation . Her unofficial status and the unequal payments offered to black soldiers caused great difficulty in documenting her service , and the U.S. government was slow in recognizing its debt to her . Tubman did not receive a pension for her service in the Civil War until 1899 . Her constant humanitarian work for her family and former slaves , meanwhile , kept her in a state of constant poverty , and her difficulties in obtaining a government pension were especially taxing for her .
= = Later life = =
Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn , tending to her family and other people in need . She worked various jobs to support her elderly parents , and took in boarders to help pay the bills . One of the people Tubman took in was a Civil War veteran named Nelson Davis . He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer , and they soon fell in love . Though he was 22 years younger than she was , on March 18 , 1869 , they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church . They spent the next 20 years together , and in 1874 they adopted a baby girl named Gertie .
Tubman 's friends and supporters from the days of abolition , meanwhile , raised funds to support her . One admirer , Sarah Hopkins Bradford , wrote an authorized biography entitled Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman . The 132 @-@ page volume was published in 1869 , and brought Tubman some US $ 1 @,@ 200 in revenue . Criticized by modern biographers for its artistic license and highly subjective point of view , the book nevertheless remains an important source of information and perspective on Tubman 's life . Bradford released another volume in 1886 called Harriet , the Moses of her People , which presented a less caustic view of slavery and the South . It , too , was published as a way to help alleviate Tubman 's poverty .
Facing accumulated debts ( including payments for her property in Auburn ) , Tubman fell prey in 1873 to a swindle involving gold transfer . Two men , one named Stevenson and the other John Thomas , claimed to have in their possession a cache of gold smuggled out of South Carolina . They offered this treasure – worth about US $ 5 @,@ 000 , they claimed – for US $ 2 @,@ 000 in cash . They insisted that they knew a relative of Tubman 's , and she took them into her home , where they stayed for several days . She knew that white people in the South had buried valuables when Union forces threatened the region , and also that black men were frequently assigned to digging duties . Thus the situation seemed plausible , and a combination of her financial woes and her good nature led her to go along with the plan . She borrowed the money from a wealthy friend named Anthony Shimer , and arranged to receive the gold late one night . Once the men had lured her into the woods , however , they attacked her and knocked her out with chloroform , then stole her purse and bound and gagged her . When she was found by her family , she was dazed and injured , and the money was gone .
New York responded with outrage to the incident , and while some criticized Tubman for her naïveté , most sympathized with her economic hardship and lambasted the con men . The incident refreshed the public 's memory of her past service and her economic woes . Representatives Clinton D. MacDougall of New York and Gerry W. Hazelton of Wisconsin introduced a bill ( H.R. 2711 / 3786 ) providing that Tubman be paid " the sum of $ 2 @,@ 000 for services rendered by her to the Union Army as scout , nurse , and spy " . It was defeated .
= = = Suffragist activism = = =
In her later years , Tubman worked to promote the cause of women 's suffrage . A white woman once asked Tubman whether she believed women ought to have the vote , and received the reply : " I suffered enough to believe it . " Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations , and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland .
Tubman traveled to New York , Boston , and Washington , D.C. , to speak out in favor of women 's voting rights . She described her actions during and after the Civil War , and used the sacrifices of countless women throughout modern history as evidence of women 's equality to men . When the National Federation of Afro @-@ American Women was founded in 1896 , Tubman was the keynote speaker at its first meeting .
This wave of activism kindled a new wave of admiration for Tubman among the press in the United States . A publication called The Woman 's Era launched a series of articles on " Eminent Women " with a profile of Tubman . An 1897 suffragist newspaper reported a series of receptions in Boston honoring Tubman and her lifetime of service to the nation . However , her endless contributions to others had left her in poverty , and she had to sell a cow to buy a train ticket to these celebrations .
= = = AME Zion Church , illness , and death = = =
At the turn of the 20th century , Tubman became heavily involved with the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Auburn . In 1903 , she donated a parcel of real estate she owned to the church , under the instruction that it be made into a home for " aged and indigent colored people " . The home did not open for another five years , and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $ 100 entrance fee . She said : " [ T ] hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars . Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn 't have no money at all . " She was frustrated by the new rule but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged celebrated its opening on June 23 , 1908 .
As Tubman aged , the seizures , headaches , and suffering from her childhood head trauma continued to plague her . At some point in the late 1890s , she underwent brain surgery at Boston 's Massachusetts General Hospital . Unable to sleep because of pains and " buzzing " in her head , she asked a doctor if he could operate . He agreed and , in her words , " sawed open my skull , and raised it up , and now it feels more comfortable " . She had received no anesthesia for the procedure and reportedly chose instead to bite down on a bullet , as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated .
By 1911 , her body was so frail that she had to be admitted into the rest home named in her honor . A New York newspaper described her as " ill and penniless " , prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations . Surrounded by friends and family members , Harriet Tubman died of pneumonia in 1913 . Just before she died , she told those in the room : " I go to prepare a place for you . "
When she died , Tubman was buried with semi @-@ military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn .
= = Legacy = =
Harriet Tubman , widely known and well @-@ respected while she was alive , became an American icon in the years after she died . A survey at the end of the 20th century named her as one of the most famous civilians in American history before the Civil War , third only to Betsy Ross and Paul Revere . She inspired generations of African Americans struggling for equality and civil rights ; she was praised by leaders across the political spectrum .
When she died , Tubman was buried with semi @-@ military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn . The city commemorated her life with a plaque on the courthouse . Although it showed pride for her many achievements , its use of dialect ( " I nebber run my train off de track " ) , apparently chosen for its authenticity , has been criticized for undermining her stature as an American patriot and dedicated humanitarian . Still , the dedication ceremony was a powerful tribute to her memory , and Booker T. Washington delivered the keynote address . The Harriet Tubman home was abandoned after 1920 , but was later renovated by the AME Zion Church . Today , it welcomes visitors as a museum and education center .
Tubman was celebrated in many other ways throughout the nation in the 20th century . Dozens of schools were named in her honor , and both the Harriet Tubman Home in Auburn and the Harriet Tubman Museum in Cambridge serve as monuments to her life . In 1937 the gravestone for Harriet Tubman Davis was erected by the Empire State Federation of Women 's Clubs ; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999 . In 1944 , the United States Maritime Commission launched the SS Harriet Tubman , its first Liberty ship ever named for a black woman . In 1978 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in honor of Tubman which made her the first African @-@ American woman to be honored on a US Postage stamp . In March 2013 , President Barack Obama signed a proclamation creating Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument on the Eastern Shore .
Tubman is commemorated together with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Amelia Bloomer , and Sojourner Truth in the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church on July 20 . The calendar of saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America remembers Tubman and Sojurner Truth on March 10 .
In 1999 , the Canadian government designated the Salem Chapel , British Methodist Episcopal Church in St. Catharines a National Historic Site because of its association with Tubman . In the same year , the city of Boston , Massachusetts , erected a statue to Tubman ; it was the first memorial to a woman on city @-@ owned land .
In 2002 , scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Harriet Tubman on his list of the 100 Greatest African Americans . In 2008 , Towson University named a new residence hall after Tubman . A statue of Tubman was unveiled in Manhattan in 2008 , and another on the campus of Salisbury University in 2009 .
In 2014 the asteroid ( 241528 ) Tubman was named after Harriet Tubman .
= = = Historiography = = =
Bradford 's biographies were followed by Earl Conrad 's Harriet Tubman : Negro Soldier and Abolitionist . Conrad had experienced great difficulty in finding a publisher – the search took four years – and endured disdain and contempt for his efforts to construct a more objective , detailed account of Tubman 's life for adults . Several highly dramatized versions of Tubman 's life had been written for children , and many more came later , but Conrad wrote in an academic style to document the historical importance of her work for scholars and the nation 's memory . The book was finally published by Carter G. Woodson 's Associated Publishers in 1942 . Despite her popularity and significance , another Tubman biography for adults did not appear for 60 years , until Jean Humez published a close reading of Tubman 's life stories in 2003 , and Larson and Clinton both published their biographies in 2004 .
= = = National Historic Site and Person of Canada = = =
In southern Ontario , the Salem Chapel BME Church was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1999 , on the recommendation of the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada . The chapel , in St. Catharines , Ontario , was a focus of Harriet Tubman 's years in the city , when she lived nearby , in what was a major terminus of the Underground Railroad and center of abolitionist work . In Tubman 's time , the chapel was known as Bethel Chapel , and was initially part of the African Methodist Episcopal ( AME ) Church , prior to a change in 1856 .
Tubman , herself , was designated a National Historic Person of Canada after the Historic Sites and Monuments Board recommended it , in 2005 . Several historical markers — two federal , one provincial , and one civic — surround the active chapel , as well as a bust of Tubman .
= = = National Park designations = = =
As early as 2008 , advocacy groups in Maryland and New York , and their federal representatives , pushed for legislation to establish two national historical parks honoring Harriet Tubman : one to include her place of birth on Maryland 's eastern shore , and sites along the route of the Underground Railroad in Caroline , Dorchester , and Talbot Counties in Maryland ; and a second to include her home in Auburn , NY . For the next six years , bills to do so were introduced , but were never advanced or enacted . Meantime , in 2013 , President Barack Obama used his executive authority to create the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument , consisting of federal lands on Maryland 's Eastern Shore at Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge .
Subsequently , in December 2014 , authorization for a national historical park designation was incorporated in the 2015 National Defense Authorization Act . Despite opposition from some legislators , the bill passed with bipartisan support , and was signed into law by the President on December 19 , 2014 .
As enacted , the legislation authorized establishment of the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Cayuga County , New York , pending the acquisition of lands , and created the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park in Maryland . The latter was created from within the authorized boundary of the national monument , while permitting later additional acquisitions .
The Harriet Tubman House in Boston 's South End is a site on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail .
= = = Twenty @-@ dollar bill = = =
On April 20 , 2016 , U.S. Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced plans to add Tubman to the front of the twenty @-@ dollar bill , moving President Andrew Jackson , a slave owner , to the rear of the bill . Lew instructed the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to expedite the redesign process , though the new bill will not enter circulation until after 2020 .
|
= Dirac delta function =
In mathematics , the Dirac delta function , or δ function , is a generalized function , or distribution , on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero , with an integral of one over the entire real line . The delta function is sometimes thought of as a hypothetical function whose graph is an infinitely high , infinitely thin spike at the origin , with total area one under the spike , and physically represents the density of an idealized point mass or point charge . It was introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac .
From a purely mathematical viewpoint , the Dirac delta is not strictly a function , because any extended @-@ real function that is equal to zero everywhere but a single point must have total integral zero . The delta function only makes sense as a mathematical object when it appears inside an integral . From this perspective the Dirac delta can usually be manipulated as though it were a function . The formal rules obeyed by this " function " are part of the operational calculus , a standard tool kit of physics and engineering . The operational calculus , and in particular the delta function , was viewed with suspicion by mathematicians of the early 20th century , until a satisfactory rigorous theory was introduced by Laurent Schwartz in the 1950s . Formally , the delta function must be defined as the distribution that corresponds to a probability measure supported at the origin . In many applications , the Dirac delta is regarded as a kind of limit ( a weak limit ) of a sequence of functions having a tall spike at the origin . The approximating functions of the sequence are thus " approximate " or " nascent " delta functions .
In the context of signal processing the delta function is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol ( or function ) . Its discrete analog is the Kronecker delta function , which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1 .
= = Overview = =
The graph of the delta function is usually thought of as following the whole x @-@ axis and the positive y @-@ axis . Despite its name , the delta function is not truly a function , at least not a usual one with range in real numbers . For example , the objects f ( x ) |
= δ ( x ) and g ( x ) =
0 are equal everywhere except at x |
= 0 yet have integrals that are different . According to Lebesgue integration theory , if f and g are functions such that f =
g almost everywhere , then f is integrable if and only if g is integrable and the integrals of f and g are identical . Rigorous treatment of the Dirac delta requires measure theory or the theory of distributions .
The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function ( an impulse ) , and other similar abstractions such as a point charge , point mass or electron point . For example , to calculate the dynamics of a baseball being hit by a bat , one can approximate the force of the bat hitting the baseball by a delta function . In doing so , one not only simplifies the equations , but one also is able to calculate the motion of the baseball by only considering the total impulse of the bat against the ball rather than requiring knowledge of the details of how the bat transferred energy to the ball .
In applied mathematics , the delta function is often manipulated as a kind of limit ( a weak limit ) of a sequence of functions , each member of which has a tall spike at the origin : for example , a sequence of Gaussian distributions centered at the origin with variance tending to zero .
= = History = =
Joseph Fourier presented what is now called the Fourier integral theorem in his treatise Théorie analytique de la chaleur in the form :
<formula>
which is tantamount to the introduction of the δ @-@ function in the form :
<formula>
Later , Augustin Cauchy expressed the theorem using exponentials :
<formula>
Cauchy pointed out that in some circumstances the order of integration in this result was significant .
As justified using the theory of distributions , the Cauchy equation can be rearranged to resemble Fourier 's original formulation and expose the δ @-@ function as :
<formula>
where the δ @-@ function is expressed as :
<formula>
A rigorous interpretation of the exponential form and the various limitations upon the function f necessary for its application extended over several centuries . The problems with a classical interpretation are explained as follows :
The greatest drawback of the classical Fourier transformation is a rather narrow class of functions ( originals ) for which it can be effectively computed . Namely , it is necessary that these functions decrease sufficiently rapidly to zero ( in the neighborhood of infinity ) in order to ensure the existence of the Fourier integral . For example , the Fourier transform of such simple functions as polynomials does not exist in the classical sense . The extension of the classical Fourier transformation to distributions considerably enlarged the class of functions that could be transformed and this removed many obstacles .
Further developments included generalization of the Fourier integral , " beginning with Plancherel 's pathbreaking L2 @-@ theory ( 1910 ) , continuing with Wiener 's and Bochner 's works ( around 1930 ) and culminating with the amalgamation into L. Schwartz 's theory of distributions ( 1945 ) ... " , and leading to the formal development of the Dirac delta function .
An infinitesimal formula for an infinitely tall , unit impulse delta function ( infinitesimal version of Cauchy distribution ) explicitly appears in an 1827 text of Augustin Louis Cauchy . Siméon Denis Poisson considered the issue in connection with the study of wave propagation as did Gustav Kirchhoff somewhat later . Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of Gaussians , which also corresponded to Lord Kelvin 's notion of a point heat source . At the end of the 19th century , Oliver Heaviside used formal Fourier series to manipulate the unit impulse . The Dirac delta function as such was introduced as a " convenient notation " by Paul Dirac in his influential 1930 book The Principles of Quantum Mechanics . He called it the " delta function " since he used it as a continuous analogue of the discrete Kronecker delta .
= = Definitions = =
The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the origin , where it is infinite ,
<formula>
and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity
<formula>
This is merely a heuristic characterization . The Dirac delta is not a function in the traditional sense as no function defined on the real numbers has these properties . The Dirac delta function can be rigorously defined either as a distribution or as a measure .
= = = As a measure = = =
One way to rigorously capture the notion of the Dirac delta function is to define a measure , which accepts as an argument a subset A of the real line R , and returns δ ( A ) |
= 1 if 0 ∈ A , and δ ( A ) =
0 otherwise . If the delta function is conceptualized as modeling an idealized point mass at 0 , then δ ( A ) represents the mass contained in the set A. One may then define the integral against δ as the integral of a function against this mass distribution . Formally , the Lebesgue integral provides the necessary analytic device . The Lebesgue integral with respect to the measure δ satisfies
<formula>
for all continuous compactly supported functions f . The measure δ is not absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure — in fact , it is a singular measure . Consequently , the delta measure has no Radon – Nikodym derivative — no true function for which the property
<formula>
holds . As a result , the latter notation is a convenient abuse of notation , and not a standard ( Riemann or Lebesgue ) integral .
As a probability measure on R , the delta measure is characterized by its cumulative distribution function , which is the unit step function
<formula>
This means that H ( x ) is the integral of the cumulative indicator function 1 ( − ∞ , x ] with respect to the measure δ ; to wit ,
<formula>
Thus in particular the integral of the delta function against a continuous function can be properly understood as a Stieltjes integral :
<formula>
All higher moments of δ are zero . In particular , characteristic function and moment generating function are both equal to one .
= = = As a distribution = = =
In the theory of distributions a generalized function is thought of not as a function itself , but only in relation to how it affects other functions when it is " integrated " against them . In keeping with this philosophy , to define the delta function properly , it is enough to say what the " integral " of the delta function against a sufficiently " good " test function is . If the delta function is already understood as a measure , then the Lebesgue integral of a test function against that measure supplies the necessary integral .
A typical space of test functions consists of all smooth functions on R with compact support . As a distribution , the Dirac delta is a linear functional on the space of test functions and is defined by
for every test function φ .
For δ to be properly a distribution , it must be continuous in a suitable topology on the space of test functions . In general , for a linear functional S on the space of test functions to define a distribution , it is necessary and sufficient that , for every positive integer N there is an integer MN and a constant CN such that for every test function φ , one has the inequality
<formula>
With the δ distribution , one has such an inequality ( with CN |
= 1 ) with MN =
0 for all N. Thus δ is a distribution of order zero . It is , furthermore , a distribution with compact support ( the support being { 0 } ) .
The delta distribution can also be defined in a number of equivalent ways . For instance , it is the distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function . This means that , for every test function φ , one has
<formula>
Intuitively , if integration by parts were permitted , then the latter integral should simplify to
<formula>
and indeed , a form of integration by parts is permitted for the Stieltjes integral , and in that case one does have
<formula>
In the context of measure theory , the Dirac measure gives rise to a distribution by integration . Conversely , equation ( 1 ) defines a Daniell integral on the space of all compactly supported continuous functions φ which , by the Riesz representation theorem , can be represented as the Lebesgue integral of φ with respect to some Radon measure .
Generally , when the term " Dirac delta function " is used , it is in the sense of distributions rather than measures , the Dirac measure being among several terms for the corresponding notion in measure theory . Some sources may also use the term Dirac delta distribution .
= = = Generalizations = = =
The delta function can be defined in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn as the measure such that
<formula>
for every compactly supported continuous function f . As a measure , the n @-@ dimensional delta function is the product measure of the 1 @-@ dimensional delta functions in each variable separately . Thus , formally , with x = ( x1 , x2 , ... , xn ) , one has
The delta function can also be defined in the sense of distributions exactly as above in the one @-@ dimensional case . However , despite widespread use in engineering contexts , ( 2 ) should be manipulated with care , since the product of distributions can only be defined under quite narrow circumstances .
The notion of a Dirac measure makes sense on any set . Thus if X is a set , x0 ∈ X is a marked point , and Σ is any sigma algebra of subsets of X , then the measure defined on sets A ∈ Σ by
<formula>
is the delta measure or unit mass concentrated at x0 .
Another common generalization of the delta function is to a differentiable manifold where most of its properties as a distribution can also be exploited because of the differentiable structure . The delta function on a manifold M centered at the point x0 ∈ M is defined as the following distribution :
for all compactly supported smooth real @-@ valued functions φ on M. A common special case of this construction is when M is an open set in the Euclidean space Rn .
On a locally compact Hausdorff space X , the Dirac delta measure concentrated at a point x is the Radon measure associated with the Daniell integral ( 3 ) on compactly supported continuous functions φ . At this level of generality , calculus as such is no longer possible , however a variety of techniques from abstract analysis are available . For instance , the mapping <formula> is a continuous embedding of X into the space of finite Radon measures on X , equipped with its vague topology . Moreover , the convex hull of the image of X under this embedding is dense in the space of probability measures on X.
= = Properties = =
= = = Scaling and symmetry = = =
The delta function satisfies the following scaling property for a non @-@ zero scalar α :
<formula>
and so
In particular , the delta function is an even distribution , in the sense that
<formula>
which is homogeneous of degree − 1 .
= = = Algebraic properties = = =
The distributional product of δ with x is equal to zero :
<formula>
Conversely , if xf ( x ) = xg ( x ) , where f and g are distributions , then
<formula>
for some constant c .
= = = Translation = = =
The integral of the time @-@ delayed Dirac delta is given by :
<formula>
This is sometimes referred to as the sifting property or the sampling property . The delta function is said to " sift out " the value at t = T.
It follows that the effect of convolving a function f ( t ) with the time @-@ delayed Dirac delta is to time @-@ delay f ( t ) by the same amount :
This holds under the precise condition that f be a tempered distribution ( see the discussion of the Fourier transform below ) . As a special case , for instance , we have the identity ( understood in the distribution sense )
<formula>
= = = Composition with a function = = =
More generally , the delta distribution may be composed with a smooth function g ( x ) in such a way that the familiar change of variables formula holds , that
<formula>
provided that g is a continuously differentiable function with g ′ nowhere zero . That is , there is a unique way to assign meaning to the distribution <formula> so that this identity holds for all compactly supported test functions f . Therefore , the domain must be broken up to exclude the g ′ |
= 0 point . This distribution satisfies δ ( g ( x ) ) =
0 if g is nowhere zero , and otherwise if g has a real root at x0 , then
<formula>
It is natural therefore to define the composition δ ( g ( x ) ) for continuously differentiable functions g by
<formula>
where the sum extends over all roots of g ( x ) , which are assumed to be simple . Thus , for example
<formula>
In the integral form the generalized scaling property may be written as
<formula>
= = = Properties in n dimensions = = =
The delta distribution in an n @-@ dimensional space satisfies the following scaling property instead :
<formula>
so that δ is a homogeneous distribution of degree − n . Under any reflection or rotation ρ , the delta function is invariant :
<formula>
As in the one @-@ variable case , it is possible to define the composition of δ with a bi @-@ Lipschitz function g : Rn → Rn uniquely so that the identity
<formula>
for all compactly supported functions f .
Using the coarea formula from geometric measure theory , one can also define the composition of the delta function with a submersion from one Euclidean space to another one of different dimension ; the result is a type of current . In the special case of a continuously differentiable function g : Rn → R such that the gradient of g is nowhere zero , the following identity holds
<formula>
where the integral on the right is over g − 1 ( 0 ) , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional surface defined by g ( x ) = 0 with respect to the Minkowski content measure . This is known as a simple layer integral .
More generally , if S is a smooth hypersurface of Rn , then we can associate to S the distribution that integrates any compactly supported smooth function g over S :
<formula>
where σ is the hypersurface measure associated to S. This generalization is associated with the potential theory of simple layer potentials on S. If D is a domain in Rn with smooth boundary S , then δS is equal to the normal derivative of the indicator function of D in the distribution sense :
<formula>
where n is the outward normal . For a proof , see e.g. the article on the surface delta function .
= = Fourier transform = =
The delta function is a tempered distribution , and therefore it has a well @-@ defined Fourier transform . Formally , one finds
<formula>
Properly speaking , the Fourier transform of a distribution is defined by imposing self @-@ adjointness of the Fourier transform under the duality pairing <formula> of tempered distributions with Schwartz functions . Thus <formula> is defined as the unique tempered distribution satisfying
<formula>
for all Schwartz functions φ . And indeed it follows from this that <formula>
As a result of this identity , the convolution of the delta function with any other tempered distribution S is simply S :
<formula>
That is to say that δ is an identity element for the convolution on tempered distributions , and in fact the space of compactly supported distributions under convolution is an associative algebra with identity the delta function . This property is fundamental in signal processing , as convolution with a tempered distribution is a linear time @-@ invariant system , and applying the linear time @-@ invariant system measures its impulse response . The impulse response can be computed to any desired degree of accuracy by choosing a suitable approximation for δ , and once it is known , it characterizes the system completely . See LTI system theory : Impulse response and convolution .
The inverse Fourier transform of the tempered distribution f ( ξ ) = 1 is the delta function . Formally , this is expressed
<formula>
and more rigorously , it follows since
<formula>
for all Schwartz functions f .
In these terms , the delta function provides a suggestive statement of the orthogonality property of the Fourier kernel on R. Formally , one has
<formula>
This is , of course , shorthand for the assertion that the Fourier transform of the tempered distribution
<formula>
is
<formula>
which again follows by imposing self @-@ adjointness of the Fourier transform .
By analytic continuation of the Fourier transform , the Laplace transform of the delta function is found to be
<formula>
= = Distributional derivatives = =
The distributional derivative of the Dirac delta distribution is the distribution δ ′ defined on compactly supported smooth test functions φ by
<formula>
The first equality here is a kind of integration by parts , for if δ were a true function then
<formula>
The k @-@ th derivative of δ is defined similarly as the distribution given on test functions by
<formula>
In particular , δ is an infinitely differentiable distribution .
The first derivative of the delta function is the distributional limit of the difference quotients :
<formula>
More properly , one has
<formula>
where τh is the translation operator , defined on functions by τhφ ( x ) = φ ( x + h ) , and on a distribution S by
<formula>
In the theory of electromagnetism , the first derivative of the delta function represents a point magnetic dipole situated at the origin . Accordingly , it is referred to as a dipole or the doublet function .
The derivative of the delta function satisfies a number of basic properties , including :
<formula>
Furthermore , the convolution of δ ′ with a compactly supported smooth function f is
<formula>
which follows from the properties of the distributional derivative of a convolution .
= = = Higher dimensions = = =
More generally , on an open set U in the n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn , the Dirac delta distribution centered at a point a ∈ U is defined by
<formula>
for all φ ∈ S ( U ) , the space of all smooth compactly supported functions on U. If α = ( α1 , ... , αn ) is any multi @-@ index and ∂ α denotes the associated mixed partial derivative operator , then the αth derivative ∂ αδa of δa is given by
<formula>
That is , the αth derivative of δa is the distribution whose value on any test function φ is the αth derivative of φ at a ( with the appropriate positive or negative sign ) .
The first partial derivatives of the delta function are thought of as double layers along the coordinate planes . More generally , the normal derivative of a simple layer supported on a surface is a double layer supported on that surface , and represents a laminar magnetic monopole . Higher derivatives of the delta function are known in physics as multipoles .
Higher derivatives enter into mathematics naturally as the building blocks for the complete structure of distributions with point support . If S is any distribution on U supported on the set { a } consisting of a single point , then there is an integer m and coefficients cα such that
<formula>
= = Representations of the delta function = =
The delta function can be viewed as the limit of a sequence of functions
<formula>
where ηε ( x ) is sometimes called a nascent delta function . This limit is meant in a weak sense : either that
for all continuous functions f having compact support , or that this limit holds for all smooth functions f with compact support . The difference between these two slightly different modes of weak convergence is often subtle : the former is convergence in the vague topology of measures , and the latter is convergence in the sense of distributions .
= = = Approximations to the identity = = =
Typically a nascent delta function ηε can be constructed in the following manner . Let η be an absolutely integrable function on R of total integral 1 , and define
<formula>
In n dimensions , one uses instead the scaling
<formula>
Then a simple change of variables shows that ηε also has integral 1 . One shows easily that ( 5 ) holds for all continuous compactly supported functions f , and so ηε converges weakly to δ in the sense of measures .
The ηε constructed in this way are known as an approximation to the identity . This terminology is because the space L1 ( R ) of absolutely integrable functions is closed under the operation of convolution of functions : f ∗ g ∈ L1 ( R ) whenever f and g are in L1 ( R ) . However , there is no identity in L1 ( R ) for the convolution product : no element h such that f ∗ h
= f for all f . Nevertheless , the sequence ηε does approximate such an identity in the sense that
<formula>
This limit holds in the sense of mean convergence ( convergence in L1 ) . Further conditions on the ηε , for instance that it be a mollifier associated to a compactly supported function , are needed to ensure pointwise convergence almost everywhere .
If the initial η =
η1 is itself smooth and compactly supported then the sequence is called a mollifier . The standard mollifier is obtained by choosing η to be a suitably normalized bump function , for instance
<formula>
In some situations such as numerical analysis , a piecewise linear approximation to the identity is desirable . This can be obtained by taking η1 to be a hat function . With this choice of η1 , one has
<formula>
which are all continuous and compactly supported , although not smooth and so not a mollifier .
= = = Probabilistic considerations = = =
In the context of probability theory , it is natural to impose the additional condition that the initial η1 in an approximation to the identity should be positive , as such a function then represents a probability distribution . Convolution with a probability distribution is sometimes favorable because it does not result in overshoot or undershoot , as the output is a convex combination of the input values , and thus falls between the maximum and minimum of the input function . Taking η1 to be any probability distribution at all , and letting ηε ( x ) = η1 ( x / ε ) / ε as above will give rise to an approximation to the identity . In general this converges more rapidly to a delta function if , in addition , η has mean 0 and has small higher moments . For instance , if η1 is the uniform distribution on [ − 1 / 2 , 1 / 2 ] , also known as the rectangular function , then :
<formula>
Another example is with the Wigner semicircle distribution
<formula>
This is continuous and compactly supported , but not a mollifier because it is not smooth .
= = = Semigroups = = =
Nascent delta functions often arise as convolution semigroups . This amounts to the further constraint that the convolution of ηε with ηδ must satisfy
<formula>
for all ε , δ > 0 . Convolution semigroups in L1 that form a nascent delta function are always an approximation to the identity in the above sense , however the semigroup condition is quite a strong restriction .
In practice , semigroups approximating the delta function arise as fundamental solutions or Green 's functions to physically motivated elliptic or parabolic partial differential equations . In the context of applied mathematics , semigroups arise as the output of a linear time @-@ invariant system . Abstractly , if A is a linear operator acting on functions of x , then a convolution semigroup arises by solving the initial value problem
<formula>
in which the limit is as usual understood in the weak sense . Setting ηε ( x )
= η ( ε , x ) gives the associated nascent delta function .
Some examples of physically important convolution semigroups arising from such a fundamental solution include the following .
The heat kernel
The heat kernel , defined by
<formula>
represents the temperature in an infinite wire at time t > 0 , if a unit of heat energy is stored at the origin of the wire at time t =
0 . This semigroup evolves according to the one @-@ dimensional heat equation :
<formula>
In probability theory , ηε ( x ) is a normal distribution of variance ε and mean 0 . It represents the probability density at time t = ε of the position of a particle starting at the origin following a standard Brownian motion . In this context , the semigroup condition is then an expression of the Markov property of Brownian motion .
In higher @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn , the heat kernel is
<formula>
and has the same physical interpretation , mutatis mutandis . It also represents a nascent delta function in the sense that ηε → δ in the distribution sense as ε → 0 .
The Poisson kernel
The Poisson kernel
<formula>
is the fundamental solution of the Laplace equation in the upper half @-@ plane . It represents the electrostatic potential in a semi @-@ infinite plate whose potential along the edge is held at fixed at the delta function . The Poisson kernel is also closely related to the Cauchy distribution . This semigroup evolves according to the equation
<formula>
where the operator is rigorously defined as the Fourier multiplier
<formula>
= = = Oscillatory integrals = = =
In areas of physics such as wave propagation and wave mechanics , the equations involved are hyperbolic and so may have more singular solutions . As a result , the nascent delta functions that arise as fundamental solutions of the associated Cauchy problems are generally oscillatory integrals . An example , which comes from a solution of the Euler – Tricomi equation of transonic gas dynamics , is the rescaled Airy function
<formula>
Although using the Fourier transform , it is easy to see that this generates a semigroup in some sense , it is not absolutely integrable and so cannot define a semigroup in the above strong sense . Many nascent delta functions constructed as oscillatory integrals only converge in the sense of distributions ( an example is the Dirichlet kernel below ) , rather than in the sense of measures .
Another example is the Cauchy problem for the wave equation in R1 + 1 :
<formula>
The solution u represents the displacement from equilibrium of an infinite elastic string , with an initial disturbance at the origin .
Other approximations to the identity of this kind include the sinc function ( used widely in electronics and telecommunications )
<formula>
and the Bessel function
<formula>
= = = Plane wave decomposition = = =
One approach to the study of a linear partial differential equation
<formula>
where L is a differential operator on Rn , is to seek first a fundamental solution , which is a solution of the equation
<formula>
When L is particularly simple , this problem can often be resolved using the Fourier transform directly ( as in the case of the Poisson kernel and heat kernel already mentioned ) . For more complicated operators , it is sometimes easier first to consider an equation of the form
<formula>
where h is a plane wave function , meaning that it has the form
<formula>
for some vector ξ . Such an equation can be resolved ( if the coefficients of L are analytic functions ) by the Cauchy – Kovalevskaya theorem or ( if the coefficients of L are constant ) by quadrature . So , if the delta function can be decomposed into plane waves , then one can in principle solve linear partial differential equations .
Such a decomposition of the delta function into plane waves was part of a general technique first introduced essentially by Johann Radon , and then developed in this form by Fritz John ( 1955 ) . Choose k so that n + k is an even integer , and for a real number s , put
<formula>
Then δ is obtained by applying a power of the Laplacian to the integral with respect to the unit sphere measure dω of g ( x · ξ ) for ξ in the unit sphere Sn − 1 :
<formula>
The Laplacian here is interpreted as a weak derivative , so that this equation is taken to mean that , for any test function φ ,
<formula>
The result follows from the formula for the Newtonian potential ( the fundamental solution of Poisson 's equation ) . This is essentially a form of the inversion formula for the Radon transform , because it recovers the value of φ ( x ) from its integrals over hyperplanes . For instance , if n is odd and k = 1 , then the integral on the right hand side is
<formula>
where Rφ ( ξ , p ) is the Radon transform of φ :
<formula>
An alternative equivalent expression of the plane wave decomposition , from Gel 'fand & Shilov ( 1966 – 1968 , I , § 3 @.@ 10 ) , is
<formula>
for n even , and
<formula>
for n odd .
= = = Fourier kernels = = =
In the study of Fourier series , a major question consists of determining whether and in what sense the Fourier series associated with a periodic function converges to the function . The nth partial sum of the Fourier series of a function f of period 2π is defined by convolution ( on the interval [ − π , π ] ) with the Dirichlet kernel :
<formula>
Thus ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
A fundamental result of elementary Fourier series states that the Dirichlet kernel tends to the a multiple of the delta function as N → ∞ . This is interpreted in the distribution sense , that
<formula>
for every compactly supported smooth function f . Thus , formally one has
<formula>
on the interval [ − π , π ] .
In spite of this , the result does not hold for all compactly supported continuous functions : that is DN does not converge weakly in the sense of measures . The lack of convergence of the Fourier series has led to the introduction of a variety of summability methods in order to produce convergence . The method of Cesàro summation leads to the Fejér kernel
<formula>
The Fejér kernels tend to the delta function in a stronger sense that
<formula>
for every compactly supported continuous function f . The implication is that the Fourier series of any continuous function is Cesàro summable to the value of the function at every point .
= = = Hilbert space theory = = =
The Dirac delta distribution is a densely defined unbounded linear functional on the Hilbert space L2 of square integrable functions . Indeed , smooth compactly support functions are dense in L2 , and the action of the delta distribution on such functions is well @-@ defined . In many applications , it is possible to identify subspaces of L2 and to give a stronger topology on which the delta function defines a bounded linear functional .
Sobolev spaces
The Sobolev embedding theorem for Sobolev spaces on the real line R implies that any square @-@ integrable function f such that
<formula>
is automatically continuous , and satisfies in particular
<formula>
Thus δ is a bounded linear functional on the Sobolev space H1 . Equivalently δ is an element of the continuous dual space H − 1 of H1 . More generally , in n dimensions , one has δ ∈ H − s ( Rn ) provided s > n / 2 .
= = = = Spaces of holomorphic functions = = = =
In complex analysis , the delta function enters via Cauchy 's integral formula which asserts that if D is a domain in the complex plane with smooth boundary , then
<formula>
for all holomorphic functions f in D that are continuous on the closure of D. As a result , the delta function δz is represented on this class of holomorphic functions by the Cauchy integral :
<formula>
More generally , let H2 ( ∂ D ) be the Hardy space consisting of the closure in L2 ( ∂ D ) of all holomorphic functions in D continuous up to the boundary of D. Then functions in H2 ( ∂ D ) uniquely extend to holomorphic functions in D , and the Cauchy integral formula continues to hold . In particular for z ∈ D , the delta function δz is a continuous linear functional on H2 ( ∂ D ) . This is a special case of the situation in several complex variables in which , for smooth domains D , the Szegő kernel plays the role of the Cauchy integral .
= = = = Resolutions of the identity = = = =
Given a complete orthonormal basis set of functions { φn } in a separable Hilbert space , for example , the normalized eigenvectors of a compact self @-@ adjoint operator , any vector f can be expressed as :
<formula>
The coefficients { αn } are found as :
<formula>
which may be represented by the notation :
<formula>
a form of the bra – ket notation of Dirac . Adopting this notation , the expansion of f takes the dyadic form :
<formula>
Letting I denote the identity operator on the Hilbert space , the expression
<formula>
is called a resolution of the identity . When the Hilbert space is the space L2 ( D ) of square @-@ integrable functions on a domain D , the quantity :
<formula>
is an integral operator , and the expression for f can be rewritten as :
<formula>
The right @-@ hand side converges to f in the L2 sense . It need not hold in a pointwise sense , even when f is a continuous function . Nevertheless , it is common to abuse notation and write
<formula>
resulting in the representation of the delta function :
<formula>
With a suitable rigged Hilbert space ( Φ , L2 ( D ) , Φ * ) where Φ ⊂ L2 ( D ) contains all compactly supported smooth functions , this summation may converge in Φ * , depending on the properties of the basis φn . In most cases of practical interest , the orthonormal basis comes from an integral or differential operator , in which case the series converges in the distribution sense .
= = = Infinitesimal delta functions = = =
Cauchy used an infinitesimal α to write down a unit impulse , infinitely tall and narrow Dirac @-@ type delta function δα satisfying <formula> in a number of articles in 1827 . Cauchy defined an infinitesimal in Cours d 'Analyse ( 1827 ) in terms of a sequence tending to zero . Namely , such a null sequence becomes an infinitesimal in Cauchy 's and Lazare Carnot 's terminology .
Non @-@ standard analysis allows one to rigorously treat infinitesimals . The article by Yamashita ( 2007 ) contains a bibliography on modern Dirac delta functions in the context of an infinitesimal @-@ enriched continuum provided by the hyperreals . Here the Dirac delta can be given by an actual function , having the property that for every real function F one has <formula> as anticipated by Fourier and Cauchy .
= = Dirac comb = =
A so @-@ called uniform " pulse train " of Dirac delta measures , which is known as a Dirac comb , or as the Shah distribution , creates a sampling function , often used in digital signal processing ( DSP ) and discrete time signal analysis . The Dirac comb is given as the infinite sum , whose limit is understood in the distribution sense ,
<formula>
which is a sequence of point masses at each of the integers .
Up to an overall normalizing constant , the Dirac comb is equal to its own Fourier transform . This is significant because if f is any Schwartz function , then the periodization of f is given by the convolution
<formula>
In particular ,
<formula>
is precisely the Poisson summation formula .
= = Sokhotski – Plemelj theorem = =
The Sokhotski – Plemelj theorem , important in quantum mechanics , relates the delta function to the distribution p.v.1 / x , the Cauchy principal value of the function 1 / x , defined by
<formula>
Sokhotsky 's formula states that
<formula>
Here the limit is understood in the distribution sense , that for all compactly supported smooth functions f ,
<formula>
= = Relationship to the Kronecker delta = =
The Kronecker delta δij is the quantity defined by
<formula>
for all integers i , j . This function then satisfies the following analog of the sifting property : if <formula> is any doubly infinite sequence , then
<formula>
Similarly , for any real or complex valued continuous function f on R , the Dirac delta satisfies the sifting property
<formula>
This exhibits the Kronecker delta function as a discrete analog of the Dirac delta function .
= = Applications = =
= = = Probability theory = = =
In probability theory and statistics , the Dirac delta function is often used to represent a discrete distribution , or a partially discrete , partially continuous distribution , using a probability density function ( which is normally used to represent fully continuous distributions ) . For example , the probability density function f ( x ) of a discrete distribution consisting of points x = { x1 , ... , xn } , with corresponding probabilities p1 , ... , pn , can be written as
<formula>
As another example , consider a distribution which 6 / 10 of the time returns a standard normal distribution , and 4 / 10 of the time returns exactly the value 3 @.@ 5 ( i.e. a partly continuous , partly discrete mixture distribution ) . The density function of this distribution can be written as
<formula>
The delta function is also used in a completely different way to represent the local time of a diffusion process ( like Brownian motion ) . The local time of a stochastic process B ( t ) is given by
<formula>
and represents the amount of time that the process spends at the point x in the range of the process . More precisely , in one dimension this integral can be written
<formula>
where 1 [ x − ε , x + ε ] is the indicator function of the interval [ x − ε , x + ε ] .
= = = Quantum mechanics = = =
We give an example of how the delta function is expedient in quantum mechanics . The wave function of a particle gives the probability amplitude of finding a particle within a given region of space . Wave functions are assumed to be elements of the Hilbert space L2 of square @-@ integrable functions , and the total probability of finding a particle within a given interval is the integral of the magnitude of the wave function squared over the interval . A set { φn } of wave functions is orthonormal if they are normalized by
<formula>
where δ here refers to the Kronecker delta . A set of orthonormal wave functions is complete in the space of square @-@ integrable functions if any wave function ψ can be expressed as a combination of the φn :
<formula>
with <formula> . Complete orthonormal systems of wave functions appear naturally as the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian ( of a bound system ) in quantum mechanics that measures the energy levels , which are called the eigenvalues . The set of eigenvalues , in this case , is known as the spectrum of the Hamiltonian . In bra – ket notation , as above , this equality implies the resolution of the identity :
<formula>
Here the eigenvalues are assumed to be discrete , but the set of eigenvalues of an observable may be continuous rather than discrete . An example is the position observable , Qψ ( x ) = xψ ( x ) . The spectrum of the position ( in one dimension ) is the entire real line , and is called a continuous spectrum . However , unlike the Hamiltonian , the position operator lacks proper eigenfunctions . The conventional way to overcome this shortcoming is to widen the class of available functions by allowing distributions as well : that is , to replace the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics by an appropriate rigged Hilbert space . In this context , the position operator has a complete set of eigen @-@ distributions , labeled by the points y of the real line , given by
<formula>
The eigenfunctions of position are denoted by <formula> in Dirac notation , and are known as position eigenstates .
Similar considerations apply to the eigenstates of the momentum operator , or indeed any other self @-@ adjoint unbounded operator P on the Hilbert space , provided the spectrum of P is continuous and there are no degenerate eigenvalues . In that case , there is a set Ω of real numbers ( the spectrum ) , and a collection φy of distributions indexed by the elements of Ω , such that
<formula>
That is , φy are the eigenvectors of P. If the eigenvectors are normalized so that
<formula>
in the distribution sense , then for any test function ψ ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
That is , as in the discrete case , there is a resolution of the identity
<formula>
where the operator @-@ valued integral is again understood in the weak sense . If the spectrum of P has both continuous and discrete parts , then the resolution of the identity involves a summation over the discrete spectrum and an integral over the continuous spectrum .
The delta function also has many more specialized applications in quantum mechanics , such as the delta potential models for a single and double potential well .
= = = Structural mechanics = = =
The delta function can be used in structural mechanics to describe transient loads or point loads acting on structures . The governing equation of a simple mass – spring system excited by a sudden force impulse I at time t
= 0 can be written
<formula>
where m is the mass , ξ the deflection and k the spring constant .
As another example , the equation governing the static deflection of a slender beam is , according to Euler – Bernoulli theory ,
<formula>
where EI is the bending stiffness of the beam , w the deflection , x the spatial coordinate and q ( x ) the load distribution . If a beam is loaded by a point force F at x =
x0 , the load distribution is written
<formula>
As integration of the delta function results in the Heaviside step function , it follows that the static deflection of a slender beam subject to multiple point loads is described by a set of piecewise polynomials .
Also a point moment acting on a beam can be described by delta functions . Consider two opposing point forces F at a distance d apart . They then produce a moment M |
= Fd acting on the beam . Now , let the distance d approach the limit zero , while M is kept constant . The load distribution , assuming a clockwise moment acting at x =
0 , is written
<formula>
Point moments can thus be represented by the derivative of the delta function . Integration of the beam equation again results in piecewise polynomial deflection .
|
= K @-@ 360 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 360 is a state highway in Cowley County the U.S. state of Kansas . It follows a route around the south and east sides of Winfield . The highway was established in 1997 . It starts at US @-@ 77 south of Winfield and proceeds east and north for 3 @.@ 469 miles ( 5 @.@ 583 km ) , ending at US @-@ 160 east of Winfield . K @-@ 360 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The highway has annual average daily traffic values ranging from 2235 to 1179 .
= = History = =
K @-@ 360 first appeared on the State of Kansas highway maps in 1997 . The routing of K @-@ 360 has remained unchanged .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 360 starts at an intersection with U.S. Route 77 just south of the city of Winfield , Kansas . From there , the highway heads east , curves slightly south , then heads northeast along the south side of Winfield for a total of 1 @.@ 571 miles ( 2 @.@ 528 km ) to an intersection with Wheat Road . After the intersection with Wheat Road the highway curves gently due east and then due north around the southeast side of Winfield , then continues north along the east side of Winfield a further 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to its terminus with U.S. Route 160 .
K @-@ 360 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The highway connects to the National Highway System at its intersection with U.S. Route 77 . The western sections of the highway are more traveled than the eastern sections , with an annual average daily traffic of 2235 on the first one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the route , 1703 on the next one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and 1179 on the final 1 @.@ 469 miles ( 2 @.@ 364 km ) of the route . The entirety of K @-@ 360 's route is paved with Portland cement concrete pavement .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Becoming Jane =
Becoming Jane is a 2007 British @-@ Irish biographical romantic drama film directed by Julian Jarrold . It depicts the early life of the English author Jane Austen and her lasting love for Thomas Langlois Lefroy . American actress Anne Hathaway stars as the title character , while her romantic interest is played by Scottish actor James McAvoy . Also appearing in the film are Julie Walters , James Cromwell and Maggie Smith . The film was produced in cooperation with several companies , including Ecosse Films and Blueprint Pictures . It also received funding from the Irish Film Board and the UK Film Council Premiere Fund .
The film is partly based on the 2003 book Becoming Jane Austen by Jon Hunter Spence , who was also hired as historical consultant . The final screenplay , developed by Sarah Williams and Kevin Hood , pieced together some known facts about Austen into a coherent story , in what co @-@ producer Graham Broadbent called " our own Austenesque landscape . " According to Hood , he attempted to weave together " what we know about Austen 's world from her books and letters , " and believed Austen 's personal life was the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice . Jarrold began production of the film in early 2006 , opting to shoot primarily in Ireland as he found it had better @-@ preserved locations than Hampshire , England , where Austen was raised .
Released firstly in the United Kingdom on 9 March 2007 and in other countries later in the year , Becoming Jane earned approximately $ 37 million worldwide . The film received mixed reviews from critics . Hathaway 's performance received mixed critical reception , with some reviewers negatively focusing on her nationality and accent . Commentators and scholars have analysed the presence of Austen characters and themes within the film , and also noted the implementation of mass marketing in the film 's release .
= = Plot = =
Jane Austen is the younger daughter of Reverend George Austen and his wife and has yet to find a suitable husband . She aspires to be a writer , to the dismay of her mother and proud delight of her father .
Thomas Lefroy is a promising lawyer with a bad reputation , which he describes as " typical " for people in the profession . Tom makes a terrible first impression upon meeting Jane , when he nearly falls asleep while she gives a reading of her work for the company . Overhearing his subsequent criticism , Jane cannot stand the arrogant Irishman . Meanwhile , she turns down the affections of other men , including Mr. Wisley , the nephew and heir of the wealthy Lady Gresham . Wisley proposes but Jane ultimately rejects him due to lack of affection . The mischievous Tom encounters Jane again ; they argue but increasingly take interest in each other and Tom demonstrates that he takes Jane 's literary aspirations seriously . In time they fall in love .
Tom , Jane , her brother Henry and Jane 's rich widowed cousin , Eliza , Comtesse de Feullide , conspire to receive an invitation from Tom 's uncle and benefactor , the Lord Chief Judge Langlois of London , for the rich " Madame La Comtesse " and her friends . This visit is meant to be a short break in their journey to see Jane 's brother , Edward . This would allow Judge Langlois to get to know Jane before and give a blessing for their marriage . Full of hope , Jane cannot sleep during the night at the Judge 's place . In a flow of inspiration , she then begins the writing of First Impressions , the manuscript that will become Pride and Prejudice .
However , Judge Langlois receives a letter informing him of the genteel poverty of Jane 's family and he refuses to give Tom his blessing , declaring that he would wish Tom to be the whoremonger he had been rather than allow him to live in poverty because of a bad marriage . Tom tells Jane that he cannot marry her and she is crushed , not knowing that Tom has a legitimate reason ; his family depends on him financially .
Jane returns home and soon learns that Tom has become engaged to someone else at the arrangement of his family . Jane accepts the marriage proposal of Mr. Wisley , whom she had earlier declined . Later , Tom realises he cannot live without Jane , and returns , asking Jane to run away with him , for " what value will there be in life , if we are not together ? " Jane agrees , and they leave , with only Jane 's sister Cassandra knowing they plan to marry in secret .
On the way , Jane stumbles upon a letter from Tom 's mother , and realises his situation : he sends money he receives from his uncle back to his parents and siblings , and his family cannot survive without it . She tells Tom that they cannot elope , not with so many people depending upon him . He insists that he and Jane must marry and tells her he will earn money , but Jane tells him that it will not be enough ; he will never be able to make enough money to support his dependents with a High Court judge ( his uncle ) as an enemy and with a penniless wife . Distraught , Tom asks her if she loves him , and she replies , " Yes , but if our love destroys your family , then it will destroy itself , in a long , slow degradation of guilt and regret and blame . " As she leaves , Jane catches a last glimpse of Tom through the carriage window as he briefly follows , the horses outpacing him .
Twenty years later , Jane , now a successful author and by choice unmarried , sees Tom during a gathering . Henry , now married to Eliza , brings Tom to her . Tom introduces his eldest daughter , who admires Jane 's novels . As she asks Jane to read aloud , he remonstrates her by her name , also Jane . Astonished that he named his eldest after her , Jane agrees to read . The last scene shows Tom 's daughter sitting by Jane as she reads aloud from Pride and Prejudice , while Tom watches Jane affectionately . As she concludes , their eyes meet , and Tom joins the rest of the company in honouring Jane and her work with applause .
= = Cast = =
Anne Hathaway as Jane Austen
James McAvoy as Thomas " Tom " Lefroy
Julie Walters as Mrs Austen
James Cromwell as Reverend George Austen
Maggie Smith as Lady Gresham
Lucy Cohu as Eliza , Comtesse de Feullide
Laurence Fox as Mr. Wisley
Joe Anderson as Henry Austen
Ian Richardson as Lord Chief Judge Langlois of London
Sophie Vavassuer as Jane Lefroy
Anna Maxwell Martin as Cassandra Austen
Leo Bill as John Warren
Jessica Ashworth as Lucy Lefroy
Eleanor Methven as Mrs Lefroy
Helen McCrory as Mrs Radcliffe
Tom Vaughan @-@ Lawlor as Robert Fowle
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
In 2004 , screenwriter Sarah Williams approached Douglas Rae and Robert Bernstein of Ecosse Films with the intention of creating a film about the life of Jane Austen , a popular eighteenth century English novelist . Williams had recently read Becoming Jane Austen , a 2003 biography that largely pieced together several known facts , such as Austen 's meeting Tom Lefroy on Christmas 1795 , into a coherent story about unrequited love . Bernstein agreed to adapt the work , believing that it depicted " a pivotal relationship in Jane Austen 's early life that was largely unknown to the public . " The book 's author , Jon Hunter Spence , was hired as a historical consultant on the film , with the task of " see [ ing ] that , given that the ' story ' is a work of imagination , the factual material was as accurate as possible within the limitations of the story . "
After Williams completed several drafts of the screenplay , the company hired Kevin Hood to aid in further script development . Bernstein believed that Hood 's past work contained " a romantic sensibility ... There is a poetic quality about his writing as well as there being a rigorous emotional truth which I thought was important for Jane . " Hood was attracted to the film because he believed " the story is such an important one and very much the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice . " Calling Austen a " genius " and " one of the top two or three prose writers of all time " , Hood thought that her relationship with Lefroy " was absolutely essential in shaping her work . " Hood acknowledged however that Becoming Jane is " based on the facts as they are known and the majority of characters did exist , as did many of the situations and circumstances in the film . Some have been fictionalised , weaving together what we know about Austen 's world from her books and letters , creating a rich Austenite landscape . "
Julian Jarrold became attached to direct the film in early 2005 . It was his second feature film , after Kinky Boots , which was released later that year . According to Bernstein , he " liked [ Jarrold 's ] style as it was modern and visceral , and I just had a feeling that he was the right choice . This piece needed to be handed with delicacy but also with a certain amount of brio and Julian was able to bring those two things to the production . " The director began work on the project in early 2006 , rereading the novels Pride and Prejudice , Sense and Sensibility , and Persuasion and also reviewing Austen biographies such as Spence 's book . Jarrold depended most heavily on the script , calling it " a rich , witty and clever screenplay from someone who obviously knew his subject very well . It is a love story but much more besides . Kevin 's screenplay has so many layers and interesting ideas . Apart from the love story I was very attracted by the themes of imagination and experience . " The director intended to " bring Austen up to date by roughening her up a bit " and adding " more life and energy and fun , " opining that past Austen adaptations had been " a little bit picture @-@ postcard and safe and sweet and nice . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jarrold sought to make Becoming Jane " look and feel " realistic " so everything is not lit in a very glamorous Hollywood way . " According to him , " One of the key ideas in the film was to get away from the old , stuffy costume drama kind of feel of what Jane Austen is and to look at somebody before she becomes a genius , when she is in her early twenties and on the verge of writing her great thing ; she had a real exuberance for life , intelligent and independent and a sort of outsider in rural Hampshire , more intelligent than the people around her and kicking against all those pressures . " To further set his film apart from other costume dramas , American actress Anne Hathaway was cast as the title character . A fan of Jane Austen since she was fourteen , Hathaway immediately began rereading Austen 's books , conducting historical research including perusing the author 's letters , and also learned sign language , calligraphy , dance choreography , and playing the piano . She moved to England a month before production began to improve her English accent , and attempted to stay in character throughout filming , the first time she had done so for a movie .
There were concerns in some quarters that the American Hathaway was playing a beloved English writer . James McAvoy , who plays Thomas Langlois Lefroy , believed that filming in Ireland made her casting " a bit safer " than if they had shot in England . McAvoy accepted the role because he enjoyed Austen 's writings and was eager to work with Jarrold , having collaborated with him previously on the 2002 television production White Teeth . McAvoy first assumed that Becoming Jane would be directly associated with Pride and Prejudice , with his character possessing similarities with Mr. Darcy ; the actor soon realised however " that the screenplay was nothing like Pride and Prejudice . The screenwriter probably speculated on some of the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice but it is a completely different story . "
Julie Walters had once disliked Austen 's writings but changed her mind when she read Pride and Prejudice after receiving her role as Mrs. Austen . Appearing as Mr. Austen was actor James Cromwell , who viewed his character as " a generous gentleman , well educated and supportive of Jane for the most part . He is bedevilled by his financial circumstances but deeply in love with his wife and sympathetic to her concerns about what will happen to the girls if they don 't marry . " Joe Anderson portrayed Henry Austen , while Lucy Cohu played the widowed Eliza de Feuillide , the Austens ' worldly cousin and Henry 's romantic interest . Cohu believed that her character " needs security . She is looking to be safe . She finds that security with Henry as she knows the Austen family . "
Anna Maxwell Martin appeared as Jane 's sister Cassandra . The actress called her character " terribly sensible " , noting that she " gets her heart broken . It 's very sad . She 's the levelling force for Jane Austen , the wild one . She tries to get her back in line , but fails miserably . " Becoming Jane also featured Laurence Fox as Mr. Wisley and Dame Maggie Smith as Lady Gresham , whom Jarrold viewed as possessing " similarities to Lady Catherine De Burgh in Pride and Prejudice but in this film you get to see her hidden vulnerabilities – the pain of never having had children and her controlling maternal power over Wisley . " Other cast members included Ian Richardson as Judge Langlois , Leo Bill as John Warren , Jessica Ashworth as Lucy Lefroy , Michael James Ford as Mr. Lefroy , Tom Vaughan @-@ Lawlor as Robert Fowle , and Helen McCrory as Mrs. Radcliffe .
= = = Costume design = = =
Irish costume designer Eimer Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh designed the clothing seen in the film . She attempted to create a different style of costumes than had been seen in recent Austen adaptations , and drew inspiration from the fashions of the 1790s , a time period she considered " fascinating " and a " very transitional era in terms of fashion ... it was a real challenge to make it work . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh attended the Cannes Film Festival in May 2006 but then had to quickly return to the Becoming Jane set to complete the last two days of filming . She later collaborated with Jarrold in the 2008 drama film Brideshead Revisited .
For research , Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh visited museums and art galleries , and also read Austen 's letters and novels . She was interested in both the effects of continental fashions on English clothing and the differences between social classes . While she recognised that 1795 " marked the beginning " of the empire waistline trend , Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh also understood this fashion would have barely been introduced to Austen 's circle in the country ; rather , the film displayed many costume designs from the early 1790s . She explained , " We wanted to show that transition especially for the women . The look in London is very different from the look in the countryside . For the country ball the fashion for the older women is more of the old style but for the younger women we show the introduction of the Empire line . "
The costume designer created all of Hathaway 's outfits from scratch , and " looked for images of a young Jane Austen . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh explained , " I wanted to get her youthfulness and innocence across through her dress . But crucially there was also her strength of character . So we kept away from frills and flounces . I wanted a definite look that was quite strong but also pretty at the same time . Jane was living on a working farm so her dress had to be practical as well . In terms of the costume we were definitely trying to steer away from the chocolate box image that we associate with Jane Austen . "
Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh dressed McAvoy in rich fabrics , such as velvet and beaver fur , to help distinguish him from the other men . She recalled that " he wears very stylish waist coats and cut @-@ away jackets . With Jane around he 'd have an extra swagger in front of her . James ( McAvoy ) was really into it . We 'd talk about the colours and fabrics to achieve his distinctive look . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh and Maggie Smith agreed that Lady Gresham 's dresses would be modelled after 1770s fashion , which was " the sort of dress that the character would have worn when she was much younger and suited her back then . Lady Gresham is very much her own character and is not someone who is dictated to by fashion . " Smith 's dresses contained stiff fabrics " to emphasise a woman who was very set in her ways " .
= = = Filming = = =
Produced independently by Ecosse , Becoming Jane was given a limited budget of € 12 @.@ 7 million ( £ 9 million or $ 16 @.@ 5 million ) . Production designer Eve Stewart researched Regency literature and Austen 's life , and along with Jarrold , scouted locations in Dublin and nearby counties for five weeks in January and February 2006 . They ultimately opted to shoot in Dublin and the Irish counties of Meath and Wicklow instead of Hampshire , the birthplace of Austen , because it held " a sense of countryside that felt more unchanged , " while Hampshire had unfortunately become too " groomed and manicured " . Jarrold also found " a great variety of Georgian houses and older houses " in Ireland . His production received funds from the Irish Film Board , the UK Film Council Premiere Fund , 2 Entertain , Scion Films , and Miramax Films . Film critic Andrew Sarris noted that in Ireland " happily , there are still architectural traces of life more than 200 years ago to correspond with the year 1795 . " However , Ireland did include a few disadvantages : Stewart found that " the rural aspects were the most difficult as the Irish country landscape is nothing like Hampshire . There are no rolling hills so the vegetation and the landscaping was the trickiest thing for me as a production designer . "
Due to its low budget , Becoming Jane was filmed on a " tight " schedule of eight weeks from March to May 2006 . Jarrold observed however that because Ecosse was not a film studio , he had more creative freedom . Bernstein stated of filming , " We recreated a world that Jane Austen lovers can recognise and associate with . But hopefully we can also take them into areas and places like the boxing club , the cricket game and the fair that do not feature in Jane Austen 's fiction . They are sort of seedy and dangerous areas that are not normally associated with Austen . " Jarrold found filming " very difficult . We had to make it work in the locations that we had as efficiently as possible . " Filming outdoors was often so cold that Hathaway turned blue and had difficulty saying her lines ; Automated Dialogue Replacement in post @-@ production helped correct this by re @-@ dubbing her lines .
The story 's central location was set at Steventon rectory where Austen was raised . While it had been demolished in 1824 , Jarrold and his crew " fortunately found a wonderful house that was very like the original ... We honed the script as well to make it as practical as possible . " Stewart believed that the Austen house expressed their status and wealth , " I think that you will lose the central thrust of the story unless you understand the status of the Austen 's and that they are pretty poor . Jane spent all her formative years there and that was the place that influenced her view of the world . You have to believe that the family live in that house because that is a crucial piece of the jigsaw . " Scenes at Steventon rectory were filmed in Higginsbrook House , a few miles off Trim in County Meath . Later in fall 2006 , it appeared again as the house of the Morlands in Northanger Abbey .
Charleville Castle stood in for the interior scenes of Lady Gresham 's estate , while Kilruddery House , an old Elizabethan revival estate , provided the exterior shots of the property . Other filming sites included Cloghlee Bridge in the Dublin Mountains ( as Mr. Austen 's rectory ) and Dublin 's Henrietta Street and North Great George 's Street as Regency London . A house on Henrietta Street also provided the filming site for Mrs. Radcliffe 's residence . Gentleman Jackson 's club , where Lefroy boxes , was represented by " the dark and otherworldly " Mother Redcaps tavern , also in Dublin .
= = Music and soundtrack = =
The musical score of the film was written by English composer Adrian Johnston . To prepare melodies , he reviewed music books that had belonged to the Austen family . The first track , " First Impressions , " has been described as a " depressing " song that " exhibits slow , pure and classical piano work ; one critic quipped that it belonged in " Becoming Sylvia Plath " . Later tracks ranged " in mood from upbeat and playful to somber and teary . " In his review of the score , Tim Clark of Soundtrack.net lamented the " absence of a truly memorable theme , despite a wealth of thematic material , " and found similarities to Dario Marianelli 's composition for the 2005 film Pride & Prejudice .
Patsy Morita , a music critic for Allmusic , wrote that the second half of Johnston 's score becomes as " unremarkable " as " so many other dramatic film scores of the early twenty @-@ first century . " She continued , " It fulfills its purpose of underscoring the emotion of the story by being moody and slow to change melodically and harmonically , and by using many pregnant pauses and minimalist @-@ leaning repetitive figures . " Morita added that " there is nothing in it to draw attention away from the film . " The score later received a nomination for Best Original Film Score at the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards . The film soundtrack was released on 31 July 2007 . A track listing for the album is as follows :
Henry Purcell 's " Hole in the Wall , " also known as " St. Martin 's Lane , " which is featured in the ballroom scene , was first published in 1695 and is highly unlikely to have been common during the Regency , when Jane Austen was a young adult .
Downloadable editions of the original soundtrack include six bonus tracks of music heard in the film :
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Fictionalisation of plot = = =
Jon Spence , the author of the biography the film was based on , identifies " Tom Lefroy as the love of Austen 's life and her relationship with him as the origin of her genius . But he never suggests that there was an aborted elopement ( much less subsequent reading sessions with any of Lefroy 's children ) . And he is careful , as the filmmakers are not , to clarify that in speculating about Austen 's romantic experience he is reading between the lines of the family records and of the three rather opaque Austen letters that are his principal sources . "
An important deviation of the film 's plot from history is that there is scant evidence in real life Austen and Lefroy 's relationship went beyond acquaintance . Rather , all that is known of them together is that they danced at three Christmas balls before Tom returned to school and that Jane was " too proud " to ask his aunt about him two years later . In the latter years of Tom Lefroy 's life , he was questioned about his relationship with Jane Austen by his nephew , and admitted to having loved Jane Austen , but stated that it was a " boyish love " . As is written in a letter sent from T.E.P. Lefroy to James Edward Austen Leigh in 1870 @,@
My late venerable uncle ... said in so many words that he was in love with her , although he qualified his confession by saying it was a boyish love . As this occurred in a friendly & private conversation , I feel some doubt whether I ought to make it public .
Lori Smith , author of The Jane Austen Guide to Life , opined that :
No doubt this relationship and her [ Jane 's ] repartee with Tom fueled her writing . Whether it was " her greatest inspiration " as the trailers for Becoming Jane claim , well , that 's debatable . But I 'm sure it provided as spark .
However , contrary to the film 's story line , Jane had attempted her first full @-@ length novel before she met Tom and had already read The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling before meeting him . In a cut scene from the movie , it is clear that she is reading the novel for the second time , but in the theatrical release without that scene , it appears he introduces her to it .
= = = Representation of Austen characters in story = = =
Various commentators have offered opinions concerning the presence in the film of characters and themes from Austen 's works , particularly with Pride and Prejudice . Deborah Cartmell contended that Hathaway 's Austen is a " replica of Elizabeth Bennet ( with a touch of impetuous Lydia thrown in ) , " and added that the associations between Austen and Elizabeth are " more explicit than in " any other Austen biopic . Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph declared that the film took " good old P & P 's storyline and replace [ d ] Elizabeth Bennet with Austen herself [ and added ] a real @-@ life pseudo @-@ Darcy from the skimpiest of biographical evidence . " A Companion to Jane Austen observed that the " physicality " of Jane and Lefroy 's kiss was similar to the " passionate kiss " between Elizabeth and Darcy in the 1995 serial Pride and Prejudice .
Empire magazine further expressed that
The characters peopling the young Jane ’ s life are plainly recognisable as the prototypes for her most celebrated characters : Walters ’ anxious mother and Cromwell ’ s strong , fair @-@ minded Mr. Austen are clear relatives of Pride & Prejudice 's Mr. and Mrs. Bennet ; Smith ’ s aloof , disdainful dowager exemplifies the snobbery and social climbing that provide context for Austen ’ s romances ; McAvoy ’ s cocksure , worldly Lefroy is the epitome of the outwardly arrogant , inwardly sensitive hero of whom Mr. Darcy is the paradigm , while Jane herself shares the wit and passion of Austen ’ s most beloved heroine , Lizzie Bennet .
= = = Place in mass marketing = = =
The implementation of mass marketing in the film 's production and release has attracted notice from film and literary scholars . Dianne F. Sadoff writes that Becoming Jane " confirms the two @-@ decades @-@ long megaplexing of Jane Austen . " According to Andrew Higson , the film was another example of " Austen Power " and the desire of filmmakers to " exploit the possibilities of both the Austen industry and the market for literary cinema and television – and more generally , the market for ' traditional ' English drama . " While reviewing Austen adaptations of the 1990s and 2000s in her book Heritage Film : Nation , Genre and Representation , author Belén Vidal viewed Becoming Jane as yet another " transformation of Austen 's novels into icons of popular culture . " To Vidal , this and other productions , such as The Jane Austen Book Club ( 2007 ) and Miss Austen Regrets ( 2008 ) , confirmed " the generic status of the Austen phenomenon whilst dispensing with the incorporation of the literary text . "
Becoming Jane followed a different formula than the Austen adaptations of the 1990s and attempted to draw viewers from a variety of demographic groups . Hathaway 's casting was intended to attract young female viewers who had enjoyed the actress in The Princess Diaries and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement . According to producers , the view was that this demographic group would have been in their early teens during the release of the Princess films , making them " the right age " for Austen as 15 @-@ year @-@ olds . Expecting Becoming Jane to be a popular film , in February 2007 Penguin Books announced new editions of six of Austen 's best @-@ known novels ; their redesigned covers were intended to attract teenage readers .
= = = Heritage and other themes = = =
Becoming Jane has been referred to as a heritage costume drama film , a genre which has been popular in the United States among both its audiences and its film studios . According to Andrew Higson , Becoming Jane falls into the continuing trend of American attitudes influencing English film . Belén Vidal wrote that the film " exploit [ s ] a well @-@ defined heritage iconography and strategically combine [ s ] American stars with supporting casts of international ' quality ' players . " Hilary Radner analysed the presence of the " marriage plot " – a girl succeeding only by marrying the man of her choice – in film and television , and noted that while Becoming Jane critiques this film trope , it " points to the power of the traditional marriage plot as a residual paradigm influencing feminine identity . "
Jarrold 's adaptation also came in the wake of a number of literary biographical films , such as Shakespeare in Love and Miss Potter . Deborah Cartmell , author of Screen Adaptations : Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice : A Close Study of the Relationship between Text and Film , found similarities between Becoming Jane and Shakespeare in Love " almost so obvious that the [ former ] film risks the accusation of being dangerously derivative . " A given example included the characters of Austen and William Shakespeare inputting their personal experiences directly into their works . Marina Cano López and Rosa María García @-@ Periago explained that the film " follows the path opened by John Madden ’ s Shakespeare in Love . The numerous intertextual connections between both movies can be reduced to one : just as Shakespeare is imagined as the hero of his own play , Jane Austen becomes the heroine of her own novel . " Among other listed similarities , they noted that the romantic interests of both protagonists serve as their literary muses , and that the middle part of both films " lie " when viewed from a historical perspective .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Premiere , theatrical release , distribution and box office = = =
The world premiere of Becoming Jane took place in London on 5 March 2007 . It was released to cinemas on 9 March 2007 in the United Kingdom and a week later in Ireland by Buena Vista International . It ultimately grossed £ 3 @.@ 78 million in the UK and Ireland , placing in sixteenth among all UK films for the year in those markets . Sixty @-@ three percent of the audience was female , and 40 @.@ 5 percent were above the age of 55 . The film 's performance was considered " disappointing " , and it influenced the US release date . It arrived in Australia on 29 March .
Miramax Films distributed the film in the United States , giving it a release date of 3 August 2007 . Originally , the studio intended to release Becoming Jane in June or July due to a " counter @-@ programming " strategy , attempting to attract demographic groups who were not interested in large blockbusters . The film was expected to perform well during all seven days of the week and gradually gain more viewers during its time in cinemas . Due to the presence of recognizable stars such as Hathaway , Becoming Jane was expected to also do well among mainstream audiences . However , due to its weak UK release , the film 's release was moved to August , when it opened on 100 screens in its first week . It increased to 601 screens the following week , later reaching 1 @,@ 210 screens . While the film made under $ 1 million in its first week , it was considered " a highly respectable showing for a heritage biopic " and enough of a figure to " justify a ten @-@ week run . " The film eventually grossed a total of $ 18 @,@ 670 @,@ 946 in the US .
On an international scale , Becoming Jane received a total of $ 37 @,@ 311 @,@ 672 . It earned its highest grosses in the US , the UK , and Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
Becoming Jane was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the UK on 10 September 2007 , a month after it arrives in cinemas in the US . On 12 February 2008 , Disney and Miramax released the DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the US . Both versions contained audio commentary with Jarrold , Hood , and Bernstein , deleted scenes , " Pop @-@ Up Facts & Footnotes , " and a featurette called " Discovering the Real Jane Austen " . The US home video rights to the film have since been picked up by Echo Bridge Entertainment and the film has seen several reissues on Blu @-@ ray and DVD , often packaged with other films such as Jane Eyre .
= = = Critical response = = =
Film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 57 % based on reviews from 136 critics . The site summarized the consensus : " Although Becoming Jane is a well @-@ crafted period piece , it lacks fresh insight into the life and works of Jane Austen . The film focuses too much on wardrobe and not enough on Austen 's achievements . " The New York Times called the film a " triumph " for Hathaway , but observed that " the screenplay ’ s pseudo @-@ Austen tone is so consistent that its lapses into modern romance @-@ novel fantasy [ and ] threatens to derail the film . " More positive , Entertainment Weekly called the film " a charmer , " articulating that " the supporting cast ( Julie Walters , Maggie Smith , James Cromwell ) is top @-@ drawer ; and Anne Hathaway , with her coltish beauty and frank demeanor , is a welcome Jane . "
Critics lauded Hathaway and McAvoy for the chemistry between their characters , finding that it lent authenticity to the love story between Austen and Lefroy . While Hathaway was admired for her performance by some critics , some reviews negatively focused on her nationality as well as the inauthenticity of her accent . James McAvoy defended the decision of casting Hathaway by stating that a director should , " find the right actor … and [ she ] is undoubtedly brilliant . " Hathaway herself admitted the persistent tendency to " sound too much like myself and not at all like Jane " , blaming cold weather in Ireland , which meant she had to do voice retakes for several scenes . Nonetheless , Jarrold praised Hathaway for her performance . In a wrap up party after the filming , the director confessed that the actress had been a different person , " not just her accent but also the whole character , the way of holding yourself and speaking was so completely different " .
Time Out London gave a positive review , enunciating that " Overall , the approach is less fluffily contrived than you ’ d expect , and though the alignment of circumstance and social status thwarting innocent passions is hardly fresh , it ’ s handled with thoughtful decorum . The emotional temperature ’ s rather restrained as a result , but with luxury casting all down the line , ... elegant visuals balancing verdant and velvet , and a delightful faux @-@ classical score , it ’ s a classy package , all right – just missing the extra spark . " Some reviewers have questioned the historical accuracy of the film , for instance critiquing the depicted relationship between Austen and Lefroy .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Impact and legacy = =
Becoming Jane and the 2008 BBC serial Sense and Sensibility have been credited with " renew [ ing ] interest " in Jane Austen 's House Museum in Chawton . According to Robin Bischert , the chief executive of Bath Tourism Plus , Bath , Somerset gained " more than £ 150 @,@ 000 worth of free media exposure " in the wake of Becoming Jane and Persuasion , a 2007 television production adapted from another Austen novel . As the city is heavily associated with Austen , the company took advantage of Becoming Jane 's release in order to celebrate the author and her writings . In late September 2007 , Bath launched the seventh Jane Austen festival , which included a parade of people in Regency costumes , readings , tours , and discussions about the author . In addition , the city offered events such as Tea with Mr. Darcy to mark the release of the Becoming Jane DVD .
The film 's production had a positive impact on the Irish economy , as it resulted in a direct expenditure of € 7 @.@ 1 million , providing jobs for 116 crew members and 17 actors , and also offered 1 @,@ 250 days of work for extras . John O 'Donoghue , the country 's Minister for Arts , Sport and Tourism , visited the set and stated
The Irish economy continues to directly benefit from having major feature films such as Becoming Jane shoot on location here . As well as the direct benefits to the local economy such as job creation and tourism , it is also important to have images of Ireland screened to international audiences around the world . Encouraging feature films to shoot in Ireland remains a major priority for the Irish Government and we hope that the recent changes to Section 481 will mean that Ireland remains a competitive international location for feature film .
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= Soviet cruiser Komintern =
Komintern was a Soviet light cruiser originally named Pamiat ' Merkuria ( Memory of Mercury ) , a Bogatyr @-@ class protected cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy . She saw service during World War I in the Black Sea and survived the Russian Civil War , although heavily damaged . She was repaired by the Soviet Navy and put into service as a training cruiser . In 1941 she was reclassified as a minelayer and provided gunfire support and transported troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was damaged beyond repair at Poti by a German air attack on 16 July 1942 . Afterwards she was disarmed and hulked . At some point she was towed to the mouth of the Khobi river and sunk there as a breakwater on 10 October 1942 .
= = Description = =
Komintern normally displaced 6 @,@ 340 long tons ( 6 @,@ 440 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 134 @.@ 9 metres ( 442 ft 7 in ) , a beam of 16 @.@ 4 metres ( 53 ft 10 in ) and a mean draft of about 6 @.@ 8 metres ( 22 ft 4 in ) . She was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 19 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 16 coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The ship had a range of 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Komintern 's crew consisted of 573 officers and men .
The ship was rearmed during World War I with fourteen 55 @-@ caliber 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts , four of which were mounted in casemates . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . She also mounted six submerged 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .
Komintern 's armored deck and her casemates were 76 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The armor of the conning tower was 152 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
The crew of Pamiat ' Merkuria pledged its allegiance to the Ukrainian People 's Republic on 12 November 1917 soon after the October Revolution . The occupation of the Ukrainian People 's Republic by the Red Army early in 1918 led it to lay up on 28 March 1918 with her guns stripped by Bolsheviks to equip armoured trains . She was captured by the Germans on 1 May 1918 after being left behind in Sevastopol due to its uselessness and used as a barracks ship . She was renamed to Hetman Ivan Mazepa on 17 September 1918 and formally handed over to the Ukrainian State 's Navy .
Upon the end of the World War I and withdrawal of the Armed Forces of Central powers , she fell into the hands of the Whites under the support of the Triple Entente in November 1918 . She had her engines sabotaged in April 1919 by order of the British when the Whites temporarily lost control of Sevastopol . She was further damaged by the explosion of a mine when the Whites abandoned the Crimea in 1920 . Once she fell into Soviet hands she spent several years under repair , which required parts and material from her sisters that were even more damaged . She was given the proper revolutionary name of Komintern , after the Communist International on 31 December 1922 and was recommissioned in June 1923 .
She was refitted in 1930 as a training cruiser and lost four boilers which were converted to classrooms . Six of her waist guns were replaced by four obsolete 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 guns . Her submerged broadside torpedo tubes were also removed during this refit . She collided with Krasny Kavkaz in 1932 and seriously damaged the forecastle of the latter ship . Sources are unclear when she was rearmed , but it probably wasn 't until the late 1930s , probably when her forward smokestack was also removed . She landed all of her 75 mm / 50 guns in exchange for a modern suite of anti @-@ aircraft guns : three single 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) , three single 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K , two single 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) and five 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns . In 1941 she was modified as a minelayer and could carry 195 mines , but her speed had been reduced to 12 knots .
= = = World War II = = =
Komintern , in company with the cruisers Krasny Kavkaz , Chervona Ukraina and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . Komintern , along with the destroyers Nezamozhinsk and Shaumyan , was assigned to cooperate with the Separate Coastal Army on 8 August 1941 and spent much of the next month bombarding Romanian positions and coast defenses . During the Siege of Odessa she escorted a number of convoys to and from the besieged city . During the Crimean Campaign Komintern delivered supplies to the 44th Army at Feodosiya on 1 January 1942 and ferried troops and supplies to Sevastopol for the next several months .
She was badly damaged by a German air attack on 11 March , but was able to continue under her own power . She was damaged again in Novorossiysk by I. Gruppe , Kampfgeschwader 76 on 2 July 1942 and moved to Poti shortly afterwards . She was so severely damaged again , or sunk , by another German air attack on 16 July 1942 at Poti that she was deemed non @-@ repairable . She was disarmed in August — September 1942 , her guns forming coast defense batteries at Tuapse , and hulked . If she was sunk , she was refloated at some point and on 10 October she was towed to the mouth of the Khobi river , just north of Poti , and sunk as a breakwater .
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= Pretzel Pezzullo =
John " Pretzel " Pezzullo ( December 10 , 1910 – May 16 , 1990 ) , also known as Pretzels Pezullo , was a professional baseball player whose career spanned eight seasons , two of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Philadelphia Phillies . Pezzullo , a pitcher , compiled an earned run average ( ERA ) of 6 @.@ 36 , allowing 61 earned runs off of 116 hits , five home runs , and 51 walks while recording 24 strikeouts over 86 @.@ 1 innings pitched . Pezzullo also played in six seasons of minor league baseball . He made his MLB debut at the age of 24 after spending a season in the minor leagues for the New York Giants organization . Pezzullo earned the nicknamed " Pretzel " after his unusual pitching style . After retiring from baseball , Pezzullo moved to Dallas , Texas , where he died of cancer on May 16 , 1990 .
= = Early life = =
Pezzullo was born on December 10 , 1910 , in Bridgeport , Connecticut . He had four siblings and is of Italian ancestry . Pezzullo attended school until the eighth grade , after which he went to trade school to learn cabinet and pattern making . He was officially listed as standing 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighing 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) when he played professionally .
= = Professional career = =
Pezzullo began his professional baseball career in 1934 , when he played for the Richmond Colts , an affiliate of the New York Giants . Pezzullo finished the season fifth in the Piedmont League in wins , with 16 , while finishing fourth on the Colts in games pitched , recording 27 games over the season . He was called " a good pitching prospect " by Chicago Tribune sports writer Arch Ward . On November 1 of that year , Pezzullo was traded as a part of a four @-@ man deal that sent him , Blondy Ryan , Johnny Vergez , George Watkins , and cash to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Dick Bartell . For the 1935 season , Pezzullo , who pitched for the major @-@ league Phillies , recorded a team @-@ worst ERA of 6 @.@ 40 , along with a 3 – 5 win – loss record over 40 games pitched . He hit seven batters by a pitch , tying him for the seventh most hit batsmen in MLB . In Pezzullo 's final MLB game in 1936 , he walked six batters in two innings pitched .
= = = Minor league career = = =
Pezzullo also played for two minor league teams during the 1936 season : the Richmond Colts and the Hazleton Mountaineers . Combined , Pezzullo went 14 – 10 with a 5 @.@ 19 ERA . The following season he played for the Savannah Indians and the Colts ; for the Indians , Pezzullo went 13 – 8 over 165 @.@ 0 innings pitched . The following season , he played only for the Indians , an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates . His 26 wins were best in the Southern League , while his 288 @.@ 0 innings pitched also led all Southern League players . In a game against the Spartanburg Spartans , Pezzullo struck out 17 batters . After the season he was sold to the double @-@ A Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League , where , under managers Tony Lazzeri and Jack Burns , Pezzullo won 11 games and lost 12 . He went 5 – 16 the following year , before leaving the team for the Syracuse Chiefs and the Buffalo Bisons in his final year of professional baseball in 1941 .
= = After baseball = =
After retiring from baseball , Pezzullo moved to Dallas , Texas , where he married Betty ( née Tolcyk ) and had one daughter , Patti Moore . In Dallas , he designed aircraft missile models and founded Gulf Industries , a Grand Prairie @-@ based model subcontracting firm . Pezzullo died on May 16 , 1990 , of cancer . Funeral processions were held on May 18 at Holy Redeemer Mausoleum Chapel in DeSoto , Texas , where he was interred .
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= Action of 12 May 1796 =
The Action of 12 May 1796 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and a frigate and four smaller ships of the Navy of the Batavian Republic . The British squadron had been detached on the previous day from the British North Sea fleet under Admiral Adam Duncan , which was cruising off the Batavian fleet anchorage at the Texel , while the Batavian squadron was returning to the Netherlands from the Norwegian coast where it had been sheltering since suffering defeat at the Action of 22 August 1795 the previous year . As the Batavian squadron neared the Batavian coast , the British squadron under Captain Lawrence Halstead attacked .
In his frigate HMS Phoenix , Halstead was able to cut the Batavian frigate Argo off from the shore and bring it to battle , forcing it to surrender in just 20 minutes as other British ships closed with the combat . The remainder of the Batavian squadron had dispersed eastwards away from the frigates and Duncan 's fleet , pursued by the frigate HMS Pegasus and brig @-@ sloop HMS Sylph . After a lengthy chase , Phoenix caught the cutter Duke of York , Sylph seized the brig Mercury , while Pegasus succeeded in driving the other brigs , Echo and Gier ashore , where both were believed wrecked . Duncan 's blockade of the Texel was instrumental in British control of the North Sea , and a year later it would achieve a decisive victory at the Battle of Camperdown .
= = Background = =
In February 1793 , the French Republic declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic , drawing both into the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars . Less than two years later , in the winter of 1794 – 1795 , the Dutch Republic was overrun by the French Army , French cavalry charging the Dutch Navy across the ice that blocked its winter anchorages , capturing it intact . The French reorganised the country into a client state named the Batavian Republic , and ordered the Dutch Navy to operate in the North Sea against British maritime trade routes . The British government did not immediately declare war on the Batavian Republic , but did take steps to seize Dutch shipping in British ports and established a new fleet to combat Batavian operations in the North Sea . The North Sea Fleet , as it was known , was composed mainly of older and smaller vessels not considered suitable for service in the Channel Fleet , and command of this force was given to the 66 – year old Admiral Adam Duncan .
In August 1795 , the Batavian Navy sent a frigate squadron to operate against the British trade routes with Scandinavia , which carried large quantities of British naval stores to supply the British fleets . These trade routes passed from the Baltic Sea through the Kattegat and Skaggerak channels and across the North Sea , and the Batavian squadron consequently cruised at the mouth of the Kattegat off the southern coast of neutral Danish controlled Norway . To counteract this Batavian operation , Duncan sent a squadron of British frigates from the North Sea Fleet under the command of Captain James Alms with orders to intercept and destroy the Batavian ships . On 22 August , Alms 's force discovered the Batavian squadron close to the Norwegian harbour of Eigerøya . Alms closed with the Batavian force in an attempt to cut it off from land , but was only able to intercept the Batavian frigate Alliante with his ship HMS Stag , compelling the Batavian vessel to surrender in a short engagement . Although the remainder of his squadron exchanged fire with the Batavian ships , damaging the frigate Argo , Alms ' force was unable to prevent their escape into Eigerøya .
For the rest of the year , Argo operated from the Norwegian coast , unable to make and significant cruises due to the attention of British warships operating in the region . By May 1796 , Duncan 's fleet was now actively cruising against the Batavian Navy , commanding a blockade force of nine ships of the line and numerous smaller vessels at sea off the Texel , the principal Batavian fleet anchorage . Duncan also ensured that the blockade of the Batavian vessels in Norwegian ports was maintained , with the 28 – gun frigate HMS Pegasus under Captain Ross Donnelly and the brig @-@ sloop HMS Sylph under Commander John Chambers White sent to patrol the waters off Lindesnes . In early May , the Batavian authorities ordered Argo to return to the fleet at the Texel , and the frigate sailed from the Norwegian port of Flekkerøy on 11 May with three Batavian brigs : Echo of 18 – guns , Mercury of 16 – guns and Gier of 14 – guns .
The departure of the Batavian squadron was noticed by Donnelly 's small blockade force , which shadowed the Batavian ships as they passed southwards down the coast of Jutland , losing sight of them at 22 : 00 on 11 May . Donnelly correctly guessed the Batavian force 's destination , and ordered Sylph to separate , the two vessels following different courses , instructing White to proceed to Duncan 's blockade fleet and meet Donnelly there if he was unable to rediscover the Batavian squadron en route . Pegasus and Sylph encountered one another shortly before 05 : 00 on 12 May close to Duncan 's fleet south of the Texel but without having located the Batavian squadron . Argo and her consorts had sailed close to the Danish and German coasts during the night , seizing in passing a British cutter named Duke of York , travelling from Yarmouth to Hamburg . At dawn on 12 May the Batavian ships were off the Batavian coast sailing southwest towards the Texel anchorage .
= = Battle = =
On hearing Donnelly 's report , Duncan immediately despatched a small squadron to the mouth of the Texel to wait for the arrival of the Batavian squadron . Command of this squadron was given to Captain Lawrence Halstead in the 36 – gun frigate HMS Phoenix , accompanied by Pegasus , Sylph and the 50 – gun fourth rate HMS Leopard . The squadron detached at 05 : 00 and almost immediately the Batavian squadron was sighted to the southeast , heading for the entrance to the Texel , tacking against the northwest wind . Halstead 's force was not unified , with Pegasus and Sylph far ahead of Phoenix and Leopard , and the British commander decided to deliberately detach his forces , the faster Pegasus and Sylph pursuing the brigs under Donnelly 's command and Halstead 's rear force attacking the frigate Argo . Duncan 's main fleet , some distance behind Halstead , also sighted the Batavian squadron and joined the chase .
The Batavian captain , finding such a large force bearing down on him , ordered the brigs and cutter to separate from the frigate , turning with the wind in an effort to escape with Donnelly close behind . He also turned Argo away from the pursuing Phoenix , but was unable to decide whether to fight or flee and as a result changed course a number of times . This inevitably slowed his ship , and at 08 : 15 Phoenix was able to come alongside with the advantage of the weather gage . Halstead fired a shot across the Batavian ship 's bow as a warning to surrender to such overwhelming odds , but the Batavian captain refused and opened fire on the British frigate . Although Argo made strenuous efforts to escape during the exchange of fire , Halstead 's ship was both more accurate and effective , mounting 36 18 @-@ pounder cannon and 8 32 @-@ pounder carronades to the Batavian frigate 's 12 @-@ pounder main battery supplemented with a number of cannon of lower calibres . In just 20 minutes , Phoenix had torn much of Argo 's rigging , sails and masts and inflicted heavy casualties of eight killed and 28 wounded . With his ship damaged , Duncan 's fleet in sight and Leopard not far behind Phoenix , the Batavian captain surrendered at 08 : 35 , allowing Halstead to take possession of his vessel .
Phoenix was joined soon after the surrender of Argo by the 74 – gun ship of the line HMS Powerful under Captain William O 'Bryen Drury and together the ships took possession of the frigate while the chase of the remainder of the Batavian squadron continued . At 10 : 00 two of the brigs turned towards the Batavian coastline to seek shelter and two of the leading British ships , Pegasus and the 50 – gun HMS Leander under Captain Maurice Delgarno , turned in chase . Donnelly sought to interpose his ships between the brigs and the coast , but found that this would have slowed his vessels so much that the Batavian brigs would have an opportunity to escape . He therefore maintained pursuit and watched the Batavian ships , Gier and Echo driven ashore at the Batavian village of Bosch . Sailing as close to the shore line as safely possible , Delgarno detached cutters to investigate the state of the grounded ships , determining that one had been damaged beyond repair while the other , having initially grounded , had been driven over the shoal into deeper water on the far side . In his report on the action , Duncan considered that a storm which swept the area on the day following the action probably drove the brig back onto the shoal and destroyed it .
The last survivors of the Batavian squadron were harried along the coast by the faster forces in the British fleet with Sylph overhauling the 16 @-@ gun Mercury , forcing it to surrender just before 11 : 00 . The Batavian captain had thrown 14 cannon overboard in an effort to lighten his ship and allow it to escape British pursuit , but without success . Later in the day , Halstead 's Phoenix was able to seize the Batavian prize Duke of York , completing the destruction of the entire Batavian squadron .
= = Aftermath = =
Halstead brought his prizes back to Britain , where both Argo and Mercury were purchased for service by the Royal Navy as HMS Janus and HMS Hermes respectively as both of the Batavian names were already in use by the Royal Navy . British losses in the engagement were one man killed and three wounded , all suffered on Phoenix during the engagement with Argo . Apart from the losses in that exchange , no other casualties , either British or Batavian were reported . The action was the only significant engagement fought off the Batavian coast during 1796 as Duncan 's force kept the main Batavian fleet contained within its anchorage in the Texel . In October 1797 however the main Batavian fleet was able to break out and sail on a raiding cruise towards the English coast . Duncan intercepted the fleet on its return to the Texel and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Batavians on 11 October at the Battle of Camperdown .
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= Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw =
Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw ( Polish : Sejm Księstwa Warszawskiego ) was the parliament of the Duchy of Warsaw . It was created in 1807 by Napoleon , who granted a new constitution to the recently created Duchy . It had limited competences , including having no legislative initiative . It met three times : for regular sessions in 1809 and 1811 , and for an extraordinary session in 1812 . In the history of Polish parliament , it succeeded the Sejm of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and was followed by the Sejm of the Congress Poland .
= = History = =
In 1807 Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and granted it a constitution . Like with all Napoleonic legislatures , it was inferior in political power to executive by design .
The Sejm had met three times : for regular sessions in 1809 and 1811 , and for an extraordinary session of 1812 . The Sejm was mainly occupied with administration and financial matters ; its final act , in 1812 , was to create the last Polish confederation , the General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland .
= = Composition and duration = =
The Sejm was composed of two chambers : a chamber of deputies and a senate . The chamber of deputies was composed of 100 deputies , in 1810 increased to 166 . The initial 100 was composed of 60 deputies ( after 1810 , 100 ) elected from the ranks of the nobility ( szlachta ) during the sessions of the local parliaments ( sejmiks ) , and 40 non @-@ noble deputies ( after 1810 , 66 ) , as well as members of the Council of State . The deputy candidates had to be 24 years or older , and government officials , priests or officers in active military service were not eligible for candidacy . They were elected for a nine @-@ year term of office , in three tranches ( elections for a third of the deputies were to be held every three years ) .
The senate was composed of bishops , voivodes and castellans ; all nominated by the king . They numbered six each , in 1810 increased to ten each .
Those enfranchised to vote included landowners , owners of large businesses , clergy , artists , scientists , and the military . Notably , peasants could vote as well , provided they owned the land .
The Sejm session lasted fifteen days , and was convened every two years .
Notable politicians of the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw included : Józef Godlewski , Tomasz A. Ostrowski , Stanisław Sołtyk , Stanisław Staszic , Wawrzyniec Surowiecki and Józef Wybicki .
= = Competences = =
The competences of the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw were limited compared to its predecessor , the Sejm of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . It had no legislative initiative ( that was limited to the executive , represented by the king and the Council of State ) , and could only accept or refuse ( by simple majority ) the legislation on the issues of treasury ( finances and taxes ) and civil and criminal law , presented to it by the executive . Further , discussions were limited , as only the members of the five @-@ person strong committees ( one for treasury and one for each of the two laws ) , elected in secret ballot and tasked with the analysis of the proposed legislation , and members of the Council of State , had the right to speak . In practice , the members of the Sejm found a way to overcome this limitation , as after the day session would be officially closed , the deputies would remain in the parliament and start a new discussion .
The senate was to supervise the chamber of deputies , ensuring it acts according to the constitution , and ensure the proper procedure during the elections . The senate could object to a legislation , but could be overruled by the king .
The king had the right to dissolve the chamber of deputies , or replace senators with new nominees .
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= Focus Grill =
" Focus Grill " is the thirteenth episode of the fourth season and the series finale of the American animated sitcom Home Movies , and 52nd episode of the series overall . It originally aired in the United States on Adult Swim on April 4 , 2004 . In the episode , Brendon , Melissa , and Jason decide to finally film an ending to the first movie they did together .
" Focus Grill " was written by Brendon Small and directed by Loren Bouchard . Despite struggling with the knowledge of the show 's cancellation since the start of the fourth season production run , Small noted that this final episode was actually an optimistic note for the series . The episode concludes with Brendon 's camera breaking , which Small believed was a way to finally eliminate the hindrances of the character 's metaphorical crutch .
The final episode received a largely positive response , with reviewers praising it for its sentimental , bittersweet way of concluding the show .
= = Plot = =
Brendon , Melissa , and Jason decide to start screening their movies in front of a focus group that consists of their schoolmates Fenton , Junior , Perry , and Walter . The group members harshly criticize this latest movie , and in the midst of trying to find the flaw in it , the three friends discover that the first movie they ever made together — in which they are a biker gang contemplating whether or not to fight an unknown adversary — is missing an ending . The three cannot agree on a conclusion for the movie , so they decide that each of them will create their own , and then screen the three potential endings in front of the focus group . All of their endings , however , are harshly criticized . The three sit down and watch a reel composed of scenes from several of their film projects ; they come to the consensus that their movies are designed only for them and should not actually be seen by anyone else .
Meanwhile , Coach McGuirk volunteers to assemble Paula 's large and complicated new grill , but he proves to be both incredibly inexperienced and largely incompetent at performing such a task . When McGuirk believes that he has finally completed the grill , he gathers Paula and the three kids together to witness its first ignition , but he ultimately causes a large explosion . The five go off on a drive , covered in soot , and Brendon accidentally drops his camera on the road , where it is run over by a car . He groans " oh no , " and almost begins to tell the others about what had just happened , but ends up getting drawn into a conversation about where to go for dinner .
The episode and series concludes with Paula , McGuirk , Jason , Melissa , and Brendon chattering about tapas , as Brendon 's broken camera briefly shoots an empty road before the picture flickers and turns to static .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Home Movies co @-@ creator Brendon Small , and was the final episode of the series ' production run . The episode was the fifty @-@ second of the series , a number that allows for an even distribution of reruns of the series ; Small noted that the technique is normally used on animated children 's shows , though Home Movies is actually created for an adult audience .
Small knew before writing the episode that it would be the last . Mike Lazzo , executive vice president of Adult Swim , had never " responded to the show " as Small had noted , which was in stark contrast to Vice President of Original Series Khaki Jones , whose enthusiasm over the series was what Small admitted to keeping it alive . During the production run for the fourth season , Lazzo had informed the crew bluntly that the season would conclude the series , explaining , " No matter what the numbers are , no matter what happens – we 're not going to bring the show back . "
Having been informed of this definite end of the series ' run , Small decided to write " Focus Grill " with the intention of it concluding the show . While penning the teleplay , he kept in mind the knowledge that " nothing positive [ is ] happening " ; however , Small did admit that the final scene of the episode — Brendon 's camera breaking on the road — was actually an optimistic footnote in the series ' narrative . Small considers that now that Brendon is without his camera , " he doesn 't need this crutch anymore . That he can actually start living his life as an actual earthling . "
" Focus Grill " , like all episodes , was directed by co @-@ creator Loren Bouchard , and as with every episode of Home Movies after its first season , the episode was animated using Macromedia Flash . The Squigglevision animation program is briefly used in one scene in the episode , where Brendon , Melissa , and Jason watch various movies of theirs from throughout the series , some of which are from the first season , in which the show utilized Squigglevision .
= = Reception = =
" Focus Grill " originally aired on Adult Swim , a cable network that shares channel space with Cartoon Network , on April 4 , 2004 . After the episode aired , Small received several e @-@ mails from various fans , who told him that watching the episode had made them cry . The episode received a largely positive response from reviewers . C.S. Strowbridge of The Numbers wrote that it was " able to really wrap up the series in a great way and show why the characters acted the way they did " , and praised it for " [ showing ] some real character development . " Pop Matters ' Jesse Hassenger described it as both " bittersweet " and " hilarious " .
Writing for his DVD Talk review of the show 's tenth anniversary DVD boxset , Jason Bailey considered the episode " especially strong , drawing the series to a fine full circle , both structurally and thematically . " Bailey concurred with Hassenger 's description of it as bittersweet , writing : " It 's an affectionate send @-@ off , bittersweet and kind of wonderful and therefore perfectly in tone with this charming little show . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed described it as the epitome of the show 's various themes , including childhood , art , and family , calling it " a slightly nostalgic episode " ; he considered it an excellent way to close the series , writing " Acting as probably both a reflection of the show 's staff at the time and a final send off , I can 't think of a better way to send Brendon Small and Loren Bouchard 's creation into the sunset . "
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= Blacknose shark =
The blacknose shark ( Carcharhinus acronotus ) is a species of requiem shark , belonging to the family Carcharhinidae , common in the tropical and subtropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean . This species generally inhabits coastal seagrass , sand , or rubble habitats , with adults preferring deeper water than juveniles . A small shark typically measuring 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long , the blacknose has a typical streamlined " requiem shark " shape with a long , rounded snout , large eyes , and a small first dorsal fin . Its common name comes from a characteristic black blotch on the tip of its snout , though this may be indistinct in older individuals .
Blacknose sharks feed primarily on small bony fishes and cephalopods , and in turn fall prey to larger sharks . Like other members of their family , they exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection . The females give birth to three to six young in late spring or early summer , either annually or biennually , after a gestation period of eight to 11 months . This species is not known to attack humans , though it has been documented performing a threat display towards divers . It is of moderate commercial and recreational importance . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as Near Threatened . In 2009 , the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration announced the populations of the blacknose shark off the United States are being overfished , and proposed new conservation measures .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Cuban naturalist Felipe Poey published the first description of the blacknose shark in 1860 as Squalus acronotus , in his Memorias sobre la historia natural de la Isla de Cuba . Later authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen was a 98 @-@ cm ( 3 @.@ 2 @-@ ft ) -long male caught off Cuba .
Based on morphological data , Jack Garrick suggested in 1982 that the blacknose shark has a sister relationship to a group containing the whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) and the blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) , while Leonard Compagno proposed in 1988 that this shark belongs in a group with five other species , including the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) . Molecular analyses have been similarly equivocal regarding the blacknose shark 's phylogenetic relationships : Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme analysis found this species to be the most basal member of Carcharhinus , while Mine Dosay @-@ Abkulut 's 2008 ribosomal DNA analysis indicated affinity between it and the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) or the smalltail shark ( C. porosus ) . The whitenose shark ( Nasolamia velox ) , found along the tropical western coast of the Americas , may be descended from blacknose sharks that experienced the teratogenic effects of incipient cyclopia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blacknose shark inhabits the continental and insular shelves off the eastern coast of the Americas , as far north as North Carolina and as far south as southern Brazil , including the Bahamas , the Gulf of Mexico , and the Caribbean Sea . They frequent coastal waters over beds of seagrass , sandy flats , and shell or coral rubble . This species is spatially segregated by size and sex . Generally , only young sharks are encountered in shallow water , as the adults prefer depths greater than 9 m ( 30 ft ) and is most common at 18 – 64 m ( 59 – 210 ft ) . Blacknose sharks in the South Atlantic Bight ( off the Atlantic coast of the southern United States ) migrate northward in the summer and southward ( or possibly offshore ) in the winter ; a similar migration occurs for sharks in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Description = =
The blacknose shark has a slender , streamlined body with a long , rounded snout and large eyes . There is a well @-@ developed flap of skin in front of each nostril , defining the inflow and outflow openings . Twelve to 13 and 11 to 12 tooth rows occur on either side of the upper and lower jaws , respectively , with one or two teeth at the symphysis ( middle ) . The teeth are triangular and oblique , with serrated edges ; the upper teeth are stouter than the lower teeth . The five pairs of gill slits are short , measuring less a third the length of the first dorsal fin base .
The first dorsal fin is small and somewhat sickle @-@ shaped , with a pointed apex and a short , free , rear tip ; its origin lies over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is relatively large , though still less than half the height of the first . No ridge is seen between the dorsal fins . The pectoral fins are short and tapered . The body is covered with overlapping dermal denticles that bear five to seven longitudinal ridges ( three in very young individuals ) leading to three to five marginal teeth . The coloration is yellowish to greenish @-@ gray or brown above and white to yellow below . A distinctive dark blotch at the tip of the snout is most obvious in young sharks . The tips of the second dorsal fin , upper caudal fin lobe , and sometimes the lower caudal fin lobe , are dark . Blacknose sharks are typically 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and 10 kg ( 22 lb ) in weight . The maximum length and weight on record is 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 18 @.@ 9 kg ( 42 lb ) , respectively .
= = Biology and ecology = =
A small , fast @-@ swimming predator , the blacknose shark feeds primarily on small , bony fishes , including pinfish , croakers , porgies , anchovies , spiny boxfish , and porcupinefish , as well as on octopus and other cephalopods . When competing for bait , their speed allows them to snatch food from larger sharks such as the Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) . This species may form large schools that are sometimes associated with anchovies and mullet . Blacknose sharks demonstrate a high degree of philopatry : both juveniles and adults have been documented returning to the same local area year after year .
Blacknose sharks are preyed upon by larger sharks , and captives have been observed to perform an apparent threat display towards encroaching divers or newly introduced members of their species . The display consists of the shark hunching its back , lowering its pectoral fins , gaping its jaws , and swimming with an exaggerated side @-@ to @-@ side motion . Known parasites of this species include the copepods Nesippus orientalis , Perissopus dentatus , Pandarus sinuatus , Kroyeria sphyrnae , Nemesis atlantica , and Eudactylina spinifera , as well as tapeworms in the genera Paraorygmatobothrium and Platybothrium .
= = = Life history = = =
As in other requiem sharks , the blacknose shark is viviparous : after the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nourishment . Off the United States , males are thought to reproduce every year , while females reproduce every other year . However , off northeastern Brazil , the female reproductive cycle is short enough to occur annually . Vitellogenesis ( the formation of yolk within the ovary ) occurs in the late summer , and is immediately followed by mating and fertilization in the fall , with the young being born the following spring to summer . The seasonality of these events means the reproductive cycle is offset by six months between populations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . The gestation period has been variously estimated at eight months off northeastern Brazil and 9 – 11 months off the southeastern United States .
Females typically give birth to litters of one to six pups in shallow nursery areas , such as coastal bays or mangrove swamps ; one known nursery area is Bulls Bay off South Carolina . There is no relationship between female size and the number of young . The newborns measure 38 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) long . Female blacknose sharks grow more slowly , attain a larger ultimate size , and have a longer lifespan than males . In addition , Gulf of Mexico sharks are slower @-@ growing and longer @-@ lived than those from the South Atlantic Bight . In the South Atlantic Bight , both sexes mature at a fork length ( from snout tip to caudal fin fork ) of around 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) , corresponding to ages of 4 @.@ 3 years for males and 4 @.@ 5 years for females . In the Gulf of Mexico , both sexes mature at a fork length of around 85 cm ( 2 @.@ 79 ft ) , corresponding to ages of 5 @.@ 4 years for males and 6 @.@ 6 years for females . The maximum lifespan has been calculated as 19 years in South Atlantic Bight and 16 @.@ 5 years in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Human interactions = =
The blacknose shark has never been implicated in an attack on humans . However , caution should be exercised if it begins to perform a threat display . This species is regarded as a game fish and offers a respectable fight on light tackle ( a more delicate fishing line ) . It is also of regional commercial importance , being taken intentionally and as bycatch via gillnets and surface longlines across its range , most significantly off southwestern Florida , Venezuela , and Brazil ; the meat is sold dried and salted . Large numbers of blacknose sharks are also caught incidentally by shrimp trawlers , which may pose a greater threat to its population , as many of the sharks taken are immature .
Off the United States , the fishing of the blacknose shark is regulated by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service 1993 Fisheries Management Plan ( FMP ) for Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sharks . For the purposes of commercial quotas and bag limits , the blacknose shark is classified within the " small coastal shark " ( SCS ) complex . From 1999 to 2005 , an average of 27 @,@ 484 blacknose sharks ( 62 metric tons ) were caught each year off the United States . Recent stock assessments conducted by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) have determined the populations of this species have become overfished in both the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . In 2009 , the NOAA proposed instituting a separate quota for blacknose sharks of 6 @,@ 065 sharks per year , and a ban on using gillnets to catch sharks in the Atlantic . By contrast , blacknose shark stocks off northern Brazil appear to be stable , while no fishery data are available from the Caribbean . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened globally .
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= Erromintxela language =
Erromintxela ( Basque pronunciation : [ eromintʃela ] ) is the distinctive language of a group of Romani living in the Basque Country , who also go by the name Erromintxela . It is sometimes called Basque Caló or Errumantxela in English ; caló vasco , romaní vasco , or errominchela in Spanish ; and euskado @-@ rromani or euskado @-@ romani in French . Although detailed accounts of the language date to the end of the 19th century , linguistic research only began in the 1990s .
Erromintxela is a mixed language ( referred to as Para @-@ Romani in Romani linguistics ) , deriving most of its vocabulary from Kalderash Romani but using Basque grammar , similar to the way the Angloromani language of the Roma in England mixes Romani vocabulary and English grammar . The development of this mixed language was facilitated by the unusually deep integration of the Erromintxela people into Basque society and the resultant bilingualism in Basque . The language is in decline ; most of the perhaps one thousand remaining speakers live on the coast of Labourd and in the mountainous regions of Soule , Navarre , Gipuzkoa and Biscay . The Erromintxela are the descendants of a 15th @-@ century wave of Kalderash Roma who entered the Basque Country via France . Both ethnically and linguistically , they are distinct from the Caló @-@ speaking Romani people in Spain and the Cascarot Romani people of the Northern Basque Country .
= = Name = =
The origin of the name Erromintxela is unclear and may be of relatively recent origin ; Basque speakers had previously grouped the Erromintxela under more general terms for Romani such as ijitoak " Egyptians " , ungrianok " Hungarians " , or buhameak " Bohemians " . However , a number of authors believe it to be a Basque rendering of the French name romanichel or romané @-@ michel , a name attested primarily in the vicinity of the Pyrenees and in particular the Northern Basque Country . Romanichel is in turn a French rendering of the Romani phrase Romani čel " Romani person " . Though now uncommon in France , it is found in the names of the British Ròmanichal and the Scandinavian Romanisæl , all descendants , like the Erromintxela , of a group of Roma who had migrated to France .
Early attestations of the name in Basque include Errama @-@ itçéla , Erroumancel , later errumanzel and erremaitzela . The initial E- is the Basque prosthetic vowel , added because no Basque word may begin with an R- , and the final -a is the absolutive case suffix , used when citing a name . If this etymology is correct , it is a rare case of a native Romani name for themselves ( an endonym ) being borrowed by another language .
The people identify themselves as ijitoak , Basque for " gypsies " , but more specifically as Erromintxela , in contrast to the Caló Romani , whom they refer to as the xango @-@ gorriak , Basque for " red @-@ legs " .
= = State of the language = =
There are currently an estimated 500 speakers in the Southern Basque Country in Spain , approximately 2 % of a population of 21 @,@ 000 Romanis , and another estimated 500 in France . In Spain the remaining fluent speakers are elderly people mostly over the age of 80 ; some are equally fluent in Spanish , Basque , or Caló . Middle @-@ aged Erromintxela are mostly passive bilinguals , and the youngest speak only Basque or Spanish . In the Northern Basque Country , however , the language is still being passed on to children . The percentage of speakers among Spanish Erromintxela are higher than 2 % , as large numbers of Caló @-@ speaking Romanis moved to the Basque Country in the intense period of industrialisation in the 20th century .
= = Literary production = =
To date , there has been little literary production in the language . The most notable works are a poem by Jon Mirande entitled " Kama @-@ goli " in his 1997 anthology Orhoituz and the 1999 novel Agirre zaharraren kartzelaldi berriak by Koldo Izagirre Urreaga with the main character using the language .
= = History = =
The Erromintxela arrived in the Basque Country in the 15th century speaking Kalderash Romani . They integrated much more deeply into Basque society than other Romani groups . In the process , they acquired the Basque language and adopted aspects of Basque culture such as increased rights of women and important traditions such as bertsolaritza ( extemporaneous poetic song ) and pelota ( the national Basque ballgame ) . Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia suspect that the morphological and phonological similarities between Romani and Basque facilitated the adoption of Basque grammar by the bilingual Romanis .
It appears that many Romanis chose to stay in the Basque Country to escape persecution elsewhere in Europe . Nonetheless , even here they were not safe from persecution . For example , the Royal Council of Navarre in 1602 passed an edict to round up all " vagabonds " ( meaning Romani ) , who were to be condemned to 6 years of galley duty . By the 18th century however attitudes had changed , and the emphasis shifted towards integration . In 1780 – 1781 the Courts of Navarre passed Law 23 , which called for " the authorities to take care of them , find them locations for settlement and honest occupations and ways of living ... "
= = Research = =
The oldest account of the language dates to 1855 , when the French ethnographer Justin Cenac @-@ Moncaut located the Erromintxela primarily in the Northern Basque Country . The oldest coherent Erromintxela text , a poem entitled Kama @-@ goli , published by Basque writer Jon Mirande in a collection of Basque poetry , only dates to ca . 1960 .
Alexandre Baudrimont 's 40 @-@ page study Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques français of 1862 , the most extensive of the early accounts , covers both vocabulary and aspects of grammar . He worked with two female informants , a mother and her daughter from the Uhart @-@ Mixe area near Saint @-@ Palais , whom he describes as highly fluent . Unfortunately , he was only able to conduct a single session as the women were then told not to cooperate further for the fear of outsiders prying into the secrets of the Romani . There is a certain degree of confusion in Baudrimont 's publication — he himself states that he could not always be certain the correct forms were elicited . For example , most of the verb forms he tried to elicit lack the verbal -tu ending and appear to be participles .
The French sociologist Victor de Rochas refers to the Romani in the Northern Basque Country speaking Basque , rather than French , in his 1876 Les Parias de France et d 'Espagne ( cagots et bohémiens ) . The Canon Jean @-@ Baptiste Daranatz published a wordlist in the periodical Eskualdun Ona in 1906 and in 1921 Berraondo and Oyarbide carried out some research . Although labelled gitano ( Spanish for ' gypsy ' ) or bohémien / gitan ( French for ' gypsy ' ) , some data can also be found in Azkue 's 1905 dictionary and Pierre Lhande 's 1926 dictionary , both of which list a number of words identifiable as Erromintxela .
Little more was done until the late 20th century . In 1986 Federico Krutwig published a short article in the Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos entitled " Los gitanos vascos " , with a short word list and a brief analysis of the language 's morphology . However , the most detailed research to date was carried out by Basque philologist Josune Muñoz and historian Elias Lopez de Mungia , who began their work in the Southern Basque Country in 1996 at the behest of the Romani organisation Kalé Dor Kayiko , with support from the Euskaltzaindia and the University of the Basque Country . Kalé Dor Kayiko , who had been working to promote the Romani language , was alerted to the existence of Erromintxela in the 1990s through an article by the historian Alizia Stürtze , Agotak , juduak eta ijitoak Euskal Herrian " Agotes , Jews , and Gypsies in the Basque Country " . Kalé Dor Kayiko intends to continue research into the language , attitudes , identity , and history of the Erromintxela people in the less well researched provinces of Navarre and the Northern Basque Country .
= = Linguistic features = =
The research by Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia has confirmed that Erromintxela is not derived from Caló , the mixed Spanish @-@ Romani language spoken throughout Spain , but is instead based on Kalderash Romani and the Basque language . The vocabulary appears to be almost exclusively Romani in origin ; the grammar however , both morphology and syntax , derives from various Basque dialects . Few traces appear to remain of Romani grammatical structures . The language is incomprehensible to speakers of both Basque and of Caló .
Typologically , Erromintxela displays the same features as the Basque dialects it derives its grammatical structures from . Its case marking follows the ergative – absolutive pattern where the subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case ( which is unmarked ) , the same case being used for the direct object of a transitive verb . The subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case . Similarly , auxiliary verbs agree with the subject and any direct object and indirect object present and verb forms are marked for allocutive ( i.e. a marker is used to indicate the gender of the addressee ) .
Since both Erromintxela and Caló derive from Romani , many Erromintxela words are similar to Spanish Caló and Catalan Caló .
= = = Phonology = = =
According to Baudrimont 's description of 1862 and modern southern sources , Erromintxela appears to have , at maximum , the sound system below . Southern speakers appear not to have the rounded vowel / y / or the consonant / θ / , in line with north @-@ south differences in Basque , and it is not clear if the northern distinction between / ɡ / and / ɣ / also exists in the south .
Baudrimont uses a semi @-@ phonetic system with the following diverging conventions :
= = = Morphology = = =
Examples of morphological features in Erromintxela :
= = = Verb formation = = =
Most verbs have a Romani root plus the Basque verb forming suffix -tu . Examples of Erromintxela verbs are given below . ( Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use . Basque is included for comparison . )
Most Erromintxela verbal inflections are virtually identical to those found in Basque dialects :
Negations are formed with na / nagi ( Romani na / níči ) ; cf Basque ez / ezetz . The word for " yes " is ua ( Romani va ) ; cf Basque bai / baietz .
= = = Nouns = = =
The majority of nouns have Romani roots , but frequently attested with Basque suffixes . The variation of nouns cited with or without a final -a is likely due to informants supplying them with or without the absolutive ending . ( Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use . )
= = = Time = = =
According to Baudrimot , the Erromintxela have adopted the Basque names of the months . Note that some of the Basque names represent pre @-@ standardisation names of the months , e.g. August is Abuztua in Standard Basque rather than Agorrila .
Baudrimont claims that subdivisions of the year ( apart from the months ) are formed with the word breja ( bréχa ) " year " : breja kinua " month " and breja kipia " week " .
= = = Numerals = = =
Numerals ( Basque included for contrasting purposes ) :
= = = Adjectives and adverbs = = =
Adjectives and adverbs are also mostly derived from Romani forms :
= = = Pronouns & demonstratives = = =
Pronouns are derived from both languages :
= = Baudrimont 's material = =
Much of Baudrimont 's wordlist is easily related to other Erromintxela sources . However , some of the material collected by Baudrimont deserves a more detailed overview due to its peculiarities . Most of these relate to the verbs and verb forms he collected but some include nouns and other items .
= = = Nouns = = =
His material contains a relatively high number of Basque @-@ derived items .
Certain items are peculiar . Baudrimont lists mintxa as " tooth " . The Kalderash term is dand ( daní in Caló ) but the term given is immediately more reminiscent of Northern Basque mintzo " speech " or mintza " skin " ( with expressive palatalization ) . This , and other similar items , raise the question of whether Baudrimont was simply pointing at items to elicit forms .
The forms he attempted to elicit are questionable in some cases as well . For example he attempted to agricultural terms such as plough , harrow and aftermath from his ( female ) informants and records the suspiciously similar sasta " plough " and xatxa ( shatsha ) " harrow " .
= = = Verb system and pronouns = = =
The verb systems and pronouns recorded by Baudrimont is peculiar in several ways . Apart from his problem of eliciting the citation form of verbs as opposed to participles , he lists pronouns and possessive pronouns that appear to contain Romani roots and an unexpected auxiliary .
The verb ajin for " to have " attested elsewhere although Basque derived forms appear more common overall . Kalderash Romani employs the 3rd person of " to be " and a dative pronoun to express ownership :
1Note that forms like duk ( 3rd pers @-@ have @-@ 2nd per ( male ) ) are the verbal part whereas Erromintxela tuk is a pronoun .
The negative particle na is fairly clear in the forms above . Buter , as Baudrimont notes , is the word for " much , many " and may not be a true pronoun . Kalderash uses the accusative pronouns to express possession but the forms above are more reminiscent of wrongly parsed Kalderash dative forms mangé , tuké , léske , léke etc. and perhaps a different case of " to be " ( the full Kalderash paradigm being sim , san , si , si , sam , san / sen , si ) .
On the whole , it raises questions about the level of communication between Baudrimont and his informants and the quality of ( some of the ) material elicited .
= = Connected examples = =
Examples with interlinear versions ( lexical items of Romani origin marked in bold ) :
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= USS Winnebago ( 1863 ) =
USS Winnebago was a double @-@ turret Milwaukee @-@ class river monitor , named for the Winnebago tribe of Siouan Indians , built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . The ship participated in the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1864 , during which she was lightly damaged , and the bombardments of Forts Gaines and Morgan as Union troops besieged the fortifications defending the bay . In early 1865 , Winnebago again supported Union forces during the Mobile Campaign as they attacked Confederate fortifications defending the city of Mobile , Alabama . She was placed in reserve after the end of the war and sold in 1874 .
= = Description = =
Winnebago was 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . She was 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) . Her crew numbered 138 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Chickasaw carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Her forward turret was designed by James Eads and her rear turret by John Ericsson . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction and service = =
James Eads was awarded the contracts for all four of the Milwaukee @-@ class ships . He laid down Winnebago at his Union Iron Works Carondelet , St. Louis in 1862 . The first U.S. Navy ship to be named after the Indian tribe , she was launched on 4 July 1863 and commissioned on 27 April 1864 .
Initially assigned to the Mississippi River Squadron , Winnebago operated on the Mississippi River defending Union ships against Confederate raids and ambushes for several months . She was transferred to Rear Admiral David Farragut 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 9 July , together with her sister Chickasaw . The ship required some time to refit at New Orleans and prepare for the voyage to Mobile across the Gulf of Mexico , so the two sisters did not depart New Orleans until 29 July . On the voyage down the Mississippi to the Pass A Loutre , Chickasaw was forced to anchor overnight because of steering problems and the two ships did not cross the sandbar at the mouth of the pass until the evening of the following day . Once in the Gulf , Winnebago was taken under tow by the sidewheel gunboat Metacomet for the voyage across the Gulf . Farragut inspected the monitor after her arrival and was dismayed to learn that one of her turrets had jammed . He also preferred to have a more experienced officer in command and appointed Commander Thomas H. Stevens , Jr. as her new captain .
Farragut 's plan for the battle was relatively simple . The larger , more heavily armed monitors Tecumseh and Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her . Chickasaw and Winnebago were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Winnebago in the rear , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were called at the time , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
The two Milwaukee @-@ class ships bombarded Fort Morgan for about an hour and a half while the wooden ships passed through the mouth of Mobile Bay ; Winnebago beginning at 07 : 15 even though her forward turret was still jammed in place . About three @-@ quarters of an hour later , Tecumseh struck a " torpedo " and sank rapidly . Winnebago took on board 10 survivors from the ill @-@ fated Tecumseh who had been rescued by a boat from Metacomet under heavy fire and passed Ft . Morgan at 08 : 30 . After Tennessee first attacked Stevens ' former command , the gunboat Oneida , he was able to interpose Winnebago between the two ships in case the Confederate ironclad turned around for another attack , but it disengaged and briefly sought the shelter of Ft . Morgan 's guns . Around 09 : 10 the traversing gear for the rear turret broke down , only five minutes before Winnebago received the order to attack the Tennessee after it had sortied into the middle of Mobile Bay to attack the Union squadron . The monitor was forced to turn the entire ship to bring her guns to bear and did not play a significant part in the second phase of the battle before Tennessee was forced to surrender at 09 : 45 . During the battle , Winnebago was hit 19 times , three of which penetrated the deck near her aft turret , although she suffered no casualties . Despite the problems with her turrets , the ship managed to fire 56 shells , a mixture of solid shot , explosive shells , grapeshot , canister shot , and shrapnel shells .
Winnebago intermittently bombarded Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines until they surrendered , on 24 and 6 August , respectively . On the night of 8 August , Commander Stevens sent a boat crew under the command of Acting Ensign Michael Murphy on a successful mission to cut the telegraph cable between Fort Morgan and the city of Mobile . The fort surrendered on 24 August and the ship remained at Mobile Bay into 1865 supporting Union forces . On 27 March , Union forces advanced on Spanish Fort as the first step in capturing Mobile . The Navy 's role was to bombard the defenses and to interdict their communications with Mobile , but the defenders had sown mines in great numbers in the waterways . The Navy successfully swept many of these , but could not completely clear the rivers .
Winnebago and her sister Milwaukee sailed upriver on 28 March to attack a Confederate transport and forced it to retreat , but Milwaukee struck a mine , in an area previously swept , as they were returning downriver . She remained afloat forward , which permitted her crew to escape without loss . Winnebago later protected a convoy carrying some 13 @,@ 000 troops under Major General Frederick Steele , to Selma and Montgomery , Alabama later in April . By 28 April , the monitor , together with the gunboats USS Octorara and Sebago , was blockading the Confederate ironclad Nashville and the gunboat Morgan up the Tombigbee River , until their surrender .
Winnebago was placed in ordinary on the Algiers side of the Mississippi , across from New Orleans , on 27 September . She was renamed twice during that time , first to Tornado on 15 June 1869 and then she resumed her original name on 10 August 1869 . Winnebago was sold at auction on 12 September 1874 .
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= Brad Follmer =
FBI Assistant Director Brad D. Follmer is a fictional character in the American Fox television series The X @-@ Files , a science fiction series about a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of Alien existence . Follmer was introduced during the last season of the show , as an ex @-@ lover to main character Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) . Follmer was portrayed by British actor , Cary Elwes .
Federal Bureau of Investigation Assistant Director Follmer made his first appearance in the ninth season episode " Nothing Important Happened Today " ( 2001 ) . At the start of the season , Follmer was unfriendly towards John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) because of his case against Alvin Kersh , the Deputy Director of the FBI . In time , however , he came to respect him .
= = Character arc = =
Follmer was an Assistant Director at the FBI . He had a romantic history with Monica Reyes that he briefly brought up while trying to keep her away from the X @-@ files . His true motives were more political in nature and part of his sycophancy to Alvin Kersh . He did not believe in the X @-@ files and deliberately showed disrespect to John Doggett by calling him " Mr. Doggett " instead of " Agent " .
In 2002 , new evidence concerning the murder of Luke Doggett came to light . Doggett sought Follmer 's assistance because he had worked against organized crime in New York City before coming to Washington . Reyes , however , recalled seeing Follmer accept a bribe from a mobster . Although he tried to play the event off as him paying an informant ( at which he nearly succeeded ) , the truth was as Reyes suspected : Follmer was crooked . Once the truth of Luke 's fate was revealed , Follmer killed the mobster who had nevertheless threatened blackmail concerning Follmer 's bribe acceptance . Follmer 's future at the FBI was left unresolved , although he most likely faced criminal charges for his actions .
= = Conceptual history = =
When creating the character , Chris Carter , one of the executive producers of The X @-@ Files , personally wanted British actor Cary Elwes in the role . Elwes won the role after an audition with Annabeth Gish on August 8 , 2001 . He was chosen because of " the dynamic " and " the energy between the two of them . " Along with announcing the character , he said that the character would only appear in six episodes .
When creating the character , Elwes did not want the character to be looked as " good or bad " , even having discussing it with Carter and Frank Spotnitz , another executive producer of the show . The producers and actors have instead labeled him as " ambiguous " , and a man who wants to see " evidence through logic " and not superstition . When describing his character to The Hollywood Reporter , Elwes said he " is a guy who is a little more buttoned up , a little more polished ; he represents a different kind of FBI . "
There were two reasons for creating the character of Follmer , the first being when making Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) became a main character in the ninth season , they decided to provide a love interest for the character . When introducing Follmer to the show , they wanted to strengthen John Doggett 's ( Robert Patrick ) and Reyes relationship . The second reason was that they wanted to create a character different from Doggett ; according to John Shiban , they wanted from the start to have a character who was basically " anti @-@ Doggett " .
= = Reception = =
John Sellers from Entertainment Weekly reacted overall positive when it was confirmed that Cary Elwes would become a recurring guest actor . Marisa Guthrie from the Boston Herald said Elwes was " fine " as Follmer . Michigan Daily reviewer Christian Smith called the character " unreadable " . An unnamed staff writer of Airlock Alpha felt that Elwes performance was " forced , " concluding his review of Follmer that Elwes did not feel " comfortable with his character . " An unnamed reviewer from Critical Myth felt Follmer 's dialogue in the season premiere , " Nothing Important Happened Today " , especially the scene at the bar did not " make any sense . " While another review from the same site , felt that Follmer 's " characterization " was much " stronger " in " 4 @-@ D " than in the season premiere .
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