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= A Ghost Is Born =
A Ghost Is Born is the fifth studio album by American alternative rock band Wilco . Released on June 22 , 2004 , it features singer Jeff Tweedy on lead guitar more than any previous Wilco album . The band streamed the album online for free , and offered a five song EP to purchasers .
Tweedy entered a rehab clinic shortly before the release of the album , delaying its release by two weeks . It also shortened its promotional tour . Despite this , A Ghost Is Born 's opening week was the best sales week for the band at the time and the album was met with good reviews from major publications such as Rolling Stone and PopMatters . The album earned Wilco a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
= = Production = =
Wilco signed a contract with Nonesuch Records in November 2001 after a lengthy dispute with Reprise Records over the release of the band 's fourth album Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Foxtrot was welcomed with positive reviews from The Village Voice — where the album was rated by the critics as the best album of 2002 — and Rolling Stone . It sold over 590 @,@ 000 copies , earning a Gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = = Composition = = =
Recording for a new album began in November 2003 under the working title Wilco Happens . The album was produced by Jim O 'Rourke , who mixed Foxtrot and was a member of Wilco side project Loose Fur . O 'Rourke encouraged lead singer Jeff Tweedy to develop his guitar skills for the album ; Tweedy recently became the lead guitarist for the band due to the dismissal of Jay Bennett after the Yankee Hotel Foxtrot recording sessions . Tweedy sought to play solos on the album that were unlike those of jam bands such as Phish and The Grateful Dead . Instead , he performed composed solos influenced by Television such as the one during the coda of " At Least That 's What You Said " . Tweedy refers to the guitar solo at the end of the track as a " musical transcription " of one of his panic attacks . A Ghost Is Born was recorded in a manner different from Foxtrot or 1999 's Summerteeth ; whereas those recordings were performed live in the studio and then overdubbed , A Ghost Is Born was first performed on Pro Tools and only played live once completed . Tweedy was excited about writing an album this way :
An unusual feature of A Ghost Is Born is the fifteen @-@ minute long track " Less Than You Think " . The first part of the song begins as a ballad which references belief systems and atheism which after 3 minutes , fades out . The second part begins at this moment and consists of electronic drones and noise , intended to audibly represent the migraines that lead singer Jeff Tweedy had been suffering from while addicted to pain killers during the recording sessions for A Ghost Is Born . For the song , each band member created a synthesizer noise that mimicked an electronic sound . The installations were simultaneously activated in the room and recorded . The noise , which served as the coda to the song , was remixed to provide dynamics to the track . Calling it " the track that everyone will hate , " Tweedy defended the song 's inclusion on the album :
A Ghost Is Born was the first Wilco album with pianist Mikael Jorgensen ; he had previously worked as an engineer with the band on their collaboration with The Minus 5 . Jeff Tweedy provided lead vocals and acted as lead guitarist for the only time since the band formed . John Stirratt , the only original member aside from Tweedy , played bass and guitar . Glenn Kotche and Jim O 'Rourke , Tweedy 's associates from Loose Fur , acted as drummer and multi @-@ instrumentalist , respectively . Leroy Bach played a variety of keyboards as well as bass guitar . All members of the band contributed with a synthesizer part on " Less Than You Think " .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
Wilco began touring in support of Ghost even before the album had been released . Multi @-@ instrumentalist Leroy Bach left the band after the recording sessions to join a theater production , so Wilco added jazz rock guitarist Nels Cline and multi @-@ instrumentalist Pat Sansone to replace him . Sansone had been playing with The Autumn Defense , a side project led by bassist John Stirratt . However , the tour to support the album had to be abridged . In May 2004 , Tweedy checked himself into a rehabilitation clinic in Chicago , Illinois due to chronic migraine headaches , anxiety attacks , and clinical depression . In the process of treating the ailments , Tweedy became addicted to prescription painkillers . His rehab led to the cancellation of the European stage of the tour and a delay in the album 's release date . Intended for release on June 8 , 2004 , the album was officially released on June 22 , 2004 .
The band also webcast the album in its entirety on the Internet in a promotion with Apple Computer . Nonesuch was willing to allow the MPEG @-@ 4 broadcast due to the success of a similar broadcast in the promotion of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Additionally , Wilco offered a free EP to purchasers of the album . The EP featured two outtakes from the album — " Panthers " and " Kicking Television " — and live versions of " At Least That 's What You Said " , " The Late Greats " , and " Handshake Drugs " . The EP was later packaged with the album and sold as a " deluxe version " .
= = Reception = =
In its debut week , A Ghost Is Born peaked at # 8 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold over 81 @,@ 000 copies , the highest US chart peak and best sales week ever attained by the band at that time . As of April 13 , 2007 the album has sold over 340 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was an international hit as well , peaking at # 24 in Norway , # 29 in Sweden , # 33 in New Zealand , # 34 in Belgium , and # 37 in Ireland .
Like Foxtrot , A Ghost Is Born was well received by critics . On Metacritic , it has been given a score of 81 out of 100 based on " universal acclaim " . Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone called the album " as eerie as anything Wilco have recorded yet " and applauded " Tweedy offers illuminating curiosity about what can happen in a song . " Stylus Magazine gave it an " A " grade , named it " album of the week " , and claimed it was " even more brilliant " than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Michael Metevier of PopMatters also supported the notion that Ghost was better than Foxtrot , calling every note " purposeful " and said that the album made him " surprised and delighted enough to last several lifetimes . " James Hunter from The Village Voice gave it a positive review and said , " Wilco 's ideas are unremarkable , but are worked out with intelligence and striking conception . And as it happens , the new organic emphasis tables some of Wilco 's lamer stylistic obsessions . " Billboard also gave it a positive review and called it Wilco 's " most difficult and uncompromising album to date . "
Tiny Mix Tapes gave it all five stars and said that " Unlike the first three Wilco albums and even more than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , A Ghost is Born requires careful listening . " The A.V. Club gave it a favorable review and said that " For the most part , Ghost channels its shaggy sound into pop music . True , it 's pop music that constantly threatens to erupt into noise or fade into silence , but it 's still hard not to hum along . " E ! Online gave the album a B + and said , " If the album weren 't so agreeably off @-@ kilter--short , whispery tunes alternate with long , rambling epics--its mix of guitars and piano would almost seem like the stuff you 'd hear on rockers like Layla or Abbey Road . " Neumu.net gave it eight stars out of ten and stated , " If Foxtrot ' s songs were fractured pop , then Ghost is just plain fracture , a soft and brutal self @-@ examination that pulls no punches even as it manages to remain carefully elliptical . " Playlouder gave it four stars out of five and said , " This time , as well as simply delivering the goods , Wilco come bearing a basket of extras . " Q gave the album four stars out of five and called it " Even more meandering than its celebrated , if somewhat cold , predecessor . It 's also more confident , more coherent , yielding an all @-@ enveloping warmth that 's entirely resistant to any iPod shuffle function . " Flak Magazine also gave it a favorable review and stated : " It 's in the mournful , captivating , meditative , exasperating , pretentious , masterfully constructed experience of A Ghost Is Born that Tweedy and Wilco become true iconoclasts . " The Austin Chronicle gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and said the album was " not a lot of fun . Still , it 's an accomplishment , because it 's an angry album . "
Not all publications shared these views about the album . Pitchfork Media , who had given Yankee Hotel Foxtrot a perfect 10 rating , only gave Ghost a 6 @.@ 6 , calling it " wildly uneven " and " less cohesive than any other Wilco release . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called the album a " privileged self @-@ indulgence " due to its extreme musical dynamics . Joshua Klein of the Chicago Tribune gave it an average review and said that " the incomplete quality of " A Ghost is Born " can be quite intriguing , more of a side step than a forward leap , but a worthy experiment all the same . " NME gave the album a score of six out of ten and stated : " It 's like Scissor Sisters on tranquilisers . With a bit of ELO . And a dash of Ramones . And , with this eclecticism , a worrying lack of focus . " Alternative Press gave it three stars out of five and said , " It 's important that albums like Ghost exist--but unfortunately , those albums don 't always make the most enjoyable listens . " Trouser Press gave it a mixed review and called it " a textbook example of an album created to fulfill expectations the band doesn 't necessarily share . "
In 2005 , A Ghost Is Born won two Grammy Awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Recording Package . Although the band was nominated for Grammys for work on previous albums , this was the first time that they won one .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jeff Tweedy except where noted .
Side one
" At Least That 's What You Said " – 5 : 33
" Hell Is Chrome " ( Tweedy , Mikael Jorgensen ) – 4 : 38
" Spiders ( Kidsmoke ) " – 10 : 46
Side two
" Muzzle of Bees " – 4 : 56
" Hummingbird " – 3 : 11
" Handshake Drugs " – 6 : 07
Side three
" Wishful Thinking " ( Tweedy , Glenn Kotche ) – 4 : 41
" Company in My Back " – 3 : 46
" I 'm a Wheel " – 2 : 37
" Theologians " ( Tweedy , Jorgensen , Chris Girard ) – 3 : 36
Side four
" Less Than You Think " ( Tweedy , John Stirratt , Kotche , Jorgensen , Leroy Bach , Jim O 'Rourke ) – 15 : 04
" The Late Greats " – 2 : 31
= = Singles = =
" I 'm a Wheel " ( July 26 , 2004 )
7 " vinyl only , " I 'm a Wheel " b / w " Kicking Television "
= = Personnel = =
Wilco :
Jeff Tweedy – vocals , guitar , bass , synthesizer , filters , loops
John Stirratt – bass , guitar , piano , backing vocals , synthesizer , filters , loops
Glenn Kotche – drums , percussion , hammered dulcimer , synthesizer , filters , loops
Leroy Bach – piano , organ , guitar , bass , vibes , synthesizer , filters , loops
Mikael Jorgensen – piano , rocksichord , Farfisa , organ , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer
Jim O 'Rourke – piano , guitar , bass , ARP 2600 , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer , mixing , producer
Additional personnel :
Frankie Montuoro – hammered dulcimer , production assistant , technical assistance
Karen Waltuch – viola
Tim Barnes – percussion
Steve Rooke – mastering
Chris Shaw – engineer
TJ Doherty , Tim Iseler – assistant engineers
Stan Doty , Daniel Herbst , Deborah Miles Johnson , Haydn Johnston , Matt Zivich – production assistants , technical assistance
Dan Nadel – graphic design
Peter Smith – graphic design , photography
Mike Schmelling – photography
Gladys Nilsson – drawing
Ken Waagner – digital supervisor
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= Einsatzgruppen =
Einsatzgruppen ( German for " task forces " , " deployment groups " ; singular Einsatzgruppe ; official full name Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD ) were Schutzstaffel ( SS ) paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany that were responsible for mass killings , primarily by shooting , during World War II . The Einsatzgruppen were involved in the murder of much of the intelligentsia and cultural elite of Poland , and had an integral role in the implementation of the so @-@ called " Final Solution to the Jewish question " ( Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ) in territories conquered by Nazi Germany . Almost all of the people they killed were civilians , beginning with the intelligentsia and swiftly progressing to Soviet political commissars , Jews , and Gypsies throughout Eastern Europe .
Under the direction of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler and the supervision of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , the Einsatzgruppen operated in territories occupied by the German armed forces following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and Operation Barbarossa ( the invasion of the Soviet Union ) in June 1941 . The Einsatzgruppen worked hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the Orpo Police Battalions on the Eastern Front to carry out operations ranging from the murder of a few people to operations which lasted over two or more days , such as the massacre at Babi Yar with 33 @,@ 771 Jews killed in two days , and the Rumbula massacre ( with about 25 @,@ 000 killed in two days of shooting ) . As ordered by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler , the Wehrmacht cooperated with the Einsatzgruppen and provided logistical support for their operations . Historian Raul Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related auxiliary troops killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The total number of Jews murdered during the Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people .
After the close of World War II , 24 senior leaders of the Einsatzgruppen were prosecuted in the Einsatzgruppen Trial in 1947 – 48 , charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes . Fourteen death sentences and two life sentences were handed out . Four additional Einsatzgruppe leaders were later tried and executed by other nations .
= = Formation and Action T4 = =
The Einsatzgruppen were formed under the direction of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and operated by the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) before and during World War II . The Einsatzgruppen had its origins in the ad hoc Einsatzkommando formed by Heydrich to secure government buildings and documents following the Anschluss in Austria in March 1938 . Originally part of the Sicherheitspolizei ( Security Police ; SiPo ) , two units of Einsatzgruppen were stationed in the Sudetenland in October 1938 . When military action turned out not to be necessary because of the Munich Agreement , the Einsatzgruppen were assigned to confiscate government papers and police documents . They also secured government buildings , questioned senior civil servants , and arrested as many as 10 @,@ 000 Czech communists and German citizens . From September 1939 , the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ; RSHA ) had overall command of the Einsatzgruppen .
As part of the drive to remove undesirable elements from the German population , from September to December 1939 the Einsatzgruppen and others took part in Action T4 , a programme of systematic murder of the physically and mentally handicapped and psychiatric hospital patients undertaken by the Nazi regime . Action T4 mainly took place from 1939 to 1941 , but continued until the end of the war . Initially the victims were shot by the Einsatzgruppen and others , but gas chambers were put into use by spring 1940 .
= = Invasion of Poland = =
In response to Führer und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler 's plan to invade Poland , Heydrich re @-@ formed the Einsatzgruppen to travel in the wake of the German armies . Membership at this point was drawn from the SS , the Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Service ; SD ) , and the police . Heydrich placed SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Werner Best in command , who chose leaders for the task forces and their subgroups , called Einsatzkommandos , from among educated people with military experience . Some had previously been members of paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps .
Numbering some 2 @,@ 700 men at this point , the Einsatzgruppen 's mission was the forceful de @-@ politicisation of the Polish people and the elimination of groups most clearly identified with Polish national identity : the intelligentsia , members of the clergy , teachers , and members of the nobility . As stated by Hitler : " ... there must be no Polish leaders ; where Polish leaders exist they must be killed , however harsh that sounds " . The Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen — lists of people to be killed — had been drawn up by the SS as early as May 1939 . The Einsatzgruppen performed these murders with the support of the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz , a paramilitary group consisting of ethnic Germans living in Poland . Members of the SS , the Wehrmacht , and the Ordnungspolizei ( Order Police ; Orpo ) also shot civilians during the Polish campaign . Approximately 65 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by the end of 1939 . In addition to leaders of Polish society , they killed Jews , prostitutes , Romani people , and the mentally ill . Psychiatric patients in Poland were initially killed by shooting , but by spring 1941 gas vans were widely used .
Seven Einsatzgruppen of battalion strength operated in Poland . Each was subdivided into four Einsatzkommandos of company strength .
Einsatzgruppe I , commanded by SS @-@ Standartenführer Bruno Streckenbach , acted with 14th Army
Einsatzgruppe II , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Emanuel Schäfer , acted with 10th Army
Einsatzgruppe III , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer und Regierungsrat Dr. Herbert Fischer , acted with 8th Army
Einsatzgruppe IV , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Lothar Beutel , acted with 4th Army
Einsatzgruppe V , SS @-@ Standartenfürer Ernst Damzog , acted with 3rd Army
Einsatzgruppe VI , SS @-@ Oberführer Erich Naumann , acted in Wielkopolska
Einsatzgruppe VII , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Udo von Woyrsch and SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Rasch , acted in Upper Silesia and Cieszyn Silesia
Though they were formally under the command of the army , the Einsatzgruppen received their orders directly from Heydrich and for the most part acted independently of the army . Many senior army officers were only too glad to leave these genocidal actions to the task forces , as the killings violated the rules of warfare as set down in the Geneva Conventions . However , Hitler had decreed that the army would have to tolerate and even offer logistical support to the Einsatzgruppen when it was tactically possible to do so . Some army commanders complained about unauthorised shootings , looting , and rapes committed by members of the Einsatzgruppen and the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz , to little effect . For example , when Generaloberst Johannes Blaskowitz sent a memorandum of complaint to Hitler about the atrocities , Hitler dismissed his concerns as " childish " , and Blaskowitz was relieved of his post in May 1940 . He continued to serve in the army but never received promotion to field marshal .
The final task of the Einsatzgruppen in Poland was to round up the remaining Jews and concentrate them in ghettos within major cities with good railway connections . The intention was to eventually remove all the Jews from Poland , but at this point their final destination had not yet been determined . Together , the Wehrmacht and the Einsatzgruppen also drove tens of thousands of Jews eastward into Soviet @-@ controlled territory .
= = Preparations for Operation Barbarossa = =
On 13 March 1941 , in the lead @-@ up to Operation Barbarossa , the planned invasion of the Soviet Union , Hitler dictated his " Guidelines in Special Spheres re : Directive No. 21 ( Operation Barbarossa ) " . Sub @-@ paragraph B specified that Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler would be given " special tasks " on direct orders from the Führer , which he would carry out independently . This directive was intended to prevent friction between the Wehrmacht and the SS in the upcoming offensive . Hitler also specified that criminal acts against civilians perpetrated by members of the Wehrmacht during the upcoming campaign would not be prosecuted in the military courts , and thus would go unpunished .
In a speech to his leading generals on 30 March 1941 , Hitler described his envisioned war against the Soviet Union . General Franz Halder , the Army 's Chief of Staff , described the speech :
Struggle between two ideologies . Scathing evaluation of Bolshevism , equals antisocial criminality . Communism immense future danger ... This a fight to the finish . If we do not accept this , we shall beat the enemy , but in thirty years we shall again confront the Communist foe . We don 't make war to preserve the enemy ... Struggle against Russia : Extermination of Bolshevik Commissars and of the Communist intelligentsia ... Commissars and GPU personnel are criminals and must be treated as such . The struggle will differ from that in the west . In the east harshness now means mildness for the future .
Though General Halder did not record any mention of Jews , German historian Andreas Hillgruber argued that because of Hitler 's frequent contemporary statements about the coming war of annihilation against " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " , his generals would have understood Hitler 's call for the destruction of the Soviet Union as also comprising a call for the destruction of its Jewish population . The genocide was often described using euphemisms such as " special tasks " and " executive measures " ; Einsatzgruppe victims were often described as having been shot while trying to escape . In May 1941 , Heydrich verbally passed on the order to kill the Soviet Jews to the SiPo NCO School in Pretzsch , where the commanders of the reorganised Einsatzgruppen were being trained for Operation Barbarossa . In spring 1941 , Heydrich and the First Quartermaster of the Wehrmacht Heer , General Eduard Wagner , successfully completed negotiations for co @-@ operation between the Einsatzgruppen and the German Army to allow the implementation of the " special tasks " . Following the Heydrich @-@ Wagner agreement on 28 April 1941 , Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch ordered that when Operation Barbarossa began , all German Army commanders were to immediately identify and register all Jews in occupied areas in the Soviet Union , and fully co @-@ operate with the Einsatzgruppen .
In further meetings held in June 1941 Himmler outlined to top SS leaders the regime 's intention to reduce the population of the Soviet Union by 30 million people , not only through direct killing of those considered racially inferior , but by depriving the remainder of food and other necessities of life .
= = = Organisation starting in 1941 = = =
For Operation Barbarossa , initially four Einsatzgruppen were created , each numbering 500 – 990 men to comprise a total force of 3 @,@ 000 . Einsatzgruppen A , B , and C were to be attached to Army Groups North , Centre , and South ; Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the 11th Army . The Einsatzgruppe for Special Purposes operated in eastern Poland starting in July 1941 . The Einsatzgruppen were under the control of the RSHA , headed by Heydrich and later by his successor , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner . Heydrich gave them a mandate to secure the offices and papers of the Soviet state and Communist Party ; to liquidate all the higher cadres of the Soviet state ; and to instigate and encourage pogroms against Jewish populations . The men of the Einsatzgruppen were recruited from the SD , Gestapo , Kriminalpolizei ( Kripo ) , Orpo , and Waffen @-@ SS . Each Einsatzgruppe was under the operational control of the Higher SS Police Chiefs in its area of operations . In May 1941 , General Wagner and SS @-@ Brigadeführer Walter Schellenberg agreed that the Einsatzgruppen in front @-@ line areas were to operate under army command , while the army provided the Einsatzgruppen with all necessary logistical support .
Heydrich acted under orders from Reichsführer @-@ SS Himmler , who supplied security forces on an " as needed " basis to the local SS and Police Leaders . Led by SD , Gestapo , and Kripo officers , Einsatzgruppen included recruits from the Orpo , Security Service and Waffen @-@ SS , augmented by uniformed volunteers from the local auxiliary police force . Each Einsatzgruppe was supplemented with a reserve battalion of Orpos and Waffen @-@ SS as well as support personnel such as drivers and radio operators . On average , the Orpo formations were larger and better armed , with heavy machine @-@ gun detachments , which enabled them to carry out operations beyond the capability of the SS . Each death squad followed an assigned army group as they advanced into the Soviet Union . During the course of their operations , the Einsatzgruppen commanders received assistance from the Wehrmacht . Activities ranged from the murder of targeted groups of individuals named on carefully prepared lists , to joint city @-@ wide operations with SS Einsatzgruppen which lasted for two or more days , such as the massacres at Babi Yar , perpetrated by the Orpo Reserve Battalion 45 , and at Rumbula , by Battalion 22 , reinforced by local Schutzmannschaften ( auxiliary police ) . The SS brigades , wrote historian Christopher Browning , were " only the thin cutting edge of German units that became involved in political and racial mass murder . "
Many Einsatzgruppe leaders were highly educated ; for example , nine of seventeen leaders of Einsatzgruppe A held doctorate degrees . Three Einsatzgruppen were commanded by holders of doctorates , one of whom ( SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Rasch ) held a double doctorate .
Additional Einsatzgruppen were created as additional territory was conquered . Einsatzgruppe E operated in Independent State of Croatia under three commanders , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Teichmann , SS @-@ Standartenführer Günther Herrmann , and lastly SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs . The unit was subdivided into five Einsatzkommandos located in Vinkovci , Sarajevo , Banja Luka , Knin , and Zagreb . Einsatzgruppe F worked with Army Group South . Einsatzgruppe G operated in Romania , Hungary , and Ukraine , commanded by SS @-@ Standartenführer Dr. Josef Kreuzer . Einsatzgruppe H was assigned to Slovakia . Einsatzgruppen K and L , under SS @-@ Oberführer Dr. Emanuel Schäfer and SS @-@ Standartenführer Dr. Ludwig Hahn , worked alongside 5th and 6th Panzer Armies during the Ardennes offensive . Hahn had previously been in command of Einsatzgruppe Griechenland in Greece .
Other Einsatzgruppen and Einsatzkommandos included Einsatzgruppe Iltis ( operated in Carinthia , on the border between Slovenia and Austria ) under SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel , Einsatzgruppe Jugoslawien ( Yugoslavia ) Einsatzkommando Luxemburg ( Luxembourg ) , Einsatzgruppe Norwegen ( Norway ) commanded by SS @-@ Oberführer Dr. Franz Walter Stahlecker , Einsatzgruppe Serbien ( Yugoslavia ) under SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs and SS @-@ Gruppenführer August Meysner , Einsatzkommando Tilsit ( Lithuania , Poland ) , and Einsatzgruppe Tunis ( Tunis ) , commanded by SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Walter Rauff .
= = Killings in the Soviet Union = =
After the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 , the Einsatzgruppen 's main assignment was to kill civilians , as in Poland , but this time its targets specifically included Soviet Communist Party commissars and Jews . In a letter dated 2 July 1941 Heydrich communicated to his SS and Police Leaders that the Einsatzgruppen were to execute all senior and middle ranking Comintern officials ; all senior and middle ranking members of the central , provincial , and district committees of the Communist Party ; extremist and radical Communist Party members ; people 's commissars ; and Jews in party and government posts . Open @-@ ended instructions were given to execute " other radical elements ( saboteurs , propagandists , snipers , assassins , agitators , etc . ) . " He instructed that any pogroms spontaneously initiated by the occupants of the conquered territories were to be quietly encouraged .
On 8 July , Heydrich announced that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans , and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot . On 17 July Heydrich ordered that the Einsatzgruppen were to kill all Jewish Red Army prisoners of war , plus all Red Army prisoners of war from Georgia and Central Asia , as they too might be Jews . Unlike in Germany , where the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 defined as Jewish anyone with at least three Jewish grandparents , the Einsatzgruppen defined as Jewish anyone with at least one Jewish grandparent ; in either case , whether or not the person practised the religion was irrelevant . The unit was also assigned to exterminate Romani people and the mentally ill . It was common practice for the Einsatzgruppen to shoot hostages .
As the invasion began , the Germans pursued the fleeing Red Army , leaving a security vacuum . Reports surfaced of Soviet guerrilla activity in the area , with local Jews immediately suspected of collaboration . Heydrich ordered his officers to incite anti @-@ Jewish pogroms in the newly occupied territories . Pogroms , some of which were orchestrated by the Einsatzgruppen , broke out in Latvia , Lithuania , and Ukraine . Within the first few weeks of Operation Barbarossa , 40 pogroms led to the deaths of 10 @,@ 000 Jews , and by the end of 1941 some 60 pogroms had taken place , claiming as many as 24 @,@ 000 victims . However , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Franz Walter Stahlecker , commander of Einstazgruppe A , reported to his superiors in mid @-@ October that the residents of Kaunas were not spontaneously starting pogroms , and secret assistance by the Germans was required . A similar reticence was noted by Einsatzgruppe B in Russia and Belarus and Einsatzgruppe C in Ukraine ; the further east the Einsatzgruppen travelled , the less likely the residents were to be prompted into killing their Jewish neighbours .
All four main Einsatzgruppen took part in mass shootings from the early days of the war . Initially the targets were adult Jewish men , but by August the net had been widened to include women , children , and the elderly — the entire Jewish population . Initially there was a semblance of legality given to the shootings , with trumped @-@ up charges being read out ( arson , sabotage , black marketeering , or refusal to work , for example ) and victims being killed by a firing squad . As this method proved too slow , the Einsatzkommandos began to take their victims out in larger groups and shot them next to , or even inside , mass graves that had been prepared . Some Einsatzkommandos started to use automatic weapons , with survivors being killed with a pistol shot .
As word of the massacres got out , many Jews fled ; in Ukraine , 70 to 90 per cent of the Jews ran away . This was seen by the leader of Einsatzkommando VI as beneficial , as it would save the regime the costs of deporting the victims further east over the Urals . In other areas the invasion was so successful that the Einsatzgruppen had insufficient forces to immediately kill all the Jews in the conquered territories . A situation report from Einsatzgruppe C in September 1941 noted that not all Jews were members of the Bolshevist apparatus , and suggested that the total elimination of Jewry would have a negative impact on the economy and the food supply . The Nazis began to round their victims up into concentration camps and ghettos and rural districts were for the most part rendered Judenfrei ( free of Jews ) . Jewish councils were set up in major cities and forced labour gangs were established to make use of the Jews as slave labour until they were totally eliminated , a goal that was postponed until 1942 .
Einsatzgruppen used public hangings as a terror tactic on the local population . An Einsatzgruppe B report , dated 9 October 1941 , described one such hanging . Due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov , all male residents aged 15 to 55 were put in a camp to be screened . The screening produced seventeen people identified as " partisans " and " Communists " . Five members of the group were hanged while 400 local residents were assembled to watch ; the rest were shot .
= = = Babi Yar = = =
The largest mass shooting perpetrated by the Einsatzgruppen took place on 29 and 30 September 1941 at Babi Yar , a ravine northwest of Kiev , a city in Ukraine that had fallen to the Germans on 19 September . The perpetrators included a company of Waffen @-@ SS attached to Einsatzgruppe C under Rasch , members of Sonderkommando 4a under SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Friedrich Jeckeln , and some Ukrainian auxiliary police . The Jews of Kiev were told to report to a certain street corner on 29 September ; anyone who disobeyed would be shot . Since word of massacres in other areas had not yet reached Kiev and the assembly point was near the train station , they assumed they were being deported . People showed up at the rendezvous point in large numbers , laden with possessions and food for the journey .
After being marched two miles north @-@ west of the city centre , the victims encountered a barbed wire barrier and numerous Ukrainian police and German troops . Thirty or forty people at a time were told to leave their possessions and were escorted through a narrow passageway lined with soldiers brandishing clubs . Anyone who tried to escape was beaten . Soon the victims reached an open area , where they were forced to strip , and then were herded down into the ravine . People were forced to lie down in rows on top of the bodies of other victims , and they were shot in the back of the head or the neck by members of the execution squads .
The murders continued for two days , claiming a total of 33 @,@ 771 victims . Sand was shovelled and bulldozed over the bodies and the sides of the ravine were dynamited to bring down more material . Anton Heidborn , a member of Sonderkommando 4a , later testified that three days later that there were still people alive among the corpses . Heidborn spent the next few days helping smooth out the " millions " of banknotes taken from the victims ' possessions . The clothing was taken away , destined to be re @-@ used by German citizens . Jeckeln 's troops shot more than 100 @,@ 000 Jews by the end of October .
= = Killings in the Baltic states = =
Einsatzgruppe A operated in the formerly Soviet @-@ occupied Baltic states of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania . According to its own reports to Himmler , Einsatzgruppe A killed almost 140 @,@ 000 people in the five months following the invasion : 136 @,@ 421 Jews , 1 @,@ 064 Communists , 653 people with mental illnesses , 56 partisans , 44 Poles , five Gypsies , and one Armenian were reported killed between 22 June and 25 November 1941 .
Upon entering Kaunas , Lithuania , on 25 June 1941 , the Einsatzgruppe released the criminals from the local jail and encouraged them to join the pogrom which was underway . Between 23 – 27 June 1941 , 4 @,@ 000 Jews were killed on the streets of Kaunas and in nearby open pits and ditches . Particularly active in the Kaunas pogrom was the so @-@ called " Death Dealer of Kaunas " , a young man who murdered Jews with a crowbar at the Lietukis Garage before a large crowd that cheered each killing with much applause ; he occasionally paused to play the Lithuanian national anthem " Tautiška giesmė " on his accordion before resuming the killings .
As Einsatzgruppe A advanced into Lithuania , it actively recruited local nationalists and antisemitic groups . In July 1941 , members of the Baltaraisciai movement joined the massacres . A pogrom in Riga in early July killed 400 Jews . Latvian nationalist Viktors Arājs and his supporters undertook a campaign of arson against synagogues . On 2 July , Einsatzgruppe A commander Stahlecker appointed Arājs to head the Arajs Kommando , a Sonderkommando of about 300 men , mostly university students . Together , Einsatzgruppe A and the Arājs Kommando killed 2 @,@ 300 Jews in Riga on 6 – 7 July . Within six months , Arājs and his men would kill about half of Latvia 's Jewish population .
Local officials , the Selbstschutz , and the Hilfspolizei ( Auxiliary Police ) played a key role in rounding up and massacring Jewish Lithuanians , Latvians , and Estonians . These groups helped the Einsatzgruppen and other killing units to quickly identify Jews . The Hilfspolizei , consisting of auxiliary police organised by the Germans and recruited from former Latvian Army and police officers , ex @-@ Aizsargi , members of the Pērkonkrusts , and university students , assisted in the murder of Latvia 's Jewish citizens . Similar units were created elsewhere , and provided much of the manpower for the Holocaust in Eastern Europe .
With the creation of units such as the Arājs Kommando and the Rollkommando Hamann in Lithuania , the attacks changed from the spontaneous mob violence of the pogroms to more systematic massacres . With extensive local help , Einsatzgruppe A was the first Einsatzgruppe to attempt to systematically exterminate all the Jews in its area . Latvian historian Modris Eksteins wrote :
Of the roughly 83 @,@ 000 Jews who fell into German hands in Latvia , not more than 900 survived ; and of the more than 20 @,@ 000 Western Jews sent into Latvia , only some 800 lived through the deportation until liberation . This was the highest percentage of eradication in all of Europe .
In late 1941 , the Einsatzkommandos settled into headquarters in Kovno , Riga , and Tallinn . Einsatzgruppe A grew less mobile and faced problems because of its small size . The Germans relied increasingly on the Arājs Kommando and similar groups to perform massacres of Jews .
Such extensive and enthusiastic collaboration with the Einsatzgruppen has been attributed to several factors . Since the Russian Revolution of 1905 , the Kresy Wschodnie and other borderlands had experienced a political culture of violence . The period of Soviet rule had been profoundly traumatic for residents of the Baltic states and areas that had been part of Poland until 1939 ; the population was brutalised and terrorised by the imposed Soviet rule , and the existing familiar structures of society were destroyed .
Historian Erich Haberer notes that many survived and made sense of the " totalitarian atomization " of society by seeking conformity with communism . As a result , by the time of the German invasion in 1941 , many had come to see conformity with a totalitarian regime as socially acceptable behaviour ; thus , people simply transferred their allegiance to the German regime when it arrived . Some who had collaborated with the Soviet regime sought to divert attention from themselves by naming Jews as collaborators and killing them .
= = = Rumbula = = =
In November 1941 Himmler was dissatisfied with the pace of the exterminations in Latvia , as he intended to move Jews from Germany into the area . He assigned SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Jeckeln , one of the perpetrators of the Babi Yar massacre , to liquidate the Riga ghetto . Jeckeln selected a site about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) southeast of Riga near the Rumbula railway station , and had 300 Russian prisoners of war prepare the site by digging pits in which to bury the victims . Jeckeln organised around 1 @,@ 700 men , including 300 members of the Arajs Kommando , 50 German SD men , and 50 Latvian guards , most of whom had already participated in mass killings of civilians . These troops were supplemented by Latvians , including members of the Riga city police , battalion police , and ghetto guards . Around 1 @,@ 500 able @-@ bodied Jews would be spared execution so their slave labour could be exploited ; a thousand men were relocated to a fenced @-@ off area within the ghetto and 500 women were temporarily housed in a prison and later moved to a separate nearby ghetto , where they were put to work mending uniforms .
Although Rumbula was on the rail line , Jeckeln decided that the victims should travel on foot from Riga to the execution ground . Trucks and buses were arranged to carry children and the elderly . The victims were told that they were being relocated , and were advised to bring up to 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) of possessions . The first day of executions , 30 November 1941 , began with the perpetrators rousing and assembling the victims at 4 : 00 am . The victims were moved in columns of a thousand people toward the execution ground . As they walked , some SS men went up and down the line , shooting people who could not keep up the pace or who tried to run away or rest .
When the columns neared the prepared execution site , the victims were driven some 270 metres ( 300 yd ) from the road into the forest , where any possessions that had not yet been abandoned were seized . Here the victims were split into groups of fifty and taken deeper into the forest , near the pits , where they were ordered to strip . The victims were driven into the prepared trenches , made to lie down , and shot in the head or the back of the neck by members of Jeckeln 's bodyguard . Around 13 @,@ 000 Jews from Riga were killed at the pits that day , along with a thousand Jews from Berlin who had just arrived by train . On the second day of the operation , 8 December 1941 , the remaining 10 @,@ 000 Jews of Riga were killed in the same way . About a thousand were killed on the streets of the city or on the way to the site , bringing the total deaths for the two @-@ day extermination to 25 @,@ 000 people . For his part in organising the massacre , Jeckeln was promoted to Leader of the SS Upper Section , Ostland .
= = Second Sweep = =
Einsatzgruppe B , C , and D did not immediately follow Einsatzgruppe A 's example in systematically killing all Jews in their areas . The Einsatzgruppe commanders , with the exception of Einsatzgruppe A 's Stahlecker , were of the opinion by the fall of 1941 that it was impossible to kill the entire Jewish population of the Soviet Union in one sweep , and thought the killings should stop . An Einsatzgruppe report dated 17 September advised that the Germans would be better off using any skilled Jews as labourers rather than shooting them . Also , in some areas poor weather and a lack of transportation led to a slowdown in deportations of Jews from points further west . Thus , an interval passed between the first round of Einsatzgruppen massacres in summer and fall , and what American historian Raul Hilberg called the second sweep , which started in December 1941 and lasted into the summer of 1942 . During the interval , the surviving Jews were forced into ghettos .
Einsatzgruppe A had already murdered almost all Jews in its area , so it shifted its operations into Belarus to assist Einsatzgruppe B. In Dnepropetrovsk in February 1942 , Einsatzgruppe D reduced the city 's Jewish population from 30 @,@ 000 to 702 over the course of four days . The German Order Police and local collaborators provided the extra manpower needed to perform all the shootings . Haberer wrote that , as in the Baltic states , the Germans could not have killed so many Jews so quickly without local help . He points out that the ratio of Order Police to auxiliaries was 1 to 10 in both Ukraine and Belarus . In rural areas the proportion was 1 to 20 . This meant that most Ukrainian and Belarusian Jews were killed by fellow Ukrainians and Belarusians commanded by German officers rather than by Germans .
The second wave of exterminations in the Soviet Union met with armed resistance in some areas , though the chance of success was poor . Weapons were typically primitive or home @-@ made . Communications were impossible between ghettos in various cities , so there was no way to create a unified strategy . Few in the ghetto leadership supported resistance for fear of reprisals on the ghetto residents . Mass break @-@ outs were sometimes attempted , though survival in the forest was nearly impossible due to the lack of food and the fact that escapees were often tracked down and killed .
= = Transition to gassing = =
After a time , Himmler found that the killing methods used by the Einsatzgruppen were inefficient : they were costly , demoralising for the troops , and sometimes did not kill the victims quickly enough . Many of the troops found the massacres to be difficult if not impossible to perform . Some of the perpetrators suffered physical and mental health problems , and many turned to drink . As much as possible , the Einsatzgruppen leaders militarized the genocide . The historian Christian Ingrao notes an attempt was made to make the shootings a collective act without individual responsibility . Framing the shootings in this way was not psychologically sufficient for every perpetrator to feel absolved of guilt . Browning notes three categories of potential perpetrators : those who were eager to participate right from the start , those who participated in spite of moral qualms because they were ordered to do so , and a significant minority who refused to take part . A few men spontaneously became excessively brutal in their killing methods and their zeal for the task . Commander of Einsatzgruppe D , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Ohlendorf , particularly noted this propensity towards excess , and ordered that any man who was too eager to participate or too brutal should not perform any further executions .
During a visit to Minsk in August 1941 , Himmler witnessed an Einsatzgruppen mass execution first @-@ hand and concluded that shooting Jews was too stressful for his men . By November he made arrangements for any SS men suffering ill health from having participated in executions to be provided with rest and mental health care . He also decided a transition should be made to gassing the victims , especially the women and children , and ordered the recruitment of expendable native auxiliaries who could assist with the murders . Gas vans , which had been used previously to kill mental patients , began to see service by all four main Einsatzgruppen from 1942 . However , the gas vans were not popular with the Einsatzkommandos , because removing the dead bodies from the van and burying them was a horrible ordeal . Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare the SS men the trauma . Some of the early mass killings at extermination camps used carbon monoxide fumes produced by diesel engines , similar to the method used in gas vans , but by as early as September 1941 experiments were begun at Auschwitz using Zyklon B , a cyanide @-@ based pesticide gas .
Plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe — eleven million people — were formalised at the Wannsee Conference , held on 20 January 1942 . Some would be worked to death , and the rest would be killed in the implementation of the Final Solution of the Jewish question ( German : Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ) . Permanent killing centres at Auschwitz , Belzec , Sobibor , Treblinka , and other Nazi extermination camps replaced mobile death squads as the primary method of mass killing . The Einsatzgruppen remained active , however , and were put to work fighting partisans , particularly in Belarus .
After the fall of Stalingrad in February 1943 , Himmler realised that Germany would likely lose the war , and ordered the formation of a special task force , Sonderkommando 1005 , under SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel . The unit 's assignment was to visit mass graves all along the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt to cover up the genocide . The task remained unfinished at the end of the war , and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated .
By 1944 the Red Army had begun to push the German forces out of Eastern Europe , and the Einsatzgruppen retreated alongside the Wehrmacht . By late 1944 , most Einsatzgruppen personnel had been folded into Waffen @-@ SS combat units or transferred to permanent death camps . Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related agencies killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The total number of Jews murdered during the war is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to six million people .
= = Plans for the Middle East and Britain = =
According to research by German historians Klaus @-@ Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers , an Einsatzgruppe was created in 1942 to kill the half @-@ million Jews living in the British Mandate of Palestine and the 50 @,@ 000 Jews of Egypt . Einsatzgruppe Egypt , standing by in Athens , was prepared to go to Palestine once German forces arrived there . SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Walter Rauff was to lead the unit . Given its small staff of only 24 men , Einsatzgruppe Egypt would have needed help from local residents and from the Afrika Korps to complete their assignment . Its members planned to enlist collaborators from the local population to perform the killings under German leadership . Former Iraqi prime minister Rashid Ali al @-@ Gaylani and the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al @-@ Husseini played roles , engaging in antisemitic radio propaganda , preparing to recruit volunteers , and in raising an Arab @-@ German Battalion that would also follow Einsatzgruppe Egypt to the Middle East . Commander of the Afrika Korps Field Marshal Erwin Rommel promised the co @-@ operation of his corps in these assignments . In an agreement signed in July 1942 between the two groups , Rommel promised logistical support for Einsatzgruppe Egypt , which was to serve under command of the Wehrmacht . The group never left Greece , however ; the plans were set aside after the Allied victory at the Battle of El Alamein .
Had Operation Sea Lion , the German plan for an invasion of the United Kingdom been launched , six Einsatzgruppen were scheduled to follow the invasion force into Britain . They were provided with a list called die Sonderfahndungsliste , G.B. ( " Special Search List , G.B " ) , known as The Black Book after the war , of 2 @,@ 300 people to be immediately imprisoned by the Gestapo . The list included Churchill , members of the cabinet , prominent journalists and authors , and members of the Czechoslovak government @-@ in @-@ exile .
= = Jäger Report = =
The Einsatzgruppen kept official records of many of their massacres and provided detailed reports to their superiors . The Jäger Report , filed by Commander SS @-@ Standartenführer Karl Jäger on 1 December 1941 to his superior , Stahlecker ( head of Einsatzgruppe A ) , covers the activities of Einsatzkommando III in Lithuania over the five @-@ month period from 2 July 1941 to 25 November 1941 .
Jäger 's report provides an almost daily running total of the liquidations of 137 @,@ 346 people , the vast majority of them Jews . The report documents the exact date and place of massacres , the number of victims , and their breakdown into categories ( Jews , Communists , criminals , and so on ) . Women were shot from the very beginning , but initially in fewer numbers than men . Children were first included in the tally starting in mid @-@ August , when 3 @,@ 207 people were murdered in Rokiškis on 15 – 16 August 1941 . For the most part the report does not give any military justification for the killings ; people were killed solely because they were Jews . In total , the report lists over 100 executions in 71 different locations . Jäger wrote : " I can state today that the goal of solving the Jewish problem in Lithuania has been reached by Einsatzkommando 3 . There are no more Jews in Lithuania , apart from working Jews and their families . " In a February 1942 addendum to the report , Jäger increased the total number of victims to 138 @,@ 272 , giving a breakdown of 48 @,@ 252 men , 55 @,@ 556 women , and 34 @,@ 464 children . Only 1 @,@ 851 of the victims were non @-@ Jewish .
Jäger escaped capture by the Allies when the war ended . He lived in Heidelberg under his own name until his report was discovered in March 1959 . Arrested and charged , Jäger committed suicide on 22 June 1959 in a Hohenasperg prison while awaiting trial for his crimes .
= = Involvement of the Wehrmacht = =
The killings took place with the knowledge and support of the German Army in the east . On 10 October 1941 Field Marshal Walther von Reichenau drafted an order to be read to the German Sixth Army on the Eastern Front . Now known as the Severity Order , it read in part :
The most important objective of this campaign against the Jewish @-@ Bolshevik system is the complete destruction of its sources of power and the extermination of the Asiatic influence in European civilization ... In this eastern theatre , the soldier is not only a man fighting in accordance with the rules of the art of war , but also the ruthless standard bearer of a national conception ... For this reason the soldier must learn fully to appreciate the necessity for the severe but just retribution that must be meted out to the subhuman species of Jewry .
Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt of Army Group South expressed his " complete agreement " with the order . He sent out a circular to the generals under his command urging them to release their own versions and to impress upon their troops the need to exterminate the Jews . General Erich von Manstein , in an order to his troops on 20 November , stated that " the Jewish @-@ Bolshevist system must be exterminated once and for all . " Manstein sent a letter to Einsatzgruppe D commanding officer Ohlendorf complaining that it was unfair that the SS was keeping all of the murdered Jews ' wristwatches for themselves instead of sharing with the army .
Beyond this trivial complaint , the Army and the Einsatzgruppen worked closely and effectively . On 6 July 1941 Einsatzkommando 4b of Einsatzgruppe C reported that " Armed forces surprisingly welcome hostility against the Jews " . On 8 September , Einsatzgruppe D reported that relations with the German Army were " excellent " . In the same month , Stahlecker of Einsatzgruppe A wrote that Army Group North had been exemplary in co @-@ operating with the exterminations and that relations with the 4th Panzer Army , commanded by General Erich Hoepner , were " very close , almost cordial " . In the south , the Romanian Army worked closely with Einsatzgruppe D to massacre Ukrainian Jews , killing around 26 @,@ 000 Jews in the Odessa massacre . The German historian Peter Longerich thinks it probable that the Wehrmacht , along with the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists ( OUN ) , incited the Lviv pogroms , during which 8 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 000 Jews were killed by the native population and Einsatzgruppe C in July 1941 . Moreover , most people on the home front in Germany had some idea of the massacres being committed by the Einsatzgruppen . British historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper noted that although Himmler had forbidden photographs of the killings , it was common for both the men of the Einsatzgruppen and for bystanders to take pictures to send to their loved ones , which he felt suggested widespread approval of the massacres .
The Wehrmacht tried to justify their considerable involvement in the Einsatzgruppen massacres as being anti @-@ partisan operations rather than racist attacks , but Hillgruber wrote that this was just an excuse . He states that those German generals who claimed that the Einsatzgruppen were a necessary anti @-@ partisan response were lying , and maintained that the slaughter of about 2 @.@ 2 million defenceless civilians for reasons of racist ideology cannot be justified .
= = Einsatzgruppen Trial = =
After the close of the World War II , 24 senior leaders of the Einsatzgruppen were prosecuted in the Einsatzgruppen Trial in 1947 – 48 , part of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials held under United States military authority . The men were charged with crimes against humanity , war crimes , and membership in the SS ( which had been declared a criminal organization ) . Fourteen death sentences and two life sentences were among the judgments ; only four executions were carried out , on 7 June 1951 ; the rest were reduced to lesser sentences . Four additional Einsatzgruppe leaders were later tried and executed by other nations .
Several Einsatzgruppen leaders , including Ohlendorf , claimed at the trial to have received an order before Operation Barbarossa requiring them to murder all Soviet Jews . To date no evidence has been found that such an order was ever issued . German prosecutor Alfred Streim noted that if such an order had been given , post @-@ war courts would only have been able to convict the Einsatzgruppen leaders as accomplices to mass murder . However , if it could be established that the Einsatzgruppen had committed mass murder without orders , then they could have been convicted as perpetrators of mass murder , and hence could have received stiffer sentences , including capital punishment .
Streim postulated that the existence of an early comprehensive order was a fabrication created for use in Ohlendorf 's defence . This theory is now widely accepted by historians . Longerich notes that most orders received by the Einsatzgruppen leaders — especially when they were being ordered to carry out criminal activities — were vague , and couched in terminology that had a specific meaning for members of the regime . Leaders were given briefings about the need to be " severe " and " firm " ; all Jews were to be viewed as potential enemies that had to be dealt with ruthlessly . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw argues that Hitler 's apocalyptic remarks before Barbarossa about the necessity for a war without mercy to " annihilate " the forces of " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " were interpreted by Einsatzgruppen commanders as permission and encouragement to engage in extreme antisemitic violence , with each Einsatzgruppen commander to use his own discretion about how far he was prepared to go .
Most of the perpetrators of Nazi war crimes were never charged , and returned unremarked to civilian life . The West German Central Prosecution Office of Nazi War Criminals only charged about a hundred former Einsatzgruppe members with war crimes . And as time went on , it became more difficult to obtain prosecutions ; witnesses grew older and were less likely to be able to offer valuable testimony . Funding for trials was inadequate , and the governments of Austria and Germany became less interested in obtaining convictions for wartime events , preferring to forget the Nazi past .
= = = Books and journal articles = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
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= Action of 10 February 1809 =
The Action of 10 February 1809 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , in which a British Royal Navy squadron chased and captured the French frigate Junon in the Caribbean Sea . Junon was on a mission to carry trade goods from the Îles des Saintes near Guadeloupe back to France and was part of a succession of French warships sent during 1808 and the early months of 1809 in an effort to break the British blockade of the French Caribbean , which was destroying the economies and morale of the islands . Having landed supplies , Junon 's return cargo was intended to improve the economic situation on Guadeloupe with much needed oceanic trade .
The patrolling British warships first sighted Junon in the Virgin Islands on 8 February . They then chased her north into the Atlantic Ocean for two days until the frigates HMS Horatio and HMS Latona were able to bring her to action . In a bitterly contested running engagement , Junon was badly damaged and suffered heavy casualties before surrendering to the numerically superior British force . She was later commissioned into the Royal Navy under the same name and remained in the Caribbean . Less than a year after her capture , a French convoy to Guadeloupe recaptured and destroyed Junon ; the British subsequently intercepted and defeated the convoy in turn .
= = Background = =
By 1809 , the Napoleonic Wars were six years old and the British Royal Navy was dominant at sea . Blockaded in their home ports by British squadrons , French warships , merchant ships and transports were unable to sail and , as a result , the French colonies in the West Indies were largely cut off from France . These colonies were also closely blockaded themselves and , as a result , their ability to trade independently was severely curtailed , resulting in economic collapse , severe food shortages and social unrest . Messages warning of the deteriorating situation in the colonies had been sent during the summer of 1808 , particularly from the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe . In response supplies had been sent from France in small convoys and individual frigates in the autumn . The British blockading ships had also intercepted the communications from the island , and relayed the information to the Admiralty in London , who had ordered Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane to assemble a force and invade the French colonies before reinforcements and supplies could reach them .
The majority of the French attempts to reach the Caribbean ended in failure . Several ships were intercepted in the Bay of Biscay , while others reached the Caribbean , only to be defeated by ships from Cochrane 's squadron , which was focused on preparations for the invasion of Martinique , planned for February . Only two ships reached the islands safely , the 40 – gun frigates Junon at Guadeloupe and Amphitrite at Martinique . By February 1809 , Martinique was under attack , distracting most of the available British ships from the blockade of Guadeloupe . Taking advantage of the temporary absence of enemy shipping , Junon slipped out of the Îles des Saintes to the south of Guadeloupe on 4 February and sailed north . The French captain , Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Augustin Rousseau , had dropped off his military and food supplies and taken on board large quantities of trade goods for sale in France in an effort to revive the Guadeloupe economy .
= = Battle = =
At 14 : 00 on 8 February , four days after leaving the Îles des Saintes , Junon was spotted passing close to the Virgin Islands by the small British brigs HMS Superieure and HMS Asp , who signalled the approaching ship to halt and prepare for boarding . Ignoring the orders from the smaller ships , Rousseau continued northwards , passing through the Virgin Islands closely followed by Superieure , although Asp was unable to keep up and fell far behind during the night . At 08 : 00 on the morning of 9 February , with Virgin Gorda northwest , Superieure was close enough to open fire , a few long range shots failing to damage the large frigate , which responded with an ineffective broadside . The gunfire attracted other ships , and during the afternoon Superieure was joined by the British frigate HMS Latona , under Captain Hugh Pigot .
The chase continued through a second night , the French frigate making significant gains over her pursuers but still unable to escape them completely . At 10 : 30 on 10 February , two sails appeared in the southeast , set on a course that would cut in front of the French frigate . These were the British frigate HMS Horatio under Captain George Scott and the brig HMS Driver . With enemies on all sides , Rousseau recognised that his only hope of escape lay in defeating Horatio : a swift victory would enable him to outrun pursuit from the east , travelling westwards into the Atlantic . Rapidly closing with the new arrivals , Junon opened fire at 12 : 36 . Horatio immediately responded and then circled the slower French vessel and raked her before Rousseau could respond . Drawing close , the frigates exchanged broadsides at point blank range for 40 minutes . The heavier weight of the French ship soon told , with Scott and his first lieutenant severely wounded and their masts badly damaged . Unable to keep up with the French frigate , whose hull was badly holed but whose masts were only lightly damaged , Horatio fell back .
Rousseau had also been badly wounded in the exchange , and command of Junon passed to Lieutenant Jean @-@ Léon Emeric , who attempted to pull away from his battered adversary . As he did so the small brig Driver was well placed to intervene , but her captain , Charles Claridge , failed to engage the larger frigate , even though Latona was now rapidly approaching from the west and together they could have outnumbered and outmanoeuvred Junon . Superieure was also close by , and her captain , William Ferrie , did approach the larger French ship , his fire causing enough damage to Junon 's sails to prevent her escape . Taking Horatio in tow at 14 : 24 , the brig kept Scott 's frigate in the chase until sufficient repairs were complete . By 14 : 40 Horatio was again sailing independently and Driver finally came close enough to open fire , although at extreme range : Claridge refused to sail any closer to Junon , despite urgent signals from Horatio and Superieure . At 15 : 04 , Superieure was again close enough to the French ship to open fire and at 15 : 25 Latona arrived , her presence finally convincing Claridge to enter the action . Surrounded by enemy ships and his sails in tatters , Emeric made one last effort to escape to the north , the strain of this manoeuvre causing his main and mizen masts to collapse . With both flight and resistance impossible , Junon surrendered at 15 : 40 .
= = Aftermath = =
Officers from Latona were first to board the French frigate but Emeric refused to tender his formal surrender except to an officer of Horatio because he insisted that Horatio had caused the entirety of Junon 's damage . British historians have debated this opinion : William James agreed with this assessment , but also opined that if Horatio had been alone it would have been Scott surrendering rather than the French officers , such was the damage his ship had suffered in the battle . Edward Pelham Brenton , who was a serving officer in the Caribbean at the time , gives most of the credit for the victory to Latona , in a detailed account that James later criticised for its inaccuracies .
The battered Junon was taken in tow to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where she was repaired and later commissioned into the Royal Navy under the same name . The prisoners were also landed in Nova Scotia , including Rousseau , who died from his wounds soon afterwards . The French lost approximately 130 casualties ; British losses were seven killed and 26 wounded on Horatio , six wounded on Latona and one man wounded on Driver .
The British commanders and crews were praised for their actions in the battle , with the exception of Claridge in Driver . Both James and Brenton in their later histories heavily criticised his noted reluctance to engage the enemy . By contrast William Ferrie , commander of Superieure was commended for maintaining combat with the much larger frigate whenever possible . Four decades later , in 1847 , the Admiralty recognized the battle with the clasps " Horatio 10 Feby . 1809 " and " Superieure 10 Feby . 1809 " to the Naval General Service Medal , which it awarded upon application to all British participants then still living .
In the month following the capture of Junon , Guadeloupe was the only French colony in the Caribbean not under attack ; Martinique fell to the British on 24 February and Spanish forces continued their Siege of Santo Domingo . The French did make further attempts to resupply the islands ; a major expedition was defeated off Guadeloupe in April , and elements of this force that reached the island were defeated and captured during June and July . With British forces distracted by the ongoing Reconquista in Santo Domingo , the focus of the campaign moved north , and it was not until a second major expedition arrived in December that significant British forces returned to the Leeward Islands for the final invasion of Guadeloupe . The influx of British reinforcements was too late for HMS Junon ; on 13 December she had been cruising alone to the east of Antigua and been surprised by François Roquebert 's squadron of four French frigates . Outnumbered and surrounded , Junon fought hard but was eventually forced to surrender after Captain John Shortland was mortally wounded . Reduced to a sinking condition in the engagement , Junon was set on fire and abandoned by Roquebert , whose ships were intercepted five days later off Guadeloupe and defeated : two were destroyed and two others returned to France without landing their supplies .
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= 69 Squadron ( Israel ) =
The 69 " Hammers " Squadron is an Israeli Air Force squadron operating the F @-@ 15I Thunder out of Hatzerim . It was formed in July 1948 to operate three B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses which the fledgling Israeli Air Force had acquired in the United States . The squadron flew the Flying Fortress , a type credited with propelling the IAF into the realm of modern aerial warfare , during both the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War and 1956 Suez Crisis . Disbanded in early 1957 , 69 Squadron reformed in 1969 to fly the F @-@ 4 Phantom II . 69 Squadron operated the Kurnass ( Sledgehammer ) , as the Phantom was known in Israel , for 25 years and its Phantoms saw extensive action during the War of Attrition , Yom Kippur War , First Lebanon War and numerous engagements in between . The squadron often played a central role in IAF suppression of enemy air defences ( SEAD ) efforts and took part in repeated battles against Egyptian and Syrian air defence arrays .
The squadron retired its Phantoms in 1994 but reformed shortly thereafter to operate the F @-@ 15I Thunder . Described as the " long @-@ range , heavy bombing element of Israeli air power " , 69 Squadron is reputed to have carried out Operation Orchard , the 6 September 2007 airstrike on a nuclear site in Syria .
= = Formation and B @-@ 17 years = =
= = = Israeli War of Independence = = =
In early 1948 , with the upcoming end of the British Mandate for Palestine and the looming confrontation with Israel 's Arab neighbors , the leadership of the Yishuv embarked on a worldwide effort to purchase weapons . Despite an American arms embargo , Israeli acquisition agents managed to purchase four commercial B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses in the US . Assembled in Miami , the first two departed the city on June 12 , followed a day later by a third , and made their way first to Puerto Rico and then across the Atlantic via the Azores to Žatec , Czechoslovakia , where they arrived on June 14 . By June 16 the story had made it to the press and the fourth plane , whose crew only barely managed to elude the FBI , was impounded in the Azores by Portuguese authorities . At Žatec the three B @-@ 17s , missing bomb shackles and sights , oxygen systems and defensive weapons , were militarized and the squadron that was to operate them , at the time referred to as the " Hammers Program " , first took shape . Ray Kurtz , a former B @-@ 17 navigator with 31 missions over Europe , was assigned command of the squadron , staffed by an international crew of World War II veterans who volunteered to fight for Israel . Robert Luttrell , a sailor by trade , flying as a bombardier , recalled that for each mission the B @-@ 17s were given new markings and their armament was altered to lead the enemy to believe Israel possessed an entire squadron of the type .
On July 15 , 1948 , with fighting raging in Israel and Tel Aviv suffering from Royal Egyptian Air Force ( REAF ) raids , the three B @-@ 17s departed Žatec for Israel . Still ill @-@ equipped , the bombers were nevertheless tasked with bombing Egyptian targets en route . Flying south along the Adriatic , near Crete the bombers separated with Bill Katz and Ray Kurtz taking the only Fortress with an oxygen system and a proper sight to bomb the royal palace in Cairo , and the other two B @-@ 17s heading towards the REAF base at El @-@ Arish . While Katz and Kurtz successfully bombed the Abdeen Palace , the other two failed to locate their target and bombed Rafah instead , and all landed that evening at Tel Nof . The three aircraft were back in action at 06 : 30 on the very next day , hitting the REAF base at El @-@ Arish they had missed the previous night . As Tel @-@ Nof was deemed vulnerable to Egyptian attacks , the aircraft then landed at Ramat David , which was to house the squadron for the remainder of the war . In following days , until a UN @-@ brokered ceasefire came into effect on July 18 , the Fortresses struck across three fronts , attacking Majdal , Damascus and Tulkarm . Raising the average bomb load of an IAF sortie from 100 kg per sortie to 743 kg per sortie , the B @-@ 17s are credited with propelling the Israeli Air Force into the realm of modern aerial warfare .
Save for a single mission by all three bombers in support of Operation Shoter on July 20 , combat operations ceased until October 1948 . These three months saw the unit reorganize and by August it had received its official designation as 69 Squadron . With Bill Katz now in command , the squadron spent the truce training , qualifying new airmen and equipping the veteran aircraft . Fighting resumed on October 15 with Operation Yoav , aimed with breaking the Egyptian siege of the Negev . Over the next week the Hammers flew 47 sorties against Egyptian targets in and around Majdal , Gaza , El Arish , Al @-@ Faluja , and Rafah . Missions were flown in either a trio or a pair to maximize defensive firepower , and sometimes with 101 Squadron escorts , but no enemy fighters were ever encountered . In late October a number of sorties were also flown against Tarshiha , in the Upper Galilee , in support of Operation Hiram against Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji 's Arab Liberation Army .
Operation Yoav had left Faluja as an enclave within Israeli @-@ held territory and during November 1948 the Hammers routinely returned to bomb what became known as the Faluja Pocket . The town would nonetheless hold out until the end of the war . On December 22 Israel launched Operation Horev , its last major offensive of the war , to finally defeat the Egyptian expeditionary force and expel it beyond the borders of Mandatory Palestine . 69 Squadron once again flew in support of Israeli efforts in the south , targeting the air base at El @-@ Arish , Khan Younis , Gaza and Rafah . The squadron also revisited Faluja to prevent an Egyptian sortie from the beleaguered pocket , and on New Year 's Day 1949 flew a failed attempt to bomb an Egyptian Navy flotilla which had shelled Tel Aviv . 69 Squadron flew its last missions of the war in the early morning of January 7 , 1949 , against Rafah . Having evaded Egyptian flak on most occasions , both participating bombers were hit , rendering one unserviceable .
= = = Postwar deactivation = = =
With the end of the 1948 Arab Israeli War , the majority of volunteer airmen returned home , and 69 Squadron once again went through a period of reorganization . From an English @-@ speaking outfit it was transformed into a Hebrew speaking unit . Training was stepped up to qualify Israelis to take over vacated positions and the squadron settled into a peacetime routine , with the B @-@ 17s conducting bombing and cloud seeding tests and participating in IDF exercises . The IAF itself was undergoing major changes , and in early May 1949 69 Squadron relocated to Tel Nof . In October 1951 the squadron moved once more , this time to Hatzor . In December 1952 the three B @-@ 17 was joined by three PBY Catalinas , acquired to guarantee supply to the town of Eilat at Israel 's southern extremity . Utilization of these aircraft , however , was low and they were soon withdrawn from service with the squadron . Spares , meanwhile , were also hampering B @-@ 17 operations and in March 1954 69 Squadron was deactivated and its assests handed over to 103 Squadron , which soon retired the Catalinas but continued to operate the three B @-@ 17s .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
In 1956 growing diplomatic tensions in the Middle East , tensions that would soon culminate in the Suez Crisis , resulted in the resurrection of 69 Squadron . On April 19 the IAF issued an order reactivating the squadron at Ramat David , with Nahum Efrat as its commanding officer . The squadron was soon tasked with its first mission , allocating two B @-@ 17s for search and rescue operations during Dassault Mystère delivery flights from France to Israel . The reformed squadron once again began training personnel and equipping the aircraft for possible hostilities . As Israel purchased more jet fighters , however , room had to be made for the new arrivals , and in September 1956 the IAF ordered the squadron to send its aircraft into storage and changed its status to reserve . By October 3 the aircraft had been stored at Bedek Aviation ( later Israeli Aircraft Industries ) at Lod , but only three weeks later , on October 25 , the IAF activated the squadron once more .
Only two Fortresses had left Bedek 's storage facility by the time hostilities commenced on October 29 , 1956 . The squadron had not flown a single training sortie before fighting began and had only two full crews ready for battle . Israeli piston @-@ engined aircraft flew few missions in the first two days of the war , but on October 31 , 69 Squadron received an order to bomb Rafah in support of IDF Brigade 27 operations . Arriving over the target early on November 1 , the aircraft could not tell the location of friendly troops and without being able to communicate with the forces on the ground , were forced to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean . The B @-@ 17s were back in action the following night , to attack retreating Egyptian forces . A repeat of the previous night 's lack of communications with Israeli forces operating in the same area once again prevented the strike , and the bombers dropped their loads on the outskirts of Gaza . With the threat of Egyptian air power curtailed by Anglo @-@ French strikes against Egyptian air bases , the B @-@ 17s began flying daylight operations . On November 2 the squadron supported the Israeli push towards Sharm el Sheikh , on the southern tip of the Sinai . Two aircraft bombed the local barracks but were met with effective anti @-@ aircraft fire which damaged the lead aircraft . The damaged aircraft managed to return to Ramat David , just as the third B @-@ 17 returned from storage at Bedek . Two aircraft were therefore available for the B @-@ 17s ' final combat sorties with the IAF , another failed strike on Sharm el Sheikh on November 4 .
The squadron had flown a total of 8 sorties throughout the war and dropped 27 tons of bombs . With the conclusion of hostilities the squadron continued training and on November 10 even moved once more to Tel Nof . The B @-@ 17s flew a few more sorties during a January 1957 survey of the Sinai but were soon sent back to storage . 69 Squadron was finally disbanded on March 1 , 1957 . It was initially slated to operate the IAF 's next heavy bomber , the Sud @-@ Ouest Vautour , but these plans were dropped in favour of 110 Squadron .
= = Flying the F @-@ 4 Phantom II = =
= = = War of Attrition = = =
69 Squadron was reactivated at Ramat David on November 1 , 1969 , headed by Major Avihu Ben @-@ Nun . A year earlier Israel had ordered 50 F @-@ 4 Phantoms , enough to equip two squadrons , and ten IAF airmen had spent March to August 1969 training with the 479th Tactical Training Wing at George Air Force Base . These included five 69 Squadron airmen : Ben @-@ Nun , Ehud Hankin , Rami Harpaz , Shaul Levi and Achikar Eyal . Upon their return to Israel , then in the midst of the War of Attrition , the 69 Squadron airmen flew both training and combat missions with 201 Squadron , the IAF 's first Kurnass squadron . On one such mission on November 11 , Hankin and Eyal shot down an Egyptian MiG @-@ 21 to score the Phantom 's first aerial victory with the IAF .
69 Squadron finally received its first four aircraft on November 15 , the third Peace Echo I batch to arrive in Israel . Although still far from the 12 aircraft required to achieve IAF operatioal certification , on November 25 , 1969 , Avihu Ben @-@ Nun led the squadron 's debut operational mission , a combat air patrol ( CAP ) . The first air @-@ to @-@ ground mission came three days later , when two Phantoms struck an Egyptian SA @-@ 2 battery near Fayid . Still busy forming , receiving new aircraft , training and qualifying fresh airmen , the squadron was soon taking an increasingly large part in the IAF 's ongoing battles against Egyptian air defences along the Suez Canal . When the IAF launched Operation Priha ( Blosssom ) against targets in the Egyptian heartland during January 1970 , 69 Squadron was at the forefront of the fighting , and on February 8 , 1970 pilot Aviem Sella and navigator Shabtai Ben @-@ Shoa downed an Egyptian Air Force MiG @-@ 21 . Operations , meanwhile , were also conducted to deter Syria from joing the fight , with Phantoms conducting low level runs over Damascus on January 6 , 1970 , and over 5 major Syrian cities on January 29 . The squadron nevertheless suffered its first combat loss on April 2 , when Gideon Magen and Pinchas Nachmani were shot down by a Syrian MiG @-@ 21 to become prisoners of war .
Israeli aerial supremacy prompted Egypt to turn to the USSR for assistance and by the spring of 1970 an entire Soviet air defence division had deployed to Egypt . The Soviet presence spelled the end of Priha and Egypt regained the initiative , rolling its air defence array towards the Suez Canal . The IAF sought to hamper these advances through a renewed SEAD campaign and 69 Squadron saw repeated action against Egyptian air defences and related infrastructure . Egyptian SAMs , however , soon exacted their toll on the attackers , with Rami Harpaz and Achikar Eyal falling into Egyptian captivity on June 30 , a fate shared by Amos Zamir and Amos Levitov on July 5 . AN / ALQ @-@ 71 Electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) pods were soon rushed to Israel but proved only partially effective against surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . On July 18 , the IAF attempted to fly eight F @-@ 4 Phantoms in close @-@ knit pod formations thought to maximize the effect of the ECM pods , only to lose 201 Squadron leader Shmuel Hetz , while an injured Avihu Ben @-@ nun was forced to crash land his badly damaged aircraft at Rephidim .
The SEAD campaign was halted , but although the IAF possessed no operational answer to the massive air defence array forming west of the Canal , it nevertheless still enjoyed supremacy in the air @-@ ro @-@ air arena . On July 30 , 69 Squadron took part in Operation Rimon 20 , a ruse designed to draw Soviet @-@ flown MiG @-@ 21s into battle . In the ensuing dogfight , five Soviet fighters were downed , of which one was shot down by Avihu Ben @-@ Nun with Shaul Levi and another by Aviem Sella with Reuven Reshef . With no side securing a clear advantage , yet both able to claim military achievements , American pressure soon bore fruit and a ceasefire marking the end of the war came into effect on August 7 , 1970 .
= = = Reconnaissance = = =
With the next round of the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict deemed a mere matter of time , peacetime saw 69 Squadron engaged in developing new SEAD tactics and weapons and in renewed reconnaissance efforts . New weapons such as the AGM @-@ 45 Shrike and AGM @-@ 12 Bullpup were introduced for the SEAD role , and on September 18 , 1971 , the Hammers flew their first Shrike strike against an Egyptian SA @-@ 2 battery following the downing of an Israeli C @-@ 97 Stratocruiser . As for reconnaissance , the IAF had ordered the RF @-@ 4E reconnaissance variant of the Phantom , but these were not slated for delivery until 1971 . 69 Squadron had already modified two F @-@ 4s in early 1970 for the role by removing their cannons and replacing them with cameras , and after the ceasefire these were joined by a pair of loaned American RF @-@ 4Cs , which were in operation until the squadron received two RF @-@ 4Es in early 1971 . While 119 Squadron , which had transitioned to the F @-@ 4 in 1970 , specialized in high @-@ altitude photography , 69 Squadron adopted low @-@ altitude photography . A mission by reconnaissance Phantoms over northern Syria on September 13 , 1973 , triggered a large scale clash between the two air forces , resulting in the downing of 13 Syrian MiGs ( one at the hands of 69 Squadron 's Amnon Arad ) and the loss of a single Israeli Mirage III .
= = = Yom Kippur War = = =
Experienced and well @-@ trained , 69 Squadron nevertheless entered the Yom Kippur War unready for the challenges brought about by start of the war . Prior to the outbreak of war , the IAF had been preparing for a pre @-@ emptive strike against Egyptian and Syrian positions , but this was rejected by the Israeli government . 69 Squadron aircraft were in the process of re @-@ armament to the air @-@ to @-@ air role when hostilities began at 14 : 00 on October 6 , 1973 . The aircraft were scrambled to perform CAPs , some having to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean , yet no aerial opposition was encountered . The squadron flew 37 sorties on the first day of the war , of which only 4 were strike missions , while two aircraft suffered damage from SA @-@ 7s over the Golan Heights .
The next morning saw the squadron participate in Operation Tagar , a SEAD offensive against Egyptian air defences , which began with strikes against Egyptian air bases . Seven Phantoms led by squadron leader Yoram Agmon struck the air base at Gianaclis , and although two defending MiG @-@ 21s were shot down , the strike failed to cause significant damage . Tagar , moreover , was quickly discontinued when the dire situation on the Golan Heights became apparent , and 69 Squadron efforts were redirected north where the IAF staged the ill @-@ fated Operation Doogman 5 . Flying with outdated intelligence and no electronic screening against mobile SAM batteries and heavy flak , 6 IAF Phantoms were lost , including 69 Squadron 's Ehud Hankin and Shaul Levy in Kurnass 123 . Both were killed . The same evening saw appeals for help from the southern front , leading the squadron to fly strike missions against Egyptian bridges and assembly point on the Suez Canal . Another Phantom was lost to surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , its crew falling into captivity . Four more aircraft were lost on the following day , October 8 . One was lost in an otherwise successful morning strike against the Syrian air base at Dumayr , its crew captured . Another was lost over the Golan Heights , and two more during night strikes against Egyptian bridges across the canal , all falling prey to the SA @-@ 6 . Although four airmen were rescued by Israeli forces , pilot Zvulun Amizi and navigator Zeev Yogev were killed .
Three days into the war 69 Squadron had lost six aircraft , four airmen had been killed and four became prisoners of war . The detailed planning and extensive training undertaken before the war had gone to waste and the sustained campaign required to defeat enemy air defences was abandoned in the face of Egyptian and Syrian advances . Nevertheless , it had been the close air support provided by the IAF that helped Israeli troops on the ground to stem the tide and eventually go on the offensive , first in the north and later in the south . October 10 saw the Hammers strike the Egyptian air base at Quweisna , while two Syrian MiGs were claimed on the northern front . The next day saw the IDF push into Syria , and 69 Squadron was at hand striking fuel depots , SAM sites and the air bases at Dumayr , Nasiriya and Damascus . One aircraft was lost over Lebanon , where its crew were interned until the end of the war . Syria was the primary target for air base strikes on October 12 and 13 as well . Yoram Agmon and Daniel Whittman claimed two aerial victories , one on each of these two days , but the squadron lost another aircraft on October 14 , possibly the result of friendly fire on the southern front , though the crew was rescued . The same day witnessed the IAF begin receiving attrition replacements from USAF stocks . These Phantoms were delivered in their darker Southeast Asia scheme and rushed into service without repainting , gaining the name " Toads " . To ease maintenance , most were retained by 69 Squadron which transferred several of its airframes to 201 Squadron . Unlike Israeli aircraft , the new aircraft were equipped with TISEO targeting equipment , allowing them to launch the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick , another component of the American airlift . 69 Squadron was therefore entrusted with the introduction of the Maverick into Israeli service . No training flights were flown , the first launch occurring in combat , against a Syrian @-@ held bunker on the Hermon . Some 50 missiles were launched in the course of the war . 69 Squadron continued hammering Syrian infrastructure and Egyptian air bases in the following days , and on October 16 Yoram Agmon shot down a Syrian MiG @-@ 21 to become to only pilot to achieve ace status while flying with the squadron . The Hammers flew their final air base strike of the war on October 20 , striking the EAF air base at Khutamiyah . Pilot Doodi Zait and navigator Yoram Rubinstein were hit by a SAM and forced to ejected , becoming POWs in Egypt .
= = = Postwar activity = = =
The Yom Kippur War ended on October 24 . 69 Squadron had flown 789 sorties , had lost 9 aircraft , and had shot down 10 enemy aircraft . Four airmen had been killed and eight had become prisoners of war . The end of the war , however , did not spell an end to the fighting . On December 6 a mixed 69 and 119 squadrons combat air patrol over the Gulf of Suez engaged a flight of MiG @-@ 21s to score one kill , possibly two . The kill was credited to 69 's Yiftach Shadmi and Meir Gur , with the MiG @-@ 21s revealed to be a part of a North Korean contingent had that deployed to Egypt during the war . With the arrival of spring fighting also resumed in the north , where Israel and Syria had yet to sign a disengagement agreement . On April 8 , 1974 , while on patrol against low flying Syrian helicopters , the squadron lost one of its aircraft , probably to a shoulder @-@ launched SA @-@ 7 . The crew , Shadmi and Rafaeli , were interned in Lebanon for a month . Three weeks later , on April 29 , the squadron scored two aerial kills against Syrian MiG @-@ 21s , the squadron 's final victories to date . Fighting only ceased on May 31 .
The postwar years were spent implementing the lessons of the Yom Kippur War . SEAD tactics were improved , training was stepped up and innovative technologies introduced . The Hammers cooperated with Rafael , Israel 's weapon systems development authority , in the introduction of the Tadmit electro @-@ optical fire @-@ and @-@ forget guided bomb , a modified version of the AGM @-@ 62 Walleye II . At the same time , the Phantom 's air @-@ to @-@ air role was diminished with the introduction into service of the F @-@ 15 Eagle and the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . The squadron was , nonetheless , the first IAF squadron to introduce Rafael 's Python 3 into service in March 1977 . Air @-@ to @-@ air training continued and on December 29 , 1977 , during combat against a pair of F @-@ 15s , two squadron aircraft collided . Squadron leader Avsha Friedman and navigator Avihu Ikar were killed . The remains of their aircraft , Kurnass 305 , stand as a memorial to the two pilots on the Acre @-@ Carmiel road . On January 20 , 1981 , the squadron lost another pilot in similar circumstances , when Kurnass 222 collided with F @-@ 16 222 . Squadron leader Eliezer Adar ejected , but Dani Weiss was killed , as was the F @-@ 16 pilot , Uri Ben @-@ Amitai .
The Hammers flew 28 support , 13 reconnaissance and 6 combat air patrols during Operation Litani , Israel 's March 1978 invasion of Lebanon . In 1976 the squadron had received two additional RF @-@ 4Es , and was soon flying high @-@ altitude reconnaissance . This led to its participation in the preparations for the 1981 Operation Opera to destroy Iraq 's Osirak nuclear reactor , which the Hammers were initially planned to conduct . The squadron trained for the raid using the Tadmit , but these plans were dropped when the F @-@ 16 entered IAF service in 1980 . On November 12 , 1980 , the squadron carried out the IAF 's longest fighter mission hitherto , when two reconnaissance birds photographed the reactor near Baghdad . The mission witnessed three aerial refuelings , including one over enemy territory . Tensions over Lebanon flared once more in 1981 , and on May 29 , 1981 , the squadron carried out Operation Mole 9 , striking Libyan SA @-@ 9 batteries protecting PLO bases near Beirut .
= = = 1982 Lebanon War = = =
By the spring of 1982 tensions had risen again and the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador to London Shlomo Argov on June 3 , 1982 , prompted Israel to launch Operation Peace for Galilee . 69 Squadron flew 27 sorties in the preparation phase for the operation , from June 4 to the actual beginning of the invasion on June 6 . The first of these were carried out on the afternoon of June 4 , when a 4 @-@ ship formation struck the stadium in Beirut , used as a PLO weapons depot . Once Israeli ground forces began pushing into Lebanon , 69 Squadron provided close air support . One aircraft was damaged by enemy flak on the first day of the invasion , and two suffered landing accidents , but with poor weather and a shortage of targets , there was initially little fighting to be done . This changed on June 8 when it became apparent the Syrian forces in Lebanon would have to be engaged , and that same afternoon two squadron Phantoms bombed a Syrian electronic warfare facility on Jabel Barouk .
Syrian SAMs had been a constant threat to IAF operations , and as the war progressed the Syrian SAM array in the Bekaa Valley was bolstered with additional batteries . It was therefore decided to launch a comprehensive assault on the Syrian defences , in order to secure aerial superiority over the area and ensure air support for Israeli ground forces . At 14 : 00 on June 9 the IAF launched Operation Mole Cricket 19 , the culmination of 10 years of planning and preparation . 69 Squadron participated with 13 Tadmit and four follow @-@ up free @-@ fall bombers sent against the Syrians . The former operated individually , targeting Syrian fire control centers and radars , in all engaging seven SAM batteries . Mole Cricket 19 was a resounding success , with 14 out of 19 SAM batteries in the Bekaa destroyed and dozens of Syrian fighters downed in the ensueing dogfights . After the peak of June 9 , during which 29 sorties were flown , activity declined . 12 more sorties were flown on June 10 and 19 on June 11 , when a ceasefire came into effect . The squadron had flown 152 sorties throughout the offensive , of which 71 were close air support , 35 SEAD and 31 reconnaissance .
Once again , the official end of hostilities did not spell an end to fighting and Israel remained engaged in Lebanon for years to come . When the Syrians introduced the SA @-@ 8 Gecko into Lebanon in July 1982 , IAF Phantoms were sent to hunt down four launchers on July 24 and two were claimed by 69 Squadron . Up to its very disbandment in 1994 , the squadron also took part in repeated strikes against terrorist organizations operating from Lebanon . On one such operation on October 16 , 1986 , a bomb exploded immediately after release from Kurnass 306 , forcing both crew to eject . The pilot , Yishai Aviram , was rescued by an IAF AH @-@ 1 Cobra , but navigator Ron Arad was captured by members of the Shi 'a Amal Movement . Initial negotiations for an exchange of prisoners failed and Arad has been missing since and his fate remains unknown .
In early 1986 the squadron introduced the AGM @-@ 142 Popeye into IAF service , and for nearly a decade was the only IAF squadron to operate the missile . In 1987 its Phantoms played the role of Soviet " MiG @-@ 29s " in the film " Iron Eagle II " . Filming coincided with the receipt of several birds from 105 Squadron , which appropriately appeared in the film bearing that unit 's distinctive red flash on the fuselage ( although the IAF markings were replaced with the Soviet red star insignia ) . The squadron trained extensively for possible participation in the 1990 Gulf War , but Israel eventually stayed out of that conflict . In June 1991 the squadron relocated to the air base at Hatzerim , from which it flew 79 sorties during Operation Accountability of April 1993 . In the wake of the Oslo Accords the US finally agreed to supply the IAF with the F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle , and 69 Squadron was disbanded in early 1994 in expectation of its re @-@ equipment with the new aircraft .
= = Thunder Squadron = =
Four Israeli airmen , led by future squadron leader Dror Ben @-@ David , travelled to the US in 1997 for the F @-@ 15E conversion course , and the first two aircraft landed in Hatzerim on January 19 , 1998 . 16 aircraft had arrived by January 1 , 1999 , when the squadron was declared operational , and 10 days later the unit carried out it first operational sorties over southern Lebanon . Deliveries were completed in June 2000 , by which time the squadron had taken part in operations in support of the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon .
The squadron has since undertaken numerous missions during the Second Intifada and Operation Cast Lead . During the Second Lebanon War the Hammers flew 1 @,@ 400 sorties , totalling 2 @,@ 300 flying hours , more than any other IAF combat unit . During this conflict , the Ra 'am 's long range and endurance served it well in the close support role , as the aircraft could carry more munitions and remain on station longer than any other strike aircraft . It is these capabilities that place 69 Squadron at the forefront of Israel 's strategic arm , and it is thus this unit that is reputed to have undertaken Operation Orchard , the destruction of a Syrian nuclear site on September 6 , 2007 . The squadron has also been linked to a possible Israeli strike against the Iranian nuclear program .
Since its reactivation , 69 Squadron has also undertaken multiple deployments abroad . It was the first Israeli unit to participate in exercise Red Flag in October 1998 , and has taken part in several Red Flags since . It has also deployed to Turkey and Italy on several occasions , and three aircraft participated in the 2001 RAF Waddington International Air Show .
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= Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps =
Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps , such as Private France Silva who during the Boxer Rebellion became the first Marine of the thirteen Marines of Hispanic descent to be awarded the Medal of Honor , and Private First Class Guy Gabaldon who is credited with capturing over 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers and civilians during World War II , have distinguished themselves in combat . Hispanics have participated as members of the United States Marine Corps in the Boxer Rebellion , World War I , the American intervention in Latin America also known as the Banana Wars , World War II , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , the Gulf War and most recently in the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq .
Hispanics are also reaching the top ranks of the Marine Corps , serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores , with Generals such as Major General Angela Salinas and Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle . Many Hispanic Marines went on to distinguished careers outside of the military in different fields such as sports and space exploration .
Hispanics ( sometimes also referred to as " Latinos " ) in the Marine Corps account for the largest minority group of that military institution . Hispanics comprise 18 % of enlisted Marines today , up from 15 % when the Iraq War began . The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment program directed towards Hispanics , which is the nation 's largest ethnic or minority race ( 2005 Census ) . According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million , or 16 % of the U.S. population . The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3 @.@ 9 million residents of Puerto Rico .
= = Terminology = =
Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , of any country , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non @-@ Hispanic origin , but has an ancestor from Mexico , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Central or South America , or some other Hispanic origin . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican @-@ Americans , Puerto Ricans and Cubans .
= = Background = =
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10 , 1775 , as naval infantry , the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy . The Marine Corps has participated in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War .
There are various factors which make it difficult to determine when exactly Hispanics began to serve in the Corps . One of these factors is that statistics on Hispanics were not kept by the military until the 1970s when the United States Census Bureau coined the phrase . Before then only unreliable estimates were made . For example , during World War II Hispanic Americans were estimated to comprise 2 @.@ 3 % to 4 @.@ 7 % of the Armed Forces . However , the exact number is unknown , as at the time Hispanics were integrated into the general white population census count . Separate statistics were kept for African @-@ Americans and Asian @-@ Americans . Another factor is that the estimates which have been made only take into account individuals whose surname is of Hispanic origin , when in reality there are many Hispanics with non @-@ Hispanic surnames who have served .
Unlike the United States Army , which had an all Puerto Rican unit ( the 65th Infantry Regiment ) and other units in the Southwest region of the United States mostly made up of Hispanics , the Marines have never had any Hispanic oriented units .
As of 2003 , those who joined the U.S. Armed Forces are not required to identify themselves as Hispanics , therefore a person of Hispanic descent who decides that he or she does not want to be considered as a Hispanic and chooses to identify themselves with any race was not be included in the statistics of the Department of Defense as Hispanics .
= = Boxer Rebellion = =
While specific statistics were not kept on the number of Hispanics in the Marine Corps , history documents instances of their heroic actions . During the Boxer Rebellion , Private France Silva ( 1876 – 1951 ) became the first Marine of Hispanic descent to be awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government .
Private Silva joined the Marines on September 12 , 1899 , in San Francisco . In 1900 , he was a member of the 1st Regiment ( Marines ) under the command of Major Littleton Waller , aboard the USS Newark ( C @-@ 1 ) . On May 20 , 1900 , the USS Newark ( C @-@ 1 ) , a United States Navy protected cruiser and the first modern cruiser in the U.S. fleet , sailed for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers at Peking in what is known as the Boxer Rebellion . The Newark arrived at Tientsin on May , 22 . On May , 31 , Captain John T. Myers , USMC , arrived in Peking in overall command of two ship detachments of U.S. Marines . This newly formed Legation Guard consisted of twenty @-@ five Marines from the USS Oregon ( BB @-@ 3 ) along with twenty @-@ three Marines and five sailors from the USS Newark . Private Silva was one of the Newark Marines who were a part of the Legation Guard .
On June 19 , 1900 , the 1st Regiment ( Marines ) attempted to take the city of Tientsin and failed . Then , on June 23 , the Regiment , under the command of Major Waller , entered Tientsin in their second attempt after a Japanese blew open a gate to allow the Chinese to escape . Private Silva , who was seriously wounded and two sailors , Navy Seaman Axel Westermark and Chief Machinist Emil Peterson , were awarded the Medal of Honor for their defense of the civilian compound ( legation ) at Peking – they defended the walled city from June 28 until the fall of the city which occurred on August 17 .
= = World War I = =
During World War I , the Marine Corps ' 2nd Division fought alongside the U.S. Army 's 36th Infantry Division in the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge in Champagne , France . The result of this battle was the expulsion of the Germany Army from the Champagne Region .
Private Joe Nichols Viera of the 78th Company , 6th Regiment , 2nd Marine Division , was awarded the Navy Cross Medal , the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy and which is awarded to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service . On October 3 , 1918 , Viera , captured three enemy machine gun nests and with the aid of another Marine captured forty enemy soldiers in the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge . He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the United States Army second highest medal , for the same action .
Marine aviation was fairly new , it came into existence on May 22 , 1912 , and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps ' air component , of which Puerto Rico played a major rule , came with America 's entrance into World War I. On January 6 , 1914 , First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipal Culebra . As the number of Marine Aviators grew so did the avid desire to separate from Naval Aviation . By doing so , the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation . The creation of a " Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men .
In 1915 , Lieutenant Pedro Augusto del Valle , from San Juan , Puerto Rico , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland . Lieutenant del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , in 1916 , for which he was awarded his first Legion of Merit . He commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) ( BB @-@ 35 ) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919 , del Valle participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet .
= = Second Nicaraguan Campaign 1926 – 1933 = =
Civil war broke out in Nicaragua during the first months of 1926 , and upon the request of the Nicaraguan government , 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines were sent to establish a neutral zone for the protection of American citizens . The American intervention was also known as the Banana Wars . Both Captain Pedro del Valle and Private Rafel Toro from Puerto Rico , participated in the Second Nicaraguan Campaign .
In 1926 , Captain del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1927 , Lieutenant Jaime Sabater , from San Juan , Puerto Rico , graduated from United States Naval Academy .
Private Rafel Toro , from Humacao , Puerto Rico , was part of the U.S. Marine Corps occupation force in Nicaragua , serving with the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua . On July 25 , 1927 , Private Toro was on advance guard duty into Nueva Segovia . As he rode into town , he was attacked ; returning fire , he was able to hold back the enemy until reinforcements arrived . He was mortally wounded in this action for which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross .
In 1931 , Brigadier General Randolph C. Berkeley appointed Pedro del Valle to the " Landing Operations Text Board " in Quantico , the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine for amphibious assault . In 1932 , he wrote an essay titled " Ship @-@ to @-@ Shore in Amphibious Operations " which was published in the Marine Corps Gazette . In his essay , he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing , a principal which the Marine Corps were to put into practice in World War II .
In 1933 , Lieutenant James Rockwell , a native of San Juan , Puerto Rico , became the third Marine of Hispanic ( Puerto Rican ) descent to graduate from the USNA .
= = World War II = =
PFC Richard I. Trujillo was serving aboard the Battleship USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) when on December 7 , 1941 , the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . The Nevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day . As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam , she was struck by torpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers . Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded . Among those killed was Trujillo , who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II .
After the United States officially entered the war , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the United States Marine Corps as volunteers or through the draft . Hispanic Americans in the Marines fought in every major battle in the Pacific Theater of Operations . The battles of Guadalcanal , Tarawa , Saipan , Cape Gloucester , Peleliu , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army . One Marine of Hispanic descent was awarded the Medal of Honor and 25 Hispanics were awarded the Navy Cross . Fifteen of those Navy Crosses were awarded to Marines . Among them PFC Guy Gabaldon who single @-@ handed captured over 1 @,@ 000 prisoners . It was during this conflict that four Hispanics would also participate as military commanders in the Marine Corps . The two highest @-@ ranking Hispanics in the Marines were Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle , the first Hispanic to reach the grade of general in the Marines , and Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr ..
Colonel Pedro del Valle ( 1893 – 1978 ) was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Marine Regiment ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers — almost to the last man — before they reached the Marine positions . As a result of the outcome of the battle the Japanese commander , Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership , recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a Brigadier General . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands . Sergeant Silvio Sanguedolce was awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Guadalcanal .
Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. ( 1904 – 1955 ) , a United States Naval Academy graduate Class of 1927 , commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines , 3rd Marine Division during the Bougainville amphibious operations . On November 1 , 1943 . The Allies intended to establish a beachhead around Cape Torokina , within which an airfield would be built . Allied forces did not plan , at this time , to try to capture the entire island of Bougainville from Japanese forces . An attempt by the Japanese Navy to attack the U.S. landing forces was defeated in the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay , between November 1 and November 2 . A subsequent attempt by Japanese land forces to attack the Allied beachhead was defeated in the Battle of Koromokina Lagoon .
When the Marines landed in Saipan in 1944 , among the commanders was Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar . Salazar was the Commanding Officer of the 2d Battalion , 18th Marines . Salazar had in 1943 served as commanding officer of the same unit in the Gilbert Islands which fought in the Battle of Tarawa . During the Battle of Saipan , PFC Guy Gabaldon captured over a 1 @,@ 000 prisoners .
PFC Guy Gabaldon ( 1926 – 2006 ) went to live with the parents of his Japanese @-@ American friend at the age of 12 . At the outbreak of World War II , his adoptive family was placed in a relocation camp . Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old ; he was a Private First Class ( PFC ) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944 . Gabaldon , who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines , working alone in front of the lines , entered enemy caves , pillboxes , buildings , and jungle brush , frequently in the face of hostile fire , and succeeded in not only obtaining vital military information , but in convincing well over 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers and civilians to surrender . He was nominated for the Medal of Honor , but was awarded the Silver Star instead . His medal was later upgraded to the Navy Cross . He turned in more enemy soldiers than Sergeant Alvin York , who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers . Gabaldon 's actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity , in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter .
On April 1 , 1944 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle , which was carried in his record books . Col. Jaime Sabater who had previously participated in the Bougainville campaign and who was now the Executive officer of the 9th Marines in Guam was wounded in action on July 21 , 1944 and awarded the Purple Heart . PFC Abel Bidal Aragon of Company A 1 / 3 3rd Marine Division was awarded the Navy Cross for his heroic actions in the Battle of Guam .
In late October 1944 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle succeeded Major General William Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted to his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa .
The Battle of Iwo Jima was marked by some of the fiercest fighting of the Pacific campaign . The battle was the first American attack on the Japanese home islands and the Imperial soldiers defended their positions tenaciously . Of the 21 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers present at the beginning of the battle , over 20 @,@ 000 were killed and only 216 taken prisoner .
On February 23 , 1945 , Antonio F. Moreno witnessed the first flag raising photographed by staff sergeant Louis R. Lowery and the second flag raising photographed by Joe Rosenthal on Mount Suribachi . On March 8 , 1945 , Moreno , a Marine medical corpsman assigned to the 2d Platoon , Company E , 27th Marine Regiment , tried to save the life of Lt. Jack Lummus after he ( Lummus ) had stepped on a land mine a few feet away from Moreno . Lt. Lummus , was a former Baylor University and New York Giants football player who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . During this battle five men of Hispanic descent were awarded Navy Crosses . Two were members of the 4th Marine Division , PFC 's Lionel A. Canejo and Robert Manuel Ortiz and three of the 5th Marine Division , Pvt. Salvador Vargas and Corporals Rondo G. Abel and Nicholas Hernandez .
On May 29 , 1945 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa . After five weeks of fighting , del Valle ordered Company A of the 1st Battalion 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle , a medieval fortress of the ancient Ryukyuan kings . Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign . The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa . PFC Harold Gonsalves of the 6th Marine Division became the only Hispanic Marine in World War II to be awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantly giving his life for his fellow Marines . Two Hispanics who were also from the 6th Marine Division were awarded the Navy Cross , PFC Anthony E. Borgia of Company F 2 / 22 and Corporal Edward J. Ruiz of Headquarters 2 / 4 .
PFC Harold Gonsalves ( 1926 – 1945 ) , had enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve on May 27 , 1943 and was called to active duty on June 17 , 1943 . He was assigned to the 22nd Marines and participated in the assault , capture , and occupation of Engebi and Parry Islands , in the Marshall Islands . PFC Gonsalves accompanied the 22nd Marines to Kwajalein , to Guadalcanal , back to Kwajalein and Eniwetok , then up to Guam in July where he took part in Battle of Guam .
After Guam , the regiment went back to Guadalcanal , where in November they were detached from the 22nd Marines and joined the 15th Marines of the 6th Marine Division . It was with that outfit that PFC Gonsalves landed on Okinawa on April 1 , 1945 .
Two weeks later , on April 15 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Marine was a member of an eight @-@ man forward observer team which was engaged in directing artillery fire in support of an attack by the infantry on Japanese positions on Motobu Peninsula . When it finally became necessary for the team to advance to the actual front lines , the officer in charge took PFC Gonsalves and one other man with him . PFC Gonsalves was acting Scout Sergeant of the team . He and the other Marine were to lay telephone lines for communication with the artillery battalion .
As the team advanced to the front , they were brought under heavy enemy rifle , grenade and mortar fire . Just as the three had reached the front lines , a Japanese grenade landed among them . It was less than a foot from the two Marines with PFC Gonsalves . Without a moment 's hesitation , he flung himself on the grenade , taking the full explosion into his own body . He gallantly gave his life for his fellow Marines and his country . The other two were not even touched by grenade fragments and they successfully completed their mission .
In 1945 , when Kwajalein of the Marshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces , Sergeant Fernando Bernacett was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations . Bernacett , a combat veteran of the Battle of Midway , guarded the airport and prisoners of war , as well as the atomic bomb as it made its way for Japan .
The following is a list with the names , ranks , units and date of action of the fifteen Hispanic Marines who were awarded the Navy Cross :
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during World War II
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers , thus they rarely left the home to earn an income . As such , women were discouraged from joining the military . Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Marine Corps Women 's Reserve , women such as Corporal Maria ( Torres ) Maes could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . After completing boot camp at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina , she was sent to Quartermaster School and assigned to the Marine Corps Base at Quantico , Virginia .
= = Post World War II = =
The American participation in the Asian theater came to an end on August 14 , 1945 " V @-@ J Day " ( Victory over Japan Day ) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . Many of the men and women who were discharged after the war returned to their civilian jobs or did as Antonio F. Moreno and made use of the educational benefits of the G.I. Bill . Others continued in the military as career soldiers and went on to serve in the Korean War . General Pedro del Valle was ordered back to Headquarters Marine Corps , where he was named Inspector General , a position which he held until January 1 , 1948 when he retired with the rank of Lieutenant General . Colonel Jaime Sabater was named Commanding officer of the 3rd Marines , Fleet Marine Force , Western Pacific ( formerly the 3rd Battalion , 4th Marines ) from October 1 , 1947 to April 1 , 1948 in Tsingtao , China .
Among the Hispanics who graduated from the USNA during the 1940s and who would serve in the Marines during the Korean War were Lieutenants Leon J. Hernandez ( Class of ' 44 ) , Baldomero Lopez ( Class of ' 47 ) and George A. Bacas ( Class of ' 48 ) .
= = Korean War = =
The Korean War was an escalation of a civil war between two rival Korean regimes , each of which was supported by external powers , with each trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics . The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union 's involvement as part of the larger Cold War . The main hostilities were during the period from June 25 , 1950 until the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27 , 1953 .
In July 1950 , there were about 20 @,@ 000 Hispanics in the armed forces . Over the next three years , nearly 148 @,@ 000 Hispanic @-@ Americans volunteered for or were drafted into military service . As in other conflicts , Hispanics fought as members of the Armed Forces , most Hispanic @-@ Americans served in the Army and Marine Corps . On September 15 , 1950 , the 1st Marine Division , under the command of Major General Oliver P. Smith , led the first major United Nations force strike in North Korean @-@ occupied territory , with a surprise amphibious assault at Inchon . On November 27 , 1950 , elements of the Chinese Communist People 's Liberation Army struck Marine positions in force . The Chinese and Marine Corps forces engaged in some of the fiercest fighting of the Korean War . Hispanics in the 1st Marine Division distinguished themselves in combat even though they , and their comrades , lacked warm clothing during the cold and harsh winters . Five Marines of Hispanic descent were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in the Korean War . All five were members of the 1st Marine Division . They were PFC Fernando Luis Garcia , PFC Edward Gomez , Staff Sergeant Ambrosio Guillen , First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez and PFC Eugene Arnold Obregon . Two of the four Marine Navy Cross recipients were also members of the 1st Marine Division .
First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez ( 1925 – 1950 ) enlisted in the Navy on July 8 , 1943 , and served until June 11 , 1944 , whereupon he was given a Fleet appointment to the United States Naval Academy . He graduated from the academy in 1947 . On September 15 , 1950 , Lopez participated in the Inchon invasion in Korea as member of the 1st Battalion , 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Rein . ) .
Lopez engaged the enemy immediately after landing with the assault waves . He exposed himself to enemy fire in an attempt to throw a hand grenade into a pillbox whose fire was pinning down that sector of the beach . He was wounded by enemy gun fire and dropped the grenade . Unable to grasp the hand grenade firmly enough to hurl it , he chose to sacrifice himself rather than endanger the lives of his men . He cradled the grenade under him and absorbed the full impact of the explosion , thus saving the lives of his comrades . Lopez was nominated for the Medal of Honor . Lopez however , was not the only Hispanic member of the 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor . PFC Eugene Arnold Obregon ( 1930 – 1950 ) , who also participated in the Inchon landing , was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions 11 days after Lopez gave his life . Obregon was killed in action while using his body to shield a wounded fellow Marine .
On September 14 , 1951 , PFC Edward Gomez ( 1932 – 1951 ) , an Ammunition Bearer in Company E , 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines , 1st Marine Division , voluntarily moved down an abandoned trench to search for a new location for his machine gun and , when a hostile grenade landed between himself and his weapon , he shouted a warning to those around him as he grasped the activated charge in his hand . Determined to save his comrades , he unhesitatingly chose to sacrifice himself and , diving into a ditch with the deadly missile , absorbed the violence of the explosion in his own body .
PFC Fernando Luis Garcia ( 1929 – 1952 ) , was assigned to Company I , 3rd Battalion , 5th Marines , of the 1st Marine division . On the night of his death , September 5 , 1952 , he was posted about one mile from the enemy lines . The Korean enemies were attacking with grenades , bombs and other types of artillery . Garcia was critically wounded , but he led his team to a supply point to get hand @-@ grenades . An enemy grenade landed nearby , and Garcia covered with his body , sacrificing himself to save the lives of his fellow Marines . Garcia died instantly . Garcia , whose remains were never recovered , became the first Puerto Rican Medal of Honor recipient .
On September 8 , 1952 , Private First Class Ramón Núñez @-@ Juarez ( 1932 – 1952 ) who was assigned as an automatic rifleman to Company E of the 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines ( 2 / 1 ) , 1st Marine Division was manning Outpost Siberia with a squad of 15 men . A company @-@ size Chinese Communist Force ( CCF ) struck the outpost and Nuñez @-@ Juarez and the other the riflemen fought off the enemy for nearly half an hour before withdrawing from their position . Nuñez @-@ Juarez , manning a Browning Automatic Rifle ( BAR ) , was able to halt the enemy 's advance long enough for the remainder of his squad to escape . Nuñez @-@ Juarez was struck by enemy gunfire and died as a result of his wounds . For the next several days the Marines tried to retake Outpost Siberia , but were unable to do so . Nuñez @-@ Juarez was listed as Missing in Action and was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his heroic actions .
Major George A. Bacas ( 1916 – 1961 ) was a Marine fighter pilot who flew an F4U Corsair during the war . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions in combat . The Distinguished Flying Cross is a medal awarded to any officer or enlisted member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself in combat in support of operations by " heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight . He was also the recipient of the Air Medal with 6 Gold Stars .
Staff Sergeant Ambrosio Guillen ( 1929 – 1953 ) was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor two days before the Armistice . He was responsible for turning an overwhelming enemy attack into a disorderly retreat . Guillen , who was assigned to Company F , 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Reinforced ) , participated in the defense of an outpost forward of the main line of resistance on July 25 , 1953 . He maneuvered his platoon over unfamiliar terrain in the face of hostile fire and placed his men in fighting positions . With his unit pinned down when the outpost was attacked under cover of darkness by an estimated force of two enemy battalions supported by mortar and artillery fire , he deliberately exposed himself to the heavy barrage and attacks to direct his men in defending their positions and personally supervise the treatment and evacuation of the wounded . Inspired by his leadership , the platoon quickly rallied and engaged the enemy force in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Although critically wounded during the course of the battle , Staff Sergeant Guillen refused medical aid and continued to direct his men throughout the remainder of the engagement until the enemy attack into a disorderly retreat .
Four of those who served in the Korean War were awarded the Navy Cross , they were Private First Class Adolfo Benavides , Private First Class Mario Cardillo , Private First Class Ramon Nunez @-@ Juarez and Private First Class Enrique Romero @-@ Nieves .
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Korean War
The Korean War also witnessed an increase in the recruitment of Hispanic women in the Marine Corps . Among them was Rose Franco who became one of the first female Chief Warrant Officers in the U.S. Marine Corps .
CWO3 Rose Franco , who in 1965 was named Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy , Paul Henry Nitze by the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson , surprised her family by announcing that she was leaving college to join the United States Marine Corps upon the outbreak of the Korean War . On February 8 , 1952 , at the age of 20 , Franco enlisted and was sent to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina where she underwent basic training . Upon graduation , she was sent to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina for advanced training . After finishing her advanced training , Rose was assigned to the duties of administrative supply assistant at Camp Pendleton in California . Franco retired from the Marine Corps in 1977 .
In the 1950s , three Hispanics who graduated from the United States Naval Academy became Marines and participated in the Vietnam War . They were Lieutenants John Gonzalez ( later Colonel ) , Class of 1955 , Ramiro Saenz ( later Lieutenant Colonel ) , Class of 1959 and Angelo Fernandez ( later Colonel ) , Class of 1959 .
= = Vietnam War = =
The Marine Corps served an important role in the Vietnam War by participating in such battles as Da Nang , Hue City , and Khe Sanh . Individuals from the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam . While there , they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF ) and an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) . The U.S. government did not begin keeping separate statistics on Hispanics until 1979 . Therefore , the exact number of Hispanics who served in the Marine Corps during the Vietnam War era is unknown . The statistics that were kept by the Department of Defense , in accordance to the Vietnam War Statistics , included Hispanics among Caucasians . However , it is estimated that 170 @,@ 000 Hispanics served in Vietnam and that 3 @,@ 070 ( 5 @.@ 2 % of total ) died there . This total includes those who served in the Marines . Of the 57 Medals of Honor awarded to Marines for actions during the Vietnam War , six were awarded to Marines of Hispanic descent , of which five were posthumous awards . The six Marines were Sergeant Alfredo " Freddy " Gonzalez , Major Jay R. Vargas Jr . , Lance Corporal Jose Francisco Jimenez , PFC Ralph E. Dias , Lance Corporal Emilio A. De La Garza and Lance Corporal Miguel Keith . Of the 360 Navy Crosses awarded to the Marines , 19 were awarded to men of Hispanic descent .
Corporal Angel Mendez ( 1946 – 1967 ) was among the many men who volunteered to join the Marine Corps right after graduating from high school . He was assigned to Company F , 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division on March 16 , 1967 and conducting a search and destroy mission with his company when his company came under attack from a Viet Cong battalion . Half of a platoon was pinned down under enemy fire and Mendez , volunteered to lead a squad to assist the pinned @-@ down Marines in returning to friendly lines with their two dead and two seriously wounded . Mendez exposed himself and opened fire on the enemy . His Platoon Commander , Lieutenant Ronald Castille was seriously wounded and he fell , unable to move . Mendez shielded him with his body as he applied a dressing to the wound , he picked up the Lieutenant and started to carry him to friendly lines , which were more than seventy @-@ five meters away . Mendez was hit in the shoulder , yet he chose to act as rear man and he continued to shield his Lieutenant with his own body until he was mortally wounded . Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and promoted to Sergeant . Sergeant Alfredo " Freddy " Gonzalez ( 1946 – 1968 ) served two tours in Vietnam . He was the Platoon Commander of Company A , 1st Battalion , 1st Marines , United States Marine Corps . On February 4 , 1968 , Sgt. Gonzalez and his platoon engaged the Viet Cong , who were holed up in St. Joan of Arc Catholic Church in Hue City , firing at the Americans with rockets and automatic weapons . Almost single @-@ handedly , Sgt. Gonzalez neutralized the enemy with a barrage of LAW rockets . When it became quiet , it was thought that all of the Viet Cong inside the church had been killed . However , one had survived , and he shot and killed Sgt. Gonzalez .
On April 30 , 1968 , Captain Jay R. Vargas , who was the commander of Company G , 2nd Battalion , 4th Marines , 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade , was sent with his men to an area around the village of Dai Do where two other Marine companies were in a battle with a North Vietnamese Army regiment . Even though Company G hadn ’ t slept for thirty @-@ six hours , they went ashore at about one in the afternoon . The enemy attacked his men and had one of his platoons pinned down . Vargas went to rescue his platoon with a reserve platoon and was wounded by a grenade . He was able to take out three machine guns nests by himself before leading his men in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the enemy soldiers in the nearby village .
He believed that he and his men had secured Dai Do and wasn 't expecting a sudden massive counterattack by the NVA . Company G took cover in the village cemetery and the fight raged through the night . The next morning , the bodies of more than three hundred enemy soldiers lay near their positions . Vargas 's battalion commander arrived on the scene and ordered a renewed assault on the village . He carried to safety a Marine whose arm had been severed , and when the soldier pleaded for his arm , Vargas went back and found it . When the battalion commander , fighting like any other rifleman , was shot in the back three times , Vargas dragged him a hundred yards to an evacuation point , firing at the enemy as he went with an AK @-@ 47 he had picked up on the battlefield . By the end of the third day of battle , the North Vietnamese retreated and Vargas finally allowed himself to be treated for a bullet wound in his side and shrapnel from mortar blasts .
Lance Corporal Jose Francisco Jimenez ( 1946 – 1969 ) was assigned to Company K , 3rd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division . On August 28 , 1969 his unit came under heavy attack by North Vietnamese Army soldiers concealed in well @-@ camouflaged emplacements at Quang Nam Province . Jimenez personally destroyed several enemy personnel and silenced an antiaircraft weapon . He then maneuvered to within ten feet of hostile soldiers who were firing automatic weapons from a trench and , in the face of vicious enemy fire , destroyed the position . As he moved to attack another enemy soldier , he was mortally wounded .
Lance Corporal Jimenez was not the only Hispanic Marine from the 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in Quang Nam Province . Three months later , on November 12 , 1969 , Private First Class Ralph E. Dias ( 1950 – 1969 ) a Rifleman with Company D , 1st Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division , initiated an aggressive assault against an enemy machine gun bunker which was the principal source of hostile fire . He was wounded three times but , was able to crawl and throw a grenade which destroyed the enemy position before he was mortally wounded by another enemy round .
On April 11 , 1970 , Lance Corporal Emilio A. De La Garza ( 1949 – 1970 ) , while serving as a machine gunner on a squad size patrol with the 3rd Platoon of Company E , 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines , 1st Marine Division , was mortally wounded approximately four miles south of Da Nang by a grenade as he placed himself between the blast and two fellow Marines .
A month later on May 8 , 1970 Lance Corporal Miguel Keith ( 1951 – 1970 ) a rifleman with the 1st Combined Action Group , III Marine Amphibious Force was seriously wounded when his platoon was under heavy attack from a numerically superior enemy in the Quang Ngai Province . Despite his wounds , he advanced on the enemy with machine gun fire , killing 3 of the enemy advancing on the command post and dispersing the others . He was severely wounded by a grenade during this charge . In spite of his wounds and loss of blood , he charged a group of 25 attackers , causing them to retreat for cover . He was mortally wounded by enemy fire . His actions contributed significantly to his platoon 's success in routing the enemy .
Lieutenant Colonel Ramiro Saenz , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1959 . He served two tours in Vietnam and received the Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and other awards for his service in that war . He retired as a Lieutenant Colonel in 1979 .
On April 23 , 1975 , President Gerald Ford gave a televised speech declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid . North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon and the song " White Christmas " was broadcast , as the final signal for U.S. withdrawal . Master Sergeant Juan J. Valdez was the noncommissioned officer in charge of the Marine security guard detachment stationed at the US Embassy , Saigon . He had previously served from 1965 to 1967 with Company B , 3d Amphibian Tractor Battalion , attached to 2d Bn , Fourth Marine Regiment and was now on his second tour . On April 30 , 1975 , Valdez was the last U.S. serviceman to leave Vietnam , shutting the embassy gates and boarding the last helicopter out of Saigon .
The following nineteen Marines of Hispanic descent in the table were awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Vietnam .
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Vietnam War
Women in the Marine Corps did not participate in active combat duty , most were assigned to administrative duties . In the case of Staff Sergeant Norma Alvarado of El Campo , Texas , who enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1973 , she spent three years as a drill instructor and depot inspector at the Women Recruit Training Command at Parris Island , South Carolina .
Joseph V. Medina attended the United States Naval Academy and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant upon his graduation in 1976 .
= = 1983 Beirut Bombing = =
In 1982 , at the request of the Lebanese government , the United States and France established a peacekeeping force between Muslims and Christians in Beirut , Lebanon . The international peacekeeping forces , however were viewed as enemies and were frequently attacked with artillery and mortar . On October 23 , 1983 a large truck loaded with 2 @,@ 500 pounds of TNT crashed through the main gate of the U.S. Marine Headquarters in Beirut , Lebanon killing 241 servicemen ( mostly made up of U.S. Marines ) and wounding 81 . Marines of Hispanic descent accounted for 16 of the deaths . The attack remains the deadliest single attack on Americans overseas since World War II . The Marines were moved offshore where they could not be targeted . On February 7 , 1984 , President Ronald Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon .
Table : Marines of Hispanic descent who perished in the 1983 Beirut Marine Barracks Bombing
= = Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope = =
On August 2 , 1990 , Saddam Hussein sent an invading force of Iraqi troops into Kuwait . According to the United States government Hussein 's forces would continue south into Saudi Arabia 's oil fields . The United States military deployment to Saudi Arabia , Operation Desert Shield , grew rapidly to become the largest American deployment since the Vietnam War .
On January 22 , 1991 , Captain Manuel Rivera , Jr . ( 1959 – 1991 ) , a Marine aviator , became the first Hispanic soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield . Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf when his AV @-@ 8B Harrier smashed into the Omani coastline while approaching the deck of the amphibious assault ship USS Nassau ( LHA @-@ 4 ) for a landing .
Major Michael J. Aguilar , an experienced UH @-@ 1E " Huey " and AH @-@ 1 " Super Cobra " attack helicopter pilot , volunteered to fly combat missions in the desert upon Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait . He immediately joined Marine Aircraft Group 70 , the 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade 's aviation combat element . During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , he was executive officer of Marine Aircraft Group 16 operating out of Al Jubayl , Saudi Arabia , and later up north near Kuwait . Colonel Christopher Cortez was the Commanding Officer of 1st Bn , 5th Marines , his unit was also deployed with 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade to Saudi Arabia . He sequentially served with the 7th Marines and 3rd Marines during Operation Desert Shield and then with Task Force Ripper ( 7th Marines ) during Operation Desert Storm . Both men were to become generals in the Marines .
Also , among those who participated in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm were United States Naval Academy graduates and future astronauts , Christopher J. " Gus " Loria , Class of 83 ' and George David Zamka , Class of 84 ' . They flew combat missions in support of allied operations during both operations . Loria flew 42 and Zamka flew 66 combat missions .
Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the Northeast African nation of Somalia , which was suffering from a severe famine , anarchy , and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre 's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War . On January 30 , 1993 , Private First Class Domingo Arroyo , Jr . ( 1979 – 1993 ) , a Marine from Puerto Rico , became the first of three Marines of Hispanic descent to die in what is known as the Battle of Mogadishu from a total of 45 American soldiers killed during the operation . The other two were Sergeant Lorenzo Ruiz and Lance Corporal Jesus Perez . Ruiz was ambushed in Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia , by Somali warlords . Perez was killed in a training accident involving an 81mm mortar .
Colonel Leonardo G. Hernández ( USMC , Retired ) entered the Marine Corps in 1973 as an infantry officer and served thirty @-@ one years on active duty which included combat in Somalia , El Salvador and Bosnia .
= = Recent events = =
The past 20 years have witnessed dramatic increases in the percentage of Latinos ( of both sexes ) among active duty enlisted personnel . Nearly 15 percent of U.S. Marine Corps enlisted personnel were Hispanic . The various recruitment efforts do have critics , both within and outside the Hispanic community , particularly during this time of war and a growing number of reported Hispanic casualties .
In the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq , in what the United States and its allies refer to as the War on Terrorism . Sergeant Rafael Peralta is among those who have perished .
During the Iraq War , Sgt. Rafael Peralta ( 1979 – 2004 ) was assigned to 1st Battalion , 3rd Marine Regiment , 3rd Marine Division , III Marine Expeditionary Force . On November 15 , 2004 , Peralta and his team were ordered to clear houses in the Operation Phantom Fury . Peralta led his team through a series of house clearings before charging into the fourth house . He found two rooms empty on the ground floor . Peralta opened a third door and was hit multiple times with AK @-@ 47 fire , leaving him severely wounded . He dropped to the floor and moved aside in order to allow the Marines behind him to return fire .
The insurgents responded by throwing a grenade at the Marines . The two Marines with Sgt. Peralta tried to get out of the room but could not . Sgt. Peralta was still conscious on the floor and despite his wounds was able to reach for the grenade and pull it under his body absorbing the majority of the lethal blast and shrapnel which killed him instantly , but saved the lives of his fellow marines .
Sgt. Peralta was under consideration to receive the Medal of Honor. but , was awarded the Navy Cross instead . Secretary of Defense Robert Gates rejected the Marine Corps ' recommendation , concluding that his appointed panel unanimously confirmed that his actions did not meet the standard of " without any possibility of error or doubt " . The central argument posed relates to whether the already mortally wounded Peralta could have intentionally reached for a grenade , shielding his fellow Marines from the blast .
Six Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded the Navy Cross , they are :
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Iraq War
On June 10 , 2004 , during Operation Iraqi Freedom Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood , he then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 .
Hispanic women are now more highly represented among enlisted women in the Marine Corps than the other services . Hispanic women are reaching the top echelons of the Marine Corps both in the enlistment and officer ranks . On August 13 , 2004 , MGySgt . Abigail D. Olmos became the first female Master Gunnery Sergeant in the history of the Marine Corps. and on August 2 , 2006 , Brigadier General Angela Salinas , made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines . To date servicewomen are still restricted from serving in the following positions : Infantry regiments , artillery battalions , all armored units , combat engineer battalions , reconnaissance units , riverine assault craft units , low altitude air defense units , and fleet anti @-@ terrorism security teams . In Operation Iraqi Freedom female Marines have played a prominent role guarding checkpoints and searching Iraqi women and children . This in turn has exposed many of them to dangerous situations which in some cases could cost them their lives . Two Hispanic female Marines have perished in said conflict , they are Lance Corporal Juana Navarro , assigned to 9th Engineer Support Battalion , 3rd Marine Logistics Group , III Marine Expeditionary Force. and Corporal Ramona M. Valdez .
Corporal Ramona M. Valdez ( 1984 – 2005 ) was assigned to Headquarters Battalion , 2nd Marine Division , II Marine Expeditionary Force . Valdez , whose mother immigrated from the Dominican Republic , was a communications specialist . Valdez 's most significant work was with Division 's Counter Improvised Explosive Device Working Group . The success of the tests conducted by CIEDWG was in a large part attributed to Valdez 's knowledge of single @-@ channel radios .
Valdez , who was stationed at Camp Lejeune , N.C. was deployed with her unit to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . Her convoy was on its way back to Camp Fallujah when a suicide bomber drove his car into the convoy , causing a massive explosion that killed Valdez , two other women , three men , and severely burnt seven other women . She was serving with the Female Search Force when she was killed . The Marine Corps honored her memory naming the II MEF Communications Training Center in Camp Lejeune , N.C. the Valdez Training Facility .
= = = Hispanic immigrants in the Marine Corps = = =
Since the American Revolution , when they fought alongside Spanish General Bernardo De Galvez to the modern day conflict in Iraq , Hispanic immigrants have played an important role in the military of the United States .
On July 3 , 2002 , President George W. Bush issued an order to speed up the process of citizenship for immigrants serving in the nation 's military services . Immigrant service members can now qualify for citizenship after serving honorably for one year in the armed forces or for serving on active duty during an authorized period of conflict , among other qualifications listed under the Immigration and Nationality Act , Section 328 . One of the privileges of U.S. citizenship is the opportunity to become a commissioned officer in the Marine Corps . When there is a draft , a non @-@ citizen can be drafted as a resident alien , or can join in the ranks as a foreigner , but cannot be an officer without U.S. citizenship . Lance Corporal Jose Vasquez , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old Marine who was born near Monterrey , Mexico , to the United States as a 3 @-@ month @-@ old baby , growing up in Houston , Texas . He had permanent resident status , but not citizenship . Vasquez said he needed citizenship to land a job as an aviation electrician .
Mexicans comprise the largest immigrant group in the Marine Corps . So far , 59 immigrant casualties have been granted posthumous citizenship . Among those who have been granted posthumous citizenship are three foreign @-@ born Hispanic Marines , Lance Corporal Jesus Suarez del Solar , Corporal Jose Angel Garibay and Lance Corporal Jose Antonio Gutierrez .
On March 21 , 2003 , Lance Corporal José Antonio Gutierrez ( 1981 – 2003 ) , member of the 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines was killed by enemy fire while trying to secure Umm Qasr , a port vital for humanitarian aid .
Gutierrez was born in Guatemala . His mother died when he was three . Five years later his father was dead . He left school to work a series of odd jobs to buy food for himself and his sister , Engracia . He learned about the U.S. from an American aid worker at a shelter . Gutierrez decided to head for America by stowing away on freight trains . He got stuck in Mexico for a couple of years , crossing into California when he was 14 . He slept on park benches and got food from a shelter .
In 2000 , he came to live with Nora and Marcelo Mosquera ( themselves immigrants from Costa Rica and Ecuador ) . A few months after September , 11 , he surprised everyone by announcing he 'd joined the Marines . On March 21 , 2003 , Gutierrez , who come to the United States illegally as a teenager , became one of the first U.S. servicemembers to die in Iraq . He was awarded his American citizenship posthumously . Lance Cpl. José Antonio Gutiérrez is the subject of the 2006 nonfiction film " The Short Life of José Antonio Gutierrez " ; Directed by Heidi Specogna .
= = = Further increases likely = = =
Hispanics comprise 18 percent of enlisted Marines today up from 15 percent when the Iraq war began .
The number of Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps over @-@ represent their percentage of the population . Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteer Armed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan , yet Hispanic recruiting numbers have not decreased into that service .
The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs involves advertising publications and magazines with the principal aim to attract those who speak Spanish . The strategy of Marine Corps Recruiting Command in advertising is to continue to develop a very strong and positive image of the Marine Corps . The Marine Corps ' has also been successful in marketing by using Hispanic recruiters in areas mostly populated by Hispanics . Among the reasons which have led the Marine Corps to target Hispanics aggressive recruitment programs are the following :
1 . There is widespread support for military service within the Hispanic community .
2 . The propensity to serve in the military ( generally measured by the desires of young people to consider the military as one of their first choices of activities ) – especially in the Marine Corps — is high among Latinos ( Hispanics ) .
3 . Hispanics are more likely to complete boot camp , finish their military service , and to reenlist than any other group of Marines .
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina has been quoted as saying :
On September 17 , 1968 , President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid @-@ September as National Hispanic Heritage Week . In 1988 , President Ronald Reagan extended that week to a month @-@ long observance . The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society . The Marine Corps has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Marines are Hispanics , and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions which Hispanics in the United States Marines Corps have made to that military institution by celebrating National Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15 .
= = High @-@ ranking Hispanics in the Marine Corps = =
= = = Highest @-@ ranking enlisted personnel = = =
Hispanics are more highly represented among enlisted personnel in the Marine Corps than in the other services . On June 27 , 2003 , Sergeant Major John L. Estrada , originally from the nation of Trinidad and Tobago , became the 15th Sergeant Major of the United States Marine Corps and the first person of Hispanic descent promoted to that rank . Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a unique non @-@ commissioned rank in the United States Marine Corps . The holder of this rank and post is the senior enlisted member of the Marine Corps . Estrada enlisted on September 19 , 1973 and has been assigned to various units and positions during the years which he served . From December 2001 to May 2003 , Sergeant Major Estrada served as the Sergeant Major , 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing . During this assignment , he was forward deployed and participated in Operation Southern Watch and Operation Iraqi Freedom . His personal awards include the Bronze Star , the Meritorious Service Medal with three gold stars , the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal , the Joint Service Achievement Medal , and the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal . On April 25 , 2007 , SgtMaj Estrada stepped down from his post as Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps .
Aside from Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps , Master Gunnery Sergeant ( MGySgt ) and Sergeant Major are the highest enlisted ranks in the Marine Corps ; however , there are far fewer Master Gunnery Sergeants than Sergeants Major . One of the major differences between the two E @-@ 9 ranks is that Master Gunnery Sergeants retain their Military Occupational Specialty ( MOS ) , while Sergeants Major are given a new MOS to reflect their general command focus . This reinforces the Master Gunnery Sergeant 's role as a provider of technical military leadership .
MGySgt Guadalupe Denogean is an immigrant from Mexico who has served in the Marine Corps for 25 years . Denogean was wounded in combat in Basra , Iraq . During the time that he received treatment for his wounds , he was asked if he had any requests . His answer was that he had two . First , He wanted a promotion for the corporal who helped rescue him , and the second request was that he wanted to be an American citizen .
MGySgt Frankie Segarra , a veteran of Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm , is the first Hispanic and for that matter the first Puerto Rican Master Gunnery Sergeant acting as paraloft chief , Landing Support Company , Combat Logistics Regiment 3 , 3rd Marine Logistics Group in Camp Smedley D. Butler located in Okinawa , Japan .
MGySgt Abigail D. Olmos became the first female Master Gunnery Sergeant in the history of the Marine Corps on August 13 , 2004 . Olmos , a native of St. Louis , Missouri , joined the armed services for college money and almost joined the Air Force , but opted for the Marine Corps when she was guaranteed a technical specialty . Her military decoration include four Navy Commendation medals , one Navy Achievement Medal and seven good conducts .
Sergeant Major Jorge F. Sosa , is the acting Sergeant Major for 2nd Force Service Support Group . He served in Kuwait as the Sergeant Major for 2nd Transportation Support Battalion .
Sergeant Major Jose Luis Santiago , who participated in both Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm as member of the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion , has the distinction of being the 2nd Battalion 9th Marines first Hispanic Sergeant Major and its first Sergeant Major since its reactivation on July 13 , 2007 .
Sergeant Major Federico Perez Jr . , has served in the Marine Corps for over 30 years in various positions and is currently the Personnel Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps at Marine Corps Headquarters in Quantico , Virginia .
= = = Highest @-@ ranking officers = = =
Hispanics have been underrepresented in the all @-@ volunteer armed forces , especially among officers . Despite the fact that Hispanics make up 18 % of the total Marine population they makeup only 5 @.@ 5 % of the officers corps . This is beginning to change , as increasing numbers of Hispanics enter the military . The Marine Corps , realizing its shortage of Hispanics in the officer ranks , has a program to grow its own and sends young enlisted Marines to college while on active duty to obtain a degree and a commission . Prior to the year 2000 , two Marines of Hispanic descent reached the ranks of Brigadier General and above . Since then , seven Hispanics have been promoted to the rank of Brigadier General and above . One of the seven , Joseph V. Medina , was a graduate of the United States Naval Academy . The other six obtained their commissions after enlisting in the Marines upon receiving their college degrees .
Brigadier General Michael J. Aguilar ( Ret . ) , was a member of the Marine Corps platoon leaders ' class while attending Long Beach State College and the Officers ' Candidate School program . In July 1971 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and went on active duty . He was sent directly to the Naval Air Training Command , Pensacola , Florida , for flight training . After serving as a combat pilot in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , he attended the Naval War College and was promoted to Colonel . He served as senior military assistant to the undersecretary of defense for policy at the Pentagon . In 1999 , he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General , the third Marine of Hispanic descent to reach such rank . On December of that year , he became deputy commander , U.S. Marine Corps Forces South , Miami , and commander of Fleet Marine Forces South . Aguilar retired in 2002 and was selected to oversee and enforce security at San Diego International Airport at Lindbergh Field .
Major General Christopher Cortez ( Ret . ) , was a graduate of Marietta College in Ohio , and commissioned a second lieutenant via the Platoon Leaders Program in 1971 . His undergraduate program included one semester at the University of Madrid in Spain . He served in various positions during his career which included Commanding Officer of 1st Bn , 5th Marines with 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade . He served with 7th Marines and 3rd Marines during Operation Desert Shield and then with Task Force Ripper ( 7th Marines ) during Operation Desert Storm . On December 31 , 2004 , Major General Christopher Cortez relinquished his final command and he retired after 33 years of service to the Marine Corps . Upon his retirement Cortez was the highest @-@ ranking Hispanic American serving in the Corps . During the ceremony , Cortez received the Distinguished Service Medal for his successful tour as the commanding general of Marine Corps Recruiting Command . Cortez joined Microsoft Corp. as Managing Director , Government Industry Team , Worldwide Public Sector , reports Wes Poriotis , Chairman of Wesley , Brown & Bartle Co . ( WB & B ) .
Major General William D. Catto served concurrently as Commanding General , Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory and Vice Chief of Naval Research , Office of Naval Research from June 2000 to June 2002 . Catto earned an undergraduate degree from Bethel College and his M.A. from Webster University . From July 2002 to June 2006 , he assumed duties as the Commanding General , Marine Corps Systems Command . Catto is the Commanding General Marine Corps Systems Command , Chief of Staff , United States European Command .
On August 2 , 2006 , Major General Angela Salinas , made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines . Salinas enlisted into the United States Marine Corps in May 1974 . She was subsequently assigned as a legal services clerk at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton , California , Marine Air Reserve Training Detachment , Alameda , California , and the inspector @-@ instructor staff , 4th Reconnaissance Battalion , San Antonio , Texas . In 1977 , she was selected for the Enlisted Commissioning Program and commissioned a second lieutenant after graduation from Dominican College of San Rafael , California with a B.A. in History . She was subsequently assigned to the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing at MCAS Cherry Point , North Carolina , and served as a legal services officer . Salinas served in various positions prior to her promotion . On August 2 , 2006 , Salinas was promoted to Brigadier General and on August , 4 she assumed command of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego . She was promoted to the Rank of Major General in 2010 and serves as the Director , Manpower Management , at Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps .
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1976 . His academic accomplishments include a Bachelor of Science ( Physics ) and a Master of Science ( Systems Management ) degrees from the University of Southern California . In 2001 , he was promoted to Brigadier General and assumed command of the newly established Expeditionary Strike Group Three ( ESG @-@ 3 ) in San Diego , California which is an integral part of US Third Fleet . Medina became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . On June 10 , 2004 , Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood ( LHA @-@ 3 ) , he led 4 @,@ 000 Marines and Sailors into Pearl Harbor for five days of training . He then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 . His mission was to detect , identify , and disrupt international terrorist organizations and foreign fighters . In April 2007 , BGen . Medina took command of the 3rd Marine Division .
Brigadier General David C. Garza is the Deputy Commander , Marine Forces Central Command . He was nominated on January 16 , 2007 , by the Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates for appointment to the grade of brigadier general .
Brigadier General Juan G. Ayala was promoted to his current rank on August 8 , 2008 and is currently the Commanding General of 2nd Marine Logistics Group at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . He aerved as the Commanding Officer of 2d Marine Aircraft Wing at Cherry Point , North Carolina , Marine Wing Support Squadron 271 . During this period the Squadron was recognized as the Marine Corps ’ MWSS of the Year for 1998 and received the Marine Corps Aviation Association 's Jim Hatch Award . In 1999 the Squadron 's Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting Section was recognized by the U.S. Navy & Marine Corps Firefighting Association as the best in the Marine Corps and Navy and received the Ogden Award . The Squadron participated in operations and exercises in Lithuania , Norway , Nicaragua , Haiti and counter drug missions along the U.S. Southwest Border .
= = Medal of Honor = =
Thirteen Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded the Medal of Honor – the highest military decoration of the United States :
This along with the * , indicates that the Medal of Honor was awarded posthumously
= = United States Naval Academy = =
The United States Naval Academy is an institution in Annapolis , Maryland for the undergraduate education of officers of the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps . The following is a list of Hispanic alumni of the USNA who served in the Marine Corps .
= = Notable Marines of Hispanic descent = =
The following is a list of Hispanics who served in the United States Marine Corps and have gained fame through previous or subsequent endeavors or successes :
Joseph M. Acaba — NASA Astronaut : In May 2004 , he became the first person of Puerto Rican heritage to be named as a NASA astronaut candidate when he was selected as a member of NASA Astronaut Training Group 19 . He completed his training on February 10 , 2006 and was assigned to STS @-@ 119 , which flew from March 15 to March 28 , 2009 to deliver the final set of solar arrays to the International Space Station . Acabá was a Sergeant in the United States Marine Corps Reserves where he served for six years .
Enrique Camarena — DEA agent : In 1972 , Camarena joined the United States Marine Corps , where he served for two years . He then joined the DEA at their Calexico , California office . Camarena 's work became well known all over the United States and Latin America before he died . He infiltrated drug trafficking bands and successfully helped break up many of them . He managed to keep his face off the newspapers and other media despite the fact his name was well known . Several movies about him were produced in Mexico , and , in November 1988 , Time magazine had him on their cover . A 1990 U.S television mini @-@ series about Camarena , starring Treat Williams and Benicio del Toro , was produced ( Drug Wars : The Camarena Story ) .
Rod Carew — baseball Hall of Famer : Carew joined the Marine Corps in 1965 , and served on active duty with Headquarters Company , 8th Engineer Support Battalion , 2nd FSSG at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . He completed his Marine Corps career serving in the reserves from 1966 to 1971 .
Roberto Clemente — baseball Hall of Famer @-@ He joined the Marine Corps on September 12 , 1958 . At Parris Island , Clemente received his basic training with Platoon 346 of the 3rd Recruit Battalion . As an infantryman he served on active duty at Camp Lejeune until 1959 ; he remained in the reserves until September 1964 .
Nicholas Estavillo – NYPD Chief of Patrol ( Ret . ) , In 2002 he became the first Puerto Rican and the first Hispanic in the history of the NYPD to reach the three @-@ star rank of Chief of Patrol . He enlisted in the United States Marine Corps during the Vietnam War and was a member of the 3rd Force , Recon Co. of the Marines Recon Force .
Freddy Fender – was a Mexican @-@ American musician of Tejano , country , and Rock and Roll music who in 1975 had a hit song " Before the Next Teardrop Falls " which gave him national exposure . Born Baldemar Huerta , he joined the Marines in 1953 at the age of 16 and served for three years .
Lieutenant Colonel Christopher J. " Gus " Loria — NASA Astronaut — USMC — USNA Class of 1983 : Loria was born on July 9 , 1960 in Belmont , Massachusetts . His educational background include a Bachelor of Science degree in general engineering from the U.S. Naval Academy ( 1983 ) ; 30 credits from Florida Institute of Technology towards completion of a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering ; and a Master in Public Administration from John F. Kennedy School of Government , Harvard University ( 2004 ) . Loria flew 42 combat missions in support of allied operations during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . Selected by NASA in April 1996 , Loria completed two years of training and evaluation , he is qualified for flight assignment as a pilot . From September 2002 through July 2003 , he served as the Chief of Flight Test for the Orbital Space Plane Program .
Carlos I. Noriega — NASA Astronaut — USMC : Born in Peru , Noriega is a NASA employee , a former NASA astronaut and a retired U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel . Noriega flew on STS @-@ 84 in 1997 and STS @-@ 97 in 2000 . He logged over 461 hours in space , including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks . Following STS @-@ 97 , Noriega trained as the backup commander for IIS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS @-@ 121 . In January 2005 , Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps , but continued working for NASA as the Manager , Advanced Projects Office , Constellation Program , Johnson Space Center .
Lee Trevino — PGA Tour golfer and member of the World Golf Hall of Fame : Trevino enlisted in the Marine Corps on his seventeenth birthday in 1956 and went through recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego , California . On completion of boot camp and follow @-@ on training , he served as a Machine Gunner with the 9th Marines on Okinawa from July 1957 , until August 1958 , when he was transferred to the 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton , California . Trevino served with the division until March 1959 , and was transferred to the 3rd Marine Division . He remained with the 3rd Marine Division until his discharge as a Corporal in November 1960 .
Ted Williams , whose mother was of Mexican heritage enlisted on May 22 , 1942 . Williams received his wings and commission in the Marine Corps on May 2 , 1944 . He was in Hawaii awaiting orders as a replacement pilot when the war ended . Williams returned to the States in December and was discharged from the Marines on January 28 , 1946 . On May 2 , 1952 , Williams was recalled to active duty due to the Korean War . After completing jet refresher training in the F9F Panther at Cherry Point , North Carolina , Williams joined VMF @-@ 311 in Korea . He flew 37 combat missions and had a narrow escape when he crash @-@ landed a flak damaged aircraft . Among the decorations he received was the Air Medal with two Gold Stars for meritorious achievement . Williams returned to the States and relieved from active duty with the rank of Captain on July 28 , 1953 . Williams who played professional baseball with the Boston Red Sox was elected to baseball 's Hall of Fame in 1966 .
Colonel George David Zamka – NASA Astronaut – USMC – USNA Class of 1984 : Born in Jersey City , New Jersey in 1962 , Zamka was raised in New York City ; Irvington , New York ; Medellín , Colombia ; and Rochester Hills , Michigan . He flew 66 combat missions over occupied Kuwait and Iraq during Operation Desert Storm . In June 1998 , Zamka was selected for the astronaut program , and reported for training in August . Zamka served as lead for the shuttle training and procedures division and as supervisor for the astronaut candidate class of 2004 . Zamka completed his first spaceflight as the pilot of STS @-@ 120 ( October , 13 – November 7 , 2007 ) . STS @-@ 120 ( Discovery ) traveled to the International Space Station to deliver the U.S. Node 2 Module , while also reconfiguring part of the station to prepare it for future assembly missions .
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= History of Chincoteague , Virginia =
The history of human activity in Chincoteague , on the Eastern Shore of Virginia , begins with the Native Americans . Until European settlers possessed the island in the late 17th century , the Chincoteague Indians used it as a place to gather shellfish , but are not known to have lived there ; Chincoteague Island lacked suitable soil for their agriculture . The island 's name derives from those early visitors : by one popular tale , chincoteague meant " Beautiful land across the water " in their language .
Use of Chincoteague Island by European settlers began in the 17th century , when the island was granted to a Virginia colonist . Legal disputes followed , and it was not until 1691 that title was determined by the courts . Although a few people were living on the island by 1700 , it was primarily used as a place to graze livestock . This was probably the origin of the Chincoteague ponies , feral horses that long roamed in the area . They are no longer present in the wild on Chincoteague Island . During the American Revolutionary War , the islanders supported the new nation 's bid for independence . The local fishing and seafood resources began to be systematically exploited in the early 19th century .
In the Civil War , the islanders supported the Union despite being located in a seceded state , and the war touched Chincoteague only lightly . Oysters became a major industry in the postwar years . Chincoteague 's relative isolation ended in 1876 with the arrival of the railroad at Franklin City , Virginia , across Chincoteague Bay from the island , and the initiation of a dedicated steamboat service between the two settlements . Nevertheless , contemporary visitors found Chincoteague primitive . Part of the island was incorporated as the Town of Chincoteague within Accomack County in 1908 ; the municipality annexed the remainder of the island in 1989 . Automobile traffic could reach the island with the completion of a causeway in 1922 . Two devastating fires in that decade caused the establishment of the Chincoteague Fire Department in 1925 ; the new volunteer company took over the traditional pony penning , and soon had ponies from nearby Assateague Island swim the narrow channel between the two islands as part of that roundup . The carnival , pony swim , and subsequent auction constitute a highlight of the town 's calendar , attracting tens of thousands to the island .
The seafood and poultry industries thrived through much of the 20th century , but neither is important to the island 's economy today . Chincoteague is a major tourist destination on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , with many coming to enjoy the beaches on Assateague Island . The success of Marguerite Henry 's 1947 children 's book Misty of Chincoteague and its sequels helped publicize Chincoteague , as did the 1961 film , Misty .
= = Setting and pre @-@ European use = =
Chincoteague is the name of a town , and the barrier island on which it is located , on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , in the United States . The island is about 8 miles ( 13 km ) long and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide . Sand forms its soil , with a thin layer of loam above it away from the water , enough to support pine trees and grass . Chincoteague Inlet , a break in the barrier island system , occurs near Chincoteague Island , at the southern end of Assateague Island . Assateague shelters Chincoteague from the Atlantic and stretches north almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) to Ocean City , Maryland .
The local Native Americans , called by Europeans the Chincoteague Indians , did not in fact reside on Chincoteague Island itself , but lived on the mainland , where there was suitable land for hunting and agriculture . They lived near what was at first called Chincoteague Creek , on the mainland , and is today Little Mosquito Creek . The tribe moved to a new village site every few years , and visited Chincoteague Island to obtain shellfish . Although many references state that the name " Chincoteague " is the Native American word for " Beautiful land across the water " , according to local historian Kirk Mariner , this legend is of 20th @-@ century origin , invented to promote a song by that name by an islander . The name , he states , instead derives from the tribe 's word for " large stream " or " inlet " .
The Chincoteague Indians gradually withdrew northwards in the late 17th century as European colonization grew ; most settled on a reservation at present @-@ day Snow Hill , Maryland , with allied tribes of Native Americans , though some may have remained in their traditional area . They were later forced from the reservation , and their descendants are among the Nanticoke people in southern Delaware .
= = Colonial Chincoteague = =
Although Virginia was settled in 1607 with the advent of the Jamestown Colony , it was not until 1680 that Europeans occupied Chincoteague Island . A patent to Chincoteague Island had been granted by the British colonial authorities to Daniel Jenifer in 1671 ; that interest had been transferred to Thomas Welburn , husband of Jenifer 's stepdaughter and prominent local merchant who lived on the mainland side of Chincoteague Bay . To fulfill the terms of the patent and gain title , the holder or his designee had to live on the land for a year — in the contemporary term , to " seat " the land . Welburn and several employees built a house there and cleared land for a small farm . His employee and tenant , Robert Scott , lived there only for the required year . Once it had expired , the house was abandoned , but Welburn , despite considering the land his own , did not register his efforts to perfect title .
Unaware that Welburn had seated the land , the authorities declared Chincoteague Island abandoned and issued another patent for the land in December 1684 to John Clayton , who conveyed it to Colonel William Kendall of Northampton . When Welburn learned that Kendall was planning to seat the land himself , he threatened to shoot trespassers on the island . Instead , Welburn sued , and the case dragged on in the Accomack County courts until the local justices transferred it to the General Court in the capital of Williamsburg . Welburn lost the case , as the General Court ruled in 1691 that as Jenifer had never lived on the island , he had not conveyed a valid patent to Welburn . Fresh patents were then issued , dividing the island between Kendall and another prominent citizen of Northampton , Major John Robins , with the dividing line near present @-@ day Church Street .
Once ownership of the island was settled , it was used mostly as a place to house livestock , since there was no need for fences or other enclosures to prevent the animals from straying , and they could feed off of the marsh grasses . This usage was most likely the origin of the ponies that have made Chincoteague and Assateague Islands famous , though there are legends that the ponies ' ancestors survived a shipwreck of a Spanish vessel . One such ship did run aground on Assateague Island in 1750 , but according to John Amrhein Jr. in his account of his efforts to locate that vessel , " the mystery of the origin of the wild ponies became fused with the oldest memories of the Spanish shipwreck " .
An early inhabitant was Henry Towles , who had seated the island for Kendall in 1686 . He bought land from Kendall on the island , lived there , and sold it in 1709 . The first permanent residents were likely George and Hannah Blake , originally tenants ; their son John bought land from Kendall in the 1690s . Blake 's Point , which extends out into Chincoteague Bay , testifies to their residence on the western side of the island . The will of John Robins , recorded in 1709 , documents the presence of horses on Chincoteague — he bequeaths one , and mentions that his livestock were on the island . He also willed a " mallato [ mulatto boy Charles son of Hannah , which said boy is now on my part of Jengoteague [ sic ] Island " . Through the 18th century the population slowly expanded until by the end of it about 200 people , mostly tenant farmers and squatters , lived on Chincoteague and Assateague .
= = Antebellum period ( 1776 – 1860 ) = =
When the Thirteen Colonies broke away from the British Crown in 1776 , early decrees of the provisional Virginia Convention affected Chincoteague . In May 1776 , the body ordered that the coastal islands be stripped of livestock that might be taken by British ships . The islanders , in June , petitioned for a repeal or exemption , as they had , the petition stated , " the most fervent desire to do everything in their power to defeat the ... enemies of American liberty " , as well as a militia of some forty men able to repel British raiders . The convention allowed Chincoteague and other islands along the Atlantic coast to retain their livestock .
In mid @-@ 1776 , the Virginia Convention voted to fortify Chincoteague 's harbor — it was then being used by ships evading the British blockade of Chesapeake Bay . Smuggled goods were unloaded on the mainland , and taken down the Eastern Shore toward more populated areas . The resulting fort was built on Wallops Island , across the inlet from Chincoteague . The smuggling route maintained its importance as the American Revolutionary War continued , and in August 1779 , the sole action in the area took place — a British privateer , pretending to be a smuggler , disabled the fort 's guns and captured a cargo ship at anchor in Chincoteague Bay . Island legend holds that four men from Chincoteague fought for the Americans at the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781 , and that one was delayed in returning to the island because General George Washington had the soldier transport the battle flag to the general 's home at Mount Vernon .
By 1800 , the original large parcels of land on Chincoteague Island were being broken into plots of 30 acres ( 12 ha ) or larger . There were some 200 people living on Chincoteague or Assateague , but there were no stores or other retail enterprises . A school , unusual for Virginia 's Eastern Shore at the time , was erected sometime before 1804 . Three island families were free African @-@ Americans ; two other households had black servants or slaves . One of the free African @-@ Americans , Ocraw Brinney , became a major island landowner . Born in Africa and transported by slave ship , he was freed in 1787 and was supposedly 130 years old when he died around 1840 , but was more likely aged about 100 . His holdings included what today are the Carnival Grounds , south of downtown Chincoteague .
In the first half of the 19th century , Chincoteague became a source of seafood . As the cities along the eastern seaboard , such as New York and Philadelphia , continued to expand , their local areas could not supply them with enough shellfish . Islanders saw the opportunity , and many abandoned agriculture , instead harvesting the sea . The villagers of Chincoteague petitioned the Virginia General Assembly three times between 1833 and 1851 seeking the repeal of various fishing laws . The first post office was established in 1854 , and the first doctor arrived four years later . By 1860 there were 150 families resident on Chincoteague , 126 oystermen on the island , and others belonging to allied trades . That year , a hotel was operating on the island , located in what today is the downtown area — in the mid @-@ 19th century , that part of the island developed as Chincoteague 's commercial core .
The first accounts of pony penning are from an 1835 letter to the editor published in the Farmer 's Register by Thompson Holmes of " Chincoteague " — that is , the mainland opposite the island , then also called by that name . According to his letter , few horses remained wild on Chincoteague Island , and residents would go over to Assateague to build temporary corrals to place the local herds in . Selected horses were branded , gelded , and sold . Holmes told about an earlier practice , to drive the horses directly into the water , which had been abandoned because too many had drowned . Holmes mourned that the pony pennings of his day were only " a shadow of their former glory " . The pennings , the letter related , nevertheless attracted crowds from far and near .
= = Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) = =
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 left Chincoteague residents with a stark choice . If they left the Union as Virginia sought to do , they might lose access to their seafood markets . Refusal to do so might isolate Chincoteague from the rest of its state . In the referendum on secession held in Virginia on May 23 , 1861 , Northampton County , in the southern Eastern Shore , voted unanimously for secession , and there was also a majority for leaving the Union in Accomack County . Nevertheless , the residents of Chincoteague , along with those on Tangier Island ( part of Accomack ) in the Chesapeake Bay , chose not to leave the Union , in Chincoteague 's case by a vote of 134 or 135 to 1 or 2 — sources differ as to the exact tally . Despite this lopsided tally , some from Chincoteague supported the South , or even fought for it .
Even before the vote , commerce between the North and Virginia had been forbidden by Union officials . Residents sent John A.M. Whealton , a merchant and staunch Union loyalist , to Philadelphia to seek the release of confiscated supplies . He was able to gain the support of local officials and sailed cautiously for home with the goods , aware that the permission of Philadelphia 's mayor did not bind the U.S. Navy . He found the Assateague Lighthouse extinguished by southern sympathizers and the bay again used for smuggling . In September , the USS Louisiana , an ironclad , arrived , with orders to secure the area against smugglers , and within days , one smuggler 's ship was burned in the engagement known as the Battle of Cockle Creek , and another captured two days later . The naval vessel received a warm welcome from the islanders , who promptly took oaths of allegiance to the Union . After a petition on behalf of 800 inhabitants of the island was passed up the chain of command , Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles granted the islanders the right to continue to engage in trade in November 1861 , the same month the Eastern Shore was taken for the North with little bloodshed .
The Louisiana was sent away to more troubled waters in December 1861 , arousing fears by the islanders that they would be abused by Confederate loyalists on the mainland . There were some incidents of this sort , but they ceased as the mainlanders adjusted to the military presence , and the war did not again come near Chincoteague . Union soldiers were stationed on Chincoteague Island for about four months in 1863 and 1864 to guard against a rumored attack on Assateague Lighthouse by sympathizers . Maryland militia were initially used , followed by a regiment of African @-@ American soldiers , but in March 1864 , they were removed and local men in the Eastern Shore Volunteers , formed in 1863 but not called into service until the following year , guarded the island and other local points .
= = Postwar prosperity ( 1865 – 1908 ) = =
The years after the Civil War brought prosperity to Chincoteague with expansion of the oyster trade . As the law required an oysterman to be a Virginia resident for a year before harvesting in Virginia waters , many in that trade bought lots along Main Street , running along the west side of the island , or across the bay in the new village of Greenbackville , Virginia , just south of the Maryland line . Other new residents on the island were freed African @-@ Americans , or Northerners who sought opportunities in the southern states . Chincoteague oysters , especially those from Tom 's Cove at the southern point of the island , gained a reputation for taste , and , marketed across the country as " Chincoteague salt oysters " , became famous .
In 1876 , art student Howard Pyle visited Chincoteague . He wrote of his experiences , including viewing the pony penning ( which took place behind his hotel ) , the following year in Scribner 's Magazine , accompanying the text with the first known contemporary drawings of the event . Pyle was struck by the quaintness of Chincoteague , describing it as " an enchanted island , cut loose from modern progress and left drifting some seventy @-@ five years backward in the ocean of time " . The publicity in a national magazine did nothing to reduce the crowds coming to Chincoteague for the penning .
The island 's status as an isolated backwater began to end in 1876 , when a rail line reached Franklin City , on the shores of the bay and only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Chincoteague Island , with a steamship supplying the remaining connection . This improvement gave oystermen an efficient means of getting their wares to market , and also brought early tourists to Chincoteague , seeking respite from the sweltering summers in the city .
Due to the popularity of oysters , Chincoteague continued to grow ; commercial buildings were built along Main Street . In 1890 , the island acquired its first barbershop , and about 500 barrels of shucked oysters were being sent to the mainland daily on the steamer . Gas illumination arrived by 1900 , the first telephone exchange in 1902 , and rural free delivery by the United States Post Office Department in 1905 . Although there were few shops or public buildings , there was a shoe store and a notary public . The roads were made of dirt , covered with sea shells .
= = Entering the modern era ( 1908 – 46 ) = =
In the early 20th century , according to Mariner , Chincoteague " was a curious mixture of the progressive and the primitive , of worldly @-@ wise townsfolk and isolated country people " . Beginning in about 1900 , the residents sought to be incorporated as a town . Gaining a municipal charter from the General Assembly would allow ordinances to be passed to keep livestock off the streets without seeking redress from the state government in Richmond or the county government in Accomac . In 1908 , the legislature incorporated part of the island as the Town of Chincoteague , and on July 4 , A. Frank Matthews became the first mayor .
The 1910 United States Census showed a population of 3 @,@ 295 for the island , of whom 1 @,@ 419 lived in the town . Few resided in the interior of the island ; most lived in single @-@ family houses , facing the water across roads that ran just above the high tide line . The population of the island had increased to about 3 @,@ 600 as of 1916 ; there were about 100 African @-@ Americans , all of whom lived on the same part of the island . Most islanders of working age were part of or supported the seafood trade . At that time , most houses got their water from shallow @-@ dug wells , located in many cases close by primitive privies . Water from such wells was also used to wash the oysters and to make ice to preserve them . Almost all Chincoteague oysters were sent out of state , and the federal Public Health Service intervened in 1916 to get the mayor and town council to order improved sanitation , with islanders living outside the town line agreeing to abide by the ordinances .
Although dwarfed in population by the neighboring island , Assateague was still populated by a few families . A penning was still held on Assateague along with one on Chincoteague , but the Assateague event was suspended after 1920 as the largest landowner refused to allow access . Beginning in 1923 , the Assateague herd was transported to Chincoteague for a joint penning , most likely by boat , as the idea of swimming the ponies had not yet been adopted . The refusal of the Assateague landowner to allow islanders to cross his land made it difficult for them to get to work , and Assateague became depopulated , with most of the buildings disassembled and rebuilt on Chincoteague Island . Most of Assateague Island was sold to the federal government in 1943 .
In 1919 , John B. Whealton , Chincoteague @-@ born though a Florida resident , persuaded the Virginia General Assembly to grant a charter to his Chincoteague Toll Road and Bridge Company to build a causeway from the mainland to the island . Whealton submitted the winning bid to build the causeway as well as gaining the charter for his company to operate it . The road was originally a toll crossing , and early plans had it reaching the island south of downtown , near the site of today 's Carnival Grounds , but Whealton persuaded the town council to have the terminal point be downtown , near the Atlantic Hotel , the island 's largest . The road was close to completion when a major fire destroyed much of downtown , including the hotel , on February 5 , 1920 . There was then only a small , ill @-@ equipped fire company in Chincoteague , and the fire was fought by men of the Coast Guard from the stations near the island . The hotel was underinsured and not rebuilt , though others took its place , and the council took advantage of the disaster to straighten Main Street . The fire and poor weather in the winters of 1921 and 1922 delayed the causeway , which was officially opened on November 15 , 1922 by Virginia Governor E. Lee Trinkle . Most vehicles on the first day wound up mired in mud once a downpour turned the causeway into a quagmire . Nevertheless , the causeway proved a success , and by year 's end over 100 vehicles were crossing it on an average day . Water from mainland wells was piped along the causeway , allowing the town to offer running water .
The second devastating fire in four years destroyed much of downtown Chincoteague on February 25 , 1924 , and caused the town 's leaders to conclude that a better @-@ organized volunteer fire department was needed to replace Chincoteague 's fire brigade . The Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company was founded in June 1925 , though it needed much equipment , including a fire truck . To raise funds the fire company took over the 1925 Chincoteague pony penning , which had been declining , and sold some horses at fixed prices ( auctioning began not later than 1932 ) . Fifteen thousand people attended the penning and other festivities . The proceeds from the event were over $ 6 @,@ 000 , enabling the department to buy a pump truck . Public fascination with the pony swim , inaugurated that year at the narrowest point of the channel between the two islands , led to increased attendance in the following years . Except during the war years of 1943 and 1944 , the carnival , pony swim and auction have occurred every year since .
By 1930 , the year the causeway was purchased by the state and the toll removed , the Town of Chincoteague had a population of 2 @,@ 130 . In the 1930s , poultry farming became popular on the island , and by the 1950s , produced over a million birds per year . Although oystering was still a common occupation , the trade was increasingly regulated , causing much of the production and canning to be done by large companies , and many watermen turned to fishing , clamming , and crabbing . Others shot ducks and other waterfowl indigenous to the island . Locals carved duck decoys to aid in the hunt ; these remain a popular collectible and souvenir of the island .
In 1941 , the United States entered World War II ; early the following year , the Germans torpedoed two merchant ships off the Assateague coast . To guard the coast , the United States Army established two small posts on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , one each at Accomac and Chincoteague . The Navy established the Chincoteague Naval Auxiliary Air Station in 1943 , across from Chincoteague on the mainland . One young pilot being trained there , future president George Herbert Walker Bush , got in trouble for " buzzing " the house of a young woman he had met at a dance . The conclusion of the war , in 1945 , brought celebrations in Chincoteague and the reinstatement of the annual July events , now held at the brand @-@ new Carnival Grounds south of downtown .
= = Misty and changes ( 1946 – 62 ) = =
In 1946 , children 's author Marguerite Henry came to Chincoteague for the summer , intending to write about the wild horses of Assateague and the pony penning and auction on Chincoteague Island . With her came illustrator Wesley Dennis , with whom she had previously worked , and who would take photographs to be converted to pen @-@ and @-@ ink drawings .
Staying at the bed and breakfast of Miss Molly Rowley on Main Street , Henry encountered island horse breeder Clarence Beebe , visited his ranch on the southern portion of the island , and met his grandchildren Maureen and Paul . On the Beebe Ranch , Henry saw a young filly named Misty . Henry fell in love with the horse , and tried to persuade " Grandpa " Beebe to sell the filly , promising to include him and his grandchildren in her book . The breeder eventually agreed , on condition Misty remained on the Beebe Ranch until she was weaned , and that the animal was eventually returned to him from Henry 's Illinois home for breeding . Henry made the purchase , and returned to the Midwest with an outline of her story . Several months later , Misty arrived by rail . In 1947 , Henry 's book Misty of Chincoteague was published , about the desire of the Beebe children to have a pony of their own — Misty , daughter of the untamable Phantom . The book became an immediate best seller , and the following year was designated as a Newbery Honor Book by the American Library Association . Following the book 's appearance and success , a steady stream of articles on Chincoteague began to appear in national magazines .
Henry wrote a series of sequels , and hoped to interest the movies , but Hollywood was slow to reach out to the Eastern Shore . It was not until 1960 that filming of Misty began . Almost all of the motion picture was shot locally — though the Beebe Ranch was not used , with a property on the mainland substituted . The film premiered at a Hollywood cinema and at the Roxy Theatre in Chincoteague , with the first showings simultaneous . In a nod to Hollywood , the real @-@ life horse Misty placed her hoof in wet cement outside the Roxy just before the movie ran .
Despite the new source of island fame , many young people left Chincoteague in the years after World War II . There was no beach on Chincoteague ; in an effort to provide one for visitors and townsfolk , local promoters sought the construction of a bridge to Assateague Island , where there is a beach along the Atlantic shoreline . They were led by Wyle Maddox , a wealthy chicken farmer who had significant business interests on Chincoteague Island . First proposed around 1950 , the bridge and roadway across Assateague , by then uninhabited and under federal jurisdiction , took over a decade to approve , and finally opened in September 1962 . The bridge to Assateague is at the east end of Maddox Boulevard , that crosses Chincoteague Island north of downtown , and was developed by Wyle Maddox .
The town remained busy and prosperous in the postwar years , especially by the standards of the rural Eastern Shore , and the locals took pride in this — in the early 1950s , the town twice finished second in a competition for the cleanest community in America , and then won the award for its size classification in 1954 and 1955 . Main Street was so crowded with cars that parking meters were installed . When oyster parasites and overfishing combined to devastate the oyster industry in the 1950s , clams became the island 's major industry . The Burton Clamming Company promoted itself as the largest in the world , sending 1 @.@ 3 million clams to market on a typical day in 1957 .
The final delay in the completion of the Assateague bridge was caused by the Ash Wednesday Storm of March 1962 that devastated both islands , as well as other points along the Atlantic Seaboard . Although no one died on Chincoteague , the storm flooded virtually all buildings on Chincoteague Island and wiped out the poultry industry — not only were an estimated quarter million birds killed , the buildings used in chicken farming were destroyed . An estimated 100 ponies were killed by the storm , both on Assateague Island and at the Beebe Ranch . Misty was pregnant with her third foal ; the Beebes placed her in their kitchen before they were evacuated . Once the ranch could again be reached , Misty was taken to a farm on the mainland just over the Maryland line , where she gave birth to a filly , Stormy . The devastation of the storm brought national attention to Chincoteague , and Stormy 's birth upstaged the visit of Virginia Governor Albertis S. Harrison . Many contributed to the recovery efforts , and Misty — both film and horse — was made available for special benefit showings .
= = Tourist destination ( 1962 – present ) = =
Until the 1950s , most tourists to the island , except during the annual carnival and pony penning , were sportsmen , there to fish or hunt waterfowl . Publicity generated by the Misty franchise , and the easy access to the beach and recreational facilities on Assateague Island , brought many tourists to Chincoteague who were uninterested in shooting the wildlife except with cameras . Combined with the continued decline of the seafood industry , the economy of Chincoteague gradually shifted from being based on harvesting its waters to tourism .
Many souvenir shops and other tourist enterprises were built along Maddox Boulevard , especially in the years after 1962 . At first , the motels were buildings converted from other uses , but by the late 1960s , purpose @-@ built structures were being erected along Maddox Boulevard , some with swimming pools . Although Misty died in 1972 at age 26 , the island continued to be publicized . By the 1990s , tourism was the island 's principal business , bringing in more than $ 100 million annually . National hotel chains , including a Hampton Inn and a Comfort Suites , arrived with the 21st century .
The changes to Chincoteague , including the sale of the Beebe Ranch for development in 1989 and the destruction by fire of the ranch house in 1996 , brought local soul @-@ searching . Islanders were divided by such questions as the establishment of a nudist beach on Assateague ( outlawed by Accomack County ordinance in 1984 ) and the building of a McDonald 's near the bridge between the two islands . The modest homes on Chincoteague Island were supplemented by townhouses and condominiums , many occupied by seasonal residents . With increased real estate prices , many from Chincoteague sold their land and moved to less expensive property on the mainland . The seafood industry ceased to be a major factor in the island 's economy : most of the oyster @-@ shucking houses , which had continued in operation using imported shellfish despite the local decline in oystering , finally closed in the 1980s and 1990s . The clam industry sought bivalves from deeper waters , and Chincoteague by then supplied few shellfish .
In 1989 , the town expanded , by agreement with the Accomack County government , bringing all of Chincoteague Island under town jurisdiction . Despite local opposition , the modest bridge between Chincoteague and Assateague was rebuilt into a four @-@ lane structure in 2010 , the better to accommodate the millions of annual visitors to Assateague . The causeway from the mainland was re @-@ routed , moving the terminal point on Chincoteague Island to a point north of downtown , the intersection of Main Street and Maddox Boulevard . From there , visitors may proceed south to downtown and the Carnival Grounds , or east to the tourist strip along Maddox Boulevard and to the bridge to Assateague Island . The tourist stores on Maddox Boulevard sell souvenirs , local artwork , the necessities for a day at the beach , and pony @-@ related T @-@ shirts and books . As of 2009 , the average foal at the auction sold for $ 1 @,@ 344 . Between 60 and 80 are sold annually ; the auction helps keep the herd at a sustainable population of 150 .
James Tigner Jr. wrote in his 2008 book about Chincoteague Island ,
In the book and in real life , the story of Misty is really of those who loved her unconditionally . For that reason Misty today is a symbol for all that is wonderful and beautiful ... From my visits I know that much of the good that Misty represents can still be found on her little island of Chincoteague .
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= James Temple =
James Temple ( 1606 – 1680 ) was a puritan and English Civil War soldier who was convicted of the regicide of Charles I. Born in Rochester , Kent , to a well @-@ connected gentry family , he was the second of two sons of Sir Alexander Temple , although his elder brother died in 1627 . As a child , Temple moved with his father from Rochester to Chadwell St Mary in Essex and then to Etchingham in Sussex , where he settled .
Temple gained military experience as a member of the Duke of Buckingham 's expedition to the Isle of Ré in 1627 . As a puritan , he joined the Parliamentary army at the outbreak of the Civil War and fought at the Battle of Edgehill . He rose to become a colonel and commanded Tilbury Fort , an important defensive position on the approach to London by river . He was elected as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Bramber in September 1645 to replace an ejected Royalist . He sided with the army in opposing any compromise with the King , and was appointed as a judge at the trial of King Charles I of England . Temple attended most of the court sessions and was the 28th ( of 59 ) to sign the King 's death warrant . After the restoration of Charles II , he was convicted of regicide , but avoided execution and was imprisoned on Jersey , where he died .
= = Early life = =
Temple was born to Sir Alexander Temple and Mary Sommer while his parents were living in the parish of St. Margaret 's in Rochester , Kent in the house previously owned by his mother 's first husband . His family was closely related to the Temple family of Stowe House . The family belonged to the gentry , having a reasonable income , without being members of the aristocracy . His father had been knighted at the Tower of London by James I following the King 's accession to the English throne - one of many members of the gentry who were knighted during the first years of the King 's reign .
Temple had an older brother ( John ) and a sister ( Susan ) . As a result of his mother 's first marriage , he had two half @-@ brothers ( including Sir Thomas Peniston ) and two half @-@ sisters . He was born into a well connected family . His uncles included Sir Thomas Temple , 1st Baronet , of Stowe and William Fiennes , 1st Viscount Saye and Sele . His sister , Susan Temple , Lady Lister , was the mother of Martin Lister and the grandmother of Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough .
In 1607 , following his mother 's death , he moved to Longhouse Place ( now known as Chadwell Place ) in Chadwell St Mary , Essex . Both he and his older brother John , were admitted to Lincoln 's Inn in 1622 . In the same year , Temple was given permission by the privy council to travel abroad for up to three years . He was allowed to take a servant with him , but he was strictly forbidden to visit Rome .
While Temple was living in Chadwell St Mary , a number of Temple family portraits were painted by Cornelius Johnson . These may have been part of a family commission . They include Temple 's father ( which hangs in Hagley Hall ) and his sister ( which is in the Tate Gallery ) . These family portraits may have included Temple himself , but no portrait is known to have survived .
In the early 1620s , as a result of his father 's marriage to Mary Bankworth ( who was previously married to John Busbridge ) , he moved , this time to Haremere Hall in Etchingham , Sussex . His father 's third marriage gave him step siblings , including his stepsister , Mary Busbridge to whom Temple was married in March 1627 . Over the next few years , they had six children .
= = = Isle of Ré expedition = = =
In June 1627 , George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to the island of Île de Ré to support the Huguenots besieged in La Rochelle by King Louis XIII of France . With no standing army , Buckingham 's forces were largely volunteers and mercenaries . Since public opinion in England ( particularly among extreme Protestants ) supported the Huguenots , a number of well connected gentry came forward . The volunteers to join Buckingham included Temple , his elder brother John and other members of his family . The expedition to the Isle of Ré , was a disaster and altogether , Buckingham lost more than 5 @,@ 000 men in the campaign out of a force of 7 @,@ 000 . Among those who died was Temple 's brother .
= = = Life in Sussex = = =
When his father died in 1629 , Temple was the main beneficiary of his father 's estate . However , much of his father ’ s property was held via his wife , mortgaged or being used to meet other commitments . Temple had a relatively meagre inheritance - no grand country house , no great estate and certainly no large fortune . His financial affairs were not in good order and were discussed by other members of the family . Margaret Longville , Temple ’ s cousin , wrote to her mother , " my cousin Carew Saunders is broke for forty thousand pounds and is not able to pay five shillings in the pound and James Temple is in too much " . During Charles I 's Personal Rule ( 1629 – 1640 ) , he was part of a network of Puritan gentry in Sussex and in due course became a Sussex Justice of the Peace ( JP ) .
= = Civil War = =
Temple , like most members of his family , was a puritan and supported Parliament against the King . His uncle Lord Saye and Sele was one of the King 's principal opponents . Temple 's military experience became useful when the First English Civil War broke out in August , 1642 . He was appointed captain of a troop of horse raised by Lord Saye and Sele and commanded by Temple 's cousin , John Fiennes . Temple was related to Oliver Cromwell via his kinsman Edward Whalley and was able to secure a commission for Whalley in his uncle 's unit . He saw action close to the Temple family home at Stowe where both Temple and Whalley fought at the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 . In March 1643 , Temple had returned to Sussex , and along with his stepbrother , John Busbridge , he was appointed by Parliament to the Sussex committee set for the sequestration ( i.e. seizure and administration ) of the assets of prominent Royalists . In December 1643 , Temple was prominent in the defence of the crossing of the River Adur at Bramber Castle against a Royalist attack during Lord Hopton 's attempt to obtain control of Sussex for the King . His actions were described by Dr Cheynell :
" Upon the 12th of December I visited a brave soldier of my acquaintance , Captn Jas Temple , who did that day defend the fort of Bramber against a bold and daring enemy to the wonder of all the country ; and I did not marvel at it , for he is a man that hath his head full of stratagems , his heart full of piety and valour , and his hand as full of success as it is of dexterity . "
As the war progressed , Temple was promoted to colonel and became governor of Tilbury Fort in Essex , a post that had previously been held by his father . The fort was close to Temple 's childhood home at Longhouse Place and was of strategic importance because it controlled the approach to London by river . During the Second Civil War , there were Royalist uprisings in Kent and Essex . Temple 's control of Tilbury Fort for Parliament enabled Lord Fairfax 's troops to cross from Gravesend to Tilbury on route to Colchester for the siege of royalists in that town .
= = Trial of Charles I and Commonwealth = =
In September 1645 , Temple was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Bramber to replace Sir Thomas Bowyer , the royalist member who had been ejected . He belonged to the political and religious group known as Independents who were opposed to any compromise in Parliament 's negotiations with the King . As a result , he was one of the MPs allowed to remain after Pride 's Purge - a military coup that excluded from Parliament roughly three quarters of the MPs , particularly those who were believed to be unsympathetic to the Army . In January 1649 , the army and the Independents decided to bring Charles I to trial . Temple was one of the judges named to the High Court of Justice that conducted the trial . He attended nine sessions of the court in both the Painted Chamber and Westminster Hall . He approved the guilty verdict and signed the King 's death warrant - the 28th of the 59 judges to so .
During the early part of the Commonwealth period , he continued to serve on Parliamentary committees . However , he attracted accusations of corruption . In September 1650 , these accusations led to him giving up his post at Tilbury Fort . It was probably around this time that he married his second wife , Joanna van Tromp .
Temple attracted a number of other accusations of financial impropriety , although apparently nothing was proved . In 1648 , he was ordered by the House of Commons to respond to the legal action of one Elizabeth Willan who had attempted to serve him with two writs in connection with a bond for £ 400 . He " threw them on the ground and spurned them with his foot " . In 1649 , Temple became the guardian of the daughter of one Mrs Eyre . He apparently " inveigled " her to marry his son , Alexander . As a result , Temple acquired the deeds to property in Ireland which he subsequently refused to return . A few years later , he was accused of improperly benefiting from administering the estate of a prominent Sussex catholic - Sir John Shelley - whose heir was a minor .
Following Temple 's marriage , his father had invested in a farming venture by Edward Whalley who was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Temple 's stepsister - Mary Penistone . Sir Alexander apparently intended this to provide an inheritance for his grandchildren ( the children of James Temple ) . As a younger son himself , Sir Alexander wanted to ensure suitable provision for his own younger son . This investment made by Temple 's father for the benefit of his children had apparently become valueless when Edward Whalley fled to Scotland in the late 1630s . However , in the 1650s , Whalley had become a prominent and successful member of the Puritan establishment and there was a possibility of recovering some money . In the late 1650s , Temple and Whalley went to the Court of Chancery to determine what was due to Temple and his children . However , with the death of Oliver Cromwell and the subsequent restoration of Charles II , both regicides were faced with the possibility of execution and the case appears to have been unresolved .
= = Restoration = =
Temple returned to Parliament with the recall of the Rump and Long Parliaments by General Monck , but following the Restoration in 1660 , he was excluded from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , because of his role in the trial and execution of Charles I. He was captured in Warwickshire while trying to travel to Ireland , under his first wife 's maiden name of Busbridge . He was held in the Tower of London before being tried as a regicide . He tried to avoid the death penalty by saying that he had only acted as a judge in Charles I 's trial in order to give information to the Royalists . He went on to claim that he had tried to prevent the King 's execution , begging Oliver Cromwell to spare him . He did avoid execution and was sentenced to life imprisonment . As a result of security concerns , a number of regicides , including Temple were sent to Jersey in the Channel Islands . Initially he was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil , and subsequently in Elizabeth Castle , where he is reported to have died on 17 February 1680 .
William Winstanley described him as " not so much famous for his valour as his villainy , being remarkable for nothing but this horrible business of the king 's murther , for which he came into the pack to have a share in the spoyle . "
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= St. Mary 's Church , Chesham =
St. Mary 's Church is a Grade 1 listed Anglican church in Chesham , Buckinghamshire , and is part of the Diocese of Oxford . Built on the site of a Bronze Age stone circle of puddingstones , parts of the church building date to the 12th century . Remodelled in the 15th and 17th centuries , the church is architecturally a mixture of English Gothic styles . Weakened by additions to the church tower and undermined by burials in and around the church , by the 19th century the building was structurally unsound . The church was remodelled and strengthened in the 1860s by George Gilbert Scott and again in the 20th century by Robert Potter .
Formerly part of the Diocese of Lincoln , it served what was historically the largest parish in Buckinghamshire , and the church traditionally had two vicars . Initially the advowson ( the right to appoint the vicar ) was held jointly by a pair of prominent local families , but in the wake of the 12th century civil wars of the reign of King Stephen ( 1135 – 1154 ) , the advowsons were granted to the monks of Woburn Abbey and to the Abbey of Saint Mary de Pratis in Leicester , each of whom appointed their own vicars to the parish . After the Dissolution of the Monasteries Woburn Abbey , together with its half of the advowson , was granted to the Earls of Bedford , while the half that had belonged to Leicester Abbey passed through a succession of private owners . In 1769 the Duke of Bedford acquired the Leicester half of the advowson and unified the parish , and from then on the parish was served by a single vicar .
The town of Chesham grew rapidly in the 19th century . After the parish was transferred to the Diocese of Oxford , reforms introduced by the Bishop of Oxford , Samuel Wilberforce , led to the parish being partitioned , eventually becoming four independent parishes ( Chesham , Latimer , Waterside and Ashley Green ) . In 1980 it was decided to reverse this decision , and over the 1980s and 1990s three of these parishes ( Chesham , Waterside and Ashley Green ) were reunited under St. Mary 's Church .
= = Historical background = =
Chesham / ˈtʃɛsəm / is a Buckinghamshire town of around 20 @,@ 000 people , located in the Chiltern Hills at the head of the River Chess , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) north @-@ west of London and 11 miles ( 18 km ) south @-@ east of Aylesbury .
There is archaeological evidence of human habitation during the Mesolithic period circa 8000 BC , of Neolithic farming circa 2500 BC and of Bronze Age settlement circa 1800 BC , during which time a stone circle of puddingstones was built at Chesham . The Catuvellauni tribe occupied and settled the area in around 500 BC , and at nearby Latimer there are remains of a Roman villa and archaeological evidence of Roman vineyards . Following the departure of the Romans the area appears to have been depopulated until Anglo @-@ Saxon colonisation in the 7th century AD .
The first recorded mention of Chesham dates from 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu ( identified with the former consort of King Eadwig of England ) , bequeathing Cæstæleshamme , " the water meadow at the pile of stones " , to Abingdon Abbey . The Domesday Book of 1086 lists Cestreham as containing four mills and comprising three adjacent estates , the most important of which were held by Odo of Bayeux and Queen Edith , the widow of Edward the Confessor .
As with much of England , Chesham suffered serious religious unrest in the 16th and 17th centuries , and in 1532 Lollard radical Thomas Harding was burnt at the stake in the town for heresy . From the 17th century Chesham was a focus for dissenters . The first Baptist chapel in the town opened in 1701 , Quakers have met in Chesham since the late 17th century , and John Wesley preached in Chesham in the 1760s .
Chesham Old Town , to the south @-@ east of the present @-@ day town centre , is the oldest part of the town and was the centre of Chesham until the late 19th century ; in 1851 the population stood at 2 @,@ 496 . In 1889 the Metropolitan Railway reached the area as the first phase of a planned extension from Rickmansworth to Berkhamsted , and Chesham railway station was opened to the north @-@ east of the Old Town . Following the Metropolitan Railway 's acquisition of the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & B ) in 1891 , the extension to Berkhamsted was abandoned in favour of a connection between the Metropolitan Railway 's station at Chalfont Road ( now Chalfont & Latimer ) to Aylesbury and over the A & B 's route to Verney Junction , and Chesham station was left as the terminus of and sole station on a 3 @.@ 89 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 26 km ) branch from the mainline , a status it retains today .
The new town of present @-@ day Chesham grew between the railway station and the Old Town , leaving the architecture of the Old Town almost untouched . In June 2009 the Old Town and the present @-@ day town centre were added to Historic England 's Conservation Areas at Risk Register , although the local authority claimed that this was owing to a misunderstanding of its responses to English Heritage 's questionnaire .
= = Architecture = =
The existence of the stone circle indicates that a pagan place of worship existed in the area since prehistory , and although no archaeological evidence exists of any pre @-@ Conquest structure on the site of the present @-@ day St. Mary 's Church other than the stone circle itself , it is considered likely that a wooden church was built on the site by the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The earliest evidence of there being a church in Chesham is in the registers of the Diocese of Lincoln , whose 1153 registers mention " the church in Chesham " . In 1257 Hugh de Vere was granted the right to hold an annual three @-@ day fair and a weekly market in Chesham by Henry III . The annual fair was to be held on " the eve , the day and the morrow of the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary " , strongly suggesting that Chesham 's church was already dedicated to Mary .
The church is built on the Bronze Age puddingstone circle , which has been incorporated into the foundations of the church . Built of knapped flint with limestone dressings , it has a roughly cruciform shape . The present day church building comprises a chancel , a clerestoried nave , north and south aisles and transepts and a south porch with a tierceron vault . The church is topped by a square central crenellated steeple with an octagonal wooden spire covered with lead . Although the current stone church of St. Mary 's contains a mixture of architectural styles , mainly Gothic and dating from later periods , a Romanesque window between the north transept and north aisle has been dated to the 12th century , indicating that the church was already a stone building by this time .
The building as a whole is 114 feet ( 35 m ) long from east to west and 53 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The nave ( excluding the aisles ) is 64 feet 6 inches ( 19 @.@ 66 m ) long and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide ; English Gothic aisles and the arcades of the nave were added early in the 13th century . The arcades consist of five bays with octagonal piers and arches with half @-@ pyramid shaped springers , a design described by Nikolaus Pevsner in 1960 as " baffling " . In 1270 the eastern arch of the tower was widened , and in around 1320 the other arches of the tower were also widened . In about 1370 the chancel was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style , and a doorway added in the south aisle at around the same time .
= = = 15th- and 17th @-@ century renovation = = =
In the 15th century the clerestory was added to the nave , along with the Perpendicular two @-@ storied south porch ; these reconstruction works necessitated the repositioning of the door on the south aisle , and the building of the present @-@ day western wall of the nave , with a great window and door also in the Perpendicular style . Stained glass windows were installed in the clerestory , but their contents were not recorded , and only small fragments of the mediaeval glass survive today : the arms of the Cheyne family , a human figure , and a shield with fragments of coloured glass , possibly the impaled arms of Woburn and Leicester . A staircase in the porch led to a parvise above ; local tradition holds that Thomas Harding was held in the parvise prior to his execution in 1532 . The porch also contains a stoup dating from the late 14th century , which although much damaged has survived all subsequent restorations and remodellings unaltered .
While the stone tower was completed in the 15th century , the date of the spire is unknown and has been dated to periods ranging from the 16th to 18th centuries . The church is known to have possessed a ring of bells by the 16th century , as the 1552 inventory of church possessions carried out on the instructions of Edward VI lists " v bells in the stepill " . A bell cast in around 1450 by John Sturdy is still used as a Sanctus bell and is regarded as having national historic significance .
In the chaotic climate of religious upheaval during and following the Reformation of the 16th century many of England 's churches fell into disrepair , including St. Mary 's ; the great door of St. Mary 's was damaged during the Civil War and bullet holes from the conflict remain visible today . In 1606 it was decided to renovate St. Mary 's . Two of the bells were re @-@ cast , the pews were replaced , and " a fair new gallery " was built along the south aisle . In the 18th century two further galleries were added to the church ; a north gallery reserved for the exclusive use of " maids and maidservants " , and a west gallery for the use of St. Mary 's band of musicians and choristers , later used to house the church 's organ . The wooden communion table was sold for 3s and a new table added at a cost of 10s 6d ( about £ 109 as of 2016 ) .
= = = 19th @-@ century renovation = = =
Since the widening of the tower arches in 1270 and 1320 the tower of St. Mary 's had been structurally weak . The subsequent addition of the bells and belfry and the lead @-@ covered spire added to the weight of the tower , and the number of burials of local notables within the church and of parishioners immediately outside the church building weakened the structure further . By the 18th century the problems had become severe enough that the west arch of the south transept was blocked up in an effort the strengthen the structure , and a hollow pillar which housed the stairway to the rood loft was filled in . The tower continued to weaken , a situation made worse by the addition in 1812 of a new ring of six bells with a 17 cwt ( 860 kg ) tenor bell , cast by Thomas Mears II of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry . Iron bands were wrapped around the tower to strengthen it but these soon snapped , and by the 19th century large cracks , which had appeared in the tower , were filled with broken bricks and rubble and covered over with roughcast as an interim solution .
By 1867 , church authorities deemed the problems with the tower as severe enough to warrant a major reconstruction of the church . George Gilbert Scott , who had recently designed the monumental London buildings of the Foreign Office and St. Pancras Station , was chosen to lead the project . Scott was a leading advocate of the Gothic Revival and saw the renovation as a chance to return St. Mary 's to a state nearer to its earlier Gothic design .
Scott removed the galleries , the high @-@ sided 1606 pews , and the three @-@ tiered pulpit . The tower was strengthened , the building 's exterior facing of flint and limestone was restored , and the chancel , which had been remodelled in the late 17th century , was restored to its original shape and given a new east window in the Decorated Gothic style , containing Ward and Hughes glass depicting Faith , Hope and Charity , donated by the Duke of Bedford . New wooden pews were installed together with a Gothic style pulpit , and a font of Mansfield Woodhouse stone donated by the Lowndes family .
The north transept , which had previously served as a vestry from which the Poor Law was administered , was used to house the church 's William Hill & Son organ , which had been installed in 1852 in the now @-@ removed western gallery ; the south transept , which up to that date had been used as a mausoleum for the Cavendish family and was completely walled off from the rest of the church and accessible only via its own door from the churchyard , was opened up to the church . In 1890 Cambridge Chimes were added to the tower clock , in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria .
= = = 20th @-@ century renovation = = =
Scott 's alterations proved successful in stabilising the tower and in serving the needs of the church , and the church remained little changed for the next 130 years ; the most notable alterations during this period were the replacement of the glass in the chancel 's two leper windows with stained glass images of Pre @-@ Raphaelite knights by Edward Burne @-@ Jones as a memorial to a young officer killed during the Boer War , and the painting of a mural over the chancel arch by John Ward depicting the events of Holy Week in modern dress and set in the Chilterns . In 1951 the church was Grade A listed .
In 1980 the fourth bell of the ring of six was recast , again by the Whitechapel Foundry . By the 1990s the internal design of the church was beginning to be considered impractical for the needs of the community , and the interior was remodelled to a design by Robert Potter , with the works carried out in 1999 . The west gallery was restored to house the 1852 organ , together with a kitchen and toilet facility , and the north transept was converted into a vestry with a room above it . Underfloor heating was built below a new marble floor and the chancel step replaced by an ovoid raised marble dais . Meanwhile , Scott 's pews were removed altogether and replaced by wooden chairs .
= = Ecclesiastical organisation = =
In the 12th and early 13th centuries the advowson ( the right to appoint the vicar ) of the church was held jointly by two local landowning families , the de Bolbec ( or de Bolebec ) and Sifrewast families ; as a very large parish ( generally considered to have been the largest parish in Buckinghamshire ) twin administrations suited the needs of the parish . Following the civil wars of the reign of King Stephen ( 1135 – 1154 ) England underwent a major upsurge in religious activity and saw a significant growth of monasteries . At some point prior to 1221 the de Bolbec family had included their half of the advowson in a grant to the Cistercians of Woburn Abbey , and the Sifrewasts had granted their half to the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Mary de Pratis in Leicester . From then on , Woburn and Leicester were to share the patronage , each appointing their own vicars to the parish , known as Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester .
Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century the advowson of Chesham Woburn remained attached to Woburn Abbey and was transferred , along with the abbey building , to John Russell , 1st Earl of Bedford . The advowson of Chesham Leicester was sold , and from then on had a succession of owners , eventually coming into the ownership of prominent local landowners the Skottowe family , who purchased it from Sir Francis Whichcote , MP for Cambridgeshire . From 1601 onwards , other than a brief period between 1623 – 1660 , the appointees of Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester were the same person , and thus the parish was served by a single vicar , although he continued to be appointed by the holders of each advowson separately . In 1769 John Russell , 4th Duke of Bedford , who had inherited Chesham Woburn , also acquired Chesham Leicester and from then on the parish was served by a single vicar assisted by multiple curates ; in 1767 the two halves of the parish were formally unified by an Act of Parliament .
In 1845 Chesham , along with the rest of Buckinghamshire , was transferred from the Diocese of Lincoln , of which for historical reasons it had been a part since the Norman Conquest despite its distance from Lincoln , to the Diocese of Oxford . It thus came under the control of Oxford 's newly appointed dynamic young bishop Samuel Wilberforce , who in turn appointed Adolphus Aylward as vicar in 1847 to oversee the reform of the parish . A second church at Waterside was opened in 1867 , and the huge parish of Chesham was partitioned between St. Mary 's and the new Christ Church , Waterside . As Chesham and the surrounding towns grew following the arrival of the Metropolitan Railway the parish was divided further , leaving a total of four independent parishes : St. Mary 's , Christ Church Waterside , St. John the Evangelist Ashley Green , and Latimer At the end of the 19th century the advowson of the much @-@ reduced parish of St. Mary 's was acquired by the recently created Peache Trust .
In 1980 it was decided to reverse the partition of the parish . Over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s three of the four parishes were reunified into a single parish of Great Chesham , administered by a single Rector , also the Vicar of St. Mary 's , and a team of clergy serving five of the other churches ; the sixth , St. Michael 's Whelpley Hill , was closed .
= = Associated buildings and structures = =
In 1712 Secretary to the Treasury William Lowndes rebuilt Chesham 's manor house , The Bury , immediately to the south of the church . The building still stands today , and currently serves as an office building .
Owing to its unusual advowson , Chesham historically had two vicarages . The Upper Parsonage , also known as Bury Hill House , was built in the 16th century and attached to Chesham Leicester , and was used as a residence by the Skottowe family following their acquisition of Chesham Leicester ; it was a large mansion house immediately north of St. Mary 's Church . In the early 19th century the house was bought and demolished by the Lowndes family .
The Lower Parsonage , attached to Chesham Woburn , stood immediately east of the church , between the church and the Old Town . It was demolished in around 1769 by John Russell , 4th Duke of Bedford , and replaced by a new vicarage for the vicar of the newly unified parish . This vicarage remains attached to the parish , and since the re @-@ amalgamation of the Chesham parishes in the 1980s and 1990s is known as the Rectory .
= = = Organ = = =
In 1504 the will of Robert Wedon bequeathed funds for a chaplain , provided that he could " organise " and " sing well " . No other reference to an organ at St. Mary 's exists until the installation of the William Hill & Son organ in 1852 in the west gallery . In 1869 the organ was moved to the north transept during Scott 's renovation of the church , and at this time its volume and power were increased . In Potter 's 1999 remodelling of the church the pipes of the organ were moved to the new west gallery and electronically enhanced , and the console installed at the eastern end of the north aisle .
= = = Notable graves and memorials = = =
The south transept had historically served as the mausoleum for the Cavendish family , who resided at nearby Latimer . During Scott 's renovations of the 1860s the transept was opened up to the church and remodelled , and only one Cavendish tomb survives today , that of John Cavendish , son of William Cavendish , 1st Earl of Devonshire , who had died in 1617 aged 11 . Sculpted by John Bolt the Elder of London , the tomb features ornately carved strapwork above a sarcophagus , flanked by black coupled columns supporting small obelisks , and topped by a double @-@ curved roof . The south transept also holds the 1726 pyramid @-@ shaped tomb of Lady Mary Whichcote , wife of Sir Francis Whichcote who at that time owned Chesham Leicester ; Mary Whichcote 's elaborate funeral bankrupted Sir Francis , leading to his sale of Chesham Leicester to the Skottowe family .
Richard Bowle ( c . 1549 – 13 December 1626 ) , who had recorded and audited the restoration project of 1606 , is commemorated by a black marble monument on the north side of the chancel , noting his " faithful service of divers great lords " , and that " part of " him " lyeth here " .
On the north wall of the sanctuary is a large memorial to Richard Woodcock , who had served as vicar of both Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester from 1607 to 1623 . Topped by a large painted bust of Woodcock holding a book , a lengthy gilded inscription in Latin and English describes Woodcock as " Hæreticorum Malleus " ( " The hammer of heretics " ) . Woodcock had been a popular local figure , and at his death the parishioners had taken it in turns to carry the coffin to the church . Near the memorial to Woodcock is a memorial to Nicholas Skottowe erected in 1800 . This takes the form of a stone sculpture of a mourning woman kneeling over a sarcophagus , and was described by Pevsner as " [ an ] interpretation of remarkable tenderness " .
During Scott 's renovations of the 1860s , all burials within the church itself were removed . However , during the 1999 renovation , a vault was uncovered near the crossing . The vault was marked by a brass plaque inscribed " The Family Vault of Robert Ward " , and was found to contain the coffins of Catherine Julia Ward , wife of novelist and Tory politician Robert Plumer Ward , and of their three @-@ year @-@ old son Charles Robert Ward . The vault has been resealed and remains in place .
Adolphus Aylward , the vicar from 1847 to 1872 and overseer of the parish restructuring , is commemorated by a brass plaque on the south @-@ west pillar of the tower , and by a Clayton and Bell window in the north @-@ west chancel . Aylward 's daughter Julia had died in 1862 aged 15 and is buried in the churchyard ; her grave was planted with snowdrops at her mother 's request , which still bloom each spring . Julia Aylward is also commemorated by a piece of Burlison and Grylls glass in the lancet window at the west end of the north aisle .
A memorial to Lollard martyr Thomas Harding stands in the churchyard near the south chancel , erected in 1907 by the Protestant Alliance . The base of the cross is inscribed :
To the glory of God and to the memory of Thomas Harding Martyr of Dungrove Chesham
Who in fiery trial at the stake laid down his life for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ in this parish on May 30 , 1532
" The noble army of martyrs praise thee "
" God grant to us all grace to ken well and to kepe well holie writ and to suffer joiefulli some pain for it at the laste . "
" None of us liveth to himself and no man dieth to himself . "
Harding was executed at nearby White Hill and is believed to have been held in St. Mary 's parvise prior to his execution . Foxe 's Book of Martyrs describes the execution thus :
In 1532 , Thomas Harding , who with his wife , had been accused of heresy , was brought before the Bishop of Lincoln , and condemned for denying the real presence in the Sacrament . He was then chained to a stake , erected for the purpose , at Chesham in the Dell , near Botely ; and when they had set fire to the fagots , one of the spectators dashed out his brains with a billet . The priests told the people that whoever brought fagots to burn heretics would have an indulgence to commit sins for forty days .
Near the memorial to Harding by the chancel door is a worn gravestone depicting a teacher and a group of children , believed to be the grave of Daniel King , teacher in Chesham 's first Sunday School .
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= Mount Cleveland ( Alaska ) =
Mount Cleveland ( also known as Cleveland Volcano ) is a nearly symmetrical stratovolcano on the western end of Chuginadak Island , which is part of the Islands of Four Mountains just west of Umnak Island in the Fox Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . Mt . Cleveland is 1 @,@ 730 m ( 5 @,@ 676 ft ) high , and one of the most active of the 75 or more volcanoes in the larger Aleutian Arc . Aleutian natives named the island after their fire goddess , Chuginadak , who they believed inhabited the volcano . In 1894 a team from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey visited the island and gave Mount Cleveland its current name , after then @-@ president Grover Cleveland .
One of the most active volcanoes in the Aleutian Arc , Cleveland has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years . A VEI 3 eruption in 1944 produced the arc 's only known volcanic fatality . Most recently Mount Cleveland has erupted three times in 2009 , twice in 2010 , and once in 2011 . The volcano 's remoteness limits opportunities for its study , and the Alaska Volcano Observatory relies heavily on satellites for monitoring . The volcano is primarily hazardous to aircraft ; many of the flights over the north Pacific approach the vicinity of the volcano , and volcanic ash released from eruptions can damage sensitive electronic equipment and sensors .
= = Geological setting = =
Mount Cleveland is located 490 km ( 304 mi ) from the western end of the Aleutian Arc , a long volcanic chain extending off the coast of Alaska . Containing over 75 volcanoes , this volcanic arc occurs above the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate plunges under the North American plate . As the plate moves deeper into the earth , the increasing pressure results in the loss of volatiles , certain elements and compounds with low boiling points , from various hydrous minerals . One of these compounds is water ; its addition to the mantle wedge formed between the subducting and overriding plates lowers the melting point enough to allow magma to form . The melted material then rises to the surface and forms a volcano — in this case , the Aleutian Arc .
= = Etymology = =
The native Aleut name for Mount Cleveland is Chuginadak ( the name currently given to the island as a whole ) , referring to the Aleut fire goddess , thought to reside in the volcano . The volcano 's name is a reference to its constant activity , and shows that it was likely highly active even in the distant past . Aleut oral tradition states that , at one time , the western and eastern halves of Chuginadak were separate islands , and that the isthmus joining them was created by volcanic activity sometime in prehistory . The " Islands of Four Mountains " name , the geographic group name for Cleveland and its neighbors , was given to the islands by Russian cartographers in the 19th century . Its current name , Mount Cleveland , was given to it by a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey expedition in 1894 , when it was originally observed by the USS Concord ; like the other volcanoes in the Four Islands group , Mount Cleveland was named after prominent American politicians at the time , Cleveland having been named after then @-@ president Grover Cleveland .
= = Geography and structure = =
Mount Cleveland is an almost symmetrical andesite stratovolcano in the Islands of Four Mountains , a volcanic group in the Aleutian Arc . Like all stratovolcanoes , Mount Cleveland grew as explosive eruptions , effusive eruptions , and lahars built it layer by layer into a concave @-@ up shape . It lies southeast of Mount Carlisle and northeast of Herbert Island . Mount Cleveland forms the western half of Chuginadak Island , a broad and uneven bell @-@ shaped landmass , and is the highest of the four volcanic islands . The island is completely uninhabited ; the nearest settlement is Nikolski on Umnak Island , about 75 km ( 47 mi ) eastward .
Mount Cleveland is 8 – 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 3 mi ) wide at its base and roughly 29 km3 ( 7 cu mi ) in volume . The volcano 's slope increases markedly with height , from 19 ° at its lower flanks to 35 ° near its summit . Like many other Aleutian volcanoes , Cleveland 's flanks are especially rough up to 300 m ( 984 ft ) , covered by multiple overlapping lava flows and debris fans that form an apron around the mountain . Lava flows are always built on top of debris flows as a result of the snow melt caused by the emission of heat just before an eruption . The flows are generally short , under 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , and thin , less than 10 m ( 33 ft ) thick , and are somewhat vegetated . Although Mount Cleveland is the tallest mountain in the group , it is rarely completely snowed in because of its constant activity disrupts snowfall . A lack of extant erosion shows that Mount Cleveland is likely a Holocene volcano , forming within the last 10 @,@ 000 years . All known events have occurred at Mount Cleveland 's summit vent , but there are at least five small andesite to dacite volcanic domes on the lower flanks . At times Cleveland has had a summit lava dome . The volcano has no caldera .
The eastern half of Chuginadak , to which Mount Cleveland is connected by a narrow isthmus , consists of several low @-@ lying volcanic cones and two prominent peaks that have been heavily eroded , partly by glaciers . Known as the Tana volcanic complex , the two features measure 1 @,@ 170 m ( 3 @,@ 839 ft ) and 1 @,@ 093 m ( 3 @,@ 586 ft ) in elevation . A sample of rhyolite has been recovered from Concord Point , the easternmost point on the island .
= = Eruptive history = =
Eruptions from Mount Cleveland are generally vulcanian and strombolian in nature , characterized by short explosive ash clouds sometimes accompanied by a 'a flows , lava fountains , pyroclastic flows , ash and steam emissions , lava dome growth , and the ejection of breadcrust bombs . Hot springs were reportedly found on the volcano in the 1800s , and persistent fumarolic activity was observed in the 1980s and 1990s . Mount Cleveland is a site of persistent steam emissions and thermal anomalies that represent constant background activity . During 2011 , a summit lava dome formed , by continuous intrusion of magma at the summit . Late in 2011 , nearly 6 explosions demolished the dome . In June 2012 , another small dome was observed .
Little is known about Cleveland 's early eruptive history as its remoteness makes it a difficult area to investigate , and discrepancies in names have caused confusion between events there and those on nearby Carlisle . Even today , not all possible events are confirmed as eruptions by the Alaska Volcano Observatory , and many are listed as " possible . " In observed history , Mount Cleveland may have first erupted in 1744 ; the first confirmed eruption occurred in 1828 . The volcano erupted again in 1836 ( possibly ) , 1893 , 1897 ( possibly ) , 1929 ( possibly ) , 1932 , and 1938 ( possibly ) .
The first notable eruption from Mount Cleveland was a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 3 Vulcanian eruption that occurred between June 10 and June 13 , 1944 . Lava flows extended 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) from the summit , and an ash plume 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) high was produced . Large boulders were reportedly ejected and carried out to sea by eruptive force . The eruption had the distinction of being the only confirmed direct volcanic fatality in Alaska ; a small detachment from the Eleventh Air Force was stationed on the volcano at the time , and one Sergeant Purchase left his post early in the eruption to take a walk and never returned , probably killed by mudslides . At approximately 10 : 20 , a boat sent to search for Purchase witnessed the end of the eruption . The island was abandoned for the remainder of the war .
Mount Cleveland erupted more recently in 1951 , 1953 , 1954 ( possibly ) , 1975 ( possibly ) , 1984 through 1987 , 1989 , 1994 , and 1997 . The volcano has received more focused attention in recent times due to its increased activity : it erupted in 2001 , 2005 , three times in 2006 , 2007 , three times in 2009 , and twice in 2010 . Of these , the most significant eruption was the 2001 eruption , which produced a 12 km ( 7 mi ) high ash plume . This plume dispersed 120 to 150 km ( 75 to 93 mi ) across Alaska , an unusual distance that allowed detailed satellite observations to be made . Nikolski and the surrounding region was the site of several hours of ashfall , represented in satellite imagery as areas of discolored snow . This eruption significantly disrupted air traffic in the area .
On June 19 , 2012 , a pilot reported an ash @-@ producing explosion on Mount Cleveland . Due to continuing seismic activity , the volcano was placed on the USGS Volcano Watch List in the orange or " watch " category the following day . AVO continues to keep Cleveland on the watch because of a persistent anomaly at the summit . AVO suspects it could be dome growth . Other minor ash producing explosions occurred on June 26 , July 12 , and August 19 .
On May 4 , 2013 , the volcano began a low @-@ level eruption , with a plume of ash observed at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) .
The volcano erupted several times in 2014 and 2015 , and a single explosion was detected by the AVO on April 16 , 2016 .
In total the volcano has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years .
= = Monitoring = =
Today , the Alaska Volcano Observatory monitors activity at Mount Cleveland using satellite imagery . Cloud cover often obscures the volcano , which makes many events difficult to follow . In addition , the low resolution of the satellite imagery allows minor events , which do not make an impression on the satellite picture , to pass unnoticed . There are no seismic or geophysical instruments on the mountain ( the nearest are in Nikolski ) , and some eruptions are first observed by pilots flying over the volcano . A field study was conducted in late 2001 , and an automatic system based on thermal anomalies was implemented following eruptive events in 2005 . In recent years the Alaska Volcano Observatory has made an effort to expand volcanic coverage westward along the Aleutian Arc .
The biggest threat posed by an eruption from Mount Cleveland is its ash plume , which can damage sensitive electronic equipment on overflying planes . Many aircraft traveling over the North Pacific and over the Arctic come within the vicinity of such a plume ; the only way to avoid damage is to reroute the flight , which delays arrival time and adds $ 5 @,@ 500 to $ 6 @,@ 000 in extra fuel costs . Cleveland has therefore been assessed by the United States Geological Survey as a volcano with " [ a ] high aviation threat score and no real @-@ time ground based monitoring at the present time " .
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= Bury St. Edmunds witch trials =
The Bury St Edmunds witch trials were a series of trials conducted intermittently between the years 1599 and 1694 in the town of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk , England .
Two specific trials in 1645 and 1662 became historically well known . The 1645 trial " facilitated " by the Witchfinder General saw 18 people executed in one day . The judgment by the future Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Sir Matthew Hale in the 1662 trial acted as a powerful influence on the continuing persecution of witches in England and similar persecutions in the American colonies .
= = Jurisdiction = =
As well as being the seat of county assizes , Bury St. Edmunds had been a site for both Piepowder Courts and court assizes , the latter since the Abbey was given a Liberty , namely the Liberty of St Edmund . For the purposes of civil government the town and the remainder ( or " body " ) of the county were quite distinct , each providing a separate grand jury to the assizes .
= = The trials = =
The first recorded account of a witch trial at Bury St. Edmunds Suffolk was held in 1599 when Jone Jordan of Shadbrook ( Stradbroke ) and Joane Nayler were tried , but there is no record of the charges or verdicts . In the same year , Oliffe Bartham of Shadbrook was executed , for " sending three toads to destroy the rest ( sleep ) of Joan Jordan " .
= = = The 1645 trial = = =
The trial was instigated by Matthew Hopkins , the self @-@ proclaimed Witchfinder General and conducted at a special court under John Godbolt . On 27 August 1645 , no fewer than 18 " witches " were hanged at Bury St. Edmunds . They were :
Anne Alderman , Rebecca Morris and Mary Bacon of Chattisham
Mary Clowes of Yoxford
Sarah Spindler , Jane Linstead , Thomas Everard ( cooper ) and his wife Mary of Halesworth
Mary Fuller of Combs , near Stowmarket
John Lowes , Vicar of Brandeston
Susan Manners , Jane Rivet and Mary Skipper of Copdock , near Ipswich
Mary Smith of Great Glemham
Margery Sparham of Mendham
Katherine Tooly of Westleton .
Anne Leech and Anne Wright , origin unknown .
It has been estimated that all of the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions , so this one trial , with its 18 executions , accounted for 3 @.@ 6 % of that total .
According to John Stearn ( e ) known at various times as the witch – hunter , and " witch pricker " , associate to Matthew Hopkins , in his book A Confirmation and Discovery of Witchcraft there were one hundred and twenty others in gaol awaiting trial , of these 17 were men , Thomas Ady in 1656 writes of " about a hundred " , though others record " almost 200 " . Following a three @-@ week adjournment made necessary by the advancing King 's Army , the second sitting of the court resulted in 68 other " condemnations " ; though reports say – " mass executions of sixty or seventy witches " . Both Hopkins and Stearne treated the search for , and trials of witches as military campaigns , as shown in their choice of language in both seeking support for and reporting their endeavours . There was much to keep the minds of Parliamentarians busy at this time with the Royalist Army heading towards Cambridgeshire , but concern about the events unfolding were being voiced . Prior to the trial a report was carried to the Parliament – " ... as if some busie men had made use of some ill Arts to extort such confession ; ... " that a special Commission of Oyer and Terminer was granted for the trial of these Witches . After the trial and execution the Moderate Intelligencer , a parliamentary paper published during the English Civil War , in an editorial of 4 – 11 September 1645 expressed unease with the affairs in Bury :
But whence is it that Devils should choose to be conversant with silly Women that know not their right hands from their left , is the great wonder ... The ( y ) will meddle with none but poore old women : as appears by what we receive this day from Bury ... Divers are condemned and some executed and more like to be . Life is precious and there is need of great inquisition before it is taken away .
= = = The 1662 trial = = =
This took place on 10 March 1662 , when two elderly widows , Rose Cullender and Amy Denny ( or Deny or Duny ) , living in Lowestoft , were accused of witchcraft by their neighbours and faced 13 charges of the bewitching of several young children between the ages of a few months to 18 years old , resulting in one death . They may have been aware of each other , inhabiting a small town , but Cullender was from a property @-@ owning family , whilst Denny was the widow of a labourer . Their one other link was the fact that they had tried and failed to purchase Herrings from a Lowestoft merchant , Samuel Pacy . His two daughters Elizabeth , and Deborah were " victims " of the accused and , along with their aunt , Samuel Pacy 's sister Margaret , gave evidence against the women . They were tried at the Assize held in Bury St. Edmunds under the auspices of the 1603 Witchcraft Act , by one of England 's most eminent judges of the time Sir Matthew Hale , Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer . The jury found them guilty of the thirteen charges of using malevolent witchcraft , and the judge sentenced them to death . They were hanged in the town on 17 March 1662 .
Thomas Browne , the philosopher , physician and author , attended the trial . His reporting of similar events that had occurred in Denmark influenced the jury of the guilt of the accused . He also testified that " the young girls accusing Denny and Cullander were afflicted with organic problems , but that they undoubtedly also had been bewitched " . He had expressed his belief in the existence of witches twenty years earlier , and that only : " they that doubt of these , do not only deny them , but spirits ; and are obliquely , and upon consequence a sort not of infidels , but atheists " in his work Religio Medici , published in 1643 :
... how so many learned heads should so farre forget their Metaphysicks , and destroy the ladder and scale of creatures , as to question the existence of Spirits : for my part , I have ever beleeved , and doe now know , that there are Witches ;
The original pamphlet A Tryal of Witches , taken from a contemporary report of the proceedings , erroneously dates the trial as March 1664 , both on the front page and introduction . Original documents in the Public Record Office and other contemporary records clearly states it took place in the 14th year of the reign of Charles II ( 30 January 1662 to 29 January 1663 ) .
This case became a model for , and was referenced in , the Salem Witch Trials in Massachusetts , when the magistrates were looking for proof that spectral evidence could be used in a court of law . Reverend John Hale , whose wife was accused at Salem , in his publication , Modest Inquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft , noted how the judges consulted for precedents and lists the 60 @-@ page publication A Tryal of Witches .
Cotton Mather , in his 1693 book The Wonders of the Invisible World , concerning the Salem Witch Trials , specifically draws attention to the Suffolk trial , and the Salem judge stated that although spectral evidence should be allowed in order to begin investigations , it should not be admitted as evidence to decide a case .
= = = Other trials = = =
Another recorded witch trial in Bury St. Edmunds was in 1655 when a mother and daughter by the name of Boram were tried and said to have been hanged . The last was in 1694 when Lord Chief Justice Sir John Holt , " who did more than any other man in English history to end the prosecution of witches " , forced the acquittal of Mother Munnings ' of Hartis ( Hartest ) on charges of prognostications causing death . The chief charge was 17 years old , the second brought by a man on his way home from an alehouse . Sir John " so well directed the jury that she was acquitted " .
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= Akhtar Hameed Khan =
Akhtar Hameed Khan ( Urdu : اختر حمید خان , pronounced [ ˈəxt ̪ ər ɦəˈmiːd ̪ ˈxaːn ] ; 15 July 1914 – 9 October 1999 ) was a Pakistani development practitioner and social scientist . He promoted participatory rural development in Pakistan and other developing countries , and widely advocated community participation in development . His particular contribution was the establishment of a comprehensive project for rural development , the Comilla Model ( 1959 ) . It earned him the Ramon Magsaysay Award from the Philippines and an honorary Doctorate of law from Michigan State University .
In the 1980s he started a Bottom Up community development initiative of Orangi Pilot Project , based in the outskirts of Karachi , which became a model of participatory development initiatives . He also directed many programmes , from microcredit to self @-@ finance and from housing provision to family planning , for rural communities and urban slums . It earned him international recognition and high honours in Pakistan . Khan was fluent in at least seven languages and dialects . Apart from many scholarly books and articles , he also published a collection of poems and travelogues in Urdu .
= = Early life = =
Khan was born on 15 July 1914 in Agra . He was among the four sons and three daughters of Khansaahib Ameer Ahmed Khan and Mehmoodah Begum . His father , a police inspector , was inspired by the reformist thinking of Syed Ahmed Khan . In his early age , Khan 's mother introduced him to the poetry of Maulana Hali and Muhammad Iqbal , the sermons of Abul Kalam Azad , and the Sufist philosophy of Rumi . This upbringing influenced his interest in historical as well as contemporary social , economic , and political affairs .
Khan attended Government High School at Jalam ( Uttar Pradesh ) , and completed his education in 1930 at Agra College where he studied English literature and history . He read English literature , history , and philosophy for a Bachelor of Arts degree at Meerut College in 1932 . At that point , his mother was diagnosed with tuberculosis . She died in the same year at the age of 36 . Khan continued his studies and was awarded a Master of Arts in English Literature from Agra University in 1934 . He worked as a lecturer at Meerut College before joining the Indian Civil Service ( ICS ) in 1936 . As part of the ICS training , he was sent to read literature and history at Magdalene College , Cambridge , England . During the stay , he developed a close friendship with Choudhary Rahmat Ali .
Khan married Hameedah Begum ( the eldest daughter of Allama Mashriqi ) in 1940 . Together , they had three daughters ( Mariam , Amina , and Rasheeda ) and a son ( Akbar ) . After Hameedah Begum 's death in 1966 , he married Shafiq Khan and had one daughter , Ayesha . During his ICS career , Khan worked as collector of revenue , a position that brought him into regular contact with living conditions in rural areas of East Bengal . The Bengal famine of 1943 and subsequent inadequate handling of the situation by the colonial rulers led him to resign from the Indian Civil Service in 1945 . He wrote , " I realised that if I did not escape while I was young and vigorous , I will forever remain in the trap , and terminate as a bureaucratic big wig . " During this period , he was influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Mashriqi , and joined the Khaksar Movement . This attachment was brief . He quit the movement and turned to Sufism . According to Khan , " I had a profound personal concern ; I wanted to live a life free from fear and anxiety , a calm and serene life , without turmoil and conflict . [ ... ] when I followed the advice of old Sufis and sages , and tried to curb my greed , my pride and aggression , fears , anxieties and conflict diminished . "
For the next two years , Khan worked in Mamoola village near Aligarh as a labourer and locksmith , an experience that provided him with firsthand knowledge of the problems and issues of rural communities . In 1947 , he took up a teaching position at the Jamia Millia , Delhi , where he worked for three years . In 1950 , Khan migrated to Pakistan to teach at Islamia College , Karachi . In the same year , he was invited by the Government of Pakistan to take charge as Principal of Comilla Victoria College in East Pakistan , a position he held until 1958 . During this time ( 1950 – 58 ) he also served as President of the East Pakistan Non @-@ Government Teachers ' Association .
= = Rural development initiatives = =
During his tenure as principal of Comilla Victoria College , Khan developed a special interest in grassroots actions . Between 1954 and 1955 , he took a break to work as director of the Village Agricultural and Industrial Development ( V @-@ AID ) Programme . However , he was not satisfied with the development approach adopted in the programme that was limited to the training of villagers . In 1958 , he went to Michigan State University to acquire education and training in rural development . Returning in 1959 , he established the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development ( PARD ) at Comilla on 27 May 1959 and was appointed as its founding director . He also laid foundations for the Comilla Cooperative Pilot Project in 1959 . In 1963 , he received a Ramon Magsaysay Award from the Government of the Philippines for his services in rural development . Khan became Vice @-@ chairman of the board of Governors of PARD in 1964 , and in the same year , was awarded an honorary Doctorate of law by Michigan State University . In 1969 , he delivered a series of lectures at Woodrow Wilson School , Princeton University , based on his experience with rural cooperatives . During the visit , he established collaborative links with Arthur Lewis .
On his return to East Pakistan , Khan remained attached to the Comilla Project until 1971 when East Pakistan became Bangladesh . Eventually , Khan moved to Pakistan . PARD was renamed as Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development ( BARD ) .
= = Advisory roles = =
Following his move to Pakistan , Khan was asked to implement the Comilla Model in rural settlements of North @-@ West Frontier Province ( now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ) , Punjab , and Sindh . He declined the offer on the grounds that the proposals were predominantly motivated by political interests rather than the common well @-@ being . However , he continued to advise the authorities on various aspects of rural development , such as participatory irrigation management . He worked as a research fellow at the University of Agriculture , Faisalabad from 1971 to 1972 , and as Director of Rural Economics Research Project at Karachi University from 1972 to 1973 . Khan went to Michigan State University as a visiting professor in 1973 and remained there until 1979 . During this time , he carried on advising the Rural Development Academy at Bogra in northern Bangladesh , and the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development , Peshawar , on the Daudzai Integrated Rural Development Programme . He also traveled extensively during this period in the capacities of speaker , advisor , or consultant on rural development programmes across the world . In 1974 , he was appointed as a World Bank consultant to survey rural development situations in Java , Indonesia . He also briefly worked as a visiting professor at Lund University , Harvard University , and Oxford University .
In 1980 , Khan moved to Karachi and started working on the improvement of sanitary conditions in Karachi suburbs . He laid the foundations of the Orangi Pilot Project for the largest squatter community of Orangi in the city . He remained associated with this project until his death in 1999 . Meanwhile , he maintained his support for rural communities around Karachi , and also helped to develop the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme . OPP became a model for participatory bottom @-@ up development initiatives .
= = Major development programmes = =
= = = Comilla Cooperative Pilot Project = = =
The Comilla Model ( 1959 ) was Khan 's initiative in response to the failure of a Village Agricultural and Industrial Development ( V @-@ AID ) programme that was launched in 1953 in East and West Pakistan with technical assistance from the US government . V @-@ AID remained a government @-@ level attempt to promote citizen participation in the sphere of rural development . Khan launched the project in 1959 on his return from Michigan , and developed a methodology of implementation in the areas of agricultural and rural development on the principle of grassroots @-@ level participation . Initially , the aim was to provide a development model of programmes and institutions that could be replicated across the country . Advisory support in this respect was provided by experts from Harvard and Michigan State Universities , the Ford Foundation , and USAID . Practical help was also sought from Japan to improve the local farming techniques .
Comilla Model simultaneously addressed the problems that were caused by the inadequacy of both local infrastructure and institutions through a range of integrated programmes . The initiatives included the establishment of : a training and development centre ; a road @-@ drainage embankment works programme ; a decentralized , small scale irrigation programme ; and , a two @-@ tiered cooperative system with primary cooperatives operating in the villages , and federations operating at sub @-@ district level .
After Khan 's departure from Comilla , the cooperative 's model failed in independent Bangladesh because only a few occupational groups managed to achieve the desired success . By 1979 , only 61 of the 400 cooperatives were functioning . The model actually fell prey to the ineffective internal and external controls , stagnation , and diversion of funds . This prompted the subsequent scholars and practitioners in microfinance , such as Muhammad Yunus of Grameen Bank and Fazle Hasan Abed of BRAC , to abandon the cooperative approach in favour of more centralised control and service delivery structures . The new strategy targeted the poorest villagers , while excluding the ' less poor ' . However , Khan 's leadership skills during the course of his association with the project remained a source of inspiration for these leaders , as well as other participatory development initiatives in the country .
= = = Orangi Pilot Project = = =
The Orangi poverty alleviation project ( known as the Orangi Pilot Project , or OPP ) was initiated by Khan as an NGO in 1980 . Orangi is located on the northwest periphery of Karachi . At that time , it was the largest of the city 's approximately 650 low @-@ income squatter settlements ( known as katchi abadi ) . The locality was first developed in 1963 as a government township of 5 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 236 acres ) . The influx of migrants after the creation of Bangladesh swelled the settlement to about one million people crowded over an area of more than 32 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 907 acres ) . The working class multi @-@ ethnic population was predominantly composed of day labourers , skilled workers , artisans , small shopkeepers , peddlers and low @-@ income white collar workers . The project proved an impetus to the socio @-@ economic development of the population of the area . As the project director , Khan proved to be a dynamic and innovative leader . The project initially focused on creating a system of underground sewers , using local materials and labour , and succeeded in laying hundreds of kilometres of drainage pipes along with auxiliary facilities . Within a decade of the initiative , local residents had established schools , health clinics , women 's work centres , cooperative stores and a credit organisation to finance enterprise projects . By 1993 , OPP had managed to provide low @-@ cost sewers to more than 72 @,@ 000 houses . The project subsequently diversified into a number of programmes , including a people 's financed and managed low @-@ cost sanitation programme ; a housing programme ; a basic health and family planning programme ; a programme of supervised credit for small family enterprise units ; an education programme ; and a rural development programme in the nearby villages .
Comparing the OPP with Comilla project , Akhtar Hameed Khan once commented :
The Orangi Pilot Project was very different from the Comilla Academy . OPP was a private body , dependent for its small fixed budget on another NGO . The vast resources and support of the government , Harvard advisors , MSU , and Ford Foundation was missing . OPP possessed no authority , no sanctions . It may observe and investigate but it could only advise , not enforce .
The successful OPP model became an inspiration for other municipalities around the country . In 1999 , Khan helped to create Lodhran Pilot Project ( LPP ) to collaborate with Lodhran municipal committee . Learning from past experiences , the project extended its scope to the whole town instead of concentrating on low @-@ income settlements only . The municipal partnership was itself a new initiative that ensured wider civic co @-@ operation .
The success of OPP did come at a cost for Dr Khan as his liberal views and self @-@ help initiatives were questioned and criticized by certain interest groups . At two occasions , he was accused of blasphemy . However , all allegations against him were acquitted by the courts of law and cleared by independent religious scholars .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1999 , Khan was visiting his family in the United States when he suffered from kidney failure . He died of myocardial infarction on 9 October in Indianapolis at the age of 85 . His body was flown to Karachi on 15 October , where he was buried on the grounds of the OPP office compound .
Khan 's ideology and leadership skills were a source of inspiration for his students and colleagues , and continue to serve as guiding principles even after his death . Edgar Owens , who became an admirer of Khan 's ideology while working at USAID 's Asia Bureau , co @-@ authored a book with Robert Shaw as a result of observations and discussions with Khan at Comilla Academy . A later study of various rural development experiences from South Asia , edited by Uphoff and Cambell ( 1983 ) was jointly dedicated to Khan and Owens .
Soon after Khan 's death , on 10 April 2000 , the Government of Pakistan renamed the National Centre for Rural Development the Akhtar Hameed Khan National Centre for Rural Development and Municipal Administration . In the same year , the Akhtar Hameed Khan Resource Centre was established in Islamabad , under the auspices of the Institute of Rural Management , as a repository of published and digital resources on rural development . Later in 2005 , the Council of Social Sciences , Pakistan , in collaboration with the National Rural Support Programme and other institutions , announced the Akhtar Hameed Khan Memorial Award . The annual cash award is given on Khan 's birthday to a Pakistani author for a book on issues related to rural and urban development , peace , poverty alleviation , or gender discrimination . At the occasion of the award ceremony in 2006 , a documentary film about the life and times of Akhtar Hameed Khan was premiered . The film includes archival footage and interviews with family members , colleagues , and contributors and beneficiaries of the Comilla and OPP projects .
= = Awards and honours = =
Khan received the following civil awards :
Jinnah Award ( Posthumous , 2004 ) for services to people as founder of the Orangi Pilot Project .
Nishan @-@ e @-@ Imtiaz ( Posthumous , 2001 ) for services to the community .
Ramon Magsaysay Award ( 31 August 1963 , Manila , Philippines ) for services to rural development .
Sitara @-@ e @-@ Pakistan ( 1961 ) for pioneering work in rural development .
= = Publications = =
Khan was fluent in Arabic , Bengali , English , Hindi , Pali , Persian , and Urdu . He wrote several reports and monographs , mostly relating to rural development in general or his various successful and model initiatives in particular . He also published collections of poems and travelogues in Urdu .
= = = In English = = =
1956 , Bengal Reminances , vol 1 , 2 & 3 . Comilla Academy ( now the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development ) , Comilla , Bangladesh .
1965 , Rural Development in East Pakistan , Speeches By Akhtar Hameed Khan . Asian Studies Center , Michigan State University .
1974 , Institutions for rural development in Indonesia , Pakistan Academy for Rural Development . Karachi .
1985 , Rural development in Pakistan . Vanguard Books . Lahore .
1994 , What I learnt in Comilla and Orangi . Paper presented at the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) seminar . Islamabad .
1996 , Orangi Pilot Project : Reminiscences and Reflections . The Oxford University Press : Karachi . ( editions : 1996 , 1999 , 2005 ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 597986 @-@ 2
1997 The sanitation gap : Development 's deadly menace . The Progress of Nations . UNICEF .
1998 , Community @-@ Based Schools and the Orangi Project . In Hoodbhoy , P ( ed . ) , Education and the State : Fifty Years of Pakistan , Chapter 7 , Karachi : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 577825 @-@ 0
2000 , Twenty Weeks in America : A Diary , 3 September 1969 – 21 January 1970 . Translated from Urdu by Aqila Ismail . City Press . ISBN 969 @-@ 8380 @-@ 32 @-@ 9
= = = In Urdu = = =
1972 , Safar @-@ e @-@ Amrika ki Diary ( A Diary of Travels in America ) . The City Press : Karachi .
1988 , Chiragh aur Kanwal ( Collection of poems in Urdu ) . Saad Publishers . Karachi .
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= Entre a Mi Mundo =
Entre a Mi Mundo ( English : Enter My World ) is the third studio album by American Tejano pop singer Selena . It was released on 6 May 1992 by EMI Latin , and re @-@ released on 22 September 2002 as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection with bonus tracks and spoken liner notes by Selena 's family , friends , and former band . The album 's production was postponed due to Selena 's relationship with guitarist Chris Pérez , which garnered disapproval from her father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , who threatened to disband the group . The record 's creation was further complicated by Selena 's Ven Conmigo Tour , which overran slightly as a result of her appearance in the corrido @-@ ballad " Buenos Amigos " with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres . Selena 's brother and music producer A.B. Quintanilla returned as the main songwriter for the album , assisted by lead keyboardist Ricky Vela and backup singer Pete Astudillo .
Entre a Mi Mundo incorporates mostly Tejano music and rancheras and was critically praised for its musical diversity . " Como La Flor " , which is a Mexican cumbia song , had become Selena 's signature song , and one of her best well @-@ known songs . " Como La Flor " peaked at number four on the US Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart , and was a springboard for Selena 's success in the Latin music world . " La Carcacha " , which tells the story of a barrio teen romance , peaked at number one on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart for almost six months . Other songs on the album were also remarked upon by several music critics . Entre a Mi Mundo peaked at number one on the Latin Regional Mexican Albums chart for eight consecutive months . The album sold 385 @,@ 000 copies in its first year , more than any other Tejano album by a female vocalist .
Entre a Mi Mundo was certified gold ( Latin type ) by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1992 , platinum ( Latin type ) in 1995 , double platinum in 2000 , and sextuple Disco De Platino in December 2002 , representing shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It received mostly positive reviews , many critics agreed that it was Selena 's " breakthrough album " , and it helped to gain acceptance in Mexico . Some music critics compared several of Selena 's songs to works by Diana Ross and Leslie Gore . To promote the album , Selena embarked on her first worldwide tour . Entre a Mi Mundo won the prestigious " Album of the Year – Orchestra " award at the 1993 Tejano Music Awards and " Regional / Mexican Album of the Year " at the 1993 Lo Nuestro Awards .
= = Production and development = =
After Selena released Ven Conmigo on 12 November 1990 , she decided to postpone the recording of songs for her next album . Selena continued her short @-@ lived Ven Conmigo Tour and she was booked for her first performance in El Salvador to sing a duet with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres ' corrido @-@ ballad " Buenos Amigos " . At that time , Selena was also involved in a relationship with rock guitarist Chris Pérez , who was asked to join Selena 's backing band , Selena y Los Dinos . Their relationship began soon after Pérez joined the band . Selena 's father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. did not like Pérez , believing him to be antithesis of his children 's " clean image " , and dismissed Pérez from the band . Selena was warned not to see Pérez or face having Selena y Los Dinos disbanded . Selena ignored her father 's wishes ; she continued to meet Pérez secretly , and they eloped on 2 April 1992 . Quintanilla Jr . , accepted the relationship after she eloped and was remorseful , feeling that he had put pressure on Selena . After Selena had eloped , she decided to release a more Tejano and Mexican music @-@ influenced album . Her brother and the producer of her music , A.B. Quintanilla III had returned as the main songwriter while band members Ricky Vela , the lead keyboardist , and Pete Astudillo , the backup singer , had helped with songwriting on the album . Vela was also in charge of the music sequencing during pre @-@ production of the album .
= = Composition = =
= = = Song structure and lyrical content = = =
" La Carcacha " was written and produced by A.B. Quintanilla III , Pete Astudillo and Bebu Silvetti , and was released as the album 's first promotional single , Quintanilla III had been inspired to write the song after leaving a dry goods store . He saw an old , broken down car and told Joe Ojeda , the band 's keyboardist , that he wanted to write a song about the vehicle . Ojeda then assisted Quintanilla III with the Spanish translation of the phrase " a broken down car " , determining the correct expression to be " Carcacha " . However , the general theme was not inspired until a month later , after Quintanilla III had bought a BMW and was buying dry goods at a corner store . His girlfriend began complaining about the car to him while he was waiting in line . Another girl in the store joined their conversation and commented that she would date Quintanilla III because she felt he had a nice car . Quintanilla III was then inspired to write a comical song with a moral behind it , and it took the band six months to finish the song . " La Carcacha " incorporates conjunto , Mexican cumbia and had regional Latin undertones . The song also has elements of piano and synthesizer woven into the rhythm of the song . Fanny S. Chirinos and Scripps Howard of The Intelligencer & Wheeling News Register stated that Selena catapulted onto the Tejano scene with " La Carcacha " and " Como La Flor " . The San Antonio Express @-@ News stated that the lyrical content of " La Carcacha " had the story lines that Selena never had , which was the tale of a barrio teen romance .
" Como La Flor " , released as the lead single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Quintanilla III , Astudillo and Quintanilla Jr , with additional writing contributions from Selena . Quintanilla III stated in an interview that " Como La Flor " was written in Bryan , Texas , while staying in an inelegant hotel for the night before going to Houston the following morning . While at the hotel , Quintanilla III had a melody stuck in his head and liked it . Looking outside , he saw a group of poor bystanders trying to sell plastic flowers to people on the streets which became the basis of the song centering on a flower . Quintanilla III immediately wrote the hook chant " aaaahh da da da da da ( como me duele ) " . While on the tour bus , Selena , Quintanilla III , Astudillo and Ojeda had sat down together to work on the song , which took them an hour and 20 minutes to complete . Suzette Quintanilla , Selena 's sister , thought that both " Como La Flor " and " La Caracha " had a distinct style of cumbia to them that could make the band more noticeable when their songs were played on radio stations . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News said that " Como La Flor " was a " career @-@ launching hit " . Cathy Ragland of Austin American Statesmen wrote that " Como La Flor " was one of Selena 's most popular songs and that " for many , a metaphor for her life- a beautiful , delicate creature " . " Como La Flor " helped Selena to dominate the Latin music charts and become immensely popular in Mexico , where Mexican @-@ Americans are not liked among citizens , which was well received by critics . The song describes a bewildered woman whose ex @-@ boyfriend is in love with another woman and she wants him back . The message of the song was to show people that you should love your partner if they truly love you back . At the 13th Tejano Music Awards , " Como La Flor " was picked as " Best Song " , though Mazz ' single " Lo Voy Hacer Por Ti " had won the award . " Como La Flor " peaked at number @-@ one on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart . " Como La Flor " became the first song recorded by Selena , as a solo act , to peak at number one , and became her signature song soon after .
" ¿ Qué Creias ? " , released as the second promotional single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Quintanilla III , Astudillo , and Quintanilla Jr . " ¿ Qué Creias ? " is a ranchera song that hovers the conjunto styles . The song has the harp and violin as its musical instrument foundation . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated that the song was " a heart @-@ wrenching ranchera that boasted an emotional delivery " . Richard Torres of Newsday believed that Selena had an " emotional vocal purity " that helped make " ¿ Qué Creias ? " an international hit . The song describes a bitter woman telling her ex @-@ boyfriend , who broke up with her , to be with a better woman , that she is desperate to get back with him and telling her ex @-@ boyfriend that she is happier without him and that her love was like no other . The song peaked at number 14 on the Hot Latin Tracks and number 16 on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay charts .
" Amame " , released as the third and final promotional single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Selena , Astudillo and Quintanilla III . " Amame " is written in common time and is performed in the key of A minor at 121 beats per minute . The song incorporates rock fusion , soul and contemporary R & B undertones . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " ... " Amame " is well @-@ crafted , catchy and proficiently played ... " The song describes a woman who is constantly fantasizing about being with a man she loves , she is determine to make it a reality but the decision is solely based on the man , which makes the woman anxious and inpatient . " Amame " peaked at number 27 on the Hot Latin Tracks .
= = = Other songs = = =
Pérez stated in an interview that Quintanilla III had wanted to record " Las Cadenas " as a rock @-@ influenced song on the album , but changed it back to a conjunto style within a few days . Pérez also confessed to " doubling " his guitar solos on the song which he had only done for " Las Cadenas " . Pérez said that Selena had used her own harmony in the song and that it reminded him of being at home and with his family because of the styles used on that track . For " Si La Queires " , Ricky Vela said that Quintanilla III had gone to Vela 's house and had looked over a few songs Vela had written . Quintanilla III instantly liked the chorus of " Si La Queries " . While on the tour bus , Quintanilla III rewrote the first draft of " Si La Queires " , and Vela was asked to come up with different scenarios that Quintanilla III liked . Hector Saldanna of San Antonio Express @-@ News wrote that " Vuelve A Mi " was a " hot little polka " , while TerraMexico described the song as a " successful hit " The Denver Post stated that " Missing My Baby " was " the best English song on [ Entre a Mi Mundo ] , an R & B song " . The The Deseret News stated that Selena displays a " Leslie Gore baby- voice " on " Missing My Baby " and that " Selena displays a wonderful suppleness in her voice " . The Virginian @-@ Pilot said that " Missing My Baby " was built on hooks that recall Diana Ross ' " Missing You " which was a tribute to Marvin Gaye . J.R. Reynolds of Billboard wrote that the song was a " dreamy ballad [ that had ] incorporate [ d ] an R & B @-@ styled melody under Selena 's pop vocals " . " Missing My Baby " peaked at number 16 on the Hot Latin Tracks , and the remix version found on Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) peaked at number 22 on the Rhythmic Airplay Chart .
= = Release = =
Entre a Mi Mundo was released on 6 May 1992 by EMI Latin and was certified gold ( Latin type ) by the Recording Industry Association of America . According to Stacy Lee 's book Mexico and the United States the album sold 300 @,@ 000 while Maria Celeste Arraras wrote in her book that the album sold 385 @,@ 000 copies in its first year . It became the first Tejano album by a female artist to sell more than 300 @,@ 000 copies . Entre a Mi Mundo sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in Mexico . Selena outsold male artists in the Tejano market with Entre a Mi Mundo . The album was well received by critics and broke a barrier in the male @-@ dominated Latin genre . By July 1995 , Entre a Mi Mundo had sold 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies , and was certified platinum . Entre a Mi Mundo was certified double platinum ( Latin type ) in 2000 and sextuple Disco De Platino in December 2002 , representing shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album was certified gold ( standard ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in May 1995 . In Mexico , Entre a mi mundo was certified triple gold , representing shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies .
Entre a Mi Mundo peaked at number one on the US Latin Regional Mexican Albums chart in September 1992 for eight consecutive months . After Selena was murdered , Entre a Mi Mundo debuted at number 139 on the Billboard 200 chart , and helped Selena to become the first female artist to place five albums simultaneously on the Billboard 200 . The album peaked at number 97 , and it peaked at number four on the Top Latin Albums chart . In 1995 , Entre a Mi Mundo was positioned at number two on Billboard 's " Latin Regional Mexican Albums all @-@ time chart " .
= = Entre a Mi Mundo Tour = =
To promote the album , Selena embarked on a worldwide tour , called the Entre a Mi Mundo Tour , which began in Elk City , Oklahoma on 25 May 1992 . Selena performed in two cities in Oklahoma , thirteen cities in Texas , four cities in New Mexico , seven cities in California , two cities in Florida , and one venue each in Louisiana , Tennessee and Nevada . Overall , Selena performed in more venues in her Entre a Mi Mundo Tour than in any of her previous tours . Selena performed in five Mexican cities , the first time that she had toured in that country , where she broke several attendance records . She was also in demand in El Salvador for appearing in " Buenos Amigos " , a duet with Salvordan singer Álvaro Torres . Every time Selena performed " ¿ Qué Creias ? " in her concerts , she would always ask for a man to volunteer on stage while Selena acted out the central theme of the song to him . Selena opened the 1993 Tejano Music Awards with her performance of " Siempre Estoy Pensando En Ti " , a duet with backup singer of the band , Pete Astudillo . At the 1994 Tejano Music Awards , Selena performed a short version of " Como La Flor " as part of a collaboration .
= = Critical reception = =
Many music critics believed Entre a Mi Mundo was the " breakthrough album " for Selena . Bruce Tomaso of The Dallas Morning News stated that " her brand of infectious Tejano pop [ in Entre a Mi Mundo ] had attracted a sizable audience charmed by her appealing voice " . stated that " Entre a Mi Mundo strengthened the Selena juggernaut " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " Entre a Mi Mundo , marked her acceptance into the pop side of the Latin music " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated that " Entre a Mi Mundo did feature Los Dinos as the backing band , but the album was undoubtedly a solo star @-@ making turn for Selena " Roundup Newsletter of Allmusic wrote that " Selena , with her crystal clear vocals and dynamic stage presence , became one of Tex @-@ Mex music 's premier performers in only a few years . She was named Top Female Entertainer and Female Vocalist of the Year for three years straight at the Tejano Music Awards . Tracks include " Si La Quieres , " " Yo Te Sigo Queriendo , " and " Las Cadenas " . Joey Guerra of Amazon.com wrote that it was because Selena and her brother grew up listening to classic pop , R & B , and disco that those genres were materialized in Entre a mi mundo . Guerra also stated that the album was " consistently satisfying and wonderfully diverse " . Guerra also gave examples of the songs on the album and their central theme " from the rousing cumbia " La carcacha " ( about a boyfriend 's beat @-@ up old car ) to the spirited mariachi kiss @-@ off anthem " ¿ Qué Creías ? , " which has become a fan favorite , " Missing My Baby " is street @-@ smart R & B , and " Amame " pulses with fiery club rhythms " . Guerra also stated that " Much of the credit should go to Quintanilla [ III ] , who helped Selena challenge the often @-@ stifling boundaries of Tejano music . Entre a Mi Mundo also includes Selena 's first international hit , " Como La Flor , " a lilting cumbia highlighted by a pleading vocal delivery and lost @-@ love lyrics " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
Managerial
Performance credits
Vocals – Selena
Visuals and imagery
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Malcolm Jardine =
Malcolm Robert Jardine ( 8 June 1869 – 16 January 1947 ) was an English first @-@ class cricketer who played 46 matches , mainly for Oxford University . Although his first @-@ class record was not impressive , he scored 140 in the University Match of 1892 using an unorthodox batting method . He played a few matches for Middlesex but later went to work in India , in effect ending his English first @-@ class career . He played first @-@ class cricket in India for the Europeans and after a successful legal career , returned to England . His son Douglas went on to play cricket for Oxford , Surrey and England , captaining the latter two and being associated with the use of Bodyline bowling .
= = Early life = =
Jardine was born in Simla , British India on 8 June 1869 to a family which had been connected with India for many years . He was the second son of William Jardine , a barrister and later a judge in Allahabad who had a successful legal career before he died from cholera aged 32 . He was educated at Fettes College , a boarding school in Edinburgh , making it into the school cricket team for four consecutive years . He established a good reputation and was appointed captain of the side in 1888 . That year , his batting average was 77 @.@ 70 , and he took 24 wickets at an average of 6 @.@ 30 , coming top of both sets of averages for the school .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
= = = Career at Oxford = = =
In 1889 , Jardine went to Balliol College , Oxford . He made his first @-@ class debut for Oxford University against the Gentlemen of England . In his third match , against Lancashire , he passed fifty for the first time . Although his next highest score in fifteen innings was just 33 , and he failed to reach double figures eight times , he was awarded his Blue . He had some success with his bowling , taking five wickets for 78 in a Surrey total of 614 . He played in the University Match but failed to score in either innings and Oxford lost heavily . In total , he scored 198 runs at an average of 13 @.@ 20 . The following season , Jardine scored more runs at a higher average , but failed to pass fifty in an innings . He scored 218 runs at an average of 14 @.@ 53 and did not bowl . Although he was more successful in the University Match , scoring 3 and 24 , Oxford lost again after being bowled out for 42 in their first innings . In 1891 , Jardine was appointed captain of the University . He further improved his aggregate and average with 255 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 21 , and took two wickets for five runs in the only innings in which he bowled . In the second and third matches , he scored 62 not out and 70 in consecutive innings against the Gentlemen of England and H Phillipson 's XI , but did not pass fifty again . Playing in the University Match , he scored a duck in the first innings and 15 in the second , and Oxford lost their third successive match , although they took eight wickets before Cambridge reached their target of 93 .
Jardine 's final season at Oxford was his most successful ; he recorded his highest aggregate and average despite playing only four matches for the club . At the start of the season , Lionel Palairet took over the captaincy . Jardine 's studies preventing him from playing in any of Oxford 's home games , and he did not appear in the team until June . He only took part in three games before the University Match , although in the last of these he scored 60 against Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's .
= = = 1892 University Match = = =
In his final University Match , Oxford batted first and Jardine 's innings began after his team had lost two wickets without scoring any runs . He batted for 285 minutes , scoring 140 . Before lunch , he played very carefully but increased his scoring rate afterwards . In total , he hit 21 fours and The Times described his innings as faultless . Wisden noted his strong defence and his powerful leg glance . Critics noted that he frequently hit Stanley Jackson to the leg side , a method of play which was unusual at the time . Players educated at Public School generally considered hitting to leg highly unorthodox and almost unfair . K. S. Ranjitsinhji , who was in the crowd at Lord 's , would develop the leg glance and make it respectable within a few years , but he had not yet made his first @-@ class debut in 1892 . It is likely that Jardine was one of the first players to use this shot . Jackson refused to depart from the orthodox methods of the time , continuing to bowl with seven fielders on the off side and only two on the leg side , making it easier for Jardine to score runs.The Times commented that Cambridge " appeared a little slow to grasp the idea of putting a man on the leg side for [ Jardine ] " . Jardine also hit 39 in the second innings as Oxford chased down a target to win for the only time in his University career . Jardine 's first innings remained his only first @-@ class century .
= = = Other first @-@ class cricket = = =
In the remainder of the 1892 season , Jardine played for Middlesex . He played six matches , but scored just 102 runs and averaged 12 @.@ 75 with the bat ; hitting a highest score of 32 not out . Subsequently , Jardine 's work as a barrister took him to India , and he played just four more first @-@ class matches in England . These were for the MCC at the beginning of the 1897 season , where he scored 185 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 12 with two fifties and a highest score of 85 . His only other first @-@ class cricket was for the Europeans cricket team in India . He played in the annual Presidency Match against the Parsees between 1894 and 1902 , only missing the 1899 and 1901 games . He scored just one fifty in eight matches , but his batting was admired by critics .
Although Jardine did not have an impressive first @-@ class record , critics including Ranjitsinjhi , and Plum Warner considered him a good batsman . C. B. Fry believed that if Jardine had played regular county cricket , he would have played for England . Fry described him as a superb fielder and as " a beautiful player , with a perfect back @-@ stroke and a perfect cut and neat late off drive . " He did not bowl regularly after 1889 , saving his energy for fielding . In 46 first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 439 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 76 , took 15 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 40 and held 42 catches .
= = Legal career = =
In 1893 , Jardine was called to the Bar by the Middle Temple in 1893 . He returned to India , where he practised at the Bombay Bar until 1916 . At the time , British barristers dominated the Indian legal system , finding considerable financial reward , but causing resentment among the Indian legal profession . At the same time , Jardine held positions of increasing influence in India . He was Perry Professor of Jurisprudence and Roman Law from 1898 to 1902 and then Principal of the Government Law School until 1903 . Subsequently , he was Clerk of the Crown , before being appointed Advocate General of Bombay in 1915 before retiring from India in 1916 .
In 1898 , he married Alison Moir and they had one son , Douglas in 1900 , who went on to play first @-@ class and Test cricket for Surrey and England . Eventually , Douglas became a controversial England captain , introducing a form of hostile bowling known as Bodyline . The family lived in a wealthy area of Bombay and were well known in its social and sporting circle . With Douglas at Public School , Jardine and his wife returned to England in 1916 . He took an interest in the Surrey team , becoming a member and later a vice @-@ president . His wife died in 1936 while Jardine died in South Kensington on 16 January 1947 .
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= Ike 's Wee Wee =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " is the third episode of the second season of the animated television series South Park , and the 17th episode of the series overall . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20 , 1998 . In the episode , school counselor Mr. Mackey is fired , and turns to drugs . Meanwhile , the boys misconstrue what circumcision entails , and try to save Kyle 's younger brother Ike from his upcoming bris .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . " Ike 's Wee Wee " satirizes certain attitudes towards drug users , and explores whether family can only mean those who are related by blood . This episode introduced Ike 's backstory as an adopted Canadian child . " Ike 's Wee Wee " received positive responses from fans , as well as critics who especially praised the episode for its touching moments . A line often repeated by Mr. Mackey in this episode , " drugs are bad , m 'kay ? " , has entered popular culture , and has been referenced in various songs , articles , and court documents .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Mackey , the school counselor , is giving a drug and alcohol prevention lecture for the class , emphasizing that smoking , drinking , marijuana , and LSD " are bad . " He passes a sample of marijuana around the class so that the children can learn its smell , but it is never passed back up to the front . We later see that Mr. Garrison stole it . But as a result , Mackey is fired , and is later kicked out of his house by his landlord , leaving him homeless . A desperate Mackey gives in to trying marijuana one night in an alley , and later , LSD . Soon enough , Mr. Mackey becomes a drug @-@ addled hippie , and meets a hippie woman , with whom he decides to get married . While on honeymoon in India , Mr. Mackey is captured by the A Team , Mr. Garrison and Principal Victoria and is taken into rehab . Mr. Mackey emerges clean from rehab and is given his job back .
Meanwhile , Kyle invites Stan , Cartman and Kenny to his younger brother Ike 's bris . When they learn more about what a bris is , and misconstrue it as a party where they are going to " chop off his penis " , Kyle is shocked and tries to find a way to hide his brother from his parents and the circumcision process . Kyle puts Ike on a train to Nebraska and makes an Ike @-@ style doll out of meat bones in an attempt to not arouse his parents ' suspicions . This backfires when the doll is eaten by a dog , and both the dog and doll are run over by a fuel tanker which then explodes in front of the Broflovskis ' house , which leads to them to think that Ike is dead . It is at the funeral that Kyle finds out that Ike is not his biological brother , but was adopted from Canada . Upon discovering this , Kyle decides that Ike is not his " real brother " and he no longer cares about him . His parents are shocked by what has happened , and Ike is retrieved from Nebraska . During the funeral , Kenny falls into an open grave and the gravestone falls on him .
The day of the bris arrives , and Kyle is grounded . When the mohel arrives to perform the bris , Ike flees to Kyle 's room in terror . Seeing Ike in distress and some old pictures prompts a change of heart in Kyle , and he defends his brother fiercely before it is explained to him what a circumcision actually is , at which point Stan and Cartman decide they want to be circumcised too . They then watch the process , and Kyle is relieved to see Ike unharmed . The episode ends with Mr. Mackey attempting to explain drugs to the children again , and the boys arguing about whose bris should be the next .
= = Production = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The scene where Mr. Mackey loses the marijuana cigarette in class was inspired by a real event from Parker 's life , where a counselor came into his class in seventh grade , and passed around a lit piece of marijuana , which then disappeared . At the beginning and end of the episode , there are scenes where the kids imitate Mr. Mackey 's voice to him , while he is oblivious to the fact that he is being made fun of . Parker and his classmates used to do the same thing to their counselor in junior high school who was the basis for Mr. Mackey 's character . Parker said that he was especially proud of Chef 's line " There 's a time and a place for everything , and it 's called college " , which is something Parker believes in , noting that if he had a child , he would tell him : " Do whatever you want , just wait till college because you don 't know what the fuck 's up right now . " Chef 's sentence would later return in the season four episode " The Tooth Fairy Tats 2000 " .
The episode introduced Ike 's backstory as a Canadian child adopted by the Broflovskis . Ever since the recurring characters Terrance and Phillip were established to be Canadians in the season one finale " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " , and the subsequent season two premiere " Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus " , all Canadian characters on South Park have shared the same simplistic design : having simple beady eyes , and a floppy head made up of two halves . While Ike had been on the show since its first episode , the writers originally did not know that he was going to be Canadian ; he was retroactively made one based on his visual similarity to Terrance and Phillip . Ike 's backstory would play an important role in the movie South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , which involves a fictional American – Canadian war , as well as in future episodes of the series , such as the season seven episode " It 's Christmas in Canada " , in which Ike 's biological parents take him away from the Broflovskis , and bring him back to Canada .
" Ike 's Wee Wee " features regular voice acting from series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone for most characters , Mary Kay Bergman ( credited as Shannen Cassidy ) for female characters , and Isaac Hayes for Chef . Additional dialogue was provided by South Park audio engineer Bruce Howell , while Ike 's lines were uttered by Howell 's then @-@ 5 @-@ year @-@ old son Jesse .
= = Themes = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " raises the question of who really can be considered one 's family . At first , Kyle 's implicit idea is that family consists of " those for whom we care that are related by blood " . Based on this viewing of family , he no longer feels the need to help Ike when he learns that they are not related by blood . As the story progresses , Kyle questions his initial beliefs , and forms the episode 's central moral by saying that " Family isn 't about whose blood you have . It 's about who you care about . " Thus , Kyle 's reformed view of family not only includes his adopted brother , but his friends as well . Kyle 's questioning of his own morals has been likened to engaging in the dialectical Socratic method of inquiry .
The other plot in " Ike 's Wee Wee " satirizes certain drug subcultures , as well as drug use , and societal attitudes towards drug users . The way the episode portrays Mr. Mackey 's lack of real knowledge about drug use and addiction has been described as an example of South Park satirizing left @-@ wing politics , when " they lead to the sort of hypocrisy inconsistent with a proper open society . "
= = Cultural references = =
Part of the episode revolves around the practice of religious male circumcision in Judaism , and the related ceremony called the brit milah or bris , and the boys ' misunderstanding of the tradition ( to which they refer as " circumstition " ) . The boys believe that circumcision entails the cutting off of one 's penis , which they refer to by the childish colloquial term " wee wee " , except for Cartman , who insists on calling it " fireman " . Cannabis is also referred to by various names , including weed , grass , pot , and marijuana , in which Mr. Mackey constantly pronounces the letter j as / dʒ / ( as in jam ) , which makes Kyle mispronounce the drug as " marry @-@ Jew wanna " .
Drug use is often portrayed in conjunction with the hippie subculture , through hippie characters such as the two teenagers that give LSD to Mackey , and the woman that he befriends and eventually marries . Jimbo and Cartman both use the term hippie pejoratively . During their argument , Jimbo tells Mackey that he should just go to a Grateful Dead concert . On two occasions , the episode shows people watching Teletubbies while high on marijuana or in rehab . Teletubbies is a British children 's television show that started in 1997 . In his drug prevention speech , Mackey claims that LSD was made famous by John Lennon and Paul McCartney , former members of The Beatles . Both Lennon and McCartney are known to have experimented with the drug .
While walking home , Mr. Mackey drunkenly sings the 1983 Pat Benatar song " Love Is a Battlefield " . During Ike 's supposed funeral , a bagpipe player starts playing the Hebrew folk song " Hava Nagila " . At the funerals , the priest uses the phrase " Ashes to ashes , dust to dust " , from the Anglican burial service . When the townspeople start to harass Mackey , one of them shouts " Now we see what you and Homer Simpson have in common ... Dope ! " This references the famous catchphrase from The Simpsons , " D 'oh ! " , which sounds similar to the word dope , meaning illicit drugs . At Kyle 's house , Kyle 's parents offers the boys a dish called " GaHekgafuga " , which is not a real dish . When Mackey is in India , he is captured by members of The A @-@ Team , and driven away in their van . The A @-@ Team is a 1980s action adventure TV series . Mackey is taken to rehabilitation to the Betty Ford Clinic , which is based on a real @-@ life hospital .
A common plot device is referenced , where a shoulder angel ( represents conscience ) and a shoulder devil ( representing temptation ) appear near a character . This concept is spoofed in the episode , as both the devil and the angel suggest to Mackey that he should drink the beer . When Stan tells Kyle what he thinks a bris means , a dolly zoom is used , which is an unsettling filmmaking effect often used to show that a character is undergoing a major realization . The hallucinogenic effects of certain drugs are portrayed by different means . When inhaling cannabis , the alley that Mr. Mackey is in suddenly turns very colorful . After taking LSD , Mr. Mackey 's head inflates like a giant balloon , and then literally detaches from his body , and floats away .
In the scene when the boys are talking to Chef , he leaves without answering the boys ' sexual question , angrily saying , " Dammit , children , why do I always have to be the one to explain all this stuff to you . Ask your parents for once ! " This is in reference to Chef 's tendency to give advice to the boys . While the children are trying to think of what is the most important thing for a man , Cartman says " Ham ? " , to which Stan angrily replies , " No , not ham , you fat fuck ! " . This exchange was used verbatim between the same characters in The Spirit of Christmas , the 1995 short film that was the precursor to South Park .
= = Broadcast , reception , and impact = =
Two episodes preceded " Ike 's Wee Wee " in the second season of the show . The episode scheduled for April 1 , 1998 promised to resolve the cliffhanger ending of the first season finale , " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " , regarding the identity of Cartman 's father , but was in fact an April Fools ' Day joke : " Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus " , an entire episode revolving around the two title characters . The April 1 day episode was supposed to be a one @-@ off , with the rest of the season starting in May . However , following overwhelmingly negative fan reaction , the episode resolving the Cartman 's father storyline , " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " , was moved from its planned May 20 air date to April 22 . " Ike 's Wee Wee " then kicked off a 6 @-@ episode run of the season when it was broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20 , 1998 .
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was met with favorable reviews . Critics especially praised the episode for its touching moments , in contrast with the off @-@ color humor often employed in the series . In his review of the episode in the Chicago Tribune , Allan Johnson praised the episode , especially in comparison with the first two episodes of the season , and wrote that " ' Ike 's Wee Wee ' ranks with some of the better episodes of ' South Park . ' " Upon the series reaching its 100th episode in 2003 , the same writer also listed " Ike 's Wee Wee " as one of the " top 10 episodes that have made [ South Park ] one of the most provocative comedies on TV . " A South Park review in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said about the series that " [ i ] n the midst of all this potty @-@ mouthed humor , there are moments that are downright touching " , and particularly highlighted the ending of " Ike 's Wee Wee " as an example , explaining that " all 's well in the end , and Kyle and the boys learn a lesson about family values that even Dan Quayle would approve of . " In 2000 , visitors of the Comedy Central website chose " Ike 's Wee Wee " as their favorite episode during a voting called " South Park e @-@ Lections " , held around the time of the United States presidential election that year .
Mr. Mackey 's line " drugs are bad , m 'kay ? " has entered popular culture . The Eminem song " The Kids " – which is featured on the B @-@ side of the single " The Way I Am " and the clean version of The Marshall Mathers LP – is thematically about drug use , and makes numerous references to South Park and impressions of the show 's characters , including an impression of Mr. Mackey 's voice and the repetition of his line . The song " Hip Hop Quotables " by Ludacris , from his album Chicken @-@ n @-@ Beer , also contains the line . In 2008 , the line was referenced in the dissenting opinion of a judge , in a case of the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit . Also , in a 2010 marijuana @-@ related court case at the Maryland Court of Appeals , Judge Clayton Greene , Jr. referenced the episode in his dissenting opinion , calling Mr. Mackey 's words " immortal " . In 2011 , during a judiciary committee hearing about a marijuana @-@ related bill in Denver , Colorado , a representative showed off a potential packaging for edible marijuana products . According to a group called the Cannabis Therapy Institute , the label on the package , which bore the placeholder text " Legal and governmentally approved statement describing that pot is bad , M @-@ ok " , was a reference to the South Park episode . Comedy Central sells a poker chip @-@ shaped keychain that bears Mr. Mackey 's picture , along with his famous line .
= = Home release = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was released on VHS in April 1999 , along with the episode " Chickenlover " , on a video titled South Park : Volume 8 . The episode saw its first DVD release in December 1999 , on a disc called South Park : Volume 4 , which also included " Chickenlover " , as well as " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " and " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " . South Park : The Complete Second Season was released on DVD on June 3 , 2003 . On these home releases , " Ike 's Wee Wee " has a humorous introduction by creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker , who are playing music to the elderly in a retirement home . Episodes of season 2 have also been released digitally , on services such as Amazon Video , the iTunes Store , and Xbox Live Marketplace . Like most episodes of South Park , " Ike 's Wee Wee " is available to watch for free on the show 's website , SouthParkStudios.com.
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= Marchantiophyta =
The Marchantiophyta / mɑːrˌkæntiˈɒfᵻtə / are a division of non @-@ vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts . Like mosses and hornworts , they have a gametophyte @-@ dominant life cycle , in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic information .
It is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts . Some of the more familiar species grow as a flattened leafless thallus , but most species are leafy with a form very much like a flattened moss . Leafy species can be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses on the basis of a number of features , including their single @-@ celled rhizoids . Leafy liverworts also differ from most ( but not all ) mosses in that their leaves never have a costa ( present in many mosses ) and may bear marginal cilia ( very rare in mosses ) . Other differences are not universal for all mosses and liverworts , but the occurrence of leaves arranged in three ranks , the presence of deep lobes or segmented leaves , or a lack of clearly differentiated stem and leaves all point to the plant being a liverwort .
Liverworts are typically small , usually from 2 – 20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long , and are therefore often overlooked . However , certain species may cover large patches of ground , rocks , trees or any other reasonably firm substrate on which they occur . They are distributed globally in almost every available habitat , most often in humid locations although there are desert and arctic species as well . Some species can be a nuisance in shady green @-@ houses or a weed in gardens .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Description = = =
Most liverworts are small , usually from 2 – 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide with individual plants less than 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) long , so they are often overlooked . The most familiar liverworts consist of a prostrate , flattened , ribbon @-@ like or branching structure called a thallus ( plant body ) ; these liverworts are termed thallose liverworts . However , most liverworts produce flattened stems with overlapping scales or leaves in two or more ranks , the middle rank is often conspicuously different from the outer ranks ; these are called leafy liverworts or scale liverworts . ( See the gallery below for examples . )
Liverworts can most reliably be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses by their single @-@ celled rhizoids . Other differences are not universal for all mosses and all liverworts ; but the lack of clearly differentiated stem and leaves in thallose species , or in leafy species the presence of deeply lobed or segmented leaves and the presence of leaves arranged in three ranks , all point to the plant being a liverwort . Unlike any other embryophytes , most liverworts contain unique membrane @-@ bound oil bodies containing isoprenoids in at least some of their cells , lipid droplets in the cytoplasm of all other plants being unenclosed . The overall physical similarity of some mosses and leafy liverworts means that confirmation of the identification of some groups can be performed with certainty only with the aid of microscopy or an experienced bryologist .
Liverworts have a gametophyte @-@ dominant life cycle , with the sporophyte dependent on the gametophyte . Cells in a typical liverwort plant each contain only a single set of genetic information , so the plant 's cells are haploid for the majority of its life cycle . This contrasts sharply with the pattern exhibited by nearly all animals and by most other plants . In the more familiar seed plants , the haploid generation is represented only by the tiny pollen and the ovule , while the diploid generation is the familiar tree or other plant . Another unusual feature of the liverwort life cycle is that sporophytes ( i.e. the diploid body ) are very short @-@ lived , withering away not long after releasing spores . Even in other bryophytes , the sporophyte is persistent and disperses spores over an extended period .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The life of a liverwort starts from the germination of a haploid spore to produce a protonema , which is either a mass of thread @-@ like filaments or else a flattened thallus . The protonema is a transitory stage in the life of a liverwort , from which will grow the mature gametophore ( " gamete @-@ bearer " ) plant that produces the sex organs . The male organs are known as antheridia ( singular : antheridium ) and produce the sperm cells . Clusters of antheridia are enclosed by a protective layer of cells called the perigonium ( plural : perigonia ) . As in other land plants , the female organs are known as archegonia ( singular : archegonium ) and are protected by the thin surrounding perichaetum ( plural : perichaeta ) . Each archegonium has a slender hollow tube , the " neck " , down which the sperm swim to reach the egg cell .
Liverwort species may be either dioicous or monoicous . In dioicous liverworts , female and male sex organs are borne on different and separate gametophyte plants . In monoicous liverworts , the two kinds of reproductive structures are borne on different branches of the same plant . In either case , the sperm must move from the antheridia where they are produced to the archegonium where the eggs are held . The sperm of liverworts is biflagellate , i.e. they have two tail @-@ like flagellae that enable them to swim short distances , provided that at least a thin film of water is present . Their journey may be assisted by the splashing of raindrops . In 2008 , Japanese researchers discovered that some liverworts are able to fire sperm @-@ containing water up to 15 cm in the air , enabling them to fertilize female plants growing more than a metre from the nearest male .
When sperm reach the archegonia , fertilisation occurs , leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte . After fertilisation , the immature sporophyte within the archegonium develops three distinct regions : ( 1 ) a foot , which both anchors the sporophyte in place and receives nutrients from its " mother " plant , ( 2 ) a spherical or ellipsoidal capsule , inside which the spores will be produced for dispersing to new locations , and ( 3 ) a seta ( stalk ) which lies between the other two regions and connects them . When the sporophyte has developed all three regions , the seta elongates , pushing its way out of the archegonium and rupturing it . While the foot remains anchored within the parent plant , the capsule is forced out by the seta and is extended away from the plant and into the air . Within the capsule , cells divide to produce both elater cells and spore @-@ producing cells . The elaters are spring @-@ like , and will push open the wall of the capsule to scatter themselves when the capsule bursts . The spore @-@ producing cells will undergo meiosis to form haploid spores to disperse , upon which point the life cycle can start again .
= = = = Asexual reproduction = = = =
Some liverworts are capable of asexual reproduction ; in bryophytes in general " it would almost be true to say that vegetative reproduction is the rule and not the exception . " For example , in Riccia , when the older parts of the forked thalli die , the younger tips become separate individuals .
Some thallose liverworts such as Marchantia polymorpha and Lunularia cruciata produce small disc @-@ shaped gemmae in shallow cups . Marchantia gemmae can be dispersed up to 120 cm by rain splashing into the cups . In Metzgeria , gemmae grow at thallus margins . Marchantia polymorpha is a common weed in greenhouses , often covering the entire surface of containers ; gemma dispersal is the " primary mechanism by which liverwort spreads throughout a nursery or greenhouse . "
= = Ecology = =
Today , liverworts can be found in many ecosystems across the planet except the sea and excessively dry environments , or those exposed to high levels of direct solar radiation . As with most groups of living plants , they are most common ( both in numbers and species ) in moist tropical areas . Liverworts are more commonly found in moderate to deep shade , though desert species may tolerate direct sunlight and periods of total desiccation .
= = Classification = =
= = = Relationship to other plants = = =
Traditionally , the liverworts were grouped together with other bryophytes ( mosses and hornworts ) in the Division Bryophyta , within which the liverworts made up the class Hepaticae ( also called Marchantiopsida ) . However , since this grouping makes the Bryophyta paraphyletic , the liverworts are now usually given their own division . The use of the division name Bryophyta sensu lato is still found in the literature , but more frequently the Bryophyta now is used in a restricted sense to include only the mosses .
Another reason that liverworts are now classified separately is that they appear to have diverged from all other embryophyte plants near the beginning of their evolution . The strongest line of supporting evidence is that liverworts are the only living group of land plants that do not have stomata on the sporophyte generation . Among the earliest fossils believed to be liverworts are compression fossils of Pallaviciniites from the Upper Devonian of New York . These fossils resemble modern species in the Metzgeriales . Another Devonian fossil called Protosalvinia also looks like a liverwort , but its relationship to other plants is still uncertain , so it may not belong to the Marchantiophyta . In 2007 , the oldest fossils assignable to the liverworts were announced , Metzgeriothallus sharonae from the Givetian ( Middle Devonian ) of New York , United States . However , in 2010 , five different types of fossilized liverwort spores were found in Argentina , dating to the much earlier Middle Ordovician , around 470 million years ago .
= = = Internal classification = = =
Bryologists classify liverworts in the division Marchantiophyta . This divisional name is based on the name of the most universally recognized liverwort genus Marchantia . In addition to this taxon @-@ based name , the liverworts are often called Hepaticophyta . This name is derived from their common Latin name as Latin was the language in which botanists published their descriptions of species . This name has led to some confusion , partly because it appears to be a taxon @-@ based name derived from the genus Hepatica which is actually a flowering plant of the buttercup family Ranunculaceae . In addition , the name Hepaticophyta is frequently misspelled in textbooks as Hepatophyta , which only adds to the confusion .
Although there is no consensus among bryologists as to the classification of liverworts above family rank , the Marchantiophyta may be subdivided into three classes :
The Jungermanniopsida includes the two orders Metzgeriales ( simple thalloids ) and Jungermanniales ( leafy liverworts ) .
The Marchantiopsida includes the three orders Marchantiales ( complex @-@ thallus liverworts ) , and Sphaerocarpales ( bottle hepatics ) , as well as the Blasiales ( previously placed among the Metzgeriales ) . It also includes the problematic genus Monoclea , which is sometimes placed in its own order Monocleales .
A third class , the Haplomitriopsida is newly recognized as a basal sister group to the other liverworts ; it comprises the genera Haplomitrium , Treubia , and Apotreubia .
An updated classification by Söderström et al . 2016
Marchantiophyta Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 2000
Haplomitriopsida Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 1977
Haplomitriales Hamlin 1972
Treubiales Schljakov 1972
Marchantiopsida Cronquist , Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966
Blasiidae He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Blasiales Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 2000
Marchantiidae Engler 1893 sensu He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Neohodgsoniales Long 2006
Sphaerocarpales Cavers 1910 ( bottle liverworts )
Lunulariales Long 2006
Marchantiales Limpricht 1877 ( complex thalloids )
Jungermanniopsida Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 1977
Pelliidae He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Pelliales He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Pallaviciniales Frey & Stech 2005
Fossombroniales Schljakov 1972
Metzgeriidae Bartholomew @-@ Began 1990
Pleuroziales Schljakov 1972
Metzgeriales Chalaud 1930
Jungermanniidae Engler 1893 ( leafy liverworts )
Porellales Schljakov 1972
Ptilidiales Schljakov 1972
Jungermanniales von Klinggräff 1858
It is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts , at least 85 % of which belong to the leafy group . Despite that fact , no liverwort genomes have been sequenced to date and only few genes identified and characterized .
= = Economic importance = =
In ancient times , it was believed that liverworts cured diseases of the liver , hence the name . In Old English , the word liverwort literally means liver plant . This probably stemmed from the superficial appearance of some thalloid liverworts ( which resemble a liver in outline ) , and led to the common name of the group as hepatics , from the Latin word hēpaticus for " belonging to the liver " . An unrelated flowering plant , Hepatica , is sometimes also referred to as liverwort because it was once also used in treating diseases of the liver . This archaic relationship of plant form to function was based in the " Doctrine of Signatures " .
Liverworts have little direct economic importance today . Their greatest impact is indirect , through the reduction of erosion along streambanks , their collection and retention of water in tropical forests , and the formation of soil crusts in deserts and polar regions . However , a few species are used by humans directly . A few species , such as Riccia fluitans , are aquatic thallose liverworts sold for use in aquariums . Their thin , slender branches float on the water 's surface and provide habitat for both small invertebrates and the fish that feed on them .
= = Gallery = =
A small collection of images showing liverwort structure and diversity :
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= Tai Streets =
Tai Lamar Streets ( born April 20 , 1977 ) is a former professional American football wide receiver in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was selected with the second pick of the sixth round of the 1999 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers . He also played for the Detroit Lions in 2004 . He was the leading receiver for the national champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team . Over the course of his career he was notable for fourth quarter performances in various bowl games and NFL playoff games . As a professional athlete , he was known for his modesty . As an amateur athlete , he was known as one of the best high school athletes in the city of Chicago .
In high school , he was an All @-@ American in football and as a senior led his team to a 9 – 0 regular season before losing in the playoffs . In basketball , he was an All @-@ State selection by numerous publications and led his team past Kevin Garnett 's high school team to reach the finals of the state championship playoff tournament . Despite losing in the finals , he was the highest votegetter on the All @-@ tournament team . In track , he was a state long jump champion as a junior and runner @-@ up as a senior when he also helped his school 's 4 x 400 metres relay team finish third in the state . In 1995 , he was widely regarded as the best high school athlete in the Chicago metropolitan area , winning athlete of the year awards from the Chicago Tribune , Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Illinois High School Association . He is considered to be one of the greatest three @-@ sport athletes in the history of Illinois .
Streets led the Michigan Wolverines football team in receiving yards each season from 1996 – 1998 . He had two touchdown receptions in the 1998 Rose Bowl , which clinched a share of the national championship . During his years as the primary receiver , there were quarterback controversies each year with battles among Brian Griese , Scott Dreisbach , Tom Brady and Drew Henson . As a senior , he was voted football team MVP and All @-@ Big Ten Conference second @-@ team wide receiver . That season , he posted five 100 @-@ yard games and totaled over one thousand yards . He played in the Senior Bowl and was selected for the Hula Bowl . He was injured right before the 1999 draft causing him to slip from a projected second @-@ round selection to a sixth @-@ round choice . As a sophomore , he played part of the season for the 1996 – 97 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , which won the 1997 National Invitation Tournament , but has since vacated the championship due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .
Streets had modest success as a professional in five seasons with the 49ers . He began as a fourth wide receiver on a team with perennial Pro Bowl receivers Jerry Rice and Terrell Owens , but he eventually became a starter before moving on to play his final season with the Lions . His career was highlighted by playoff performances in which he caught at least four receptions for at least 50 yards in all three playoff games . He recorded two fourth quarter playoff touchdowns one of which was the game @-@ winner in a 24 @-@ point comeback victory and the other of which was a game @-@ tying touchdown in a losing effort .
= = Early life = =
Streets was born in Matteson , Illinois . His mother , Karen Streets , named him after Olympic figure skater Tai Babilonia . Streets ' father is Clayton Streets . His mother kept him active in sports as a youth to keep him out of trouble . His mother describes him as a clumsy awkward youth and his father remembers him for his duck @-@ footed stance . However , his father says the first time he saw Tai play youth football , he outran everyone on the other team when running an end reverse . Streets has younger sisters named Aja and Jad .
= = High school = =
After Streets ' parents separated , he lived with his mother in Matteson . She started him in track , which quickly supplanted baseball , which he last played at age 12 . At Rich South High School of Richton Park , Illinois he participated initially in basketball and track with basketball in his sights for professional success . As a sophomore , Streets briefly played halfback for the football team , but he broke his ankle in a freak accident after the second game , and vowed never to return . Rich South coach Hud Venerable , who had seen videotapes of Streets , set out to bring him back as a junior . He attempted to recruit Streets by attending his basketball games and track meets . He knew Streets wanted to play wide receiver . He realized football could provide a better college opportunity than basketball , especially for a 6 @-@ foot @-@ 4 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) athlete such as himself . After he returned to football , he became widely known in all three sports .
As a sophomore in 1992 – 93 , Streets scored 20 points and posted 12 rebounds in his first varsity basketball game for Rich South on January 22 , 1993 . The team finished that season with a 14 – 10 record . That same season , Streets won the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) triple jump championship . As a junior , he helped the team compile a 26 – 2 record as it entered the sectional finals . In track , he won the Class AA state championship in the long jump on his final jump of 23 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 19 m ) and was leading in the triple jump with a jump of 49 feet 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 15 @.@ 14 m ) until Byron Topps leapt to a state record of 50 feet 7 inches ( 15 @.@ 42 m ) . During his junior year , he was recognized , along with fellow future professional football player Donovan McNabb , as one of the 16 best boy athletes in the Chicago metropolitan area by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times for his efforts in high school football , basketball and track . That spring he was also selected as one of the ten best football prospects in the Chicago area by high school athlete expert Tom Lemming for his play at wide receiver . College coaches who recruit in the Chicago area selected him as one of the top 16 1994 football prospects . One recruiting service rated him as one of the top five football prospects in Illinois and one of the top three wide receiver prospects in the United States . During the summer between his junior and senior year Streets was selected as to the All @-@ Tournament team for the AAU 17 & under men 's basketball National Invitational Tournament held in Kenner , Louisiana .
Streets moved in with his dad and transferred to Thornton Township High School . At the time of his 1994 senior year transfer to Harvey , Illinois 's Thornton , Streets was described by a Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist as " the best high school athlete in Illinois " . The Sun @-@ Times chose him as one of the six best football prospects in the area and as an All @-@ Area Offensive selection before his senior season . He was a preseason All @-@ American in football . Lemming named him as one of the top 100 senior prospects in the nation . By this time , Lemming considered him to be the best high school wide receiver in Illinois . According to Sporting News , Streets and Randy Moss were among the four best wide receivers in the nation . National Recruiting Advisor listed him fifth behind Peter Warrick , Moss , Mondriel Fulcher , and Corey Jones .
Streets and sophomore quarterback Antwaan Randle El helped Thornton snap Homewood @-@ Flossmoor High School 's 44 @-@ game conference winning streak in the SICA East in football . Over the course of the season he helped Thornton achieve a 9 – 0 record on its way to the Class 6A state playoffs . Although Streets accumulated nine receptions for 145 yards in the playoff game , he only had one touchdown in the waning moments and was kept from making gamebreaking plays when it mattered . He ended the season as a Chicago Tribune second @-@ team All @-@ state selection . In high school , he aspired to have a broadcasting career after athletics like his role model Ahmad Rashad and also had visions of Olympic Games competition . As late as December of his senior year , he was considering Michigan , Illinois , Notre Dame , Wisconsin and South Carolina . In January 1995 , he selected the University of Michigan because of its tradition of producing National Football League wide receivers such as Anthony Carter , Derrick Alexander , Desmond Howard and Chris Calloway . Streets was part of a Michigan football recruiting class that included Tom Brady and Charles Woodson . Streets was selected to play in the Chicago Public League Football Coaches Association eighth annual Harold Washington All @-@ Star Football Game . In the 12th annual Suburban All @-@ Star Football Classic , Streets caught a 37 @-@ yard fly pattern for the game @-@ winning touchdown .
During his senior basketball season , he was named by the Chicago Tribune as a Prep Athlete of the Week for leading Thornton to victory over Champaign , Illinois ' Centennial High School , the 12th ranked school in the state . After the regular season , he was a member of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times All @-@ Area team as well as their Class AA All @-@ State team headlined by Player of the Year Kevin Garnett . He was also selected to the Champaign @-@ Urbana News @-@ Gazette All @-@ state team . Eventually , Streets was named to all five notable All @-@ State teams . In the state playoffs , Streets helped lead Thornton to victory over Garnett 's number @-@ one @-@ ranked Farragut Academy team , which also included Ronnie Fields and Michael Wright , in the Class AA state quarterfinals . In the championship game , Streets had a game @-@ high 15 rebounds in a losing effort against Manual High School as Thornton finished with a 30 – 2 record . Streets was the highest vote @-@ getter on the Associated Press Class AA all @-@ tournament team . He was selected to play in the Illinois Basketball Coaches Association all @-@ star game . Streets scored 12 points and had 10 rebounds in the game . Streets was also selected as a member of the Chicago Suburban All @-@ Stars . He placed fourth in the 1995 Illinois Mr. Basketball selection that Garnett won in a landslide . USA Today recognized him as an honorable mention All @-@ USA selection . He was part of a Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball incoming number @-@ one ranked recruiting class with three McDonald 's All @-@ Americans : Robert Traylor , Albert White , and Louis Bullock .
During his 1995 senior track season , he ran a sub @-@ 21 second 200 meter in the SICA East Conference championship meet . In the sectional state championship meet qualifier , Streets posted a long jump of 24 feet 9 inches ( 7 @.@ 54 m ) and a triple jump of 45 feet 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 @.@ 96 m ) . The Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) championship meet record of 24 feet 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 7 @.@ 47 m ) set in 1969 seemed in jeopardy . On the first day of the long jump competition , Streets posted a 23 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) , which was second to the leader 's 24 feet 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 38 m ) , and neither athlete improved his jump on the second day , leaving Streets as the second @-@ place finisher . Streets also ran a 47 split for his leg of the third @-@ place 4 x 400 metres relay team at the state meet .
He graduated in the class of 1995 . His high school basketball teams included future professional athletes Randle El , Melvin Ely , and Napoleon Harris . As a senior , Streets won the Chicago Sun @-@ Times all sport 1994 – 95 high school athlete of the year award . He also was named Chicago Tribune March 1995 Athlete of the Month and 1994 – 95 Chicago Tribune Athlete of the Year , which was awarded June 21 , 1995 at Comiskey Park . Streets was also honored as the IHSA Sports Report Athlete of the Year . Daily Herald of Arlington Heights , Illinois said that Streets would have won their Athlete of the Year award had he competed in their coverage area . Streets was so highly regarded as an athlete that the Thornton baseball coach repeatedly extended him an open offer to pitch for the baseball team .
= = College career = =
Streets played college football and basketball at the University of Michigan . As a true freshman in the 1995 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , Streets only caught five passes for the 1995 Michigan Wolverines football team : he caught three in the 52 – 17 October 28 Little Brown Jug rivalry game victory against the Minnesota Golden Gophers and two in the 31 – 23 November 25 Michigan – Ohio State rivalry game with the Ohio State Buckeyes . All five athletes who had more receptions than him that season went on to play professional football ( Mercury Hayes − 48 , Amani Toomer – 44 , Jay Riemersma – 41 , Chris Howard – 14 and Jerame Tuman – 9 ) . Hayes , Toomer and Riemersma , who accounted for 75 percent of the team 's yardage , were all selected in the 1996 NFL Draft , leaving Streets as the leading returning wide receiver ( Howard was a running back and Tuman was a tight end ) .
In 1996 , Michigan dealt with a starting quarterback returning from a season @-@ ending injury and a depleted receiving group : Scott Dreisbach had missed the final two @-@ thirds of the season , leaving Brian Griese as the starter and freshman Tom Brady served as an understudy . Streets earned the starting wide receiver job and started in all twelve games . He led the 1996 Michigan Wolverines football team in receptions and reception yardage with 44 receptions for 730 yards . In the first game of the season against Illinois , Streets made the key block on Dreisbach 's 72 @-@ yard touchdown run . Two weeks later he made key catches on both the game @-@ tying and game @-@ winning scoring drives against the Colorado Buffaloes . His best statistical performance came at home in Cook County , Illinois in front of a large gathering of friends and family against Northwestern when he recorded 12 receptions for 150 yards in an October 5 17 – 16 loss . This first appearance in the Chicago area would be his collegiate career @-@ best in terms of single @-@ game receptions . The 12 receptions was a school record , but it was overshadowed by a fumble that changed the momentum of the game . Streets caught two touchdown passes both in rivalry games : the opening score from Dreisbach in the 44 – 10 victory against Minnesota and the only touchdown in a 13 – 9 victory over Ohio State from Griese . In his sophomore year , after the football season ended with the January 1 , 1997 Outback Bowl game , he joined the Michigan Wolverines basketball team in the last week of January and made his debut in a February 1 , 1997 game against Michigan State . The team went on to win the 1997 National Invitation Tournament on March 27 that season , and Streets played a few minutes in four of the five games . However , due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal the championship has been vacated . After the basketball season ended , Streets rejoined the football team for Spring practice , and he led all receivers with four receptions for 125 yards in the annual spring game on April 12 .
According to his mother , during the summer prior to his 1997 junior year , Streets dedicated himself to weight training like he never had before in an effort to end a Rose Bowl draught that made the 1997 Wolverines the first since the 1969 team to have no Rose Bowl veterans . Although Streets and Russell Shaw were the starting receivers , it was understood that Charles Woodson , who was regarded as one of the most versatile athletes in college football , was expected to play on offense that season . However , it was not clear whether Dreisbach , Brady or Griese would quarterback the team . Griese was named starter shortly before the season opener . It was believed that a solid season by any of the quarterbacks could lead to a productive season by Streets and the receivers . Streets ' first touchdown of the season was a 41 @-@ yard game @-@ tying catch from Griese in a 21 – 14 September 27 victory in the rivalry game against Notre Dame . During the season , Streets dislocated both thumbs , with the second injury occurring in the November 1 Little Brown Jug game against Minnesota . Streets caught no passes against either Minnesota or Penn State the following week . His production drought was notable and he recovered on November 15 with five catches for 108 yards including a 38 @-@ yard touchdown from Griese on November 15 against Wisconsin . Although the injury @-@ hampered Streets went without a catch in three of the last four regular season tames he caught touchdown passes of 53 and 58 yards and drew a key pass interference penalty in the 1998 Rose Bowl . The Rose Bowl performance was Streets ' season @-@ high with 127 receiving yards and two touchdowns . It helped solidify Michigan 's case as the Bowl Alliance national champion .
In 1998 , Streets ' returned for his senior season with several experienced receivers including 1997 All @-@ American tight end Tuman . The 1998 Michigan Wolverines football team entered the season with a quarterback battle between Brady , Driesbach and Drew Henson and wide receiver battle between David Terrell and Marquise Walker . In the season September 5 opening game loss against Notre Dame , Streets caught 8 passes for 101 yards in the first half and Marcus Knight accounted for 126 of Michigan 's 322 passing yards from Brady and Henson . Streets had back @-@ to @-@ back 100 yard games in October : He posted 117 yards on eight receptions in the October 24 homecoming game against Indiana , and he had a career @-@ high 192 yards against Minnesota on October 31 . Against Ohio State , he caught Michigan 's only touchdown in a 31 – 16 November 21 loss as part of a 9 catch and 118 yard effort . In the game @-@ tying touchdown drive in the fourth quarter of the 1999 Florida Citrus Bowl victory over Arkansas , Streets caught a 15 @-@ yard completion on third @-@ and @-@ 11 and the 8 @-@ yarder on fourth @-@ and @-@ 2 on his way to a career @-@ ending 7 @-@ catch 129 @-@ yard effort . Streets caught a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown pass and two @-@ point conversion in the January 23 , 1999 Senior Bowl , and he was on the January 24 , 1999 Hula Bowl roster .
As a senior , Streets totalled 1035 yards and 11 touchdowns on 76 receptions , and he was named team Most Valuable Player for the 1998 season . Streets was voted to the All @-@ Big Ten Second Team in 1998 . Streets remains second to Jack Clancy on the all @-@ time Michigan single game receptions yardage list with 192 . Streets led the Michigan receivers statistically for three consecutive years from 1996 – 1998 ( Yards 1996 – 1998 , Receptions 1996 & 1998 , Receiving touchdowns 1997 – 1998 ) . Streets finished his career at Michigan with 2284 yards and 19 touchdowns on 144 receptions .
At the March NFL Combine , Streets ran the third fastest 40 @-@ yard dash in a time of 4 @.@ 42 seconds . Streets was regarded as between the 6th and 8th best wide receiver in the 1999 NFL Draft according to most expert analyses in April . However , he ruptured his right achilles tendon in a pickup basketball game prior to the draft and was expected to be sidelined for six to eight months . As a result , he was the twentieth wide receiver selected . Streets , who was on crutches at the time of the draft , was relieved to have been drafted .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Francisco 49ers = = =
The San Francisco 49ers , who had Jerry Rice , Terrell Owens , and J. J. Stokes , did not need a wide receiver right away and gambled on the projected 2nd @-@ round selection with their sixth round pick . Head coach Steve Mariucci said that the team had evaluated his prospect as an injured athlete and had determined him to be a good selection for later rounds despite his injury . Streets was the only 1999 draftee not to sign in July when the other draftees signed , but he signed just before the end of the month . Just before the season started , Streets was placed on the reserve non @-@ football injury list in order to make roster space for Na 'il Benjamin and Damon Griffin . Streets was activated onto the 53 @-@ man roster prior to week 13 of the season to replace the injured R. W. McQuarters . He activated for the gameday roster three weeks later for the final two games . In his second game , he caught his first two NFL receptions on the Monday Night Football season finale .
When Streets had the chance to exhibit his skills during the 2000 NFL season for the 2000 49ers , he proved himself to be the only speed receiver with the ability to create big plays downfield , but he remained the fourth receiver . During the season as the number four receiver , Streets caught a total of 19 receptions , and he caught four in both games Owens was inactive . In mid @-@ December , Streets broke his tibia and ended his season two weeks prior to the end of the season . The game was Rice 's last home game as a 49er and the day that Owens set the then @-@ NFL record for single @-@ game receptions , with 20 .
In the 2001 NFL season , Rice signed with the Oakland Raiders . Streets became the number three receiver for the 2001 49ers behind Stokes and Owens that season . In the season opener against the Atlanta Falcons , Streets totaled 81 yards receiving as part of a 335 @-@ yard day by Garcia . This was Streets ' single @-@ game season @-@ high yardage total for the season . It included a 52 @-@ yard overtime catch on 3rd @-@ and @-@ 5 in the game @-@ winning drive , the longest reception of Streets ' career and more yards than he would accumulate in any single game the rest of the season . Streets recorded his first career touchdown on December 2 , 2001 against the Buffalo Bills . Over the course of the season Streets started three games and his total receptions and yards compared to the prior season increased from 19 to 28 and 287 to 345 , respectively . The 2001 – 02 NFL playoffs were Streets ' NFL playoff debut . In the team 's only game against Green Bay , Streets tied for the team @-@ high with four receptions and 50 yards , just two yards short of Stokes ' 52 @-@ yard effort . Streets caught a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown and game @-@ tying two @-@ point conversion in the game , but the 49ers yielded ten fourth quarter points to lose 25 – 15 .
In the 2002 NFL season , Stokes often performed the role of a tight end , and got injured clearing the way for Streets to start in some games for the 2002 49ers . Streets started a total of 14 games that season . He had eight receptions three times , but recorded no 100 @-@ yard games . The final eight @-@ reception game against the Arizona Cardinals on December 21 would prove to be Streets ' career @-@ high 90 @-@ yard game . The following week on the final Monday Night game of the regular season , Streets posted his first and only two @-@ touchdown effort in a losing cause against the St. Louis Rams . That season , Streets posted his career @-@ highs in yards ( 756 ) and receptions ( 72 ) and totaled five touchdowns for the first time . The 49ers ' season continued into the 2002 – 03 NFL playoffs and Streets caught five receptions in both of the teams ' playoff games , including a game @-@ winning touchdown with one minute remaining in the January 5 , 2003 39 – 38 victory over the New York Giants . The Giants game was memorable for its 24 @-@ point comeback by the 49ers . Despite the natural glory of the game @-@ winning catch , Streets remained a modest footnote in the press and humble with his friends . After the season , Streets was a restricted free agent . He was expected to be signed and traded to another team before the 2003 NFL draft in order to improve the 49ers ' draft position .
The team replaced Mariucci with Dennis Erickson in February 2003 . Before the 2003 NFL season , Stokes , who at the end of 2002 had been struggling to hold on to the third receiver position , was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars . Streets started every game for the 2003 49ers . His best performance in terms of receptions and yards was a December 14 6 @-@ reception 89 @-@ yard day that included a 41 @-@ yard touchdown against the Cincinnati Bengals , which was his longest reception of the season . That season he totaled 47 receptions and 595 yards as well as a career @-@ high seven touchdowns . Over the course of the season he was slowed by knee tendinitis and after the season he wanted to return to the Midwest . Streets along with Owens , starting quarterback Garcia and starting running back Garrison Hearst , and starting offensive linemen Derrick Deese and Ron Stone were all let go by the team that year . That is regarded as the biggest release of offensive starters in NFL history by a team in a single season .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
In March , Streets signed with the Detroit Lions , for the 2004 NFL season . In the 2004 NFL Draft , the Lions drafted wide receiver Roy Williams with the seventh overall selection one year after drafting Rogers in the first round . Williams and Rogers were projected as the starters with Streets considered the third receiver as the season began . Rogers broke his collarbone on the third play of the season and was lost for the entire year . Streets started 12 of the 13 games that he played for the 2004 Lions while accumulating 260 yards on 28 receptions . In the seventh game against the Dallas Cowboys on October 31 , Roy Williams leveled Streets , who did not catch another pass in the game after the second quarter hit . Streets did not return to practice until November 17 . He was in the lineup on November 21 , and caught a pass against the Minnesota Vikings . Streets was listed with an injured knee after the December 26 game against the Chicago Bears . Streets did not appear in the Lions ' final game of the season on January 2 . After the season , he was an unrestricted free agent , due to his years of seniority . The 49ers received a compensatory draft pick in the 2005 NFL Draft for losing Streets to free agency . Instead of re @-@ signing Streets , the Lions signed wide receiver Kevin Johnson in April 2005 .
= = Personal = =
Streets was active in mentoring and coaching youth basketball while he was a professional football player . He coached a team to the 16 @-@ under national AAU championship . Streets was actively involved in creating and expanding the Chicago @-@ area AAU basketball program . He founded and coaches the Meanstreets AAU travelling club team , that has included players like Anthony Davis . Streets was also active in coaching local all @-@ star games , such as the spring game sponsored by The Star / Daily Southtown , Balmoral Park Race Track , McDonald 's , Comcast and radio station 99 @.@ 9 FM .
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= Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar =
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar was a commemorative coin issue in gold dated 1903 . Struck in two varieties , the coins were designed by United States Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber . The pieces were issued to commemorate the Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in 1904 in St. Louis ; one variety depicted former president Thomas Jefferson , and the other , the recently assassinated president William McKinley . Although not the first American commemorative coins , they were the first in gold .
Promoters of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition , originally scheduled to open in 1903 , sought a commemorative coin for fundraising purposes . Congress authorized an issue in 1902 , and exposition authorities , including numismatic promoter Farran Zerbe , sought to have the coin issued with two designs , to aid sales . The price for each variety was $ 3 , the same cost whether sold as a coin , or mounted in jewelry or on a spoon .
The coins did not sell well , and most were later melted . Zerbe , who had promised to support the issue price of the coins , did not do so as prices dropped once the fair ( rescheduled for 1904 ) closed . This drop , however , did not greatly affect Zerbe 's career , as he went on to promote other commemorative coins and become president of the American Numismatic Association . The coins also recovered , regaining their issue price by 1915 ; they are now worth between a few hundred and several thousand dollars , depending on condition .
= = Background = =
Much of the area near the Mississippi River was explored by French explorers in the 17th and 18th centuries . In 1682 , René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle , claimed the entire area drained by the river for France , naming it Louisiana for Louis XIV . Although most French territory in the Western Hemisphere was lost in the French and Indian War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , the Mississippi basin did not pass to the victors in that war ( primarily the British ) as it had been secretly transferred to Spain by the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau .
Napoleon came to power in 1799 . Dreaming of a renewed French empire , he secured the return of the Louisiana territory from Spain via the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso the following year , and through other agreements . These pacts were initially secret , and newly inaugurated American President Thomas Jefferson learned of them in 1801 . Fearing that the port of New Orleans would be closed to American shipping , he sent former Virginia senator James Monroe to France to assist American Minister Robert Livingston in purchasing the lower Mississippi ; Congress appropriated $ 2 million for the purpose .
When the Americans met with Napoleon , they found that the emperor desired to sell the entire territory , much of which was unmapped and unexplored by white men ; Napoleon was faced with defeat in revolting Haiti and feared that the British would capture New Orleans , meaning he would lose Louisiana with no compensation . After some haggling , they agreed on a price of 60 million francs , plus 20 million more to pay claims by American citizens against France — a total of some $ 15 million , which paid for some 828 @,@ 500 square miles ( 2 @,@ 146 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . The treaty was signed on April 30 , 1803 , and , although there was some question as to whether there was constitutional power for such a purchase , the American Senate ratified the treaty on October 20 , 1803 . The United States took formal possession two months later .
The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States , and today forms much of the center of the country . Desirous of honoring the centennial of the purchase , Congress passed authorizing legislation for an exposition ; the bill was signed by President William McKinley on March 3 , 1901 . McKinley was assassinated in September of that year .
= = Preparation = =
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar was authorized by Congress on June 28 , 1902 , when President Theodore Roosevelt signed an appropriations bill that included a $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 rider to subsidize the Louisiana Purchase Exposition . The bill in question authorized 250 @,@ 000 gold one @-@ dollar pieces to be paid over to the exposition organizers as part of the appropriation , upon their posting a bond that they would fulfill the requirements of the legislation . The bill did not specify the wording or design to be placed on the coins , leaving that to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury .
Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their encyclopedia of commemorative coins , suggested that the decision to have multiple designs was " through some unrecorded agreement " . The legislation was ambiguous enough to permit such an interpretation , and numismatist Farran Zerbe urged the Mint to strike more than one type of coin , stating that sales would be increased if this was done . Zerbe was not only a collector ( he would serve as president of the American Numismatic Association from 1908 to 1910 ) , but he also promoted numismatics with his traveling exhibition , " Money of the World " . He was involved in the distribution of commemorative coins from the Columbian half dollar of 1892 to the Panama @-@ Pacific issue of 1915 , and would be the sole distributor of Louisiana Purchase dollars .
On August 12 , 1902 , Treasury Secretary Leslie M. Shaw wrote to former Missouri governor David R. Francis , one of the promoters of the exposition , enquiring what design exposition officials would like to see on the reverse of the coins . Although Francis 's response is not extant , Mint authorities originally determined upon an olive branch surrounding a numeral " 1 " . This was apparently disliked by the Director of the Mint , George E. Roberts , for on October 2 , 1902 , Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis wrote to him , enclosing cardboard impressions of the original and revised proposed reverses . The new design had the value spelled out and the letter stated that the changes were being made at Roberts 's suggestion . On October 13 , Barber went to Washington ( where the director 's office was located ) to confer with Roberts about the design . Roberts considered the olive branch " too conspicuous " , given the size of the coin and the lettering , and asked that the branch be reduced in size . This apparently was done . By September 1902 , work upon the dies for the obverses , showing the heads of McKinley and Jefferson , being worked upon by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , was well @-@ advanced .
In December 1902 , the Philadelphia Mint struck 75 @,@ 080 gold dollars . These were dated 1903 , a violation of normal Mint practice to have the date of striking on the coin . This was not unprecedented ; the 1900 @-@ dated Lafayette dollar had been struck in December 1899 . It is not known which gold dollar was first struck . In January 1903 , an additional 175 @,@ 178 pieces were coined ; the excess of 258 over the authorized mintage was set aside for testing by the annual Assay Commission . There is no difference between those pieces struck in 1902 and those minted in 1903 . Fifty thousand pieces were sent to the St. Louis sub @-@ treasury on December 22 , 1902 , to await the organizing committee 's compliance with other parts of the law , most likely relating to the required posting of a bond .
The first 100 specimens of each design were struck in a proof finish . These were mounted on cardboard with presentation certificates and presented to favored insiders and Mint officials ; they were not available to the public . The certificates were signed by Superintendent Landis , and by Rhine R. Freed , Chief Coiner of the Philadelphia Mint . The coin was placed inside a holder with wax paper window , secured into place with heavy string with that mint 's seal . These were the first commemorative gold coins struck by the United States .
= = Design = =
Barber took the design for the Jefferson obverse from the former president 's Indian Peace Medal , created by engraver John Reich , who used a bust by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon as his model . The chief engraver modeled the McKinley obverse after his own design for the fallen president 's medal issued by the Mint . Barber 's medal had been modeled from life ; McKinley had sat for the chief engraver . The reverse , for both coins , contains the denomination , a commemorative inscription , and an olive branch above the anniversary dates .
Coin dealer B. Max Mehl deemed the issue " the most attractive of all of our commemorative gold dollars " . Others disagreed ; Swiatek and Breen criticized the pieces , stating that Jefferson 's " facial features , inaccurately rendered by Charles E. Barber , have acquired a resemblance to Napoleon Bonaparte , the other party in the Louisiana Purchase transaction . " Stating that McKinley was recognizable by his bow tie , they note of the reverse , " the olive branch — if that is the plant intended — may refer to this 828 @,@ 000 square mile territory 's acquisition by peaceful means " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay criticized Reich 's medal , stating that it " is hardly elegant , with Jefferson hunched unpleasantly in the circle as though placed there by a modern Procrustes " . Taxay noted that Barber 's rendition of McKinley for that medal had attracted the insult of " deadly " from the chief engraver 's longtime enemy , sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule criticized the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar and the Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar issued in 1904 – 1905 : " the lack of spark in these coins , as in so many designs by Barber or [ Assistant Engraver George T. ] Morgan , stems from the fact that the faces , hair , and drapery are flat and the lettering is small , crowded , and even . " He did not believe that the problems he saw were due to the small size of the dollar , stating that the gold dollar of the Panama @-@ Pacific issue , by Charles Keck , is far more beautiful . Vermeule noted that contemporary accounts saw the 1903 issue as an innovation ; a 1904 article in the American Journal of Numismatics stated that they " indicate a popular desire for a new departure from the somewhat monotonous types of Liberty which have characterized our money ... If this tendency could make itself felt on the regular coinage , it would give a new zeal to collectors . " Beginning in 1909 with the Lincoln cent , the Mint would depict an actual person on the circulating coinage ; this would become more common with the 1932 Washington quarter .
= = Distribution , aftermath , and collecting = =
The fair at St. Louis opened on April 30 , 1904 , a year later than originally planned . It was one of the largest World 's Fairs in area , set over 1 @,@ 272 acres ( 515 ha ) in Forest Park . There were 15 major buildings and a host of smaller exhibits , and it is doubtful if many attendees saw more than a fraction of the attractions — seeing everything in the Agricultural Building alone required a walk of 9 miles ( 14 km ) . Twenty million people attended the exposition , which inspired the popular song , " Meet Me in St. Louis " .
The coins were sold at $ 3 each . They were available in a case of issue , or could be purchased mounted in spoons and various sorts of jewelry . Some were mounted with solder , which has impaired their present @-@ day numismatic value ; others were sold with mountings that did not damage the coin . Zerbe had thought of these varied ways of selling the coin , and many of the sales at the fair were in this manner . No additional charge was made for these adornments .
Zerbe also promoted the pieces to the numismatic community . Although the $ 3 price was not high by later standards , triple face value was considered excessive by many coin collectors , and the coins did not sell well . Efforts by Zerbe to promote the pieces included proposing that the government produce a billion @-@ dollar gold piece to be exhibited at the fair , and co @-@ ordinating sales with the vendors of near @-@ worthless replicas of tiny gold pieces struck privately in California in pioneer days , which were half price with the purchase of a dollar coin . Thomas L. Elder , a dealer coming into prominence at that time , spoke out against Zerbe , calling him a huckster whose advertising was misleading and who was bringing discredit upon coin dealers .
The organizers , including Zerbe , promised to support the $ 3 issue price against the possibility of price drops on the secondary market . Prices of the Columbian half dollar and Lafayette dollar had fallen and remained below their issue prices . By November 1903 , only about 10 @,@ 000 of the gold pieces had been sold , including sales to the fair 's promoters and others interested in it . According to numismatist Q. David Bowers , fairgoers likely accounted for several thousand coins , but the bulk of the distribution was to coin dealers and collectors . Zerbe sold them at his coin exhibit for years afterwards ; coin dealer B. Max Mehl bought thousands from Zerbe at just over face value . These were sold in Mehl 's mail order sales through the 1920s . Despite efforts by Zerbe which Bowers finds " enthusiastic or even heroic " , only about 35 @,@ 000 were sold to the public ; the remaining 215 @,@ 000 were returned to the Mint and melted around 1914 .
Numismatist David M. Bullowa in 1938 noted that the Mint kept no records of how many of each variety was melted , but that he thought that about 10 % more of the McKinley issue was sold . Bowers , writing about a half century later , opined to the contrary ; that in his experience and in grading service reports , the Jefferson coin was slightly more prevalent . Swiatek , in his 2012 book , prints statistics showing the number of pieces examined by the numismatic grading services , indicating more Jefferson dollars than McKinley .
Despite Zerbe 's statement that he would support the issue price of the coins at $ 3 , he did not do so and the price of the dollars fell to about $ 2 by late 1905 . Their market price again reached $ 3 by about 1915 , and thereafter continued to rise . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( the Red Book ) lists both the Jefferson and the McKinley variety at prices ranging from $ 500 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) condition to $ 2 @,@ 150 in near pristine MS @-@ 66 condition , though the Jefferson is more expensive in some intermediate grades .
Zerbe stated in 1905 that he " was the only man to sell 50 @,@ 000 dollars at $ 3 apiece " . In 1923 , he wrote in an article that the Louisiana Purchase dollars had always sold for $ 3 or more " for the particular reason that the one in charge of their sale felt a price protection obligation to every purchaser . " He did not , however , identify himself as " the one in charge of their sale " .
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= Hans Waldmann ( fighter pilot ) =
Hans Peter Waldmann ( 24 September 1922 – 18 March 1945 ) was a German Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) fighter ace and recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( German : Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) , an honour that recognised extreme bravery on the battlefield or outstanding military leadership . Waldmann received the award after he had shot down 85 enemy aircraft . In total , he was credited with 134 aerial victories accumulated in 527 combat missions .
Born in Braunschweig , Waldmann volunteered for service in the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany in 1940 . After training at various pilot and fighter @-@ pilot schools , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , operating on the Eastern Front , in August 1942 . Here Waldmann fought in the aerial battles over Stalingrad , the Caucasus , the Black Sea , and the Crimea . He was credited with 84 aerial victories before briefly being transferred to the Western Front , where he was credited with one aerial victory . Back on the Eastern Front , Waldmann accumulated further victories , bringing his score to 125 victories by end of May 1944 . He then fought in the skies over France after the Western Allied Invasion of Normandy , claiming seven aerial victories , before converting to the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter in late 1944 . Flying the Me 262 , Waldmann shot down two North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs on 22 February 1945 before being killed in a mid @-@ air collision with one of his squadron members on 18 March 1945 near Schwarzenbek , Holstein .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Waldmann was born in Braunschweig in the Free State of Brunswick on 24 September 1922 . He was the second son of Ludwig Waldmann , a bank manager , and his wife Maria . Waldmann had an older brother Paul . In 1928 he attended the Volksschule , a primary school , in the Comenius @-@ Street . Over Easter in 1932 he transferred to the humanities @-@ oriented secondary school Wilhelm @-@ Gymnasium .
In 1938 , Waldmann applied for a career as an officer in the Luftwaffe for the first time . Travelling to Berlin , he was deemed suitable but at the age of 16 was too young to volunteer for military service . After the outbreak of World War II , while still at school , Waldmann and his fellow students were forced into compulsory labour service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst ) . Waldmann was assigned to the Brunswick Mechanical Engineering Institute . Since Waldmann had intended to study aircraft construction after his military service , he was reassigned to the Institute of Aeronautical Metrology and Flight Meteorology at the Braunschweig @-@ Waggum airfield under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Heinrich Koppe .
At the end of March 1940 , Waldmann graduated from school with his Abitur ( diploma ) . After this he was accepted into the Luftwaffe , two years after his initial application . Commencing in July 1940 , he undertook 12 weeks of basic military training with Fliegerausbildungsregiment 72 ( 72nd Flight Training Regiment ) at Fels am Wagram in Austria . Upon completion , Waldmann was transferred to the Flugzeugführerschule A / B 72 ( flight school for the pilot license ) at Markersdorf near Sankt Pölten in early October 1940 . Eight days later his training group returned to Fels am Wagram because Markersdorf was overcrowded with other flight courses . Thus flight training started on the improvised airfield without hangars at Fels am Wagram . His first familiarisation flight was on 16 October 1940 , in a Bücker Bü 131 " Jungmann " biplane marked " VTAF " . Waldmann logged his first solo flight on 13 November 1940 at 09 : 17 in a Bü 131 " CGNL " , landing again after six minutes of flight time . His training group returned to Markersdorf in February 1941 . From here , he conducted his first cross @-@ country flights on the Bü 131 " Jungmann " as well as the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 " Stieglitz " . The majority of the cross @-@ country flights were flown on the Gotha Go 145 . From 4 April to 28 April 1941 he made the round trip from Markersdorf to Pocking , Nürnberg , Ettingshausen , Ingolstadt , Zwickau , Hildesheim , Braunschweig , Mannheim , Karlsruhe , Delmenhorst , Halberstadt and Fürth . At Ettingshausen he received instruction in formation flying and aerobatics .
By August 1941 Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , had been underway for two months , and after completing his A / B flight training at Markersdorf Waldmann was transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule 6 ( 6th Fighter Pilot School ) at Lachen @-@ Speyerdorf near Neustadt an der Weinstraße . He completed the final phase of his fighter pilot training in Gleiwitz , Upper Silesia , from 3 June to 17 August 1942 , before transferring to the front .
= = World War II = =
Holding the rank of unteroffizier , a non @-@ commissioned officer similar in rank to sergeant , on 20 August 1942 Waldmann was tasked with shuttling new Messerschmitt Bf @-@ 109Gs from a factory at Krakau to units on the Eastern Front . Along with six other newly trained pilots , he reached Lemberg where the group was scheduled for a stop over . Bad weather closed in and Waldmann was the only one to take off before the group was grounded . Getting away at 17 : 55 , he headed for Proskuriv . The next day he continued his journey to Uman , 230 kilometres ( 140 mi ) south of Kiev in Ukraine . For the next few days , he was sent back and forth until he finally reached the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) at Tusow , operating in the combat area of Stalingrad .
On arrival , Waldmann was approached by Hauptmann ( Captain ) Johannes Steinhoff and asked whether he would like to fly as his wingman . Waldmann then conducted six familiarisation flights on the " Gustav " , as the Bf @-@ 109G @-@ 2 was referred to , on 30 August 1942 . Flying a Bf @-@ 109 marked with a black " Chevron @-@ 2 " , indicating an aircraft of the Stab , he flew his first combat mission on 31 August 1942 in the vicinity of Stalingrad . Steinhoff was impressed by his first performance . At the time , Waldmann was still officially assigned to a transfer squadron , but Steinhoff decided to keep him in his Stabs @-@ Schwarm , flight of four . Here his comrades nicknamed Waldmann " Dackel " , an allusion to his last name . In German , a " Dackel " , or Dachshund , is often named Waldi , a hypocoristic form of Waldmann .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
On 9 September 1942 Waldmann scored his first aerial victory , and thereafter scored rapidly . After 84 victories on 1 September 1943 , Waldmann was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) and assigned to Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Ost ( Supplementary Fighter Group East ) . Here he was credited with the destruction of a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress on 5 January 1944 . This victory , his 85th , was actually a separation @-@ shot — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box — which counted as an aerial victory . Waldmann had attacked a 28 @-@ aircraft bomber formation and severely damaged the B @-@ 17 . The aerial @-@ victory commission of Luftflotte 3 also credited the Flak @-@ Regiment 45 of 12 . Flak @-@ Brigade with this victory . Following this aerial victory , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 5 February 1944 . The presentation of the award was announced by the Greater German Radio — the official radio station of the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda — on the evening of 20 February 1944 .
In late February 1944 Waldmann was sent back to the Crimean peninsula on the Eastern Front , where he took command of 4 . / JG 52 ( 4th Squadron of the 52nd Fighter Wing ) as its Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) . He continued his success , claiming eight aerial victories in March , and 16 in April of which eight were claimed from 5 – 12 April . On 11 April 1944 he claimed two Yakovlev Yak @-@ 7s as his 99th and 100th opponents shot down . He was the 70th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . By 31 May 1944 his score stood at 125 aerial victories . Two Staffeln ( squadrons ) of the II . / JG 52 were transferred to Huși at the Prut River on 27 May 1944 . Here Waldmann claimed his final four victories on the Eastern Front before Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) Major Gerhard Barkhorn was ordered to transfer one Staffel to the west in Defence of the Reich . Barkhorn selected Waldmann 's 4th Staffel which was officially assigned to the II . / Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , at the time under the command of Hauptmann Hans @-@ Ekkehard Bob .
= = = Invasion of Normandy = = =
The Invasion of Normandy , which started on the early morning of 6 June 1944 , was in full swing by the time Waldmann 's Staffel arrived in France . The Western Allies were already breaking out of Normandy in what was codenamed Operation Cobra . II . / JG 3 " Udet " ( 2nd Group of the 3rd Fighter Wing ) was stationed at Nogent @-@ le @-@ Roi , roughly 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) southwest of Paris . The Gruppe was tasked with ground support missions . In one of these missions against the Allied invasion forces , Waldmann claimed to have damaged a P @-@ 51 Mustang on 31 July 1944 . He was credited with the destruction of numerous trucks during ground support missions over the period of 2 – 5 August 1944 .
Waldmann 's claimed his first aerial victory in the west , his 126th in total , over a B @-@ 24 Liberator on 6 August 1944 . Waldmann had taken off at 11 : 43 on a free @-@ fighter sweep mission against heavy bombers . His unit spotted a formation of B @-@ 24s after 45 minutes flying time . Waldmann attacked and with his first pass at an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) had hit one of the B @-@ 24 between the two starboard engines , which immediately set the bomber on fire . The B @-@ 24 was observed to crash 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southeast of Méry . His final tally for August was seven Allied planes , including the B @-@ 24 , one Auster on 7 August , and five P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts ( two on 14 August , two on 18 August and one on 19 August ) .
= = = Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 and death = = =
Waldmann learned to fly the Messerschmitt Me 262 " Stormbird " , the first operational jet fighter , at Landsberg am Lech and Kaltenkirchen in December 1944 . He was then transferred to 3 . / Jagdgeschwader 7 ( JG 7 — 7th Fighter Wing ) , now flying the " Stormbird " , as its Staffelführer ( squadron leader on probation ) .
Together with his wingman ‚ Oberfähnrich Günter Schrey , Waldmann took off at 11 : 39 on 22 February 1945 from Oranienburg on an offensive counter @-@ air mission against inbound Allied heavy bombers . The Anglo @-@ American attack was codenamed Operation Clarion . About 20 minutes into the flight , roughly 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Berlin , they spotted an American P @-@ 51 Mustang flying at 7 @,@ 000 metres ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) . Closing fast , Waldmann shot down the Mustang at 12 : 02 before proceeding west for Magdeburg . Near Oschersleben they spotted another Mustang at 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) . Waldmann shot it down at 12 : 17 , achieving his 134th and final aerial victory . The Mustang was observed crashing into a forest 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) northeast of the Brocken , the highest peak of the Harz mountain range .
On Sunday , 18 March 1945 , the lower cloud ceiling at Kaltenkirchen was less than 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) and most of the time between 80 – 100 metres ( 260 – 330 ft ) , while the upper cloud ceiling was at 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) , rendering flight conditions outside the official operational specification for the Me 262 . The jet was not fully cleared for instrument flight , mandating a lower cloud ceiling of more than 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . Major Erich Rudorffer , Gruppenkommandeur of the I. / JG 7 , was attending a meeting at the Luftgaukommando in Hamburg @-@ Blankensee , when Oberleutnant Hans Grünberg , the most senior officer on duty and Staffelkapitän of the 1st Staffel , received the order from Major Richter , the Ia ( operations officer ) , to engage inbound heavy bombers . Grünberg initially argued that weather conditions prohibited a safe takeoff but Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring intervened and ordered the jets to engage the enemy .
The order resulted in the death of both Waldmann and his wingman Schrey on the following mission . Waldmann was killed following a mid @-@ air collision with Leutnant Hans @-@ Dieter Weihs shortly after takeoff , and Schrey was killed in combat with US fighters . Mindful of the direct order of the Reichsmarschall , Oberleutnant Grünberg ( 1st Staffel ) , Oberleutnant Fritz Stehle ( 2nd Staffel ) and Waldmann ( 3rd Staffel ) had decided that each of them would lead a flight of four Me 262s , taking off and flying around for an hour before returning without trying to engage the enemy . Grünberg 's Schwarm took off first followed by Stehle 's Schwarm . Waldmann chose Weihs , as the most experienced pilot trained in instrument flight , to lead the Schwarm , while Schrey once again served as Waldmann 's wingman . Waldmann 's Me 262 A @-@ 1 " Yellow 3 " ( Werknummer 117097 — factory number ) took off at 12 : 24 and Weihs ordered the Schwarm to form a close formation , flying wing tip to wing tip .
Only three Me 262s took off ; Flieger Gerhard Reiher 's Me 262 had experienced engine failure . Four minutes into the flight , having travelled roughly 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) and flying at less than 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) above the ground , Weihs ' aircraft experienced a heavy blow from below after Waldmann collided with him . His jet in an unrecoverable spin , Weihs bailed out and came down near the Hamburg @-@ Berlin railroad tracks . The airfield at Kaltenkirchen was immediately informed . Waldmann and Schrey were initially believed missing . Waldmann 's body was recovered the next day near Schwarzenbek , roughly 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away from the crash site of his Me 262 . Apparently he had managed to bail out but failed to deploy his parachute in time , although the injuries sustained during the crash with Weihs ' aircraft may have already been fatal as the recovery party found Waldmann with his upper forehead smashed . Schrey was also found dead . He had bailed out with his parachute , but his body was found riddled by machine @-@ gun bullets .
The fallen airmen were buried with full military honours , including a Me 262 flypast , at the cemetery in Kaltenkirchen . Waldmann 's successor as Staffelkapitän , Oberleutnant Walter Wagner , accompanied Waldmann 's mother from Braunschweig to Kaltenkirchen for the funeral . A number of wreaths were laid on his grave , the largest sent by the Reichsmarschall . Waldmann was recommended for the Oak Leaves to the Knight 's Cross , but the recommendation was either not approved or not finalized before the end of the war .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Hans Waldmann was credited with 134 aerial victories , claimed in 527 combat missions , 10 on the Western Front and 124 on the Eastern Front . His tally on the Eastern Front includes five bombers , 86 fighters and 33 Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik ground @-@ attack aircraft . On the Western Front he claimed seven fighters , two four @-@ engined bombers and one observation aircraft . He also flew a number of ground attack missions , destroying 33 various vehicles and eight heavy transports .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Waldmann an ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates an Herausschuss ( separation shot ) — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box which was counted as an aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 25 September 1942 )
1st Class ( 11 November 1942 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold ( 1 February 1943 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe on 15 March 1943 as Unteroffizier and pilot
German Cross in Gold on 17 April 1943 as Unteroffizier in the 6 . / JG 52
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 5 February 1944 as Feldwebel and pilot in the 6 . / JG 52
Hans Waldmann may have been awarded a posthumous Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . Oberst Nicolaus von Below processed such a request between 20 April 1945 and 2 May 1945 , although no official proof exists .
= = Translation notes = =
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= Andy Hedlund =
Andy Hedlund ( born May 16 , 1978 , in Osseo , Minnesota ) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman . He played for the Trenton Titans , Binghamton Senators , Hershey Bears , Krefeld Penguins , Adler Mannheim , DEG Metro Stars and EHC Black Wings Linz in his career .
Hedlund began his career playing for the Fargo @-@ Moorhead Ice Sharks of the United States Hockey League before moving onto Minnesota State University , Mankato , for college . Playing in three years for Minnesota State – Mankato , he totaled 15 goals and 18 assists in 111 games . Following college he was signed by the Ottawa Senators and was assigned to the Trenton Titans . He played in 15 games for the Titans for parts of two seasons , recording one goal and an assist before being called up to the Binghamton Senators . Hedlund played three seasons in Binghamton , recording seven goals and 39 assists in 214 games . After going unsigned by an NHL team , Hedlund signed with the Krefeld Penguins of Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) in Germany . He spent one season with the Penguins , playing in 52 games and scoring a career @-@ high 12 goals and 22 assists . In June 2006 , Hedlund re @-@ signed with Ottawa and played 56 games with Binghamton scoring six goals , adding 21 assists . Ottawa traded Hedlund to the Washington Capitals midway through the season where he joined the Capitals affiliate . He left the Capitals organization following the season and went back to Germany , playing two seasons for the DEG Metro Stars .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Hedlund played collegiately at Minnesota State – Mankato . His first career goal came on February 28 , 1999 , during his sophomore season . He ended that season with four goals , two assists and 58 penalty minutes in 36 games . At the start of his junior season , Hedlund was elevated to first line . Head coach Troy Jutting said of him , " He had a good freshman and sophomore season for us , where maybe he wasn 't counted on to be one of the top two , three guys . This year , he will be and I think he 's ready for that . " In his junior season , Hedlund played in 38 games , scoring six goals with six assists and 64 penalty minutes . As a senior in the 2001 – 02 season , he scored five goals with 10 assists and 48 penalty minutes while playing in 37 games .
= = = Professional = = =
2001 – 2004
After graduating , Hedlund signed with the Trenton Titans of the East Coast Hockey League for the final games of the 2001 – 02 season . He played in two games as a rookie and did not record a stat during the regular season , but in six playoff games he spent six minutes in the penalty box . In the 2002 – 03 season , he played in 13 games for Trenton recording a goal and two assists before he was called up to the American Hockey League 's Binghamton Senators . In Binghamton , he played in 59 games scoring one goal and adding seven assists . On January 16 , 2004 , against the Albany River Rats , Hedlund broke a 17 @-@ game streak in which he had gone scoreless after he recorded his first career overtime goal and his second career game @-@ winner . His previous goal was a game @-@ winning shot against Syracuse . He ended the 2003 – 04 season with four goals and 19 assists in 80 games . Before the 2004 – 05 season , Hedlund spent time in training camp with the Ottawa Senators before he was reassigned to Binghamton . The NHL season would eventually be locked out which saw players such as goaltender Dominik Hasek join the AHL . When Hasek began working out with Binghamton , Hedlund commented , " He 's just one of the guys when he 's here , he just wants to put in his time and get some good work in , and make sure he 's ready to go , so you just got to appreciate a guy like that being here and doing that kind of work , so its pretty fun . " A season preview produced by the website Hockey 's Future commented about Hedlund saying that , " A fan @-@ favorite , Hedlund gives it everything he has despite limited talent . " Against the Manitoba Moose on October 31 , Hedlund scored a goal from the blue line that tied the game , however the Senators ended up losing 5 – 3 . Following the season , he and Philadelphia Phantoms player Ben Stafford were named the AHL 's Men of the Year . During the season he played in 75 games , scoring two goals with 13 assists . In the playoffs , he played in six games recording two assists .
2005 – 2007
To begin the 2005 season , Hedlund joined the U. S. Men 's National Select Team . After his stint with Team USA , Hedlund left the Senators organization and joined the Krefeld Penguins in Germany . In only one season with Krefeld , Hedlund played in 52 games scoring 12 goals and 22 assists , both career @-@ highs . He also played in five playoff games , recording two assists .
Hedlund re @-@ signed with Ottawa on June 20 , 2006 . However , he was waived on October 2 . He cleared waivers a day later and was assigned to Binghamton . Against Syracuse on January 15 , Hedlund helped Binghamton rally to a 3 – 2 lead with a goal in the third period . However , the Senators ended up losing the game in a shootout . In one of his final games for the Senators on February 23 , Hedlund scored a goal against the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins . Before being traded , Hedlund recorded six goals and 21 assists in 56 games .
The Washington Capitals traded for Hedlund and a sixth @-@ round draft pick in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft on February 26 , 2007 , sending Lawrence Nycholat to Ottawa . Hedlund recorded eight assists in 21 games for the Bears . He left the team after the season , opting to return to Germany .
2007 – 2014
Hedlund joined the DEG Metro Stars of the DEL but before joining the team , he rejoined Team USA . Hedlund scored a goal for the team on November 8 that helped the USA defeat Germany , 3 – 2 . He ended the 2007 – 08 season with 12 goals and 23 assists in 55 games for the Metro Stars . In the 2008 – 09 season , Hedlund scored nine goals with 19 assists in 52 games with DEG . Following the season , he left DEG and joined Adler Mannheim . During his two seasons with the Metro Stars , he was a DEL All @-@ Star .
Hedlund spent the 2009 @-@ 10 season with Adler Mannheim , scoring six goals with nine assists in 54 games . He returned to DEG after the season . In his final season with the Metro Stars in 2011 – 12 , Hedlund led the DEL with 14 goals amongst defencemen .
On May 10 , 2012 , Hedlund left the DEL to sign a one @-@ year contract with EHC Black Wings Linz of the Austrian Hockey League . At the conclusion of his second season with Linz in 2013 – 14 season , Hedlund announced his retirement from professional hockey after 13 seasons .
= = Personal = =
In July 2008 , Hedlund returned to Minnesota State – Mankato to help out at a hockey camp in which he taught players one @-@ time shooting and passing . Hedlund 's mother works as a special needs teacher , and his sister is a social worker .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Mona Sax =
Mona Sax is a fictional character in the neo @-@ noir media franchise Max Payne , where she represents the femme fatale archetype . Mona is a mysterious contract killer in a dangerous relationship with the series ' titular protagonist , the policeman @-@ turned @-@ vigilante Max Payne . The character was portrayed by Kathy Tong and voiced by Julia Murney and Wendy Hoopes in the video games , and was played by Mila Kunis in the film adaptation .
Mona appears in the first two games in the series , Max Payne and Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne . She is the second player character in Max Payne 2 after Max , and her tragic love story with Max is the center of the game 's storyline . Mona also appears as a major character in the 2008 film Max Payne and makes a cameo appearance in the multiplayer mode of Max Payne 3 . The games ' version of the character was perceived highly positively by gaming community and mass media , but her portrayal in the movie received largely negative reviews .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Mona Sax is a mysterious professional assassin , living in a derelict theme park on Coney Island that she set up as her base . She is introduced in the first Max Payne game as the " evil twin " of her younger sister Lisa , the abused wife of the Mafia boss Angelo Punchinello . Mona is captured by Punchinello 's assassins before she could kill him , but manages to escape . It is revealed that she was employed by Nicole Horne , the renegade member of the secret society calling themselves the Inner Circle who has left the organization and manages the Aesir Industries , a mysterious corporation that is behind the drug Valkyr . Horne ordered to murder Punchinello since he wanted to act independent and out of her orders , a job Mona took because it was personal to her . By the end of the first game , Mona disappearss in the Aesir headquarters elevator after being shot in the head by mercenaries for refusing an order to kill Max .
In Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne , more focus is given to Max and Mona 's relationship , and she becomes one of the game 's two protagonists . Mona reappears as a suspect in the murder of the U.S. Senator Sebastian Gates . The case is assigned to Max Payne 's new partner , detective Valerie Winterson , but despite their past , Max does not inform the authorities that he knows Mona nor does he inform them of her visit to his apartment . During the course of the game , it is revealed that Mona is indeed the killer of Senator Gates . To save her , Max is forced to shoot the corrupt Winterson before she can execute Mona . Mona and Max work together to prevent shadowy hitmen known as Cleaners from eliminating both of them . Eventually , it is revealed that Mona 's employer was Alfred Woden , a U.S. senator and a member of the Inner Circle 's faction warring with the faction of the Russian mob boss Vladimir Lem . In the end , she is shot in the back by Lem , whom Max kills . She dies in Max 's arms as he kisses her , but lives on the game 's hardest difficulty level , " Dead on Arrival " .
Mona does not appear in the gameplay of the first Max Payne game , but appears only in its cutscenes . She became playable in four chapters of the first sequel , Max Payne 2 ( " Routing Her Synapses " , " Out of the Window " , " The Genius of the Hole " and " A Losing Game " ) . In it , Mona 's moves are more acrobatic than Max 's , and her sections involve several sniping sequences where Mona is using an exclusive Dragunov semi @-@ automatic rifle , which provides a covering fire for Max . Her other weapon is a .50 caliber Desert Eagle , a handgun that she also uses in the first game . Mona was also included as a playable multiplayer character in the Classic Multiplayer Character Pack of Max Payne 3 Special Edition .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Mona was portrayed by Mila Kunis in the movie version of Max Payne , whose role was described as " an assassin who teams up with the title character to avenge her sister 's death . " In the film , she is a Russian mobster and Max is the main suspect in the death of her sister Natasha ( an original character similar to the game 's Lisa and portrayed by Olga Kurylenko ) . Eventually , Max and Mona join forces to uncover the vast conspiracy behind the Valkyr drug . The film credits end with a scene of Max meeting Mona at a bar Ragnarock .
She also appears in the flashback sequences in the Marvel digital comic book Max Payne 3 : After the Fall . Her clothes for the Xbox Live Avatar were released by Rockstar Games on the Xbox LIVE Marketplace .
= = Portrayal = =
Mona 's visual actress in Max Payne 2 was Kathy Tong , a Hollywood model . According to the first two games ' writer Sam Lake , he " did want to switch to Mona [ ... ] but it was problematic . In the end , Max frames those sequences with his narration , saying that he doesn ’ t know exactly what happened , or what Mona did , but it must have been something like this . In other words , when you are playing Mona , you are actually experiencing Max ’ s guess of the events " . Regarding Mona 's possible survival at the end of Max Payne 2 , Rockstar 's Dan Houser stated that Max Payne 3 would " not continue that aspect of the story . We toyed with figuring out some way , or doing something clever , and then [ decided ] ' No , no , just move on from that bit of the story . ' It really didn 't work because there was no way of knowing the choices someone made . "
As a self @-@ described method actress , Kunis " took her job seriously " and " insisted on practicing a lot " , but disliked Mona 's outfit in the film , which was different from what the character wore in the games : " The clothes sucked . Oh my God , it was awful . Mark was like bundled up in jackets and wet suits and coats and turtlenecks and I was in a leather bustier and black pants and 5 inch heels . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Games = = =
The video game version of Mona Sax was critically acclaimed for being one of " relatively complex , non @-@ stereotypical female game characters " . She was included on the 2007 list of 50 greatest female characters in video game history by Tom 's Games , where she was described as " a stone @-@ cold killer who 's incredibly tempting but not entirely trustworthy " and " the perfect female accomplice to Max Payne . " In 2008 , PC Games Hardware also listed her as one of the most important female characters in video games . In 2012 , David Sanchez of GameZone proposed that Mona appear in her own spin @-@ off game , calling her " one of the sexiest femme fatales in all of gaming " , and added , " The fact of the matter is that Mona Sax is one hell of a character — one that hasn 't starred in her very own game , but one that could very well do so and deliver an unforgettable experience . " That same year , Austin Yorski of Blistered Thumbs listed Mona among his personal favorites while discussing the portrayals of video game female characters . In 2013 , Complex ranked her as the 20th best supporting character in video games .
Much of the positive reception came from the characters 's perceived sex appeal . In 2004 , the staff of TeamXbox ranked Mona as number ten on their list of top " Xbox Babes " , calling her " no princess waiting to be saved " and stating that she had replaced their " bad girl " type " childhood crush on G.I. Joe ’ s Baroness . " Polish edition of GameStar included her in their 2006 poll " Miss of the Video Game World " , in which she was voted at 17th place . The sex scene between Max and Mona , described as " actually one of the most fitting ever seen in a video game " , was ranked as the fifth top sexy moment in gaming by Games.net in 2007 . MSN included her on their 2009 list of gaming 's 12 " hottest babes " and wrote that " smart , sexy and dangerous " Mona was " remarkably presented in the game , being given the cold feel of a hired gun , with no regret or remorse " . Mona was also included on the list of nine " sexiest babes " of action games by The Times of India , who commented that she " fits in perfectly in the dark world of Max Payne . " The affair between Max and Mona was ranked as the tenth top video game romance by Joystick Division 's James Hawkins in 2011 , and as the sixth most disastrous game romance by GamesRadar 's Dave Meikleham that same year . They were also listed among the 25 best video game couples by IGN 's Emma Boyes in 2012 .
The character has also received some negative reception . In 2003 , Nick Catucci of The Village Voice called her " a woman carrying more emotional baggage than Witherspoon 's Elle Woods has pink Gucci suitcases " and stated , " And Max 's love interest ? A contract killer who survived being shot in the head , and who you also play : Mona Sax . Who wrote this crap , Ed Wood ? " Tyler Wilde of GamesRadar ranked a cheat to undress Mona nude for her gameplay sections in Max Payne 2 as the fourth rudest cheat in video games .
= = = Film = = =
Critical reception of the film character has been generally negative . For instance , Richard Corliss of TIME wrote Mila Kunis was " not up to the task " and GameZone 's David Sanchez opined that " Mila Kunis ain 't got nothin ' on Kathy Tong " . In 2011 , Complex ranked Kunis as the tenth most miscast action movie hero , because " her character , Mona Sax , is a heart @-@ attack @-@ serious Russian assassin , a description that brings to mind Amazon woman Brigitte Nielsen back in her Red Sonja days ; Kunis , on the other hand , is petite and angelic @-@ faced . " Nevertheless , Kunis was nominated in the category " Choice Movie Actress : Action Adventure " at Teen Choice Awards 2009 for her portrayal of Mona in the film . She was also ranked as the eighth " hottest game girl " by Phil Hornshaw of GameFront in 2010 because the role , along with her enjoyment of World of Warcraft , earned her " some digital street cred " .
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= Ibuki @-@ class armored cruiser =
The Ibuki class ( 伊吹型 , Ibuki @-@ gata ) , also called the Kurama class ( 鞍馬型 , Kurama @-@ gata ) , was a ship class of two large armoured cruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy after the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 . These ships reflected Japanese experiences during that war as they were designed to fight side @-@ by @-@ side with battleships and were given an armament equal to , or superior to existing Japanese battleships . The development of the battlecruiser the year before Ibuki was completed made her and her sister ship Kurama obsolete before they were completed because the foreign battlecruisers were much more heavily armed and faster .
Both ships played a small role in World War I as they unsuccessfully hunted for the German East Asia Squadron and the commerce @-@ raider SMS Emden and protected troop convoys in the Pacific Ocean shortly after the war began . The ships were sold for scrap in 1923 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design and description = =
The Ibuki @-@ class ships were originally ordered during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , on 31 January 1905 , as Tsukuba @-@ class armored cruisers . Before construction began , however , they were redesigned to incorporate 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns in four twin turrets rather than the dozen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in single mounts of the earlier ships . This required a larger hull to fit the turrets and thus more power from additional boilers to keep the same speed as the Tsukuba @-@ class ships .
These ships were given battleship @-@ grade armament to overpower existing armored cruisers and were intended to fight in the battleline with battleships , much as had the two Kasuga @-@ class armored cruisers had done in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . While more powerful than existing armored cruisers , the appearance of the British Invincible class in 1908 with their armament of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) rendered these ships obsolete before they were commissioned . They were reclassified as battlecruisers in 1912 .
The ships had an overall length of 485 feet ( 147 @.@ 8 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 450 feet ( 137 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 75 feet 6 inches ( 23 @.@ 0 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 feet 1 inch ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . They displaced 14 @,@ 636 long tons ( 14 @,@ 871 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 595 long tons ( 15 @,@ 845 t ) at full load , roughly 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than the earlier ships . The crew numbered about 845 officers and enlisted men . They had a metacentric height of 2 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 0 @.@ 902 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Both ships were intended to be powered by vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , but the long construction delays suffered by Ibuki made it possible for her to serve as a test @-@ bed for the steam turbine . Four sets of Curtis turbines were ordered from the Fore River Shipbuilding Co . , two each for Ibuki and the battleship Aki . A month later , the Japanese paid $ 100 @,@ 000 for a manufacturing license for the turbines .
Ibuki was equipped with two turbine sets , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 24 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) , intended to give a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) . They used steam provided by 18 mixed @-@ firing , superheater @-@ equipped Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers , with a working pressure of 17 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 667 kPa ; 242 psi ) , that sprayed fuel oil on the coal to increase its burn rate . Performance during Ibuki 's initial sea trials on 12 August 1909 was unsatisfactory as she only reached 20 @.@ 87 knots ( 38 @.@ 65 km / h ; 24 @.@ 02 mph ) despite the turbines exceeding their power rating with 27 @,@ 353 shp ( 20 @,@ 397 kW ) . The turbines were subsequently modified and the propellers were changed in an attempt to rectify the problem , but with only limited success . The ship ran her full @-@ power trials again on 23 June 1910 and reached a speed of 21 @.@ 16 knots ( 39 @.@ 19 km / h ; 24 @.@ 35 mph ) from 28 @,@ 977 shp ( 21 @,@ 608 kW ) .
Kurama used the traditional pair of four @-@ cylinder reciprocating steam engines with a power rating of 22 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) , 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) more than the older ships . She used the same type of boiler as Ibuki and derived the additional power from the addition of four boilers , for a total of 28 , which required an additional funnel . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coal and an additional 215 long tons ( 218 t ) of fuel oil although their range is unknown .
= = = Armament = = =
The Ibuki @-@ class armored cruisers were armed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in twin @-@ gun hydraulically powered centreline turrets . The guns had an elevation range of − 3 ° / + 23 ° and normally loaded their rounds at an angle of + 5 ° , although loading at any angle up to + 13 ° was theoretically possible . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yd ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . The intermediate armament was much heavier than the older ships , with four twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns mounted on each side . The guns could be elevated to + 30 ° which gave them a maximum range of around 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) . Their 254 @-@ pound ( 115 kg ) projectiles were fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 495 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) .
Defense against torpedo boats was mainly provided by fourteen 40 @-@ caliber 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , all but two of which were mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The gun fired a 45 @-@ pound ( 20 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with four 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt QF guns and four 23 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns on high @-@ angle mounts . Both of these guns fired 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) shells with muzzle velocities of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) and 1 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 450 m / s ) respectively . In addition , the cruisers were fitted with three submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and one in the stern . Each tube was provided with one training torpedo and two normal torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
Armor in the Ibuki class was improved compared to the earlier ships . The waterline armor belt of Krupp cemented armour was 7 inches ( 178 mm ) thick between the 12 @-@ inch gun turrets although it was only 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick fore and aft of the turrets . Above it was a strake of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) armor that extended between the eight @-@ inch gun turrets and protected the two central 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch casemates . In front of those turrets , the armor was 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick . The ends of the main armor belt were connected to the main gun barbettes by 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
The primary gun turrets were protected by armor plates 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick and they had a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) roof . The armour for the eight @-@ inch turrets was six inches thick . The main barbettes were protected by seven inches of armour and the secondary barbettes by five inches , although the armor for those thinned to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the upper armor belt . The thickness of the armored decks was two inches throughout the ship . The sides of the forward conning tower were eight inches thick and its communications tube to the main deck was seven inches in thickness .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
Construction of both ships was delayed by a lack of facilities at their shipyards , a shortage of appropriately trained workers and their low priority for building . Kurama 's lengthy building time at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal was due to priority given to the building of the battleships Kawachi and Settsu and the repair and reconstruction of the ex @-@ Russian ships captured after the Battle of Tsushima . Ibuki had to wait to have her keel laid until the slipway used by the battleship Aki became available after Aki was launched . Kure Naval Arsenal took advantage of the delay with Ibuki to stockpile material and components and set a record between keel @-@ laying and launching of five months , a figure only bettered by Portsmouth Naval Dockyard when they built the battleship Dreadnought in only four months . The decision to switch from reciprocating engines to turbines in Ibuki and Aki was not made until five days after Ibuki 's launching and thereafter she received priority over the battleship so that she was completed less than two years later , the first ship in the Imperial Japanese Navy to use steam turbines . In fact , construction on Aki was completely halted for about five months in favor of Ibuki because the former 's turbines were late and the cruiser was better suited to serve as the testbed for the new technology .
Ibuki sailed to Thailand in 1911 to represent Japan during the coronation ceremony of King Rama VI Vajiravudh . When World War I began in August 1914 , she was commanded by Captain Kanji Katō . The ship was ordered to Singapore and cooperated with the British to hunt down the light cruiser Emden in the East Indies and Indian Ocean . Ibuki was ordered to New Zealand to escort a large troop convoy of ANZAC troops to the Middle East in late September . She was ordered to guard the convoy , over Katō 's protests , when the presence of the Emden was discovered in the Cocos Islands on 9 November . The Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney was detached from the convoy to sink the Emden instead . With the ending of the threat to the convoy , Ibuki was transferred to the Second South Seas Squadron at Truk in the Caroline Islands . She was refitted at Kure in 1918 , disarmed in 1922 , and stricken from the Navy List the following year and scrapped in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty .
Kurama attended the Coronation Fleet Review of King George V in Spithead on 24 June 1911 . She was at Yokosuka in August 1914 and was assigned to the 1st South Seas Squadron to search for the East Asia Squadron . They departed there on 14 September and reached Truk on 11 October as troops carried by the squadron occupied the Carolines . The squadron was based in Suva , Fiji in November in case the East Asia Squadron decided to double back into the Central Pacific . Kurama was flagship of the 2nd Squadron in 1917 and was transferred to the 5th Squadron the following year . Like her sister , she was disarmed in 1922 , stricken in 1923 and subsequently scrapped .
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= Pimpin ' ( song ) =
" Pimpin ' " is a song by American rapper Tony Yayo , included as a track on his debut studio album Thoughts of a Predicate Felon ( 2005 ) . The song 's production was handled by record producer LT Moe , who also helped in the writing process with Yayo . Musically , " Pimpin ' " is a rap song expressing Yayo 's desire to be able to legally pimp women . It is backed by an upbeat , " bouncy " production containing elements of digital guitar .
" Pimpin ' " received generally mixed reviews from music critics : although some praised the song 's upbeat production , others called the song " bland " when compared to Yayo 's previous work , which typically covers a darker subject matter . Despite not being released as a single , the song received considerable airplay on US urban contemporary radio stations , which resulted in the song charting at number sixty @-@ six on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . An accompanying music video was filmed for the song , directed by production group Fat Cats .
= = Background and composition = =
" Pimpin ' " was written by Tony Yayo and LT Moe , with Moe also handling production duties . The song was recorded by Moe at Encore Studios – a recording studio in Los Angeles , California . Audio mixing was carried out by Steve Baughman at Right Track Studios , a recording studio in New York City . The song was mastered by Brian " Big Bass " Gardner . It is listed ninth on the track listing for Thoughts of a Predicate Felon and is of three minutes and six seconds in length , consisting of three choruses separated by two verses , all performed by Yayo .
Lyrically , the song describes Yayo 's desire to legally pimp women and treat them with a luxurious lifestyle , and refers to how other men simply chase their pleasures . The lyrics are backed by a " bouncy " production which , according to The Michigan Daily writer Ewan McGarvey , consists of " tiny digital @-@ guitar frets " . Some music critics have described the song to be of a less dark and intense nature to many other songs on Thoughts of a Predicate Falcon , such as " Homicide " , " Drama Setter " and " Live by the Gun " , which invariably chronicle subjects such as murder , prison and drugs .
= = Critical reception = =
" Pimpin ' " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , with some also noting that the song felt out of place on Thoughts of a Predicate Felon when compared to the more intense songs that appear on the album . Allmusic writer David Jeffries named " Pimpin ' " as one of the album 's best songs , along with " So Seductive " , " Drama Setter " and " Dear Suzie " . Pedro Hernandez of RapReviews commended the song 's " bouncy production " , but criticized its concept as " unoriginal " , and for this reason called it a " track that only Yayo fans will appreciate " . Whilst commenting positively on more intense and " brutal " songs such as " Homicide " , Ross McGowan of Stylus Magazine criticized the tempo of " Pimpin ' " , calling it " bland " , and felt that the song 's music video was the only thing making it interesting to listen to , writing that " it ’ s way less fun to hear when it isn 't accompanied by continuous footage of G @-@ Unit ’ s main men wrestling each other for face time " . However , The Michigan Daily writer Ewan McGarvey called " Pimpin ' " one of the " few charming songs " on Thoughts of a Predicate Felon . He noted that " simplicity kind of works for Tony " , but also wrote that " it 's not the real G @-@ Unit manifest destiny " . He concluded that " Yayo 's old mix @-@ tape career gets cannibalized " for the song .
= = Chart performance = =
Despite not being released as a single , " Pimpin ' " debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart issue dated August 6 , 2005 : it went on to spend seven weeks the chart , and peaked at number one . The song then debuted , and peaked , at number 66 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the chart week dated October 1 , 2005 , and went on to spend three weeks on the chart . Chart @-@ position wise , " Pimpin ' " is the second most successful song of Tony Yayo 's career , behind only Thoughts of a Predicate Felon 's first single " So Seductive " , which reached number seven on the corresponding chart and also peaked at number 48 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Pimpin ' " was released as a double @-@ music video along with the video for Yayo single " Curious " . Both sections of the video were directed by production group Fat Cats . After three minutes and eight seconds , the video segues from the " Curious " section to the " Pimpin ' " section , which lasts for a further one minute and thirty @-@ six seconds . The " Pimpin ' " section of the video is set in a warehouse , and features Yayo rapping the song 's first verse and first two choruses , with this footage alternating with the other members of G @-@ Unit Records members lip @-@ syncing sections of Yayo 's lyrics . Whilst all this occurs , several girls attired in black dance in the background .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits for " Pimpin ' " are adapted from the liner notes of Thoughts of a Predicate Felon .
Recording
Recorded at Encore Studios , California .
Personnel
Tony Yayo – songwriting , vocals
LT Moe – songwriting , production , recording
Steve Baughman – mixing
Brian " Big Bass " Gardner – mastering
= = Charts = =
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= John H. Clifford =
John Henry Clifford ( January 16 , 1809 – January 2 , 1876 ) was an American lawyer and politician from New Bedford , Massachusetts . He served as the state 's attorney general for much of the 1850s , retaining the office during administrations dominated by three different political parties . A Whig , he was elected the state 's 21st governor , serving a single term from 1853 to 1854 . He was the first governor of Massachusetts not born in the state .
As attorney general Clifford gained fame by leading the prosecution in one of the most sensational trials of the 19th century , the Parkman – Webster murder case . The case , where both victim and assailant were from the upper crust of Boston society , featured the first use of forensic dentistry to secure a conviction . During the American Civil War Clifford supported the Union cause , and was involved in unsuccessful maneuvers to prosecute Confederate President Jefferson Davis after the war . In his later years he served as president of the Boston and Providence Railroad .
= = Early years = =
John Clifford was born to Benjamin and Achsah ( Wade ) Clifford in Providence , Rhode Island on January 16 , 1809 . He was the sixth of thirteen children . He graduated from Brown University in 1827 , read law with Timothy Coffin in New Bedford , Massachusetts and Theron Metcalf in Dedham , Massachusetts , and then opened a law practice in New Bedford . He maintained that practice , sometimes with partners , for the rest of his life . Clifford married Sarah Parker Allen on January 16 , 1832 . The couple had five children .
In 1835 , Clifford was elected to the Massachusetts legislature , where he sat on a committee that revised the state 's statutes . In 1836 he served as an aide to Governor Edward Everett , a position he held until Everett lost the 1839 election . Everett rewarded Clifford for his service by naming him district attorney for the southern district of the state in 1839 , a post he held for ten years . He was concurrently elected state senator representing Bristol County in 1845 . In 1849 he was appointed state attorney general by Governor George N. Briggs . He was the only major appointed Whig official retained by Democrat George S. Boutwell after he took office in 1851 . Boutwell explained in his memoirs that Clifford " was a good officer and an upright man , but he lacked the quality which enables a man to reach conclusions . This peculiarity made him useful to me . He would investigate a subject , give me the authorities and precedents , and leave the conclusions to me . Next , there was no one in the administration party whom I wished to appoint . Mr. [ Benjamin ] Hallett was the candidate most generally supported . He was full of prejudices and he was not well instructed as a lawyer . In these respects Clifford was his opposite . "
= = Attorney general and governor = =
The first major case that Clifford prosecuted was for the murder of Boston Brahmin George Parkman , and it was one of the most sensational of the 19th century . Parkman had disappeared in November 1849 and Harvard professor John White Webster had been arrested for his murder . The gruesome method of the body 's disposal ( which was not complete ) , the fact that it was a capital crime , and the high status of both victim and accused ensured a great deal of public interest in the case , and the courtroom was packed . Clifford 's case was complicated by the fact that there was no actual body . Assisted by George Bemis , who had been retained by the Parkman family , he resorted instead to dental forensics and strong circumstantial evidence to build the case against Webster . The jury returned a guilty verdict after two and one half hours of deliberation . There was much controversy afterward concerning the jury instructions given by Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw , but Webster was eventually hanged after confessing the crime . The case has continued to interest legal scholars , in part over allegations that the defense ( which included one lawyer lacking significant criminal trial experience ) failed to aggressively dispute the evidence presented , and also did not introduce potentially exculpatory evidence .
In 1852 the state Whig Party parlayed his popularity in the Parkman case into a nomination for the governorship , which Clifford reluctantly accepted . The race was a difficult one , dominated by the presidential contest and candidate stands on the state 's temperance " Maine law " . In addition to Whig support , Clifford was nominated by a party opposed to the Maine law , while one of his opponents , Horace Mann , was running with both Free Soil and pro @-@ Maine law nominations . The Whigs had been divided by their reactions to the Compromise of 1850 , and the national election ( held one week before the state election ) saw many Whigs voting for Democrat Franklin Pierce . In a three way race involving Clifford , Mann , and Democrat Henry W. Bishop , Clifford received 45 % of the vote . A majority requirement still in effect for popular election , he was elected by the state senate 29 – 4 over Bishop , although fractious Whigs demanded the replacement of Senator John Davis in exchange for their support for him .
After his single term as governor , Clifford refused to stand for reelection , preferring to work as a lawyer . His successor , Governor Emory Washburn , reappointed him to be attorney general , an office he held from 1854 to 1858 . This term of service notably included the tenure of Know Nothing Governor Henry J. Gardner . Gardner , who had politically been a Whig before the advent of the Know Nothings , retained Clifford in the office , and the two of them blunted some of anti @-@ immigrant legislation and ( in their view ) extreme reform proposals of the Know Nothing legislature . During Gardner 's tenure , the state constitution was amended so that the office of attorney general was elected rather than appointed . In the election of 1858 , Stephen Henry Phillips was elected to replace Clifford .
= = Later political and legal work = =
The state hired Clifford in 1859 to assist Phillips in prosecuting what turned out to be the final stages of a long @-@ running ( 200 year ) series of issues concerning the state 's boundary with Rhode Island . Phillips and Clifford traveled to Washington , DC in January 1861 to make their appearance before the United States Supreme Court . At the time , tensions between North and South were exceptionally high , and United States Attorney General Edwin Stanton expressed to them concern that Washington might be attacked by rebel forces . Their letter to Massachusetts Governor John Albion Andrew was one of the warnings that prompted Andrew to begin organizing Massachusetts volunteer regiments for the American Civil War .
Clifford was , like other conservative Whigs , politically opposed to the abolitionist movement ; he was described by former slave Frederick Douglass as " pro @-@ slavery " and " about the most aristocratic gentleman in Bristol County " . However , once the Civil War broke out he supported the Union cause and the state 's participation in the conflict . In 1862 he joined in a call for the formation of an antiabolition party to oppose the Republicans . The " People 's Party " was formed primarily by people who had supported the pro @-@ Union Constitutional Union Party of 1860 , and failed to gain traction because of President Abraham Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation issued in September . Clifford was elected to the state senate that year , where he served as its president . Clifford supported Lincoln for reelection in 1864 . In 1868 he was chosen a presidential elector , casting his vote for Ulysses S. Grant .
In 1865 Clifford was chosen to act as one of the special counsels prosecuting former Confederate President Jefferson Davis . Davis was to be prosecuted for treason , but for a variety of reasons the charges were eventually dropped after four years of political and legal wrangling . Clifford contributed to a debate in 1866 over the difficulty of prosecuting Davis in Virginia , noting that without essentially packing the jury , a failed prosecution would result in the awkward outcome of a Virginia jury in some sense overturning the outcome of the war . He resigned from these duties in July 1866 .
= = Later years = =
In 1867 Clifford retired from the legal profession and became president of the Boston and Providence Railroad . During his tenure the railroad constructed a new terminal station in Boston at Park Square . He received the degree of LL.D. from Brown in 1849 , Amherst in 1853 , and Harvard in 1853 . For several years he was president of the Harvard Board of Overseers . After the American Civil War he was appointed by George Peabody to the board of trustees of the Peabody Education Fund , a philanthropic initiative for building educational resources in the post @-@ war South . In his later years he was offered , but turned down , a number of diplomatic postings in Europe , including Ambassador to Russia and Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire . In 1873 and 1875 he traveled to warmer climates in a bid to improve his declining health .
In 1875 Clifford was appointed to a diplomatic commission established pursuant to the 1871 Treaty of Washington with the United Kingdom to resolve fishery issues . However , owing to a delay occasioned by the difficulty in selecting a neutral third commissioner , Clifford never assumed his duties . He died of heart disease , after a short illness , on January 2 , 1876 at his home in New Bedford , and was buried in New Bedford 's Rural Cemetery . Clifford 's Greek Revival mansion still stands on Orchard Street in New Bedford , contributing to the County Street Historic District .
= = Clifford and Melville = =
Clifford had a friendly and collegial relationship with Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw , who was the father @-@ in @-@ law of writer Herman Melville . Clifford and Melville crossed paths on a number of occasions , most notably on Nantucket in the summer of 1852 . On this occasion Clifford recounted to Melville a story about one of his early cases . Melville later wrote him , asking for further details , and Clifford sent Melville journal entries on the case . Melville ended up using the material for Isle of the Cross , a story that was never published .
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= Homer 's Enemy =
" Homer 's Enemy " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 4 , 1997 . The episode 's plot centers on the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's hiring a new employee named Frank Grimes . Despite Homer 's attempts to befriend him , Grimes is angered and irritated by Homer 's laziness and incompetence despite leading a comfortable life . He eventually declares himself Homer 's enemy . Meanwhile , Bart buys a run @-@ down factory for a dollar .
" Homer 's Enemy " was directed by Jim Reardon and the script was written by John Swartzwelder , based on an idea pitched by executive producer Bill Oakley . The episode explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic hired for a job where he has to work alongside a man like Homer . He was partially modeled after Michael Douglas as he appeared in the film Falling Down . Hank Azaria provided the voice of Frank Grimes , and based some of the character 's mannerisms on actor William H. Macy . Frank Welker guest stars as the voice of the Executive Vice President dog .
In its original broadcast on the Fox network , " Homer 's Enemy " acquired a 7 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 5 million homes , finishing the week ranked 56th . " Homer 's Enemy " is considered to be one of the darkest episodes of The Simpsons , and it split critical opinion . It is a favorite of several members of the production staff , including Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein and Matt Groening , but it is one of the least favorite of Mike Reiss . Although Grimes makes his only appearance in this episode , he was later named one of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral characters " by IGN . He has since been referenced several times in the show , most notably in the season fourteen episode " The Great Louse Detective " , in which his son plots to kill Homer .
= = Plot = =
In a new segment of " Kent 's People " , Kent Brockman tells the heartwarming story of Frank Grimes , a man who had to struggle for everything he ever got , including a correspondence degree in nuclear physics . After seeing the show , Springfield Nuclear Power Plant owner Mr. Burns is so touched that he asks Smithers to hire Grimes as his Executive Vice President . However , the following day , Burns sees a sentimental story concerning a heroic dog and demands that it instead be appointed Executive Vice President . Consequently , Grimes is shuffled into Sector 7G , where he must work alongside Homer , Lenny , and Carl . Settling into his new job , Grimes is amazed and aghast at Homer 's bad manners and general irresponsibility . When Grimes prevents Homer from drinking a beaker of sulfuric acid , dramatically slapping it out of Homer 's hands into a wall , a passing Mr. Burns admonishes Grimes for destroying the wall and spilling his acid . Grimes is demoted and later angrily declares to Homer that the two of them are now enemies .
Homer attempts to appease Grimes by inviting him to his home for a lobster dinner in order to make him and his enemy co @-@ worker a friend . Grimes ' visit to the Simpson house only fuels his resentment ; he is incensed by Homer 's ability to live such a comfortable life despite his slothful and ignorant ways . Declaring Homer a " fraud " , a bitter Grimes storms away in anger . The following day , Homer , after getting advice from Marge , makes further attempts to earn Grimes ' respect by acting as a model employee , but his efforts fail . Grimes rants about Homer to Lenny and Carl , both of whom insist that Homer is an essentially decent person . To prove Homer 's lack of intelligence , he tricks Homer into entering a nuclear power plant design contest intended for children , by carefully cutting away all references to them in a promotional poster which he leaves at Homer 's control panel . Homer , unaware that the contest is only open to kids , eagerly takes on the challenge to prove his professionalism . At the contest , Grimes is shocked when Homer 's model , which is almost exactly the same as the current power plant with only a few modifications , easily wins against Ralph Wiggum 's Malibu Stacy dream house , and Martin Prince 's futuristic model that supplies power to the room . The audience 's applause and cheers for Homer cause Grimes to finally snap and he runs amok through the plant , mimicking Homer 's habits . Entering Homer 's office , Grimes sees a machine labeled " Extremely High Voltage " , sarcastically declares that he does not need safety gloves , grabs the high voltage wires and is fatally electrocuted . At Grimes ' funeral , Homer falls asleep and in a drowsy state tells Marge to change the TV channel , causing all the attending mourners to laugh as Grimes ' casket is lowered into the ground .
Meanwhile , Bart becomes bored during a visit to Springfield Town Hall and buys " 35 Industry Way " for a dollar during a foreclosure auction . It turns out to be a run @-@ down old factory , which he and Milhouse spend the day wrecking it until the next morning Bart returns to find it has collapsed during the night while Milhouse was on watch duty , leaving the rats to swarm Moe 's Tavern .
= = Production = =
" Homer 's Enemy " was written by John Swartzwelder , directed by Jim Reardon and executive produced by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . One of the goals of Oakley and Weinstein was to create several episodes in each season which would " push the envelope conceptually . " The idea for the episode was first conceived by Bill Oakley who thought that Homer should have an enemy . The thought evolved into the concept of a " real world " co @-@ worker who would either love or hate Homer . The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results . The result was the character of Grimes , a man who had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it and is dismayed and embittered by Homer 's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance .
" Homer 's Enemy " explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment . In an essay for the book Leaving Springfield , Robert Sloane describes the episode as " an incisive consideration of The Simpsons 's world . Although The Simpsons is known for its self @-@ reflectivity , the show had never looked at ( or critiqued ) itself as directly as it does in [ ' Homer 's Enemy ' ] . " In the episode , Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit ; however , in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted . By the close of the episode , Grimes , a hard working and persevering " real American hero , " is relegated to the role of antagonist ; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious . In an interview with Simpsons fan site NoHomers.net , Josh Weinstein said :
The animators and character designers had a lot of discussion about what Frank Grimes should look like . He was originally designed as a " burly ex @-@ marine guy with a crew cut " , but would later be modeled after Michael Douglas in the movie Falling Down and director Jim Reardon 's college roommate . Hank Azaria provided the voice of Frank Grimes , even though such a role would normally have been performed by a guest star . The producers decided Azaria was more suitable because the role involved a great deal of frustration and required extensive knowledge of the show . Azaria felt that the role should instead go to William H. Macy . According to Azaria , " I based the character on William Macy . I can 't really copy him vocally , but I tried to get as close as I could and copy his rhythms and the way he has that sort of seething passion underneath that total calm exterior . " The producers worked a lot with Azaria to help him perfect the role , and gave him more guidance than they normally would . Azaria felt that it was the role he worked hardest on , adding " I think it 's the one we did the most takes on , the most emotional , it felt like the one I worked on the hardest from a performance point of view , in preparation and in execution . "
Josh Weinstein has expressed regret about killing off Grimes after only one episode , describing him as " such an amazing character . " In an interview with The Believer , producer George Meyer said , " Grimes 's cardinal sin was that he shined a light on Springfield . He pointed out everything that was wrongheaded and idiotic about that world . And the people who do that tend to become martyrs . He said things that needed to be said , but once they were said , we needed to destroy that person . I 'll admit , we took a certain sadistic glee in his downfall . He was such a righteous person , and that somehow made his demise more satisfying . "
The subplot , where Bart buys a factory , was added so that there would be some lighter scenes to split up the main plot . According to Weinstein , " We wanted to have a Bart or Lisa kids story to contrast the heaviness and reality of Frank Grimes . "
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on the Fox network , " Homer 's Enemy " acquired a 7 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 5 million homes , finishing the week ranked 56th . The Simpsons was the sixth highest rated show on Fox the week it was broadcast , behind The X @-@ Files , a broadcast of the film The Mask , Melrose Place , King of the Hill and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
According to Josh Weinstein , when the episode was first broadcast , many fans felt it was too dark , lacked humor and that Homer was portrayed as overly bad @-@ mannered . Weinstein considers this episode one of the most controversial of the seasons he ran , as it involves sharp observational humor which he thinks many fans " didn 't get . " Weinstein also talks about a " generation gap " — he believes the episode was originally panned by viewers , but has since become a favorite among fans who grew up with the show .
Critical opinion of the episode is mixed . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , described the episode as " one of the series ' darkest episodes [ that ] ends on a real downer but is nevertheless also one of the wittiest and cleverest in ages . " In 2007 , Vanity Fair called " Homer 's Enemy " the seventh best episode of The Simpsons . John Orvted said it was , " the darkest Simpsons episode ever ... To see [ Grimes ] fail , and ultimately be destroyed , once he enters Homer 's world is hilarious and satisfying . " Comedian Rick Mercer called it a " great episode , and one of the darkest ever produced . "
Jon Bonné of MSNBC used " Homer 's Enemy " as an example of a bad episode of the eighth season and wrote " even now [ in 2000 ] , when subsequent episodes have debased Homer in new and innovative ways , the Grimes episode stands out as painful to watch . " In April 2007 , former Simpsons executive producer Mike Reiss listed " Homer 's Enemy " as one of his two least favorite episodes , stating , " I just think the episode was in bad taste . "
Several members of the staff have included the episode among their favorites . In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked it as his sixth favorite Simpsons episode . It is a favorite of Josh Weinstein , who cites the scene when Grimes visits the Simpson home as one of his favorite scenes , while The Office creator Ricky Gervais has called it " the most complete episode . " In her autobiography My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , praises Azaria 's performance as Grimes , and uses it as an example of how " Accent , pitch , pacing , range and intention " can allow an actor to voice many characters . She writes ,
Sometimes [ in voice acting ] , it isn 't even a big change from your regular voice , but the attitude behind it makes all the difference . [ ... ] We were going to have a guest star play Frank Grimes . [ ... ] Hank , at the table @-@ read , just filling in , created such a beautifully crafted character , beautifully psychotic , that no one was used to replace him .
In October 2006 , IGN.com released a list of " The Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral characters " , in which they ranked Frank Grimes at number 17 , making him the only one @-@ time character to appear in that list .
= = Legacy = =
Frank Grimes has since been referenced several times in the show , often showing his tombstone , and occasionally mentioning him by name . In the season fourteen episode " The Great Louse Detective " , it is revealed that he fathered a son named Frank Grimes , Jr . , who tries and fails to kill Homer . The footage of Grimes ' death is also shown during that episode .
During the nuclear power plant design contest , one of the entrants is Ralph Wiggum , whose entry is rejected by Mr. Burns . When Ralph does not leave the stage , Chief Wiggum says " Ralphie , get off the stage , sweetheart . " This line was later used as the chorus in the song " Ralph Wiggum " by the Bloodhound Gang . In February 2000 , the cast of The Simpsons performed a live reading of the episode script at the US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen , Colorado .
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= Stanisław Poniatowski ( 1676 – 1762 ) =
Stanisław Poniatowski ( September 15 , 1676 – August 29 , 1762 ) was a Polish military commander , diplomat , and noble . Throughout his career , Poniatowski served in various military offices , and was a general in both the Swedish and Polish @-@ Lithuanian militaries . He also held numerous civil positions , including those of podstoli of Lithuania and Grand Treasurer of the Lithuanian army in 1722 , voivode of the Masovian Voivodeship in 1731 , regimentarz of the Crown Army in 1728 , and castellan of Kraków in 1752 . Throughout his lifetime , he served in many starost positions .
Poniatowski was also involved in Commonwealth politics , and was a prominent member of the Familia , a faction led by the Czartoryski family . On a number of occasions he was in service of Stanisław Leszczyński , the principal rival of Augustus II for the throne of Poland . Having served under Leszcyński as a military officer and envoy during the Great Northern War , Poniatowski later embraced the Russian @-@ supported Augustus . Subsequently during the War of the Polish Succession , he returned , with the majority of the Familia , to his earlier allegiance . He later effected a reconciliation with Augustus III , and eventually became one of the new king 's chief advisors .
Poniatowski 's fifth son , Stanisław August Poniatowski , reigned as the last king of Poland from 1764 until 1795 , when he abdicated as a result of the Third Partition of Poland by the Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia , and the Holy Roman Empire . His grandson , Prince Józef Antoni Poniatowski , was a Polish general and later a Marshal of the First French Empire , serving under Napoleon I.
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Poniatowski was born on September 15 , 1676 , in the village of Chojnik , part of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship . He was the son of Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1640 / 50 - 1691 @-@ 5 ) , łowczy podlaski in 1680 and cześnik wyszogrodzki in 1690 , and wife ( 1673 / 4 ) Helena Niewiarowska , and the paternal grandson of one Jan Poniatowski , who died before 1676 , though rumors regarding his parentage claimed that he was the son of Hetman Jan Kazimierz Sapieha by an unknown Polish Ashkenazi Jewish woman , later adopted by Franciszek .
He received elementary education in Kraków , at either the Kraków Academy or at the Nowodworski School . At 13 , he was sent to Vienna , capital of the Holy Roman Empire where he spent two years , and afterward traveled to Serbia , then a province of that empire . There , he volunteered to join Imperial forces campaigning against the Ottomans in the Great Turkish War . He served as an adjutant to Michał Franciszek Sapieha , and later commanded a company of cuirassiers . He participated in the Battle of Zenta in 1697 .
After the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 , which ended the war , he returned to Lithuania . Upon his return , he wed Teresa Woynianka @-@ Jasieniecka , but their marriage ended abruptly with her death not long afterward . The union , however , raised his social status . In 1700 , he participated in the Lithuanian Civil War as a supporter of the Sapieha family , fighting in the Battle of Olkieniki . Here , he was captured , but managed to escape , and he later served as Sapieha 's emissary to Charles XII , king of Sweden .
= = = The Great Northern War and subsequent Swedish service = = =
In 1702 , Swedish forces invaded the Commonwealth as part of the Great Northern War , which had begun in 1700 between the Swedish Empire and the Tsardom of Russia . Augustus II , king of Poland and Elector of Saxony , was an ally of the Russian tsar Peter I. Augustus 's forces were defeated , and the king himself was forced back to Saxony . He was replaced by Charles with Stanisław Leszczyński , a Polish nobleman and count of the Holy Roman Empire . Poniatowski , serving as a negotiator between the Wielkopolska Confederation and Charles XII , took the side of Leszcyński and distanced himself from the Sapiehas , formerly his patrons .
In 1708 , Leszcyński appointed Poniatowski his personal representative to Charles XII . He participated in the Battle of Holowczyn that year , and served as an aide to Charles XII during his exile in the Ottoman Empire after the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . Here , he worked to establish an alliance between the Ottomans and the Swedes , aiming to bring the Ottomans into the war against Russia . Due to diplomatic efforts on the part of the French , aligned with Sweden , the Ottomans began to campaign against the Russians in 1710 . With this change in Ottoman foreign policy came the dismissal of Çorlulu Ali Pasha , Grand Vizier of Ahmed III . His successor , Köprülü Numan Pasha , was an acquaintance of Poniatowski and had been a supporter of an anti @-@ Russian shift in Ottoman politics .
Poniatowski accompanied the Ottomans during the Pruth River Campaign , but was dissatisfied with the Treaty of the Pruth , which saw the withdrawal of the Ottomans from the war . His attempts to prolong and inflame the conflict failed , resulting in a loss of his status in the Empire and his eventual departure from it in 1713 .
Poniatowski did not return to Poland , as Lesczyński had been forced to retreat to Swedish Pomerania upon the return of Augustus in 1709 . With the support of Russian forces , Augustus had forced Lesczyński from the throne and had retaken the crown in that year . Instead , Poniatowski entered the service of Sweden , serving as a diplomat for both Charles XII and Lesczyński . He was later involved in mediation attempts between Lesczyński and Augustus , and also joined the Swedish army in various campaigns , being wounded during one in 1716 . During the course of his diplomatic activities , he traveled throughout Europe , including to such countries as Prussia , France , and Spain . For his service to Charles XII , he received the position of the governor of the Palatinate @-@ Zweibrücken , then in personal union with Sweden .
= = = Later years : Polish politician and magnate = = =
Upon Charles 's death in 1718 , he continued to serve Leszczynski as a diplomat . In 1719 he was briefly imprisoned in Copenhagen , and requested official leave from the Swedish government , which he received that year , thus ending his service as a Swedish diplomat . He returned to the Commonwealth , where he used the title of a general of cavalry . On 14 September 1720 he married Princess Konstancja Czartoryska ; this marriage brought him significant wealth . Over the next few years , he became increasingly involved in the creation of the Familia political faction , and most of his ensuing actions had the goal of increasing the Familia 's political power . On 5 December 1722 he received the office of Podstoli of Lithuania ( podstoli litewski ) in 1722 , and 16 December , Grand Treasurer of Lithuanian Army ( podskarbi wielki litewski ) , and became increasingly allied with August II On 20 December 1724 he received the military rank of General of the Lithuanian Army ( generał lejtnant wojsk litewskich ) . In 1726 he became the Knight of the Order of the White Eagle . He was also promised the position of Grand Crown Hetman by August II , receiving in 1728 the rank of a Crown regimentarz . During a period in which no Crown hetmans were appointed , he acted as de facto commander of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army . He enjoyed support from the military , but his forays into politics gained him significant opposition among the szlachta , led by the Potocki family . He became the voivode of the Masovian Voivodeship in 1731 .
After August II 's death in 1733 , he rekindled his old ties with Leszczyński , but made some attempts to secure his own election to the throne . Eventually , however , he decided to grant Leszczyński his full support , doing so during the convocation sejm of 1733 . He again served as Leszczyński 's diplomat during the following War of the Polish Succession .
In 1734 , he switched sides and joined the supported Augustus III . After several years of distrust , August III started treating Poniatowski as one of his major advisers . Over the next few years , throughout the 1740s , he and familiar supported plans for reform and strengthening the Commonwealth , however most of them have failed due to liberum veto disrupting the Sejm proceedings . Those failures likely resulted in the his apathy , and he became much less active on the political scene in the 1750s . On 6 June 1752 he received the office of castellan of Kraków .
Near the end of his life , Poniatowski was among the richest magnates in the Commonwealth , with the value of his estates estimated at about 4 million zlotys . He died in Ryki on 29 August 1762 , shortly after having fallen while walking , suffering an injury .
= = Family = =
He was the son of Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1640 / 1650 – 1691 – 1695 ) , łowczy podlaski in 1680 and cześnik wyszogrodzki in 1690 , and his wife Helena Niewiarowska , who he had married in 1673 or 1674 . His older brother Józef Poniatowski ( 1674 – after 1731 ) was a generał wojsk koronnych and married Helena Otfinowska , without issue . His younger siblings were Michał Jacenty Poniatowski , a Dominican , and Zofia Agnieszka Poniatowska , a Carmelitan Abbess in Kraków . He married firstly shortly after 1701 and divorced Teresa Woynianka @-@ Jasieniecka , who died after 1710 , without issue , and secondly Princess Konstancja Czartoryska on 14 September 1720 . They had eight children .
He was the father of :
Kazimierz Poniatowski ( 15 September 1721 - 13 April 1800 ) , podkomorzy wielki koronny between 1742 and 1773 and generał wojsk koronnych , who was created a Prince on 4 December 1764 and married on 21 January 1751 Apolonia Ustrzycka ( 17 January 1736 - 1814 ) and had issue
Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1723 - 1749 / 1759 ) , canon and provost in the Cathedral of Kraków ( kanonik i proboszcz katedralny krakowski ) , chancellor of Gniezno in 1748
Aleksander Poniatowski ( 1725 - killed in action on 29 June 1744 ) , adiutant of Karl von Lothringen
Ludwika Maria Poniatowska ( 30 November 1728 - 10 February 1781 ) , who married in 1745 Jan Jakub Zamoyski ( ? - 10 February 1790 ) , wojewoda podolski in 1770 , IX ordynat till in 1780 and starosta lubelski , and had female issue ( Urszula Zamoyska ( c . 1750 - 1808 ) , who married firstly and divorced before 1781 Wincenty Potocki ( ? - 1825 ) , podkomorzy wielki koronny , and married secondly Michal Jerzy Mniszech , marszalek wielki koronny )
Izabella Poniatowska , ( 1 July 1730 – 14 February 1808 ) was a Polish noblewoman , countess and princess . She was a sister of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski , who in 1764 became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania , and reigned as Stanisław II Augustus . She married , firstly on November 19 , 1748 as his third wife Hetman Jan Klemens Branicki in 1756 , and secondly the Masovian voivode Andrzej Mokronowski , without issue .
Stanisław II August ( Poniatowski ) , the last King of Poland and Grand @-@ Duke of Lithuania , who was crowned in 1764 .
Andrzej Poniatowski ( 16 July 1734 / 5 - Vienna , 3 / 5 March 1773 ) , Austrian General @-@ Lieutenant in 1760 , Austrian Fieldmarshall in 1771 and starost prenski , who was created a Prince on 10 December 1765 , and married on 3 May 1761 Maria Teresa , Countess Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau ( 14 February 1740 - 25 September 1806 ) , and had issue
Michał Jerzy Poniatowski ( 12 October 1736 - 12 August 1794 ) , opat tyniecki i czerwinski , Bishop of Plock and koadiutor krakowski in 1773 and Archbishop of Gniezno in 1784 , who was created a Prince on 4 December 1764
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= What You Want ( Evanescence song ) =
" What You Want " is a song by American rock band Evanescence . It was released as the lead single from the band 's third eponymous album on August 9 , 2011 through Wind @-@ up Records . The song was written by Amy Lee , Terry Balsamo and Tim McCord and produced by Nick Raskulinecz . Lee described " What You Want " as a departure from the band 's previous sound and said she was inspired to write the song by several experiences she had with her fans . Musically " What You Want " contains a variety of musical elements and it uses drums , guitars , synthesizers and a piano . Lyrically , the song has a theme of freedom .
Upon its release , " What You Want " received positive reviews from music critics who praised its instrumentation , Lee 's vocals and the song 's musical hook ; several of them listed it as an album highlight . The song peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and achieved higher success in its component charts . It also peaked at number 55 on the Canadian Hot 100 , topped the UK Rock Chart and appeared in eight charts in different countries .
The music video for " What You Want " was filmed in Brooklyn , New York and it was directed by Meiert Avis . It shows the band performing the song live in a small warehouse and Lee running in various locations . The video received positive response from critics who generally praised the imagery . " What You Want " was performed live for the first time on MTV and later on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . It was added to the set list of the band 's third world tour , Evanescence Tour ( 2011 @-@ 2012 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
" What You Want " was written by Amy Lee , Terry Balsamo , and Tim McCord in New York City and the production was handled by Nick Raskulinecz . During an interview with MTV News in June , Lee talked about the song saying , " [ ... ] the song that I think is the first single is the song that wraps it all up . It 's got a cool meaning , a lot of great lyrics going on , it also just smacks you right in the face and it 's heavy and it 's great . " She noted that the song was a departure from the band 's previous material and acknowledged that they wanted the new single to be " more than a hit " .
Lee stated the song was inspired by and talked about her relationship with the band 's fans , and the realization that following a music career " is what I 'm supposed to do " . She also explained that the theme of the song was freedom , saying that the song 's lyric " Remember who you really are " was " exactly everything you could assume it means " . Another inspiration for the song came from Lee 's life , " That song is me talking to myself about not being afraid and coming back to this thing and living the life I was born to live . Sometimes , it takes a lot to do this . And I do love it very much , but there is always that fear of putting yourself under the microscope . "
Speaking about the sound , Lee described " What You Want " as " very danceable " and her own vocals as " fun and snappy and it gives a cool dynamic [ to the song ] " . Lee stated that the process of recording the song was fun for the band as they had excess time . She said that initially the song was conceived while the band was just recording demo , but as time passed it progressed and grew into something more . She wrote a chorus for " What You Want " and played it on the piano . Lee revealed that she was initially embarrassed when she came up with the lyrics and the melody of the song as she thought the members of her band would think she was Janet Jackson due to the usage of a hook . During an interview with M Music & Musicians Lee revealed that she wouldn 't have recorded the song if it had been brought to her before the recording of Evanescence as she would have thought it was " stupid " .
= = Release = =
On August 22 , 2011 Lee went to Toronto 's Liberty Studios , to preview 5 mastered songs from Evanescence to a selected crowd of thirty people . " What You Want " was one of the five previewed songs . A snippet of " What You Want " premiered on MTV on July 11 , 2011 . During that time it was reported that the band 's new single would be released in early August . After the performance by the band on MTV on August 8 , 2011 , the album version premiered on the channel 's official website . The song was digitally released on August 9 , 2011 exclusively on the iTunes Store , and to all other digital retailers on August 16 . In the United Kingdom , the song was released on August 21 , and a CD single of the song was released on September 9 , 2011 in Germany . The band revealed during an interview that there were a lot of songs they were planning to release as the album 's first single , but it was a " natural choice " to release " What You Want " . To promote the single , the band partnered with SoundTracking and GetGlue . Fans who identified an Evanescence song using the SoundTracking application and shared it to Twitter , using the hashtag # Evcomeback , entered themselves to win an album from the band . If fans checked in to Evanescence using GetGlue , they unlocked an exclusive sticker .
The song was well received by the band 's fans . After James Montgomery from MTV News showed the snippets of the song , he asked the fans on Twitter to share their opinions about it . According to the fans ' tweets , the new songs were well received and praised . Kara Klenk of the same publication also confirmed the positive reception adding , " In the fast @-@ paced music world where artists need to constantly reinvent themselves and pump out music , videos , appearances , and tours to keep their fans happy and interested , it 's rare for a band to take a multi @-@ year hiatus and come back to legions of fans who have anxiously awaited their return . "
= = Composition = =
" What You Want " contains a variety of musical elements and influences of several music genres : industrial rock , rock gothic pop , nu metal , classic synthpop , electro @-@ pop dance and baroque metal along with a pop hook . Several critics noted that some of the gothic and metal elements were prominent in the band 's previous material , mostly due to their songs ' piano @-@ driven melody . Lewis Corner of the website Digital Spy noted that the classical strings present in the song reinforced the band 's medieval influences . Dane Prokofiev of PopMatters further compared the song with Korn 's music while Rick Florino of Artistdirect noted similarities to works by Depeche Mode . The song 's beat was further described as dynamic , " slamming " and loud . As the song progresses , the melody goes through " dramatic crashes " and crescendos .
" What You Want " opens with rapid drums and soon moves into a guitar @-@ driven mode , accompanied by synthesizers . Throughout the song , Lee uses " pseudo operatic " and " poppy " vocals . In the opening lines , she sings : " Do what you , what you want / If you have a dream for better / Do what you , what you want / ' Til you don 't want it anymore . " Those sounds are followed by a hard rock surging guitar and strings which were noted to be part of the band 's characteristic sound . The chorus is instrumentally complete with crashing cymbals , " thrashing , high @-@ wired rawk " guitars , electric guitars , keyboards and piano as Lee sings , " Hello , hello , remember me ? I ’ m everything you can ’ t control / Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe we can break through . " At the end of the song , Lee shouts the hook " Do what you , what you want , " as her vocals are echoed and eventually fade away . Laurie Tuffrey of NME summarized the song as a " standard goth @-@ pop fare , full of rapid drum breaks , swathes of fuzzy riffing and a catchy , chant @-@ friendly chorus . " Overally , Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described its production as " polished " .
Several critics interpreted the song 's lyrics during their reviews . Its theme was noted to be about freedom . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said that in the song , Lee is " trying to convince a romantic partner to stop ' spiraling down , down , down ' and help her find a new beginning . " Kerrang ! writer Steve Beebee wrote that Lee reaches a conclusion that " Love will guide you home . " Talking about the lyrical content of the song , Laurie Tuffrey of NME opined : " It 's quite hard to tell what the song 's about , with lots of references to ' the unknown ' and ' the pain ' , and it confusingly switches between suggesting people ' do what you want you want , if you have a dream for better ' in the first verse and the decidedly creepier final chorus where Lee seemingly gets an ex @-@ lover on the blower , only to tell them ' Hello , hello , it ’ s only me , infecting everything you love ' . "
= = Critical reception = =
Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described the song as a " forceful rock track that reminds fans why the group was one of the most successful crossover acts of the past decade " and praised Lee 's " strong @-@ but @-@ pretty vocals " . James Montgomery from MTV News , praised the song saying that the " elastic @-@ yet @-@ lock @-@ step energy not only makes the song the perfect comeback single for a band that 's been gone for far too long , but it manages to capture the very essence of what inspired them to press on . " Tom Goodwyn of the same publication wrote : " A big thumping drumbeat and driving guitar riff kick things off , before giving way to a stomping chorus written with NFL stadiums in mind . " Karen Bliss of the magazine Rolling Stone praised Lee 's " haunting " and " crystalline " vocals in the " industrial @-@ strength sound " of " What You Want " . Nick Catucci of the same publication gave the song three stars writing , " Amy Lee trades anguish for defiance , goosing her wail with welcome sass . Still , she 's nearly overrun by the music , a collision of two @-@ ton guitars , strings and piano . " Steven Hyden of The A. V. Club wrote : " Lee really can sing , and the opener ' What You Want ' shows she has the pipes ( and even the submerged spunk ) to become the new Pat Benatar this generation desperately needs . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave the song five out of five stars praising the hook as one of the best in the band 's career adding that it managed to make the song " instantly unforgettable " . Florino further called the song " another classic from Evanescence " which will " revive rock music again " and concluded :
At the heart of this epic , Lee relays another personal story that impacts intensely , especially as the song breaks during the bridge and her voice takes flight like never before . Lyrics like ' Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe ' sear and soar , as Lee continues to hypnotize like no other singer in rock or pop for that matter .
While reviewing Evanescence as a whole , Catucci of Rolling Stone called the song " pummeling but pretty . " In another review for the same publication , Matthew Perpetua wrote that the " heaviness is less top @-@ heavy " in the song before adding that the band " never sounded so brisk and dynamic " . Camille Dodero of the same publication called " What You Want " a " hair @-@ blowingly grandiose " song . Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the song a B rating and said , " the song 's grinding guitars , massive drums , goth @-@ princess piano frills , and warrior @-@ grrrl vocal rage feel like 2007 all over again . " Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the chorus lines saying that it should have been chosen as a theme song for the film Contagion .
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as a " hefty slab of dramatic rock which includes the band 's trademark electric guitars with melodic choruses " . In another review , he awarded the song four stars out of five stating " electro it certainly ain 't , but the result is as dancefloor @-@ friendly as it is mosh pit @-@ ready . " He further praised the " catchy @-@ as @-@ cholera " chorus and gave a mixed review about the lyrics and the title saying " fortunately their words seemed to have been a touch overzealous ; though it 's clear from the trailer for the group 's third album that they 've been spending a night or two on the tiles . " Lewis Corner of the same publication concluded : " ' What You Want ' proved ... the band 's melodious rock sensibilities remain firmly in tact " . Tamar Anitai of MTV , Theon Weber of Spin , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic and Edna Gundersen of USA Today chose the song as an album highlight . Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson also chose it as a highlight , further describing it as " fierce " . Los Angeles Times ' Mikael Wood wrote that " ' What You Want ' rides its central riff with a bulldozer 's efficiency . " Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe found a " metallic lurch playing off of Lee 's goth @-@ empress vocals " in the song . Hirsh went on to call the song a " strong declaration " announcing the band 's comeback .
= = Chart performance = =
On the chart issue dated August 20 , 2011 , " What You Want " debuted at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , selling more than 78 @,@ 000 copies according to SoundScan . The song also debuted at number 32 on the Billboard Rock Songs becoming the " Greatest Gainer " of the week on the same chart . Later , during the digital release of Evanescence , it moved from number 15 to number 13 . It debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart in the United States while also peaking at number 7 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart . As of November 2011 , it has sold more than 112 @,@ 000 digital downloads . On the Canadian Hot 100 , " What You Want " debuted at number 55 .
" What You Want " peaked at number 30 on the Brazilian Billboard Brasil chart on August 12 , 2011 . On August 22 , 2011 , the song debuted on the German Singles Chart and peaked at number 84 . It charted for three weeks and left the chart on October 2 , 2011 . On September 3 , the song debuted at number one on the UK Rock Chart , removing Evanescence 's own single " My Immortal " ( 2003 ) from the top spot . That achievement helped the song debut at number 72 on the main UK Singles Chart the same day . " What You Want " debuted at number 86 on the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia on April 2 , 2012 . According to the ARIA Charts ' official website , the song debuted in April , though it was released in Australia in August 2011 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The filming of the music video for " What You Want " started on July 30 , 2011 in a warehouse in Brooklyn , New York , and it was directed by Meiert Avis . The video featured the band 's fans who played a crowd on a concert by Evanescence . During an interview , Lee revealed that the music video for the song was one of the band 's " realest " videos adding , " [ ... ] this is more a personal video . We 've done a lot in the past that [ were ] very ' fantasy , ' and this is sort of the real us . [ ... ] I just wanted to do something that really felt personal for a change . Obviously , I 'm wearing crazy makeup , and that 's not my everyday , but , you know , I want ... to connect with the fans again . We all do . We miss them . A lot of this record is about them , and that 's why they 're going to be here and be in it , too . " In an interview with MTV News , she described the concept of the video :
" This video is sort of , like , the history of the band . This club [ set ] is emulating old shows we used to play in the beginning — we used to play this club called Vino 's in Little Rock [ Arkansas ] — it 's sort of like back then , the gritty , dirty club , sweaty . And basically , it 's also [ about ] New York , where I 've been , [ and ] where [ bassist ] Tim [ McCord ] lived in the past few years since we 've been gone . And it 's sort of about escaping New York and . [ ... ] coming back out into the world . "
However , before the filming of the video , the band was still finishing the album and when the time to shoot the video came , Lee didn 't conceive an idea about how it should look like . As she felt the song was different for the band , Lee knew that they didn 't want to " go the classic , sort of fantastic , epic [ thing ] . " Lee asked her sister Carrie to help her around the concept of the video . Her sister said that they should film the video for the song in New York and Lee agreed with her idea , " She just started saying things that were right on . She was like , ' This should be in New York . You guys need to do something different , this song feels different . ' And she started talking about running across the Brooklyn Bridge , and it being where I live , and I was like , ' Oh my God , this is great . ' " However , the final shot of the video filmed at Coney Island was Lee 's own idea . The shot represented the band coming back in the world and " heading into the unknown , coming into a new world " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with shots of several skyscrapers in New York , which are followed by scenes of the band performing in a warehouse that has been converted into a stage ( similar to Vino 's bar which is where the band used to regularly perform before they became popular ) . The crowd at the concert is seen singing along with the band . The video continually cuts the singer walking through Brooklyn in a dark dress and makeup . She walks through a train station , streets and the Brooklyn Bridge . During the bridge of the song , Lee runs through the Brooklyn Bridge and jumps on the other side , landing on her feet . At the end of the video , the band meet up and walk to the beach where they walk into the sea . The final shot shows the band walking in the sea as the video fades out .
= = = Release and reception = = =
A twenty @-@ two second teaser of the video was released on September 9 , 2011 . The video for the song officially premiered online on September 13 , 2011 and it was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store the same day . James Montgomery from MTV News , said that the video was a departure for the band " eschewing the dark fantasy worlds they 've created in previous videos in favor of good old @-@ fashioned realism : the blood , sweat and tears that not only took them to the top , but have fueled their current comeback , too . " Later , he added that the video " recalls the halcyon days of big @-@ ticket rock videos " and some " claustrophobic , cathartic performance footage . " He called it " a true band clip ; it 's artfully autobiographical and , perhaps most notably , features all of Evanescence . " Entertainment Weekly 's Grady Smith , called the video " heavy goth @-@ rock head @-@ banger " and added that the shots of Lee falling from the bridge were similar to the music video for " Bring Me to Life " ( 2003 ) .
Melinda Newman of the website HitFix compared the video with the movies The Crow ( 1994 ) and Run Lola Run ( 1998 ) . She further praised the lighting , the photographs and the mood which according to her , were " perfection , especially the city scapes at night and the intense looks on the fans faces , as they are enraptured by Lee . It 's a big budget shoot , the kind we don 't see that much of anymore . " Jason Lipshutz of the magazine Billboard praised the video with its " crystal @-@ clear " shots of the concert and the " hazy " shots of Lee running through New York . Nicole James of MTV Buzzyworthy simply said " rock videos + themes = the only kind of math I like " referring to the music video for " What You Want " . A more negative review of the video was given by Laurie Tuffrey of NME who called the video " uninspiring " . He further found CCTV effects and concluded that Lee was " looking for some love to infect " while running through Brooklyn streets .
= = Live performances = =
Evanescence performed the song live for the first time on MTV , on August 8 , 2011 during a broadcast called MTV First : Evanescence . After the performance the band had an exclusive interview with the publication . Writing for the channel 's website , James Montgomery described Lee 's vocals as " powerful " during the performance . On October 15 , 2011 , Evanescence performed the song during a televised appearance on the Jimmy Kimmel Live ! show .
They later added the song to the set list on their third worldwide tour in support of Evanescence , titled Evanescence Tour . While reviewing a concert by the band , Rick Florino of Artistdirect wrote that Lee sounded " pristine and powerful " during the chorus of the song . He further praised Tim McCord 's bass and Terry Balsamo 's guitar , " volleying with Troy McLawhorn as Evanescene 's methodical metallic theatrics hypnotized . " He concluded that the song " proved to be an undeniable anthem echoed throughout the room by every voice present . " Evanescence performed the song during their concert at the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2 , 2011 .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" What You Want " – 3 : 40
CD single
" What You Want " – 3 : 40
" What You Want " ( Elder Jepson Remix ) – 3 : 18
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Mark Steel 's in Town =
Mark Steel 's in Town is a stand @-@ up comedy show on BBC Radio 4 , co @-@ written and performed by Mark Steel . The series , that was first broadcast on 18 March 2009 , is recorded in various small towns in the United Kingdom . Each episode is tailored to the town it is recorded in and the show is performed in front of a local audience .
The first series of six episodes was recorded in five towns in England ( Skipton , Boston , Lewes , Walsall and the Isle of Portland ) and one in Wales ( Merthyr Tydfil ) . The second series , also of six episodes and first broadcast on 7 April 2010 , was performed in four towns in England ( Dartford , Wilmslow , Penzance and Gateshead ) and two in Scotland ( Dumfries and Kirkwall ) . The third series of six episodes , broadcast between December 2011 and January 2012 , visited four towns in England ( Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , Basingstoke , Wigan and Bungay ) , one in Wales ( Holyhead ) and one on the Isle of Man ( Douglas ) . A special episode recording during the Edinburgh Festival Fringe covering Leith was broadcast on 21 August 2012 . A fourth series was broadcast between November 2012 and January 2013 . In this series Steel performs in five towns in England ( Whitehaven , Handsworth , Ottery St Mary , Corby and Chipping Norton ) and one in Scotland ( Tobermory ) . A fifth series was broadcast between January and February 2014 and was performed in four towns in England ( Glastonbury , Southall , Birkenhead and Huddersfield ) , one in Wales ( St. Davids ) and one in Northern Ireland ( Derry ) . A sixth series was recorded between March and May 2015 in four towns in England ( Fleetwood , Melton Mowbray , Shrewsbury and Barnard Castle ) , one in Scotland ( Paisley ) and one in the Channel Islands ( Saint Anne , Alderney ) . A Seventh series is planned to air in September 2016 . In this series Steel will perform in five towns in England ( Stockport , Hebden Bridge , Colchester , Kingston Upon Thames & Lynton ) and one in Gibraltar .
The programme received positive reviews from critics because of Steel 's observations of the locals , and the fact the series took place in multiple locations , compared to the majority of stand @-@ up shows on radio and television , which are normally recorded in one single location . However , some have also criticised the way he has commented on some locations . In 2010 Mark Steel 's in Town won a Silver Award for " Best Comedy " in the Sony Radio Academy Awards , and in 2012 it won the Gold Award in the same category . Also in 2010 it won the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Award for " Best Radio Comedy / Light Entertainment " . In series was voted " Best Radio Entertainment Show " in the Comedy.co.uk Awards held by the British Comedy Guide in the 2012 and 2015 awards .
= = Format = =
Before each episode , Steel researches the history of the town he is going to perform in . His research interests include local notable people , landmarks , customs and humorous anecdotes . The majority of the research sometimes took place close to the actual recording date . For example , Steel carried out almost no research for his episode in Walsall until ten days before the recording . In Merthyr Tydfil he spent three days in the town where he did research and met locals .
He then performs a tailor @-@ made show about the town in front of a local audience . The style of the programme is similar to other shows starring Steel such as The Mark Steel Lectures , in which Steel presented a humorous lecture about a famous person in history .
= = Production = =
Due to the small budget there were certain places the show could not be recorded during the first series . For example , no episodes in the first series were recorded in Scotland . Steel said in an interview :
" One of the restrictions we 've got is that the budget for radio we 've got going is so unbelievably , comically tiny , that we couldn 't go to Scotland because the fare is too much . It is like some student fanzine . ' Mum , can I borrow some money because I want to go to Scotland.'
" So , I 'm hoping , if we do another series , because I 'd love to go to the Shetlands . I 'd be really excited at going to the Shetlands . Because it is just like a fascinating place to be at the moment . Or even one of these sort of weird places in Cornwall . But that was too far as well . "
The second series did feature two episodes recorded in Scotland . One in Dumfries , on the Scottish border , and other in Kirkwall , Orkney .
Other than Steel , Pete Sinclair was the only other writer , providing additional material . Julia McKenzie produced the first 2 series , while Sam Bryant produced series 3 & 4 . Ed Morrish produced Series 5 and Carl Cooper produced series 6 and will produce the upcoming series 7 . Also working on the show were studio manager Jerry Peal , and production co @-@ ordinators Sarah Sharpe and Trudi Stephens .
= = Reception = =
The majority of the reaction towards Mark Steel 's in Town has been positive . In May 2010 , the programme was given the Silver Award for " Best Comedy " in the Sony Radio Academy Awards . In May 2012 it won the Gold Award in the same category . In November 2010 it won the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Award for " Best Radio Comedy / Light Entertainment " . In January 2013 it won the " Best Radio Entertainment Show " award in the 2012 Comedy.co.uk Awards held by the British Comedy Guide . It won the same award in the 2015 awards .
Chris Campling in The Times wrote a review of a show recorded in Skipton : " A tough gig ? More like shooting fish in a barrel , to judge from the reception he received from the honest burghers of Skipton , North Yorkshire . From the moment he remarked on the fact that the hall in which he was performing was used as a cattle market during the day and was hosed out before the show – and got a roar of approving laughter – Steel must have known that he could do no wrong . "
Campling , as well as other critics , have commented that one of the main features of the show is the ability of the locals to laugh at themselves and their eccentricities . Campling wrote of the Skipton show : " The ability to laugh at itself is one of this country 's finest attributes , but the Skipton mob were only too happy to celebrate their insularity . " Elisabeth Mahoney of The Guardian , who reviewed the Dartford episode said : " Going to a place and insulting it takes guts and careful strategies . Steel made use of the fact that he is from nearby Swanley both to signal that he knows the area but also that – whatever he was about to say about Dartford – it was better than his hometown . " Another journalist , reviewing the Penzance episode in the North Devon Journal commented : " Why do we like programmes that laugh at us ? Because , I hope , we laugh at ourselves . We 're not ignorant of our stereotypes . West Cornwall ? Aaarrrrr ! "
Miranda Sawyer in The Observer also praised the show saying it was , " A simple idea , kindly and wittily executed by another unfashionably humane Englishman . Thank Gaia they still exist . "
Hilda Swinney , the Portland correspondent for the Dorset Echo said that at the recording on the Isle of Portland : " The audience , mostly Portlanders , were appreciative and very responsive to his humour and his views on ' their special island ' . They left him in no doubt that a return of Mark Steel 's in Town would be very welcome . "
Stuart Morris , a historian who helped to provide research for Steel for the Portland show commented : " I was amazed that he should have absorbed so much of the island 's history in the short period of time that he had . He joked about the Portland winds , saying that in comparison , islanders wouldn 't even have bothered to take out their kites in the face of Hurricane Katrina . He made a few remarks about Portland / Weymouth rivalry and our Weymouth friends present laughed as much as the rest of us . "
Ian Wolf from the British Comedy Guide commented that : " The fact that the series moved from town @-@ to @-@ town was very impressive – as it meant Steel had to write a unique half @-@ hour routine for each venue ( compare this to most stand @-@ ups , who only have to come up with about an hour of strong material a year ! ) . "
However , at times local journalists have responded negatively to the programme . Lisa Reeves , who reviewed the episode recorded in Wilmslow , commented on how Steel 's socialist political views did not mix with the affluence of Wilmslow and nearby Alderley Edge , which he also visited for the purposes of the recording . Reeves wrote that : " It was an enjoyable evening , with some very funny gags but a large part of the material focused on the champagne lifestyle so often portrayed in the media . " She also said that Steel should have focused more on how good the area was as a place to live in , " but I suppose that wouldn 't make for good comedy . "
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= = = Series 3 = = =
= = = Edinburgh Fringe Special = = =
= = = Series 4 = = =
= = = Series 5 = = =
= = = Series 6 = = =
= = = Series 7 = = =
= = Merchandise = =
The first series of Mark Steel 's in Town was released for download on 1 March 2010 . The series has yet to be released on CD .
A book accompanying the series , entitled Mark Steel 's in Town and published by Fourth Estate , was released on 27 October 2011 .
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= Churches of Christ =
Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices . They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone in order to be the church described in the New Testament . Churches of Christ teach that God saves and adds to His church those who believe in Christ , repent of sin , confess Jesus Christ as the Son of God , and are baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of sins , which grants the gift of the Holy Spirit ( Acts 2 : 36 @-@ 47 ) .
Churches of Christ in the United States have heritage in the American Restoration Movement . This evangelistic and Bible @-@ based effort began in various places as several people sought a return to the original teachings and practices of the New Testament . Christian leaders including Robert Sandeman , Abner Jones , Elias Smith , James O 'Kelly , Rice Haggard , Thomas Campbell , Alexander Campbell , Walter Scott , and Barton W. Stone were trailblazers of similar movements that impacted the eventual phenomenon known as the American Restoration Movement .
The Restoration ideal was also similar and somewhat connected to earlier restoration efforts in Europe ( such as those of John Glas , Robert Haldane , and James Haldane ) , as well as Puritan movements in colonial America . Though differing somewhat in details , each group consisted of like @-@ minded Christians who , although often independent of one another , had declared independence from their various denominations and the traditional creeds , seeking a fresh start to return to the doctrines and practices of the New Testament church . They did not see themselves as establishing a new church , but rather sought " the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the original church of the New Testament . " The names " Church of Christ , " " Christian Church , " and " Disciples of Christ " were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical , rather than denominational .
Prior to the U.S. Religious Census of 1906 , all congregations associated with the Restoration Movement had been reported together by the Census Bureau . But as the movement developed , tensions grew between those who emphasized unity and those who emphasized restoration , resulting in a division between those who used musical instruments in worship ( known as the Christian Church ) and those who chose to sing a cappella . The congregations in the a cappella tradition are the subject of this article . While this was the most visible distinction between the two groups , there was also disagreement over the appropriateness of organizational structures above the congregational level such as missionary societies .
Both issues highlighted differences in the groups ' underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation . For the Churches of Christ , practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church , and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship . For the Christian Churches , any practice not expressly forbidden could be considered . Though not officially recognized as distinct movements until 1906 , the separation of the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had been taking place gradually for decades .
The Restoration Movement was not a purely North American phenomenon , and active mission efforts began in the 18th century . There are now Churches of Christ in Africa , Asia , Australia , South America , Central America , and Europe .
= = Overview = =
Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century . Rather , the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost , A.D. 33 . The strength of the appeal lies in the restoration of Christ 's original church .
Modern churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement , which was a converging of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to an original , " pre @-@ denominational " Christianity . Participants in this movement sought to base their doctrine and practice on the Bible alone , rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the first century A.D. Members of the churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church , that the current divisions among Christians do not express God 's will , and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible . They simply identify themselves as " Christians " , without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification . They believe that they are recreating the New Testament church as established by Christ .
Churches of Christ generally share the following theological beliefs and practices :
Autonomous , congregational church organization without denominational oversight ;
Refusal to hold to any formal creeds or informal " doctrinal statements " or " statements of faith " , stating instead a reliance on the Bible alone for doctrine and practice ;
Local governance by a plurality of male elders ;
Baptism by immersion of consenting believers for the forgiveness of sins ;
Weekly observance of the Lord 's Supper on SundayIn British congregations , the term " breaking of bread " is commonly used .
In American congregations the terms " Communion " , and particularly " Eucharist " , are rarely used .
Though doctrinally Churches of Christ hold to the closed communion viewpoint , in practice congregations rarely prohibit visitors from taking communion , on the view that per 1 Corinthians 11 : 28 the visitor must " examine himself " and decide to partake or decline ( i.e. it is not for the minister , elders / deacons , or members to decide who may partake ) ; thus , it is more akin to open communion .
All but " a very small segment " of churches use unfermented grape juice instead of wine ) ; and
Practice of a cappella singing , and the rejection of instrumental music , in worship .
In keeping with their history , the churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure . [ Col. 2 : 14 ] They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired and historically accurate , but they do not consider its laws to be binding under the New Covenant in Christ ( unless they are repeated in the New Testament ) . They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian ( and thus a part of the universal Church of Christ ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes .
= = = Demographics = = =
These churches comprise about 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 members in over 40 @,@ 000 individual congregations worldwide . There are approximately 13 @,@ 000 congregations in the United States . Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1 @.@ 8 million in 1990 and 1 @.@ 9 million in 2008 . Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0 @.@ 8 % to 1 @.@ 5 % . Roughly 1 @,@ 240 congregations , with 172 @,@ 000 members , are predominantly African @-@ American . 240 congregations with 10 @,@ 000 members are Spanish @-@ speaking . The average congregation size is approximately 100 members . In 2000 , the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on number of members , but the 4th largest in number of congregations .
Within the U.S. , membership in the churches of Christ has grown by approximately 2 % over the period from 1980 through 2007 . Membership grew in 33 states and declined in 17 . The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60 % . The percentage of members attending services appears to be high relative to that of other Christian groups . Membership is concentrated , with 70 % of the U.S. membership in 13 states . Churches of Christ had a presence in 2 @,@ 429 counties , placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church , Catholic Church , Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God – but the average number of adherents per county was low at 677 . The divorce rate was 6 @.@ 9 % , much lower than national averages .
= = Name = =
" Church of Christ " is the most common name used by this group . In keeping with their non @-@ denominational focus , recently some congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches and secondarily as Churches of Christ . A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation as " the church " at a particular location , with no other description or qualifiers . A primary motivation behind the name is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name – to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament . Adherents are also referred to as Campbellites by academics and other denominations due to their following of the teachings of Alexander Campbell , similar to Lutherans or Calvinists , but the term is sometimes offensive .
Alexander Campbell said the goal was to " [ c ] all Bible things by Bible names , " which became an early slogan of the Restorationist Movement . These congregations generally avoid names that associate the church with a particular man ( other than Christ ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view ( e.g. , Lutheran , Wesleyan , Reformed ) . They believe that Christ established only one church , and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians . Thomas Campbell expressed an ideal of unity in his Declaration and Address : " The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially , intentionally , and constitutionally one . "
Other terms have been recognized as scriptural , based on their use in the New Testament : " church of God " , " church of the Lord " , " churches of Christ " , " church of the first @-@ born " , " church of the living God " , " the house of God " , and " the people of God " . While recognized as scriptural , terms such as Church of God are avoided to avoid confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations . As a practical matter , use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures . Members understand that a scriptural name can be used in a " denominational " or " sectarian " way . Trying to use the term " Church of Christ " exclusively has been criticized as identifying a denomination . Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word " church " in the phrases " church of Christ " and " churches of Christ " . This is based on the understanding that the term " church of Christ " is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase , indicating that the church belongs to Christ , rather than as a proper name .
= = Church organization = =
= = = Congregational autonomy and leadership = = =
Church government is congregational rather than denominational . Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters , councils , or other organizational structure above the local church level . Rather , the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations ( see Sponsoring church ( Churches of Christ ) ) . Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles . Congregations which do not participate with other church congregations and which refuse to pool resources in order to support outside causes ( such as mission work , orphan homes , Bible colleges , etc . ) are sometimes called " non @-@ institutional . "
Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons . Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation , while deacons are seen as responsible for the non @-@ spiritual needs of the church . Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders , and are often assigned to direct specific ministries . Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership . Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1 , including that the persons must be male ( female elders and deaconesses are not recognized ) . Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach , as well as to perform " governance " functions . In the absence of willing men who meet these qualifications , congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation 's men in general .
While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than " located Preachers " , during the 20th century a long @-@ term , formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ . Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders and may or may not also be qualified as an elder . While the presence of a long @-@ term professional minister has sometimes created " significant de facto ministerial authority " and led to conflict between the minister and the elders , the eldership has remained the " ultimate locus of authority in the congregation " . There is , however , a small segment of Churches of Christ who oppose the " located minister " concept ( see below ) .
Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers . No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as " clergy " . Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion , or specific training in preaching through a non @-@ college school of preaching . Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between " clergy " and " laity " and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church .
= = = Variations within Churches of Christ = = =
While there is an identifiable mainstream within the Churches of Christ , there are also significant variations within the fellowship . The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on " methods and procedures " such as church organization , the form of worship , and how the church should function . As a result , most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of " methodological " disputes . These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of " restoring the form and structure of the primitive church " .
Three quarters of the congregations and 87 % of the membership are described by the The Encyclopedia of the Stone @-@ Campbell Movement as " mainstream " , sharing a general consensus on practice and theology .
There are a few congregations which allow hand @-@ clapping and / or that use musical instruments in worship , a notable departure from the a cappella style of singing which is one of the notable practices of the Churches of Christ .
The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices , rather than in theological perspectives , and tend to have smaller congregations on average .
The largest of these four categories is the " non @-@ institutional " churches of Christ . This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges . Approximately 2 @,@ 055 congregations fall in this category .
The remaining three groups , whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or " non @-@ institutional " groups , also oppose institutional support , but differ from the " non @-@ institutional " group by other beliefs and practices :
One group opposes separate " Sunday School " classes ; this group consists of approximately 1 @,@ 100 congregations . These groups generally overlap with the " one @-@ cup " group and may overlap with the " mutual edification " group .
Another group opposes the use of multiple communion cups ( the term " one @-@ cup " is often used , sometimes pejoratively as " one @-@ cuppers " , to describe this group ) ; there are approximately 550 congregations in this group . Congregations in this group differ as to whether " the wine " should be fermented or unfermented , and whether " the bread " can be broken ahead of time or must be broken by the individual participant during Lord 's Supper time .
The last and smallest group " emphasize [ s ] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose [ s ] one person doing most of the preaching " ( the term " mutual edification " is often used to describe this group ) ; the group includes roughly 130 congregations .
= = Beliefs = =
If it 's not in the Bible , then these folks aren 't going to do it .
Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine ( known elsewhere as sola scriptura ) . The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant . Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal , unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise . Regarding church practices , worship , and doctrine , there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is biblically permissible , as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy . Their approach to the Bible is driven by the " assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer " . Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable " blueprint " or " constitution " for the church .
Historically , three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ .
Analysis of commands , examples , and necessary inferences ;
Dispensational analysis distinguishing between Patriarchal , Mosaic and Christian dispensations ; and
Grammatico @-@ historical analysis .
The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts . The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group 's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command , example , inference approach . In practice , interpretation has been deductive , and heavily influenced by the group 's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology . Inductive reasoning has been used as well , as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation . One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way : " In most of their theologizing , however , my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner , arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion . In this regard the approach is much like that of science which , in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another , rather than in a Baconian inductive manner . " In recent years , changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ .
A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command , example , necessary inference model for identifying the " essentials " of the New Testament faith . Some argued that it fostered legalism , and advocated instead a hermeneutic based on the character of God , Christ and the Holy Spirit . Traditionalists urged the rejection of this " new hermeneutic " . Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased " focus on ' spiritual ' issues like discipleship , servanthood , family and praise " . Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades . While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship , church organization , or regulating the Christian 's life , some have argued that it is theologically authoritative .
Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism but not the associated anti @-@ supernaturalistic views . More generally , the classical grammatico @-@ historical method is prevalent , which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures .
= = = Doctrine of salvation ( soteriology ) = = =
Churches of Christ are strongly anti @-@ Calvinist in their understanding of salvation and generally present conversion as " obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional , Spirit @-@ initiated conversion " . Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because they have committed sins . These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ , the Son of God , offered Himself as the atoning sacrifice . Children too young to understand right from wrong and make a conscious choice between the two , are believed to be innocent of sin . There is no set " age " for this to occur ; it is only when the child learns the difference between right and wrong that they are accountable ( James 4 : 17 ) . Congregations differ in their interpretation of the age of accountability .
Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps :
One must be properly taught , and hear ( Romans 10 : 14 ) ;
One must believe or have faith ( Hebrews 11 : 6 ) ;
One must repent , which means turning from one 's former lifestyle and choosing God 's ways ( Acts 17 : 30 ) ;
One must confess belief that Jesus is the son of God ( Acts 8 : 36 – 37 ) ;
One must be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ ( Acts 2 : 38 ) ; and
One must live faithfully as a Christian ( 1 Peter 2 : 9 ) .
Beginning in the 1960s , many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation , instead of focusing exclusively on implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples . This was not an entirely new approach , as others had actively " affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace " , but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming " a theme that would increasingly define this tradition " .
= = = = Baptism = = = =
Baptism has been recognized as an important rite throughout the history of the Christian Church , but Christian groups differ over the manner in which baptism is administered , the meaning and significance of baptism , its role in salvation , and who is a candidate for baptism .
Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion , based on the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω ( baptizō ) which is understood to mean to dip , immerse , submerge or plunge . Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death , burial , and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism . Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century , and that pouring and sprinkling emerged later . Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion . Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized ( i.e. , infant baptism is not practiced because the New Testament has no precedent for it ) .
Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement , understanding baptism by immersion to be a necessary part of conversion . The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity . David Lipscomb consistently argued that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God , the baptism was valid , even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation . Austin McGary argued strongly that to be valid , the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins . McGary 's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century , but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared . More recently , the rise of the International Churches of Christ , who " reimmersed some who came into their fellowship , even those previously immersed ' for remission of sins ' in a Church of Christ , " has caused some to reexamine the question of rebaptism .
Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God , and that God " by the merits of Christ 's blood , cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God 's kingdom . Baptism is not a human work ; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do . " Baptism is a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work ; it " is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God " . While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a " sacrament " , their view of it can legitimately be described as " sacramental " . They see the power of baptism coming from God , who chose to use baptism as a vehicle , rather than from the water or the act itself , and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process , rather than as only a symbol of conversion . A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism : instead of describing it as nothing more than a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past , it is seen as " the event that places the believer ' into Christ ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation " . There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism , but the broader trend is to " reexamine the richness of the biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity " .
Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation , some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration . However members of the Churches of Christ reject this , arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary , and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God , baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual . One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way , " Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God ; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God " ( italics are in the source ) . Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance , rather than a " work " that earns salvation .
= = = A cappella worship = = =
The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that the early church used musical instruments in worship and the belief that there is no scriptural support for using instruments in the church 's worship service to decide that instruments should not be used today in worship . Churches of Christ have historically practiced a cappella music in worship services .
The use of musical instruments in worship was a divisive topic within the Stone @-@ Campbell Movement from its earliest years , when some adherents opposed the practice on scriptural grounds , while others may have relied on a cappella simply because they lacked access to musical instruments . Alexander Campbell opposed the use of instruments in worship . As early as 1855 , some Restoration Movement churches were using organs or pianos , ultimately leading the Churches of Christ to separate from the groups that condoned instrumental music .
Scriptural backing given by members for the practice of a cappella includes :
Matt . 26 : 30 : " And when they had sung a hymn , they went out to the Mount of Olives . "
Rom . 15 : 9 : " Therefore I will praise thee among the Gentiles , and sing to thy name " ;
Eph . 5 : 18 @,@ 19 : " ... be filled with the Spirit , addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs , singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart , "
1 Cor . 14 : 15 : " I will sing with the Spirit , and I will sing with the understanding also . "
Col. 3 : 16 : " Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly ; in all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs , singing with grace in your hearts unto God . "
Heb . 2 : 12 : " I will declare thy name unto my brethren , in the midst of the church will I sing praise unto thee . "
There are congregations that permit hand @-@ clapping and a few that use musical instruments in worship . Some of the latter describe themselves as a " Church of Christ ( Instrumental ) " .
= = = Other theological tendencies = = =
Churches of Christ avoid the term " theology " , preferring instead the term " doctrine " : theology is what humans say about the Bible ; doctrine is simply what the Bible says .
Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ only follow the Bible and have no " theology " . Christian theology as classically understood – the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics – is relatively recent and rare among this movement . Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture , they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand . Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain " driving motifs " . These are scripture ( hermeneutics ) , the church ( ecclesiology ) and the " plan of salvation " ( soteriology ) . The importance of theology , understood as teaching or " doctrine " , has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others , to promote spiritual health , and to draw the believer closer to God .
= = = = Eschatology = = = =
Regarding eschatology ( a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind ) , Churches of Christ are generally amillennial , their originally prevalent postmillennialism ( evident in Alexander Campbell 's Millennial Harbinger ) having dissipated around the era of the First World War . Before then , many leaders were " moderate historical premillennialists " who did not advocate specific historical interpretations . Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles . Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today .
Premillennialism was a focus of controversy during the first half of the 20th century . One of the most influential advocates for that point of view was Robert Henry Boll , whose eschatological views came to be most singularly opposed by Foy E. Wallace Jr . By the end of the 20th century , however , the divisions caused by the debate over premillennialism were diminishing , and in the 2000 edition of the directory Churches of Christ in the United States , published by Mac Lynn , congregations holding premillennial views were no longer listed separately .
= = = = Work of the Holy Spirit = = = =
During the late 19th century , the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture . This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell , who was " greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day " . He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation but understood the Spirit to do this " in the same way any person moves another — by persuasion with words and ideas " . This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone , who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian . Since the early 20th century , many , but not all , among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this " word @-@ only " theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit . As one scholar of the movement puts it , " [ f ] or better or worse , those who champion the so @-@ called word @-@ only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ . Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body , apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock . "
= = = = Church history = = = =
The fundamental idea of " restoration " or " Christian Primitivism " is that problems or deficiencies in the church can be corrected by using the primitive church as a " normative model . " The call for restoration is often justified on the basis of a " falling away " that corrupted the original purity of the church . This falling away is identified with the development of Catholicism and denominationalism . New Testament verses that discuss future apostasy ( 2 Thessalonians 2 : 3 ) and heresy ( e.g. , Acts 20 : 29 , 1 Timothy 4 : 1 , 2 Tim 4 : l @-@ 4 : 4 ) are understood to predict this falling away . The logic of " restoration " could imply that the " true " church completely disappeared and thus lead towards exclusivism . Another view of restoration is that the " true Church ... has always existed by grace and not by human engineering " ( italics in the original ) . In this view the goal is to " help Christians realize the ideal of the church in the New Testament – to restore the church as conceived in the mind of Christ " ( italics in the original ) . Early Restoration Movement leaders did not believe that the church had ceased to exist , but instead sought to reform and reunite the church . A number of congregations ' web sites explicitly state that the true church never disappeared . The belief in a general falling away is not seen as inconsistent with the idea that a faithful remnant of the church never entirely disappeared . Some have attempted to trace this remnant through the intervening centuries between the New Testament and the beginning of the Restoration Movement in the early 1800s .
One effect of the emphasis placed on the New Testament church is a " sense of historylessness " that sees the intervening history between the 1st century and the modern church as " irrelevant or even abhorrent . " Authors within the brotherhood have recently argued that a greater attention to history can help guide the church through modern @-@ day challenges .
= = History in the United States = =
= = = Early Restoration Movement history = = =
The Restoration Movement originated with the convergence of several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity . Two were of particular importance to the development of the movement . The first , led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge , Kentucky and called themselves simply " Christians " . The second began in western Pennsylvania and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son , Alexander Campbell ; they used the name " Disciples of Christ " . Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament , and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided .
The Campbell movement was characterized by a " systematic and rational reconstruction " of the early church , in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma . Despite their differences , the two movements agreed on several critical issues . Both saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom , and both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model . The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements . While emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine , an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth . " In essentials , unity ; in non @-@ essentials , liberty ; in all things , love " was an oft @-@ quoted slogan of the period . The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832 .
The Restoration Movement began during , and was greatly influenced by , the Second Great Awakening . While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings , the Southern phase of the Awakening " was an important matrix of Barton Stone 's reform movement " and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells .
= = = Christian churches and churches of Christ separation = = =
Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved
In 1906 , the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time . This was the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer , with reports of the division having been published as early as 1883 . The most visible distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ . The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches . More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation . For the Churches of Christ , any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church , and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship . For the Christian Churches , any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered . Another specific source of controversy was the role of missionary societies , the first of which was the American Christian Missionary Society , formed in October 1849 . While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism , many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations . This disagreement became another important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church . Cultural factors arising from the American Civil War also contributed to the division .
In 1968 , at the International Convention of Christian Churches ( Disciples of Christ ) , those Christian Churches that favored a denominational structure , wished to be more ecumenical , and also accepted more of the modern liberal theology of various denominations , adopted a new " provisional design " for their work together , becoming the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) . Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization continued as undenominational Christian churches and churches of Christ , completing a separation that had begun decades before . The instrumental Christian churches and churches of Christ in some cases have both organizational and hermeneutical differences with the Churches of Christ discussed in this article . For example , they have a loosely organized convention and view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively , but they are more closely related to the Churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Disciples of Christ denomination . Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism , with the a cappella Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing Bible authority , while the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism .
= = = Race relations = = =
To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race , social or civil state , his color or race , is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association . It is a fearful thing to do . I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend .
Early Restoration Movement leaders varied in their views of slavery , reflecting the range of positions common in the antebellum U.S. Barton W. Stone was a strong opponent of slavery , arguing that there was no Biblical justification for the form of slavery then being practiced in the United States and calling for immediate emancipation . Alexander Campbell represented a more " Jeffersonian " opposition to slavery , writing of it as more of a political problem than as a religious or moral one . Having seen Methodists and Baptists divide over the issue of slavery , Campbell argued that scripture regulated slavery rather than prohibited it , and that abolition should not be allowed to become an issue over which Christians would break fellowship with each other . Like the country as a whole , the assumption of white racial superiority was almost universal among those on all sides of the issue , and it was common for congregations to have separate seating for black members .
After the Civil War , black Christians who had been worshiping in mixed @-@ race Restoration Movement congregations formed their own congregations . White members of Restoration Movement congregations shared many of the racial prejudices of the times . Among the churches of Christ , Marshall Keeble became a prominent African @-@ American evangelist . He estimated that by January 1919 he had " traveled 23 @,@ 052 miles , preached 1 @,@ 161 sermons , and baptized 457 converts " .
During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s the churches of Christ struggled with changing racial attitudes . Some leaders , such as Foy E. Wallace Jr . , railed against racial integration . Others , including the influential evangelist , Jimmy Allen from Harding University , opposed segregation and encouraged those working with his evangelistic campaigns to " Treat them exactly the same way you treat white people . " Schools and colleges associated with the movement were at the center of the debate . Abilene Christian College first admitted black undergraduate students in 1962 ( graduate students had been admitted in 1961 ) . Desegregation of other campuses followed .
Efforts to address racism continued through the following decades . A national meeting of prominent leaders from the churches of Christ was held in June 1968 . Thirty @-@ two participants signed a set of proposals intended to address discrimination in local congregations , church affiliated activities and the lives of individual Christians . An important symbolic step was taken in 1999 when the president of Abilene Christian University " confessed the sin of racism in the school 's past segregationist policies " and asked black Christians for forgiveness during a lectureship at Southwestern Christian College , a historically black school affiliated with the churches of Christ .
= = = Music = = =
The tradition of a capella congregational singing in the Churches of Christ has stimulated the creation of many new hymns . Notable Churches of Christ hymn writers have included Albert Brumley ( " I 'll Fly Away " ) and Tillit S. Teddlie ( " Worthy Art Thou " ) . Church of Christ hymns commonly are in the style of gospel hymnody . The hymnal Great Songs of the Church , which was first published in 1921 and has had many subsequent editions , is widely used .
= = = Institutional controversy = = =
After World War II , Churches of Christ began sending ministers and humanitarian relief to war @-@ torn Europe and Asia . A doctrinal conflict ensued about how this work was to be done . Eventually , the funding and control of outreach programs in the United States such as homes for orphans , nursing homes , mission work , setting up new congregations , Bible colleges or seminaries , and large @-@ scale radio and television programs became part of the controversy . Congregations which participate in pooling funds for these institutional activities are said to be " sponsoring church " congregations . Congregations which have traditionally opposed these organized sponsorship activities are said to be " non @-@ institutional " congregations . This " Institutional Controversy " resulted in the largest division among Churches of Christ in the 20th century .
= = = Separation of the International Churches of Christ = = =
The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a " discipling " movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s . This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas .
In 1967 , Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville , Florida ( later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ ) . That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance ( based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement ) . Centered on the University of Florida , the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners . Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members . Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction . Both procedures led to " in @-@ depth involvement of each member in one another 's lives " , and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism .
The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ . One of Lucas ' converts , Kip McKean , moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with " would @-@ be disciples " in the Lexington Church of Christ . He asked them to " redefine their commitment to Christ , " and introduced the use of discipling partners . The congregation grew rapidly , and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ . In the early 1980s , the focus of the movement moved to Boston , Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend . With the national leadership located in Boston , during the 1980s it commonly became known as the " Boston movement " . A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ . This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads / Boston Movement and " mainline " Churches of Christ . Other names that have been used for this movement include the " Crossroads movement , " " Multiplying Ministries , " the " Discipling Movement " and the " Boston Church of Christ " .
Kip McKean resigned as the " World Mission Evangelist " in November 2002 . Some ICoC leaders began " tentative efforts " at reconciliation with the Churches of Christ during the Abilene Christian University Lectureship in February 2004 .
= = = Restoration Movement timeline = = =
= = Churches of Christ outside the United States = =
Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States . There are more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa , approximately 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in India , and 50 @,@ 000 in Central and South America . Total worldwide membership is over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , with approximately 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in the U.S.
= = = Africa = = =
There are believed to be 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa . The total number of congregations is approximately 14 @,@ 000 . The most significant concentrations are in " Nigeria , Malawi , Ghana , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Ethiopia , South Africa and Kenya " .
= = = Asia = = =
India has historically been a target for missionary efforts ; estimates are that there are 2 @,@ 000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India , with a membership of approximately 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines . Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant .
= = = Australia and New Zealand = = =
Historically , Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia . Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations . While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive , towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing " summary statements of belief " as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups . The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship , Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools . Ultimately , all three found general acceptance in the movement . Currently , the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States . There have been strong ties with the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) , but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Christian churches and churches of Christ instead . Others have sought support from non @-@ instrumental Churches of Christ , particularly those who felt that " conference " congregations had " departed from the restoration ideal " .
= = = Canada = = =
A relatively small proportion of total membership come from Canada . A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church . This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole , and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians . The largest concentration of active congregations in Canada are in Southern Ontario , with notable congregations gathering in Beamsville , Bramalea , Niagara Falls , Vineland , Toronto ( several ) , and Waterloo . Although many congregations of various sizes ( typically under 300 members ) meet all across Canada .
= = = Great Britain = = =
In the early 1800s , Scottish Baptists were influenced by the writings of Alexander Campbell in the Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger . A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ . James Wallis , a member of that group , founded a magazine named the British Millennial Harbinger in 1837 . In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh . Approximately 50 congregations were involved , representing a membership of 1 @,@ 600 . The name " Churches of Christ " was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870 . Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings ; he visited Britain for several months in 1847 , and " presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester " . At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2 @,@ 300 . Annual meetings were held after 1847 .
The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism ; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war . A conference for " Old Paths " congregations was first held in 1924 . The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as " an all @-@ sufficient rule of faith and practice " . Two " Old Paths " congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931 ; an additional two withdrew in 1934 , and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947 .
Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War . The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980 . Most Association congregations ( approximately 40 ) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981 . In the same year , twenty @-@ four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ . The Fellowship developed ties with the Christian churches and churches of Christ during the 1980s .
The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a " missional " emphasis with an ideal of " Five Fold Leadership " . Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches . The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine . A history of the Association of Churches of Christ , Let Sects and Parties Fall , was written by David M Thompson . Further information can be found in the Historical Survey of Churches of Christ in the British Isles , edited by Joe Nisbet .
= = = South America = = =
In Brazil there are above 600 congregations and 100 @,@ 000 members from the Restoration Movement . Most of them were established by Lloyd David Sanders .
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= Don Geiss , America and Hope =
" Don Geiss , America , and Hope " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 73rd overall episode of the series . It was directed by Stephen Lee Davis , and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 18 , 2010 . Guest stars in " Don Geiss , America and Hope " include John Anderson , Scott Bryce , Marceline Hugot , James Rebhorn , and Michael Sheen .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) attempts to avoid running into Wesley Snipes ( Sheen ) after they fail to hit it off in their first encounter , but fate seems to want them together . At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) deals with the impending purchase of NBC . Finally , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) does damage control after his former nanny publishes a tell @-@ all book .
The episode continued a story arc involving Wesley as a love interest for Liz , which began in the previous episode . " Don Geiss , America and Hope " makes reference to the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast , as well as that of professional golfer Tiger Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal .
This episode of 30 Rock has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 6 @.@ 857 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his performance in " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , outgoing Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric ( GE ) , researches company Kabletown ( which recently purchased the NBC network as a charitable , tax @-@ deductible act ) , to find a way he can contribute in the corporation 's development . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) lets it slip that he may have been living forever , when he shows concern that Kabletown may impose new rules for " age limits and age verification " for pages . A former colleague , Dave Hess ( Scott Bryce ) , who left NBC for Kabletown , reveals that Kabletown 's success comes from running pay @-@ per @-@ view adult channels ; the company runs " the perfect business " and needs no investment in new services or products . On learning this , Jack is horrified at the prospect of no longer making things . Later , however , while giving a eulogy at former GE CEO Don Geiss 's ( Rip Torn ) funeral , he has an epiphany and proposes to Kabletown executives that they produce " porn for women " ( specifically , channels featuring attractive men who " listen " while women blather on ) .
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) tries to avoid meeting with Wesley ( Michael Sheen ) , the British man she met and flirted with while under the influence of anesthesia . Liz finds him to be annoying , but they continually run into each other , which leads them to believe they are meant to be together . However , after visiting the dentist office where they met , Liz and Wesley come to terms with the fact that the anesthesia was the cause of whatever they experienced , and agree to stop seeing each other . But when they run into each other yet again , Wesley suggests that they should probably just " settle " for one another . Liz is horrified at this prospect and consults Jack for advice , but he is still disconsolate at the prospect of " settling " for a company without upward momentum , and cannot help her . Later , Liz meets Wesley to tell him her answer is no , and she believes both of them can do better than being with each other ; she is further dismayed to learn he shares his name with actor Wesley Snipes .
Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) nanny publishes a tell @-@ all book , revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone , a secret he had shared only with Jack in " The Ones " . In order to restore his womanizing persona , Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper , but no one is convinced . To make matters worse , women begin to come forward and admit that they did not have sex with Tracy . His wife Angie even advises him to have an affair in order to save his career , a suggestion which Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) urges him to take seriously . Tracy attempts to proposition Liz , but is unable to pretend he wants to cheat on his wife . Liz rebuffs Tracy 's advances , admitting she envies his happy marriage and urging him to embrace his monogamy .
At the end of the episode , Liz is seen watching and being intrigued by some of the " porn for women " content , which somehow features her fantasy boyfriend Astronaut Mike Dexter .
= = Production = =
" Don Geiss , America and Hope " was directed by series first assistant director Stephen Lee Davis , and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield . This was Burditt 's first written episode for the season , as he had moved to Los Angeles , California , to become a staff writer on the CBS comedy show The New Adventures of Old Christine . Overall , this was Burditt 's twelfth writing credit . This was Wigfield 's third writing credit , and was Davis 's first directed episode . " Don Geiss , America and Hope " originally aired in the United States on March 18 , 2010 , on NBC as the fifteenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 73rd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on January 25 and January 27 , 2010 .
In January 2010 , it was announced that Welsh actor Michael Sheen would guest star as a love interest for series creator Tina Fey 's character , Liz Lemon . He made his debut as Wesley in the previous episode , " Future Husband " . Actor Scott Bryce guest starred as Dave Hess , a former colleague of Jack Donaghy 's . Bryce first appeared in the season three episode " Flu Shot " as a different character named Michael Templeton . Actress Marceline Hugot made her ninth appearance as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of GE CEO Don Geiss . In the episode , Kathy performs the song " Ave Maria " with a trumpet at her father 's funeral . Dr. Kaplan was played by actor James Rebhorn , who first guest starred as the character in " Future Husband " . At the end of " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , where Liz is shown watching one of the " porn for women " channels , the man depicted as speaking to her was portrayed by actor John Anderson , who has guest starred previously on the show as Astronaut Mike Dexter . At the end of the credits , Anderson is credited as Astronaut Mike Dexter . Jack learns from former GE CEO Jack Welch , in the last episode , that current GE CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) has died . In " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , a funeral service is held for Geiss . Television critic Bob Sassone of TV Squad , in his recap of this episode , wondered if Torn was written out of the series due to an alcohol @-@ related incident that occurred to Torn in January 2010 .
This episode was inspired by the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast in November 2009 . After winning her fourth Screen Actors Guild Award as her 30 Rock character at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards ceremony in January 2010 , Fey was asked whether or not the show would make reference to the Comcast acquisition to which she said that it would be dealt with . " The sale of NBC to another company is integral to our show and it will be hard for Jack . " In the episode , Kabletown — a fictional Philadelphia company network — has taken over GE Sheinhardt NBC Universal , and Jack tries to contribute his ideas to the company . In April 2010 , the NBC network created a website for the Kabletown company . When asked by a contributor from The Philadelphia Inquirer why the characters on 30 Rock refer to the network 's new owner as " Kabletown , with a K " , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that the reason for this was that the staff writers came up with the name " Cabletown " , however , they later learned that there was a real company with a similar name , so NBC 's legal team department " wanted to emphasize the difference , and after a while , everyone just liked the sound of it . "
Tracy Jordan 's storyline in which his former nanny writes a tell @-@ all book revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone mirrored — though in reversal — the real life of professional golfer Tiger Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal that occurred in late 2009 . In one scene , it is revealed that women have come forward admitting to never have had a sexual relationship with Tracy ; After news broke of Woods 's infidelities , numerous women came forward admitting to having affairs with the golfer . To re @-@ establish his womanizing persona , Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper ; In December 2009 , Woods announced he would take an indefinite leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity . Other women , who Tracy did not have a relationship with , have released voice mails to the news media . In one of them , Tracy leaves a message to his wife , Angie ( Sherri Shepherd ) , in which he is loving and sincere in the message ; One of Woods 's mistress produced voice and text messages as evidence of a relationship with the golfer . As a result of him being outed as monogamous , Tracy loses various endorsements ; After admitting to his affairs , Woods lost various endorsement deals with different companies .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Jack announces at a staff meeting that NBC has been bought by Kabletown , a company network from Philadelphia . Immediately , Jack and Liz exchange opinions about Philadelphia and Boston ; Liz , who grew up near Philadelphia , declares " Go Eagles ! Philly rules ! Cheesesteaks ! Bobby Clarke ! Will Smith ! [ Boston ] sucks ! " . Jack , who is from Boston , responds " Boston is the greatest city in the world . Boston Tea Party . Boston cream pie . Boston Rob Mariano . Birthplace of Benjamin Franklin . " Liz interjects " Yeah , then [ Franklin ] looked around , realized it sucked , and moved to Philadelphia ! " Jack and the New York staff then deride the city of Los Angeles , provoking an NBC executive teleconferencing in from Los Angeles to assert that " LA rules : Michael Bay , freeways , Legoland — " before Jack shuts off his feed . While meeting with Kabletown executives , Jack learns that they focus on adult films and sees their list of features , including Assatar , The Lovely Boners , The Hind Side , and Fresh @-@ Ass : Based on the Novel Tush by Assfire , puns on the 2009 films Avatar , The Lovely Bones , The Blind Side , and Precious : Based on the Novel " Push " by Sapphire .
Jenna claims to Tracy that she " ate the pig that played Babe , " in a reference to the 1995 film Babe based on the British novel The Sheep @-@ Pig . At Don Geiss 's funeral , the trumpet solo that his daughter Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) performs is Ellens dritter Gesang by Franz Schubert , a melody best known as a setting for the Latin Catholic prayer Ave Maria .
When Liz tells Tracy that he has a life with his family and should enjoy it , after Tracy tries to have sex with her in order to restore his womanizing reputation , she tells him " You know what I have ? A Sims family that keeps getting murdered . " The Sims is a video game in which players create virtual people called " Sims " and places them in houses and helps direct their moods and satisfy their desires . Tracy responds " One day , you will have what I have because you are an amazing , strong , intelligent woman , like Hilary ... from Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air . " The Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air was a series that previously aired on NBC , and the Hilary character was a dull @-@ witted individual who lacked intelligence . Before going their separate ways , Liz discovers that Wesley 's last name is Snipes , but Wesley tells her that it is a name more fitting for a " pale English guy " , than actor Wesley Snipes . Liz and Wesley also attend a second run of the movie Hot Tub Time Machine , which provokes arguments between them despite their mutual enjoyment of the film .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago and New York . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In this episode , at Don Geiss 's funeral , he is shown to be frozen in carbonite similar to that of Star Wars character Han Solo in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Don Geiss , America and Hope " was watched by 6 @.@ 857 million viewers during its original United States broadcast . The rating was a 3 percent increase in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Future Husband " , which was seen by 5 @.@ 894 million American viewers . The show claimed a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 0 percent of all people in that group , and 9 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . For his work in this episode , Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost it to actor Jim Parsons .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that despite " Don Geiss , America and Hope " not being " strong " as the last episode it had " many funny moments scattered throughout " that he was satisfied with . He noted that the uncomfortable relationship between Liz and Wesley " worked better " here than previously . Sepinwall said it " was a good story " for Jack 's character , and that it was " nice " to see 30 Rock " fearless about mocking their future Comcast overlords as they are at making fun of NBC " . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Michael Sheen 's return , said that every part of Liz and Wesley 's story was " brilliant " . He observed that Jack 's midlife crisis here was " poignant as well as funny . " Overall , Rabin gave it a B + rating , and concluded " ... it was a rock @-@ solid episode " . Despite enjoying Sheen 's role on the show , Time contributor James Poniewozik confessed he had a problem with his story arc with Tina Fey 's Liz . " I assume that [ Sheen ] is not going to become a permanent cast member , and so however much I might enjoy parts of this story , I can never forget that this is probably one more relationship that Liz will go through and end up at status quo ante . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was complimentary towards the NBC / Kabletown deal , enjoyed Tracy 's subplot , noting it gave the character " something important to do ... it also shined some new light on the Tracy Morgan character . " Adam Mersel for TV Guide reasoned " I can officially say that almost no episode of 30 Rock falls flat for me , and this one certainly didn 't [ ... ] All in all , this is one of my favorite episodes of the season . " Paste magazine contributor Sean Gandert was favorable to it , noting " I 'm not sure when the last time I thought every plot in a 30 Rock episode was a winner , but ' Don Geiss , Hope and America ' delivered on the exuberant claims of the episode 's title " . Nick Catucci of New York magazine wrote that Jack trying to fit in at Kabletown , along with his suggestion of " porn for women " , was " meh " , Liz dealing with Wesley and Tracy " dealing with the world 's discovery of his fidelity to his wife " were all " quite comfortably situated in the show 's wheelhouse " .
Not all reviews were positive . IGN contributor Robert Canning felt that " Don Geiss , American and Hope " felt " a bit rudderless as well . The main stories eventually crossed over in meaningful ways , but aside from those connections , their direction was a bit weak and unsure . They all had a great bit or two ... but the general feel of the episode was mostly blah . That could likely be the result of the main characters coming off as mostly blah . " In conclusion , Canning gave it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . Meredith Blake , a contributor for the Los Angeles Times , was not positive towards Fey and Sheen 's story here , explaining that the premise of the two characters settling for one another " fell flat " and " it just wasn 't as funny as it could have been . "
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= Lightning ( Final Fantasy ) =
Lightning ( ライトニング , Raitoningu ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series . She first appeared as a playable character and protagonist in the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy XIII , in which she features as a resident of the artificial world of Cocoon . After her sister Serah is declared an enemy of Cocoon , Lightning attempts to save her : she and others are then chosen by the fal 'Cie , a divided race of demigods who rule the worlds of Gran Pulse and Cocoon , to destroy Cocoon . Lightning reappears as a supporting character in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , acting as protector of the Goddess Etro . She is the sole playable character in Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , wherein she sets out to save her world , which is destined to end in thirteen days . She has featured in other Final Fantasy games , most notably the crossover game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy .
Lightning was created by Motomu Toriyama , the director and scenario writer of XIII , and designed by Tetsuya Nomura , a regular character artist for the Final Fantasy series . Their idea was to create a strong female protagonist who was adept at combat and less feminine than previous Final Fantasy heroines . Aspects of her early design and personality were later altered , or transferred to other characters . After XIII , Lightning 's design was revised several times to reflect her role and development in each game , particularly in Lightning Returns . Her name in Japanese , Éclair Farron ( エクレール ・ ファロン , Ekurēru Faron ) , was originally a placeholder . Because of its similarity to the name of a pastry , her first name was changed to " Claire " in other countries .
Lightning has received mixed commentary from critics — much of it relating to her cold personality , which was compared to that of Final Fantasy VII 's protagonist Cloud Strife . She was criticized for her relative absence in XIII @-@ 2 . Her role in Lightning Returns had a mixed reception : some critics saw her as underdeveloped and unlikable , while others found her better developed and more human than in previous games . Lightning later appeared on lists , compiled by video game publications , of the best characters in the Final Fantasy series and in video games as a whole . She has been received favorably in polls of public opinion by Famitsu , Square Enix , and other organizations .
= = Character design = =
Lightning was designed by regular Final Fantasy character designer Tetsuya Nomura , who had previously served as the character designer for Final Fantasy VIII and X. Nomura has said that multiple designs — including some by staff members other than himself — were considered for Lightning , while Toriyama has claimed that Nomura 's first draft " looked so cool and strong that there was no need for any retakes . " Because of the graphical capacities of Final Fantasy XIII 's prospective platforms , Nomura was able to include far more detail in Lightning 's design than in his previous character designs , such as her cape and facial features . This necessitated far more effort on his part . Commenting on an early form of her design , Nomura explained that she is essentially a " cool character " , in that she is serious and unforgiving . However , he could not make the character too masculine for fear of losing player empathy . Characteristics from earlier versions of the design included blond or silver hair and Asian @-@ looking facial features . Her final art was made less Asian @-@ looking than these early drafts and her hair color changed to pink , while Hope Estheim was given silver hair . Lightning 's final hair color and hairstyle were intended to reflect her femininity , and to counterbalance her athletic body . Creating her promotional CG render was fairly easy due to the amount of details available concerning her .
Lightning 's real name is Claire Farron in English and Éclair Farron ( エクレール ・ ファロン , Ekurēru Faron ) in Japanese . During the early stages of production , Lightning 's real name was Averia : " Eclair " was used to keep this name secret , but it was eventually chosen as her official name . Her English name , Claire , was chosen because the name " Eclair " is closely associated with a type of pastry . The name " Lightning " was not chosen by Nomura but by other members of the development team : Nomura had wanted to abandon the tradition of naming Final Fantasy protagonists after weather events , and was surprised by the choice . Several models of Lightning 's house were constructed for XIII but were removed due to space issues . Her weapon in XIII , the Blazefire Saber ( known as Blaze Edge ( ブレイズエッジ , Bureizu Ejji ) in the Japanese version ) was designed to mirror the ability of the game 's summoned monsters , the Eidolons , to transform into animal- , human- and vehicle @-@ like shapes . The game 's version of Odin , Lightning 's Eidolon and a recurring summoned monster in the Final Fantasy series , was intended to present Lightning as a knight on horseback . He was written as a father figure for Lightning . In later games in the XIII series , Odin was developed into a friend to whom Lightning could show her deeper feelings . Daisuke Watanabe , while writing the script for XIII , paid particular attention to fleshing out Lightning 's non @-@ romantic relationship with Snow Villiers and to showing her development as a person while protecting Hope .
Due to global demand and the development staff 's desire to further Lightning 's character , development began for a sequel to XIII . The game tackles the question of whether Lightning is happy after the events of XIII . Even before a sequel was greenlit , Toriyama had wanted to create a truly happy ending for the character . Lightning 's outfit in XIII @-@ 2 was designed by Isamu Kamikokuryo . He worked from a rough sketch by Nomura of how Lightning should appear . The outfit was redone several times by Kamikokuryo : a qipao and a science fiction @-@ inspired design were both discarded because they clashed with the game 's atmosphere . The final design was inspired by the valkyries of Norse mythology . The outfit was meant to reflect the environment around Lightning . It features a feather motif to represent Lightning 's light , delicate side and her growing powers . She was depicted as having transcended her human limits , making it difficult to depict her as a normal person .
Her outfit in Lightning Returns was designed by Nomura . He was told by Toriyama to create something representative of her final battle , with " strength " as the main guideline . The resultant outfit , which resembles a leather bodysuit , has spinal column patterns on its sleeves and is primarily colored red and white . Nomura later commented that he felt " a strong reaction within [ himself ] " while creating Lightning 's final look . Nomura 's design was Kamikokuryo 's favorite out of the many outfits created for the character . Her other outfits for the game were designed by Kamikokuryo , Toshiyuki Itahana , and Toshitaka Matsuda : many of them drew inspiration from the character designs of regular Final Fantasy artist Yoshitaka Amano . In addition to the new costumes , Lightning 's in @-@ game model was rebuilt from the ground @-@ up . Her breasts were enlarged and several of her outfits were designed to present her in a more feminine way . For the game 's epilogue , Toriyama wished for Lightning to appear in an everyday setting and normal clothes . The team considered ending the game with Lightning either meeting or speaking with her allies , but Toriyama wished the story to begin and end with her alone . He has claimed that Lightning , with her solo role in Lightning Returns , was the Final Fantasy series ' " first female protagonist " .
= = = Influences = = =
Toriyama wanted Lightning to be a type of female character previously unseen in Final Fantasy games , one with an athlete 's body and a less feminine nature . His guideline to Nomura was to make her strong , beautiful , and " like a female version of Cloud [ Strife ] from [ Final Fantasy VII ] " . Commenting on the resemblance , Toriyama stated that the similarities between the characters only extend to their cold personalities and their military backgrounds , and that otherwise " Lightning really [ is ] her own person . " Nomura compared the two shortly before the Japanese release of Lightning Returns , saying that he had " desired for her to be carefully developed and loved for a long time , like Cloud . " Toriyama has said that , among the characters he had been involved in creating , Lightning was his favorite female character from a video game , alongside Yuna from Final Fantasy X and Yoyo from Bahamut Lagoon .
= = = Personality = = =
In contrast to other characters in the Final Fantasy series , whose personality traits were molded to fit a story , Toriyama conceived Lightning 's basic personality before XIII 's narrative had been finalized . She has a cold demeanor , which was meant to clash in an entertaining way with Snow 's outspokenness . Nomura commented that Lightning has " a strong element of mystery about her character " . She originally had a flirtatious aspect to her personality , which was transferred to Oerba Yun Fang when Fang was changed from male to female . For Lightning Returns , the developers wanted to portray Lightning in several different lights , in contrast to her static personalities in prior appearances . One of their highest priorities was to make Lightning a character who had lost much in her life and become deeply vulnerable as a result . Designer Yuji Abe elaborated that , because of her losses and newfound vulnerability , Lightning came across as darker , slightly numbed to her surroundings , and " like a puppet , like someone who doesn 't quite have her real self inside . " He elaborated that this effect shows " the kind of vulnerability she has , and it 's the point from which she starts to change afterward . " The decision to expand her personality in this way was originally suggested by Yoshinori Kitase , who was concerned that Lightning 's coolness in previous games had made it difficult for players to bond with her .
Across her speaking appearances , Lightning is voiced by Ali Hillis in English and Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese . Sakamoto was impressed by Lightning , whom she called " cold " and " strong " . She was asked to portray Lightning 's strength and to betray the character 's hidden vulnerabilities . She initially found it strange to voice Lightning , as she was used to gentler roles such as Aerith Gainsborough , a central character in Final Fantasy VII and its companion media . Commenting on the difficulty of balancing Lightning 's depiction as a woman and a professionally trained warrior , Kitase noted that Sakamoto 's acting helped to bring out Lightning 's femininity . Hillis was given the role of Lightning after speaking a few of the character 's lines during audition , and was then given a book about the Final Fantasy XIII universe , which she found a little " overwhelming " when she read it . One of the challenges Hillis faced was recapturing the emotion and energy of Sakamoto 's Japanese performance in the character 's English rendition . She tried to help the staff of the XIII games portray Lightning as a real person : " I think that was my main priority , to make sure that Lightning had every single layer of who she was as a person , not just a game character , but a real person with layers and history and relationships to every single character in the game ... even the Chocobo ! " Over the course of the XIII trilogy , Hillis felt that Lightning becomes " a little more sarcastic ... a little more hardened to everything that 's going on around her and ... [ evolves ] into a real warrior " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy XIII series = = =
Lightning , along with her sister Serah , is a resident of Cocoon , an artificial world hovering above the planet Gran Pulse . Each of these regions is controlled by a sect of the fal 'Cie , a race of demigods whose two factions , the " Sanctum " population on Cocoon and the " Pulse " fal 'Cie from Gran Pulse , are hostile toward one another . In Final Fantasy XIII : Episode Zero : Promise , a novel set before the events of XIII , it is revealed that Lightning and Serah 's parents died when their children were young , and that Lightning resolved to become her sister 's protector but ended up neglecting her in the process . She grows to resent Snow 's romantic relationship with Serah and the anti @-@ government activities of his group NORA . Lightning discovers too late that Serah has been branded as a l 'Cie — a human cursed with magical powers and a task to complete — by the Gran Pulse fal 'Cie Anima : Lightning initially thinks that Serah is using her condition as an excuse to marry Snow . Lightning then resigns from the service as a member of the Guardian Corps and volunteers herself for the Purge , a forced relocation of citizens who have come into contact with Anima , to save her sister .
In Final Fantasy XIII , Lightning reaches Anima along with Hope , Sazh Katzroy , and Oerba Dia Vanille , three of the surviving Purge exiles . When they find Serah , she turns to crystal . Lightning and the party fight Anima and are marked as l 'Cie when PSICOM , Cocoon 's main military force , destroys Anima . Skeptical of Snow 's resolve to save her sister , Lightning abandons him and Serah , both of whom are then rescued by Oerba Yun Fang and a rogue Cocoon military force called the Cavalry . Lightning ends up traveling with Hope . During their time together , Lightning inadvertently summons Odin , and she unknowingly supports Hope 's plan to assassinate Snow by protecting and training him . Throughout the game , Lightning struggles to deal with her nature as a l 'Cie , her anger at being made Cocoon 's enemy , and her guilt at disbelieving Serah 's story . After overcoming these issues , she acknowledges Snow 's relationship with Serah and his faith that they will restore her . When they kill the Sanctum fal 'Cie Orphan to save Cocoon , Lightning , Serah and the party except for Vanille and Fang are allowed to return to their normal lives : Vanille and Fang form a crystal pillar to stop Cocoon from colliding with Gran Pulse .
Final Fantasy XIII : Episode I , a short novel set immediately after XIII , shows Lightning uneasy about whether her battle is over or not . She leaves to save Fang and Vanille , but first gives her blessing to Snow and Serah 's marriage . Eventually , Lightning finds herself caught in a dark void , but she decides to keep moving forward .
In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , Lightning has disappeared , and all but Serah believe that she died with Vanille and Fang to save Cocoon . In reality , Lightning was brought to Valhalla , capital of the Goddess Etro , as a direct result of Etro 's releasing her and the others from their condition as l 'Cie . These events had distorted time and erased Lightning from history after Cocoon 's fall . Hoping to atone for the deaths she caused as a l 'Cie , Lightning chooses to stay in Valhalla and protect the dying Etro from Caius Ballad , an immortal man with a grudge against Etro . Lightning eventually asks Noel Kreiss and Serah to help her stop Caius from ending time , which he plans to do by releasing " chaos " , a supernatural energy controlled by Etro , into the mortal world . Serah and Noel travel forward in time to fix distortions in history caused by Caius ' interference , and Serah eventually dies when history is restored . In the DLC episode Requiem of the Goddess , Lightning is defeated by Caius and loses hope after learning of her role in Serah 's death . Lightning is comforted by Serah 's spirit , who asks not to be forgotten . Vowing to preserve Serah 's memory , Lightning turns to crystal , which prevents her from being affected when Etro 's death releases chaos .
In Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , Lightning is revived after 500 years by the god Bhunivelze . The world is set to end in thirteen days , and Lightning is chosen as the Savior , a spiritual guide for humanity , which has ceased to age due to the influence of chaos . In return for Lightning 's help , Serah will be resurrected . Aided by Hope , Lightning frees her former allies of emotional burdens , reunites with Odin in the form of a white Chocobo , and frequently crosses paths with Lumina , the physical manifestation of Lightning 's suppressed vulnerabilities . Lightning begins to doubt her humanity , and , when she learns that Bhunivelze stole Serah 's soul and manipulated Lightning 's memories , she plans to betray him after he has finished building the new world . When the end of the world arrives , Lightning fights Bhunivelze , who wants to transform humanity into his ideal image and has been shaping Lightning as Etro 's replacement . Although she is prepared to fulfill her new role and abandon her human life , Lightning instead chooses to call for help and to accept Lumina as a part of herself . Everyone she has saved , including Serah , unites with her and defeats Bhunivelze . Lightning then witnesses the creation of a new universe , into which she goes with her allies and the souls of humanity . In the epilogue , she is seen traveling to reunite with one of her friends .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Beyond the XIII games , Lightning has appeared in several spin @-@ offs within the Final Fantasy franchise . In the fighting game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , Lightning is one of the warriors summoned by the goddess Cosmos . She was meant to debut in Dissidia Final Fantasy , but the idea was scrapped as Final Fantasy XIII had yet to be released and Square Enix did not want to reveal her abilities ahead of time . During Dissidia 012 , Lightning 's group is confronted by beings called Manikins , which inflict permanent death on those they defeat , thereby threatening the world 's cycle of rebirth . She leads an expedition to the portal from which the Manikins are emerging , and the group sacrifices its life to close it . Lightning has three alternate outfits in the game . She again appeared as a playable character in the 2015 sequel for arcades .
The character was featured in a series of special player events in Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn : Lightning and monsters from her world appeared in the land of Eorzea while she was in crystal stasis between XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns . It is hinted that she was sent to Eorzea by Bhunivelze to hone her skills in preparation for future battles in her world . After the events were completed , Lightning met up with the player one last time , saying that she was thankful for the time spent in Eorzea . As she was summoned back to her world , she asked the player to remember her time there . Players who participated in the events received gear and outfits modeled after items , weapons and clothing from the XIII games . Lightning also plays a role as an ally in World of Final Fantasy , appearing in her Lightning Returns outfit .
In the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy and its sequel Curtain Call , Lightning is a playable character representing the Final Fantasy XIII games . She is featured , sporting her XIII @-@ 2 design , in Final Fantasy Airborne Brigade . Lightning is a playable character in the mobile crossover games Final Fantasy : All the Bravest and Final Fantasy : Record Keeper , a powered @-@ up character form in Final Fantasy Explorers , a chibi figure in Final Fantasy in Itadaki Street Mobile , and a character card in Final Fantasy Artniks . In response to speculation about her continued role in the Final Fantasy series after Lightning Returns ' release , Kitase clarified in 2013 that she would appear in spin @-@ off titles , but that her role in the main series had ended . Outside the Final Fantasy franchise , Lightning features in a minigame in Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , was part of a collaboration between the Final Fantasy series and Puzzle & Dragons alongside other established series characters , and versions of her outfit from XIII may be worn by protagonist Aya Brea in The 3rd Birthday and a character from arcade shooter Gunslinger Stratos 2 . Maaya Sakamoto , who portrays both Aya and Lightning , voiced Aya to sound like Lightning when the outfit is equipped .
= = = In merchandise and promotion = = =
Lightning has been featured in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ themed merchandise produced by Square Enix . The two pieces directly inspired by the character are necklaces and a mild perfume called " Lightning eau de toilette " . Action figures of Lightning in her three main iterations were produced by Play Arts Kai , a company often hired to make figurines of characters and creatures from the Final Fantasy series . Cards depicting the character are available in the Final Fantasy Trading Card Game . Lightning appears in a live @-@ action PlayStation commercial titled " Michael " , alongside characters such as Nathan Drake , Kratos and Cole McGrath . An actress portrayed the character at the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Event during Asia Game Show 2013 . She was portrayed again in a Japanese live @-@ action / CGI TV commercial for Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . In April 2012 , Lightning and other characters from XIII @-@ 2 were used to showcase Prada designs in a 12 @-@ page section in the male fashion magazine Arena Homme + . To promote Lightning Returns , Lightning was featured on the packaging of snacks produced by Ezaki Glico . In 2015 , she was used in a CGI advertising video by French fashion house Louis Vuitton . The video was animated by Visual Works , designed by Nomura and directed by Louis Vuttion ’ s Nicolas Ghesquière .
= = Reception = =
While Final Fantasy XIII was in development , Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network was unimpressed by Lightning , whom he called a " businesslike blank " . Reviewing the finished game , Ciolek opined that Lightning is initially " far too distant and cold , as though the writers were so intent on creating a tough , competent heroine that they forgot to make her at all compelling " . However , he admitted that Lightning becomes a more appealing lead character by the game 's end . Wesley Yin @-@ Poole of VideoGamer.com simply referred to Lightning as a female version of Cloud . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parrish commented that , barring scenes in which Lightning shows a thoughtful side , she is " your typical , sullen [ Square Enix ] protagonist " . Conversely , GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd called Lightning a " likeable , strong @-@ willed beauty " . Martin Robinson of IGN UK said that Lightning " instantly endears herself " in comparison with Hope or Snow , but he found that , when Lightning 's backstory " gets bogged down in generic swash " , Sazh becomes the more appealing character . GamesRadar 's Carolyin Gudmundson was unenthusiastic : she opined that , while Lightning 's narrative has its merits , it " certainly isn 't above and beyond what we 'd typically expect " . She commented that this lack of originality makes Lightning " one @-@ dimensional and boring " . Gamasutra writer Christian Nutt believed that Lightning 's relationships with the cast add humanity to the narrative .
For XIII @-@ 2 , Game Informer 's Joe Juba was disappointed that Lightning had been transferred to a supporting role in favor of Serah and Hope , whom he saw as weaker characters than Lightning . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer found that the story suffers without the driving force of Lightning 's single @-@ minded determination . VanOrd was disappointed that Lightning and Caius Ballad have relatively limited screen @-@ time , since they come off as stronger characters than the protagonists .
In Lightning Returns , Juba criticized Lightning 's lack of personal growth during the narrative , and IGN 's Marty Silva felt that her increased coldness makes her " downright unlikable . " VanOrd argued that Lightning is not " interesting in and of herself " and that she had turned into " a vessel for holding and pouring plot devices " , whose stoicism makes it difficult for the player to connect with her . Parrish , writing for USGamer , stated that Lightning had become " downright apathetic " , showing " no personality whatsoever " , and that this clashed with the ability to dress her in costumes . By contrast , Parkin commented that certain side quests , such as herding sheep or retrieving a girl 's doll , helped to humanize Lightning and make her likable . Similarly , Destructoid 's Dale North found that the costumes and dialogue lighten her character : he argued that these elements make her less " flat and lifeless now , which is a big improvement . " Dave Riley of Anime News Network felt that Lightning 's stoic attitude , although out of place in XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , fit her role as a god 's servant in Lightning Returns . Tech Reviewer , in a feature about the portrayal of female characters in video games , was impressed with the character 's depth and portrayal .
In a VideoGamer.com list of the ten best Final Fantasy characters , Lightning was placed sixth ; writer Yin Poole found her interesting in her own right despite her similarities to Cloud . In 2011 , IGN ranked Lightning among the best characters in the Final Fantasy series , saying that she demonstrated that " a delicate balance can exist between strength and tenderness , even in the midst of ... incredible acrobatic feats . " Lightning was ranked eighth in a similar list by GameZone 's Heath Hooker : points of praise were her visual appearance and determination , which made her " one of the strongest female leaders of the Final Fantasy series " in Hooker 's opinion . Cheat Code Central listed her as one of the top ten " badass " women of video games for her independence , which the writer felt distanced her from previous Final Fantasy heroines . Lightning ranked second in AfterEllen 's list of the " hottest " video game characters . In Game Informer 's list of top ten heroes of 2010 , Lightning was ranked eighth and praised as the only protagonist in Final Fantasy XIII who " seemed capable of taking on the corrupt government of Cocoon " : another comment was that her " no @-@ nonsense approach to her mission makes her the game 's standout hero " . She was included in two lists by Complex , which ranked her as the 19th greatest Final Fantasy character and the 39th greatest heroine in video game history .
In 2010 , Lightning placed 34th in a Famitsu poll regarding the most popular video game character in Japan . She was voted the best @-@ liked female Final Fantasy character in a 2013 poll by Square Enix , and , in that year 's Dengeki PlayStation Awards , she was voted best video game character of the year for her appearance in Lightning Returns . She came first in a Microsoft poll to determine the most popular character of the Final Fantasy XIII games . In 2014 , readers of IGN voted her the best character in XIII . At PAX Prime 2013 , she took third place in a list , compiled by journalists and game developers , of the top female characters in western and Japanese role @-@ playing video games .
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= Farm to Market Road 1528 =
Farm to Market Road 1528 ( FM 1528 ) is a farm @-@ to @-@ market road located in the western and central portions of Delta County in the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 11 @.@ 4 miles ( 18 @.@ 3 km ) in length , and travels through mainly rural portions of Delta County . The roadway begins at an intersection with FM 64 in the community of Antioch . The highway proceeds southward , passing through the former community of Gough , before bending east . The highway proceeds east , running concurrently with State Highway 24 ( SH 24 ) for a short distance . The road travels northeast , parallel to Cooper Lake , before bending north and entering Cooper , where it terminates at SH 154 .
Early roads existed in the place of FM 1528 by 1936 , and a short section of highway between SH 27 ( now SH 24 ) and Klondike was designated as Loop 39 in 1939 , and FM 1528 was designated in 1949 . The route of the highway has been altered since its designation , including rerouting due to the construction of Cooper Lake .
= = Route description = =
FM 1528 begins at an intersection with FM 64 in the unincorporated community of Antioch as a two @-@ lane , paved road . The highway proceeds southward , entering rural areas and intersecting several small roads . The road continues , entering the former community of Gough and intersects FM 2068 . FM 1528 turns due eastward and continues , exiting the Gough area . The roadway proceeds east , intersecting several county roads and traveling past several small houses . The highway bends southward and travels a short distance before it intersects SH 24 . The highway runs concurrently with SH 24 for a short distance before splitting off , proceeding into the community of Klondike . The road turns northeast , after it proceeds through Klondike and intersects FM 2890 . The roadway continues northeastward , passing through the Cooper Wildlife Management Area , as well as traveling over a creek leading to Cooper Lake before it reenters rural areas . It continues , passing over another creek before it bends eastward . At the southern edge of Cooper , the route intersects FM 1880 . The road bends northward , entering the city of Cooper . The roadway passes several small buildings in the community before reaching its eastern terminus , an intersection with SH 154 and State Highway 24 Business .
The Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) publishes yearly reports of the highway 's annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , with counts usually taken near intersections . In 2011 , FM 1528 's highest traveled point was within the city proper of Cooper , with a daily average of 1550 vehicles . Just outside Cooper , the count drops to around 800 vehicles . In Klondike , the AADT is around 300 vehicles , while just west of Klondike , the count is just over 100 . The highway 's least traveled point is near its western terminus , with an average of just 90 vehicles . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first segments of road in the location of what would become FM 1528 existed by the year of 1936 . On September 26 , 1939 , a portion of road traveling from SH 24 to the community of Klondike was designated as Loop Highway 39 ( Loop 39 ) . and on September 28 , 1949 , through the order of the Texas Transportation Board , FM 1528 was designated , and Loop 39 was redesignated as part of the highway . In 1961 , the highway had a bituminous surface , a combination of gravel and asphalt . By 1987 , the highway had been minorly rerouted and straightened , and the entire length had been paved . Between 1986 and 1991 , the highway 's route was minorly rerouted between Klondike and Cooper , due to the construction of Cooper Lake .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Delta County .
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= History of evolutionary thought =
Evolutionary thought , the conception that species change over time , has roots in antiquity - in the ideas of the ancient Greeks , Romans , and Chinese as well as in medieval Islamic science . With the beginnings of modern biological taxonomy in the late 17th century , two opposed ideas influenced Western biological thinking :
essentialism , the belief that every species has essential characteristics that are unalterable , a concept which had developed from medieval Aristotelian metaphysics , and that fit well with natural theology
the development of the new anti @-@ Aristotelian approach to modern science : as the Enlightenment progressed , evolutionary cosmology and the mechanical philosophy spread from the physical sciences to natural history
Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species ; the emergence of paleontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature . In the early 19th century Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744 – 1829 ) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species , the first fully formed theory of evolution .
In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory , explained in detail in Darwin 's On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Unlike Lamarck , Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life , meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor . Darwin based his theory on the idea of natural selection : it synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal husbandry , biogeography , geology , morphology , and embryology .
Debate over Darwin 's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution , but the specific mechanism he proposed , natural selection , was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s . Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution . Alternatives to natural selection suggested during " the eclipse of Darwinism " ( circa 1880 to 1920 ) included inheritance of acquired characteristics ( neo @-@ Lamarckism ) , an innate drive for change ( orthogenesis ) , and sudden large mutations ( saltationism ) . Mendelian genetics , a series of 19th Century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900 , was integrated with natural selection by Ronald Fisher during the 1910s to 1930s , and along with J. B. S. Haldane and Sewall Wright he founded the new discipline of population genetics . During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields , resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology — the modern evolutionary synthesis .
Following the establishment of evolutionary biology , studies of mutation and genetic diversity in natural populations , combined with biogeography and systematics , led to sophisticated mathematical and causal models of evolution . Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed more detailed reconstructions of the evolutionary history of life . After the rise of molecular genetics in the 1950s , the field of molecular evolution developed , based on protein sequences and immunological tests , and later incorporating RNA and DNA studies . The gene @-@ centered view of evolution rose to prominence in the 1960s , followed by the neutral theory of molecular evolution , sparking debates over adaptationism , the unit of selection , and the relative importance of genetic drift versus natural selection as causes of evolution . In the late 20th @-@ century , DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life into the three @-@ domain system by Carl Woese . In addition , the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology , but also in other academic disciplines ( for example : anthropology and psychology ) and on society at large .
= = Antiquity = =
= = = Greeks = = =
Proposals that one type of animal , even humans , could descend from other types of animals , are known to go back to the first pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophers . Anaximander of Miletus ( c . 610 – 546 BC ) proposed that the first animals lived in water , during a wet phase of the Earth 's past , and that the first land @-@ dwelling ancestors of mankind must have been born in water , and only spent part of their life on land . He also argued that the first human of the form known today must have been the child of a different type of animal , because man needs prolonged nursing to live . Empedocles ( c . 490 – 430 BC ) , argued that what we call birth and death in animals are just the mingling and separations of elements which cause the countless " tribes of mortal things . " Specifically , the first animals and plants were like disjointed parts of the ones we see today , some of which survived by joining in different combinations , and then intermixing , and wherever " everything turned out as it would have if it were on purpose , there the creatures survived , being accidentally compounded in a suitable way . " Other philosophers who became more influential in the Middle Ages , including Plato ( c . 428 / 427 – 348 / 347 BC ) , Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) , and members of the Stoic school of philosophy , believed that the species of all things , not only living things , were fixed by divine design .
Plato was called by biologist Ernst Mayr " the great antihero of evolutionism , " because he promoted belief in essentialism , which is also referred to as the theory of Forms . This theory holds that each natural type of object in the observed world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal , form or " species " which defines that type . In his Timaeus for example , Plato has a character tell a story that the Demiurge created the cosmos and everything in it because , being good , and hence , " ... free from jealousy , He desired that all things should be as like Himself as they could be . " The creator created all conceivable forms of life , since " ... without them the universe will be incomplete , for it will not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain , if it is to be perfect . " This " principle of plenitude " — the idea that all potential forms of life are essential to a perfect creation — greatly influenced Christian thought . However some historians of science have questioned how much influence Plato 's essentialism had on natural philosophy by stating that many philosophers after Plato believed that species might be capable of transformation and that the idea that biologic species were fixed and possessed unchangeable essential characteristics did not become important until the beginning of biological taxonomy in the 17th and 18th centuries .
Aristotle , the most influential of the Greek philosophers in Europe in the Middle Ages , was a student of Plato and is also the earliest natural historian whose work has been preserved in any real detail . His writings on biology resulted from his research into natural history on and around the island of Lesbos , and have survived in the form of four books , usually known by their Latin names , De anima ( On the Soul ) , Historia animalium ( History of Animals ) , De generatione animalium ( Generation of Animals ) , and De partibus animalium ( On the Parts of Animals ) . Aristotle 's works contain some remarkably astute observations and interpretations — along with sundry myths and mistakes — reflecting the uneven state of knowledge during his time . However , for Charles Singer , " Nothing is more remarkable than [ Aristotle 's ] efforts to [ exhibit ] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae . " This scala naturae , described in Historia animalium , classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical " Ladder of Life " or " great chain of being , " placing them according to their complexity of structure and function , with organisms that showed greater vitality and ability to move described as " higher organisms . " Aristotle believed that features of living organisms showed clearly that they must have had what he called a final cause , that is to say that they had been designed for a purpose . He explicitly rejected the view of Empedocles that living creatures might have originated by chance .
Other Greek philosophers , such as Zeno of Citium ( 334 – 262 BC ) the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy , agreed with Aristotle and other earlier philosophers that nature showed clear evidence of being designed for a purpose ; this view is known as teleology . The Roman Stoic philosopher Cicero ( 106 – 43 BC ) wrote that Zeno was known to have held the view , central to Stoic physics , that nature is primarily " directed and concentrated ... to secure for the world ... the structure best fitted for survival . "
Epicurus ( 341 – 270 BC ) anticipated the idea of natural selection . The Roman philosopher and atomist Lucretius ( c . 99 – 55 BC ) explicated these ideas in his poem De rerum natura ( On the Nature of Things ) . In the Epicurean system , it was assumed that many species had been spontaneously generated from Gaia in the past , but that only the most functional forms survived to have offspring . The Epicureans do not seem to have anticipated the full theory of evolution as we now know it and seem to have postulated separate abiogenetic events for each species rather than postulating a single abiogenetic event coupled with the differentiation of species over time from a single ( or small number of ) originating parent organism ( s ) .
= = = Chinese = = =
Ancient Chinese thinkers such as Zhuang Zhou ( c . 369 – 286 BC ) , a Taoist philosopher , expressed ideas on changing biologic species . According to Joseph Needham , Taoism explicitly denies the fixity of biological species and Taoist philosophers speculated that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments . Taoism regards humans , nature and the heavens as existing in a state of " constant transformation " known as the Tao , in contrast with the more static view of nature typical of Western thought .
= = = Romans = = =
Lucretius ' poem De rerum natura provides the best surviving explanation of the ideas of the Greek Epicurean philosophers . It describes the development of the cosmos , the Earth , living things , and human society through purely naturalistic mechanisms , without any reference to supernatural involvement . De rerum natura would influence the cosmological and evolutionary speculations of philosophers and scientists during and after the Renaissance . This view was in strong contrast with the views of Roman philosophers of the Stoic school such as Cicero , Seneca the Younger ( c . 4 BC – AD 65 ) , and Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 AD ) who had a strongly teleological view of the natural world that influenced Christian theology . Cicero reports that the peripatetic and Stoic view of nature as an agency concerned most basically with producing life " best fitted for survival " was taken for granted among the Hellenistic elite .
= = = = Augustine of Hippo = = = =
In line with earlier Greek thought , the 4th @-@ century bishop and theologian , Augustine of Hippo , wrote that the creation story in the Book of Genesis should not be read too literally . In his book De Genesi ad litteram ( On the Literal Meaning of Genesis ) , he stated that in some cases new creatures may have come about through the " decomposition " of earlier forms of life . For Augustine , " plant , fowl and animal life are not perfect ... but created in a state of potentiality , " unlike what he considered the theologically perfect forms of angels , the firmament and the human soul . Augustine 's idea ' that forms of life had been transformed " slowly over time " ' prompted Father Giuseppe Tanzella @-@ Nitti , Professor of Theology at the Pontifical Santa Croce University in Rome , to claim that Augustine had suggested a form of evolution .
Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in From the Greeks to Darwin ( 1894 ) :
" If the orthodoxy of Augustine had remained the teaching of the Church , the final establishment of Evolution would have come far earlier than it did , certainly during the eighteenth instead of the nineteenth century , and the bitter controversy over this truth of Nature would never have arisen . ... Plainly as the direct or instantaneous Creation of animals and plants appeared to be taught in Genesis , Augustine read this in the light of primary causation and the gradual development from the imperfect to the perfect of Aristotle . This most influential teacher thus handed down to his followers opinions which closely conform to the progressive views of those theologians of the present day who have accepted the Evolution theory . "
In A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom ( 1896 ) , Andrew Dickson White wrote about Augustine 's attempts to preserve the ancient evolutionary approach to the creation as follows :
" For ages a widely accepted doctrine had been that water , filth , and carrion had received power from the Creator to generate worms , insects , and a multitude of the smaller animals ; and this doctrine had been especially welcomed by St. Augustine and many of the fathers , since it relieved the Almighty of making , Adam of naming , and Noah of living in the ark with these innumerable despised species . "
In Augustine 's De Genesi contra Manichæos , on Genesis he says : " To suppose that God formed man from the dust with bodily hands is very childish . ... God neither formed man with bodily hands nor did he breathe upon him with throat and lips . " Augustine suggests in other work his theory of the later development of insects out of carrion , and the adoption of the old emanation or evolution theory , showing that " certain very small animals may not have been created on the fifth and sixth days , but may have originated later from putrefying matter . " Concerning Augustine 's De Trinitate ( On the Trinity ) , White wrote that Augustine " ... develops at length the view that in the creation of living beings there was something like a growth — that God is the ultimate author , but works through secondary causes ; and finally argues that certain substances are endowed by God with the power of producing certain classes of plants and animals . "
= = Middle Ages = =
= = = Islamic philosophy and the struggle for existence = = =
Although Greek and Roman evolutionary ideas died out in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire , they were not lost to Islamic philosophers and scientists . In the Islamic Golden Age of the 8th to the 13th centuries , philosophers explored ideas about natural history . These ideas included transmutation from non @-@ living to living : " from mineral to plant , from plant to animal , and from animal to man . "
In the medieval Islamic world , the scholar al @-@ Jāḥiẓ ( 776 – c . 868 ) wrote his Book of Animals in the 9th century . Conway Zirkle , writing about the history of natural selection in 1941 , said that an excerpt from this work was the only relevant passage he had found from an Arabian scholar . He provided a quotation describing the struggle for existence , citing a Spanish translation of this work : " The rat goes out for its food , and is clever in getting it , for it eats all animals inferior to it in strength , " and in turn , it " has to avoid snakes and birds and serpents of prey , who look for it in order to devour it " and are stronger than the rat . Mosquitoes " know instinctively that blood is the thing which makes them live " and when they see an animal , " they know that the skin has been fashioned to serve them as food . " In turn , flies hunt the mosquito " which is the food that they like best , " and predators eat the flies . " All animals , in short , can not exist without food , neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn . Every weak animal devours those weaker than itself . Strong animals cannot escape being devoured by other animals stronger than they . And in this respect , men do not differ from animals , some with respect to others , although they do not arrive at the same extremes . In short , God has disposed some human beings as a cause of life for others , and likewise , he has disposed the latter as a cause of the death of the former . " Al @-@ Jāḥiẓ also wrote descriptions of food chains .
Some of Ibn Khaldūn 's thoughts , according to some commentators , anticipate the biological theory of evolution . In 1377 , Ibn Khaldūn wrote the Muqaddimah in which he asserted that humans developed from " the world of the monkeys , " in a process by which " species become more numerous " In chapter 1 he writes : " This world with all the created things in it has a certain order and solid construction . It shows nexuses between causes and things caused , combinations of some parts of creation with others , and transformations of some existent things into others , in a pattern that is both remarkable and endless . "
The Muqaddimah also states in chapter 6 :
" We explained there that the whole of existence in ( all ) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent , so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum . The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them , either above or below them . This is the case with the simple material elements ; it is the case with palms and vines , ( which constitute ) the last stage of plants , in their relation to snails and shellfish , ( which constitute ) the ( lowest ) stage of animals . It is also the case with monkeys , creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception , in their relation to man , the being who has the ability to think and to reflect . The preparedness ( for transformation ) that exists on either side , at each stage of the worlds , is meant when ( we speak about ) their connection . "
= = = = Nasīr al @-@ Dīn Tūsī = = = =
In his Akhlaq @-@ i @-@ Nasri , Tusi put forward a basic theory for the evolution of species almost 600 years before Charles Darwin , the English naturalist credited with advancing the idea , was born . He begins his theory of evolution with the universe once consisting of equal and similar elements . According to Tusi , internal contradictions began appearing , and as a result , some substances began developing faster and differently from other substances . He then explains how the elements evolved into minerals , then plants , then animals , and then humans . Tusi then goes on to explain how hereditary variability was an important factor for biological evolution of living things :
" The organisms that can gain the new features faster are more variable . As a result , they gain advantages over other creatures . [ ... ] The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions . "
Tusi discusses how organisms are able to adapt to their environments :
" Look at the world of animals and birds . They have all that is necessary for defense , protection and daily life , including strengths , courage and appropriate tools [ organs ] [ ... ] Some of these organs are real weapons , [ ... ] For example , horns @-@ spear , teeth and claws @-@ knife and needle , feet and hoofs @-@ cudgel . The thorns and needles of some animals are similar to arrows . [ ... ] Animals that have no other means of defense ( as the gazelle and fox ) protect themselves with the help of flight and cunning . [ ... ] Some of them , for example , bees , ants and some bird species , have united in communities in order to protect themselves and help each other . "
Tusi recognized three types of living things : plants , animals , and humans . He wrote :
" Animals are higher than plants , because they are able to move consciously , go after food , find and eat useful things . [ ... ] There are many differences between the animal and plant species , [ ... ] First of all , the animal kingdom is more complicated . Besides , reason is the most beneficial feature of animals . Owing to reason , they can learn new things and adopt new , non @-@ inherent abilities . For example , the trained horse or hunting falcon ... is at a higher point of development in the animal world . The first steps of human perfection begin from here . "
Tusi then explains how humans evolved from advanced animals :
" Such humans [ probably anthropoid apes ] live in the Western Sudan and other distant corners of the world . They are close to animals by their habits , deeds and behavior . [ ... ] The human has features that distinguish him from other creatures , but he has other features that unite him with the animal world , vegetable kingdom or even with the inanimate bodies . [ ... ] Before [ the creation of humans ] , all differences between organisms were of the natural origin . The next step will be associated with spiritual perfection , will , observation and knowledge . [ ... ] All these facts prove that the human being is placed on the middle step of the evolutionary stairway . According to his inherent nature , the human is related to the lower beings , and only with the help of his will can he reach the higher development level . "
= = = Christian philosophy and the great chain of being = = =
During the Early Middle Ages , Greek classical learning was all but lost to the West . However , contact with the Islamic world , where Greek manuscripts were preserved and expanded , soon led to a massive spate of Latin translations in the 12th century . Europeans were re @-@ introduced to the works of Plato and Aristotle , as well as to Islamic thought . Christian thinkers of the scholastic school , in particular Peter Abelard ( 1079 – 1142 ) and Thomas Aquinas ( 1225 – 1274 ) , combined Aristotelian classification with Plato 's ideas of the goodness of God , and of all potential life forms being present in a perfect creation , to organize all inanimate , animate , and spiritual beings into a huge interconnected system : the scala naturae , or great chain of being .
Within this system , everything that existed could be placed in order , from " lowest " to " highest , " with Hell at the bottom and God at the top — below God , an angelic hierarchy marked by the orbits of the planets , mankind in an intermediate position , and worms the lowest of the animals . As the universe was ultimately perfect , the great chain of being was also perfect . There were no empty links in the chain , and no link was represented by more than one species . Therefore , no species could ever move from one position to another . Thus , in this Christianized version of Plato 's perfect universe , species could never change , but remained forever fixed , in accordance with the text of the Book of Genesis . For humans to forget their position was seen as sinful , whether they behaved like lower animals or aspired to a higher station than was given them by their Creator .
Creatures on adjacent steps were expected to closely resemble each other , an idea expressed in the saying : natura non facit saltum ( " nature does not make leaps " ) . This basic concept of the great chain of being greatly influenced the thinking of Western civilization for centuries ( and still has an influence today ) . It formed a part of the argument from design presented by natural theology . As a classification system , it became the major organizing principle and foundation of the emerging science of biology in the 17th and 18th centuries .
= = = Thomas Aquinas on creation and natural processes = = =
While the development of the great chain of being and the argument from design by Christian theologians contributed to the view that the natural world fit into an unchanging designed hierarchy , some theologians were more open to the possibility that the world might have developed through natural processes . Thomas Aquinas went even farther than Augustine of Hippo in arguing that scriptural texts like Genesis should not be interpreted in a literal way that conflicted with or constrained what natural philosophers learned about the workings of the natural world . He felt that the autonomy of nature was a sign of God 's goodness and that there was no conflict between the concept of a divinely created universe , and the idea that the universe may have evolved over time through natural mechanisms . However , Aquinas disputed the views of those like the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles who held that such natural processes showed that the universe could have developed without an underlying purpose . Rather holding that : " Hence , it is clear that nature is nothing but a certain kind of art , i.e. , the divine art , impressed upon things , by which these things are moved to a determinate end . It is as if the shipbuilder were able to give to timbers that by which they would move themselves to take the form of a ship . "
= = Renaissance and Enlightenment = =
In the first half of the 17th century , René Descartes ' mechanical philosophy encouraged the use of the metaphor of the universe as a machine , a concept that would come to characterise the scientific revolution . Between 1650 and 1800 , some naturalists , such as Benoît de Maillet , produced theories that maintained that the universe , the Earth , and life , had developed mechanically , without divine guidance . In contrast , most contemporary theories of evolution , such of those of Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Gottfried Herder , regarded evolution as a fundamentally spiritual process . In 1751 , Pierre Louis Maupertuis veered toward more materialist ground . He wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over the course of many generations , producing races and even new species , a description that anticipated in general terms the concept of natural selection .
Maupertuis ' ideas were in opposition to the influence of early taxonomists like John Ray . In the late 17th century , Ray had given the first formal definition of a biological species , which he described as being characterized by essential unchanging features , and stated the seed of one species could never give rise to another . The ideas of Ray and other 17th @-@ century taxonomists were influenced by natural theology and the argument from design .
The word evolution ( from the Latin evolutio , meaning " to unroll like a scroll " ) was initially used to refer to embryological development ; its first use in relation to development of species came in 1762 , when Charles Bonnet used it for his concept of " pre @-@ formation , " in which females carried a miniature form of all future generations . The term gradually gained a more general meaning of growth or progressive development .
Later in the 18th century , the French philosopher Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , one of the leading naturalists of the time , suggested that what most people referred to as species were really just well @-@ marked varieties , modified from an original form by environmental factors . For example , he believed that lions , tigers , leopards and house cats might all have a common ancestor . He further speculated that the 200 or so species of mammals then known might have descended from as few as 38 original animal forms . Buffon 's evolutionary ideas were limited ; he believed each of the original forms had arisen through spontaneous generation and that each was shaped by " internal moulds " that limited the amount of change . Buffon 's works , Histoire naturelle ( 1749 – 1789 ) and Époques de la nature ( 1778 ) , containing well @-@ developed theories about a completely materialistic origin for the Earth and his ideas questioning the fixity of species , were extremely influential . Another French philosopher , Denis Diderot , also wrote that living things might have first arisen through spontaneous generation , and that species were always changing through a constant process of experiment where new forms arose and survived or not based on trial and error ; an idea that can be considered a partial anticipation of natural selection . Between 1767 and 1792 , James Burnett , Lord Monboddo , included in his writings not only the concept that man had descended from primates , but also that , in response to the environment , creatures had found methods of transforming their characteristics over long time intervals . Charles Darwin 's grandfather , Erasmus Darwin , published Zoonomia ( 1794 – 1796 ) which suggested that " all warm @-@ blooded animals have arisen from one living filament . " In his poem Temple of Nature ( 1803 ) , he described the rise of life from minute organisms living in mud to all of its modern diversity .
= = Early 19th century = =
= = = Paleontology and geology = = =
In 1796 , Georges Cuvier published his findings on the differences between living elephants and those found in the fossil record . His analysis identified mammoths and mastodons as distinct species , different from any living animal , and effectively ended a long @-@ running debate over whether a species could become extinct . In 1788 , James Hutton described gradual geological processes operating continuously over deep time . In the 1790s , William Smith began the process of ordering rock strata by examining fossils in the layers while he worked on his geologic map of England . Independently , in 1811 , Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published an influential study of the geologic history of the region around Paris , based on the stratigraphic succession of rock layers . These works helped establish the antiquity of the Earth . Cuvier advocated catastrophism to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession revealed by the fossil record .
Knowledge of the fossil record continued to advance rapidly during the first few decades of the 19th century . By the 1840s , the outlines of the geologic timescale were becoming clear , and in 1841 John Phillips named three major eras , based on the predominant fauna of each : the Paleozoic , dominated by marine invertebrates and fish , the Mesozoic , the age of reptiles , and the current Cenozoic age of mammals . This progressive picture of the history of life was accepted even by conservative English geologists like Adam Sedgwick and William Buckland ; however , like Cuvier , they attributed the progression to repeated catastrophic episodes of extinction followed by new episodes of creation . Unlike Cuvier , Buckland and some other advocates of natural theology among British geologists made efforts to explicitly link the last catastrophic episode proposed by Cuvier to the biblical flood .
From 1830 to 1833 , geologist Charles Lyell published his multi @-@ volume work Principles of Geology , which , building on Hutton 's ideas , advocated a uniformitarian alternative to the catastrophic theory of geology . Lyell claimed that , rather than being the products of cataclysmic ( and possibly supernatural ) events , the geologic features of the Earth are better explained as the result of the same gradual geologic forces observable in the present day — but acting over immensely long periods of time . Although Lyell opposed evolutionary ideas ( even questioning the consensus that the fossil record demonstrates a true progression ) , his concept that the Earth was shaped by forces working gradually over an extended period , and the immense age of the Earth assumed by his theories , would strongly influence future evolutionary thinkers such as Charles Darwin .
= = = Transmutation of species = = =
Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck proposed , in his Philosophie Zoologique of 1809 , a theory of the transmutation of species ( " transformisme " ) . Lamarck did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor but rather that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation . He also believed that an innate life force drove species to become more complex over time , advancing up a linear ladder of complexity that was related to the great chain of being . Lamarck recognized that species adapted to their environment . He explained this by saying that the same innate force driving increasing complexity caused the organs of an animal ( or a plant ) to change based on the use or disuse of those organs , just as exercise affects muscles . He argued that these changes would be inherited by the next generation and produce slow adaptation to the environment . It was this secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that would become known as Lamarckism and would influence discussions of evolution into the 20th century .
A radical British school of comparative anatomy that included the anatomist Robert Edmond Grant was closely in touch with Lamarck 's French school of Transformationism . One of the French scientists who influenced Grant was the anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire , whose ideas on the unity of various animal body plans and the homology of certain anatomical structures would be widely influential and lead to intense debate with his colleague Georges Cuvier . Grant became an authority on the anatomy and reproduction of marine invertebrates . He developed Lamarck 's and Erasmus Darwin 's ideas of transmutation and evolutionism , and investigated homology , even proposing that plants and animals had a common evolutionary starting point . As a young student , Charles Darwin joined Grant in investigations of the life cycle of marine animals . In 1826 , an anonymous paper , probably written by Robert Jameson , praised Lamarck for explaining how higher animals had " evolved " from the simplest worms ; this was the first use of the word " evolved " in a modern sense .
In 1844 , the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers anonymously published an extremely controversial but widely read book entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation . This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the Solar System and of life on Earth . It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals , with current animals branching off a main line that leads progressively to humanity . It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe . In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Grant , but its implication that humans were only the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers . The high profile of the public debate over Vestiges , with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process , would greatly influence the perception of Darwin 's theory a decade later .
Ideas about the transmutation of species were associated with the radical materialism of the Enlightenment and were attacked by more conservative thinkers . Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and Geoffroy , agreeing with Aristotle that species were immutable . Cuvier believed that the individual parts of an animal were too closely correlated with one another to allow for one part of the anatomy to change in isolation from the others , and argued that the fossil record showed patterns of catastrophic extinctions followed by repopulation , rather than gradual change over time . He also noted that drawings of animals and animal mummies from Egypt , which were thousands of years old , showed no signs of change when compared with modern animals . The strength of Cuvier 's arguments and his scientific reputation helped keep transmutational ideas out of the mainstream for decades .
In Great Britain , the philosophy of natural theology remained influential . William Paley 's 1802 book Natural Theology with its famous watchmaker analogy had been written at least in part as a response to the transmutational ideas of Erasmus Darwin . Geologists influenced by natural theology , such as Buckland and Sedgwick , made a regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck , Grant , and Vestiges . Although Charles Lyell opposed scriptural geology , he also believed in the immutability of species , and in his Principles of Geology , he criticized Lamarck 's theories of development . Idealists such as Louis Agassiz and Richard Owen believed that each species was fixed and unchangeable because it represented an idea in the mind of the creator . They believed that relationships between species could be discerned from developmental patterns in embryology , as well as in the fossil record , but that these relationships represented an underlying pattern of divine thought , with progressive creation leading to increasing complexity and culminating in humanity . Owen developed the idea of " archetypes " in the Divine mind that would produce a sequence of species related by anatomical homologies , such as vertebrate limbs . Owen led a public campaign that successfully marginalized Grant in the scientific community . Darwin would make good use of the homologies analyzed by Owen in his own theory , but the harsh treatment of Grant , and the controversy surrounding Vestiges , showed him the need to ensure that his own ideas were scientifically sound .
= = = Anticipations of natural selection = = =
It is possible to look through the history of biology from the ancient Greeks onwards and discover anticipations of almost all of Charles Darwin 's key ideas . For example , Loren Eiseley has found isolated passages written by Buffon suggesting he was almost ready to piece together a theory of natural selection , but such anticipations should not be taken out of the full context of the writings or of cultural values of the time which could make Darwinian ideas of evolution unthinkable .
When Darwin was developing his theory , he investigated selective breeding and was impressed by Sebright 's observation that " A severe winter , or a scarcity of food , by destroying the weak and the unhealthy , has all the good effects of the most skilful selection " so that " the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities . " Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell 's ideas of environmental change causing ecological shifts , leading to what Augustin de Candolle had called a war between competing plant species , competition well described by the botanist William Herbert . Darwin was struck by Thomas Robert Malthus ' phrase " struggle for existence " used of warring human tribes .
Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin 's theory , and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix , An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species , which he expanded in later editions .
In 1813 , William Charles Wells read before the Royal Society essays assuming that there had been evolution of humans , and recognising the principle of natural selection . Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were unaware of this work when they jointly published the theory in 1858 , but Darwin later acknowledged that Wells had recognised the principle before them , writing that the paper " An Account of a White Female , part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro " was published in 1818 , and " he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection , and this is the first recognition which has been indicated ; but he applies it only to the races of man , and to certain characters alone . "
Patrick Matthew wrote in the obscure book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture ( 1831 ) of " continual balancing of life to circumstance . ... [ The ] progeny of the same parents , under great differences of circumstance , might , in several generations , even become distinct species , incapable of co @-@ reproduction . " Charles Darwin discovered this work after the initial publication of the Origin . In the brief historical sketch that Darwin included in the 3rd edition he says " Unfortunately the view was given by Mr. Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject ... He clearly saw , however , the full force of the principle of natural selection . "
However , as historian of science Peter J. Bowler says , " Through a combination of bold theorizing and comprehensive evaluation , Darwin came up with a concept of evolution that was unique for the time . " Bowler goes on to say that simple priority alone is not enough to secure a place in the history of science ; someone has to develop an idea and convince others of its importance to have a real impact . Thomas Henry Huxley said in his essay on the reception of On the Origin of Species :
" The suggestion that new species may result from the selective action of external conditions upon the variations from their specific type which individuals present — and which we call " spontaneous , " because we are ignorant of their causation — is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was to biological specialists before 1858 . But that suggestion is the central idea of the ' Origin of Species , ' and contains the quintessence of Darwinism . "
= = = Natural selection = = =
The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the Galápagos Islands during the second voyage of HMS Beagle caused him to doubt the fixity of species , and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation . Darwin 's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching , rather than the ladder @-@ like progression envisioned by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck and others . In 1838 he read the new 6th edition of An Essay on the Principle of Population , written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus . Malthus ' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin 's knowledge on how breeders selected traits , led to the inception of Darwin 's theory of natural selection . Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years . However , he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends , starting with Joseph Dalton Hooker , with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection . During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and , aware of the intense controversy around transmutation , amass evidence to support them . In September 1854 he began full @-@ time work on writing his book on natural selection .
Unlike Darwin , Alfred Russel Wallace , influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist . By 1855 , his biogeographical observations during his field work in South America and the Malay Archipelago made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species . Like Darwin , it was Wallace 's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection . In February 1858 , Wallace , unaware of Darwin 's unpublished ideas , composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin , asking for his opinion . The result was the joint publication in July of an extract from Darwin 's 1844 essay along with Wallace 's letter . Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory , which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species .
= = 1859 – 1930s : Darwin and his legacy = =
By the 1850s , whether or not species evolved was a subject of intense debate , with prominent scientists arguing both sides of the issue . The publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species fundamentally transformed the discussion over biological origins . Darwin argued that his branching version of evolution explained a wealth of facts in biogeography , anatomy , embryology , and other fields of biology . He also provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could persist : his theory of natural selection .
One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by Origin of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck and Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , Darwin 's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement , even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism . Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the X Club to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with naturalism and to end the domination of British natural science by the clergy . By the early 1870s in English @-@ speaking countries , thanks partly to these efforts , evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species . In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin 's theory , Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology . This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles , including the discovery of Archaeopteryx in Europe , and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in North America . Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the evolution of the horse from its small five @-@ toed ancestors . However , acceptance of evolution among scientists in non @-@ English speaking nations such as France , and the countries of southern Europe and Latin America was slower . An exception to this was Germany , where both August Weismann and Ernst Haeckel championed this idea : Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology , much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain . Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology .
Darwin 's theory succeeded in profoundly altering scientific opinion regarding the development of life and in producing a small philosophical revolution . However , this theory could not explain several critical components of the evolutionary process . Specifically , Darwin was unable to explain the source of variation in traits within a species , and could not identify a mechanism that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next . Darwin 's hypothesis of pangenesis , while relying in part on the inheritance of acquired characteristics , proved to be useful for statistical models of evolution that were developed by his cousin Francis Galton and the " biometric " school of evolutionary thought . However , this idea proved to be of little use to other biologists .
= = = Application to humans = = =
Charles Darwin was aware of the severe reaction in some parts of the scientific community against the suggestion made in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation that humans had arisen from animals by a process of transmutation . Therefore , he almost completely ignored the topic of human evolution in On the Origin of Species . Despite this precaution , the issue featured prominently in the debate that followed the book 's publication . For most of the first half of the 19th century , the scientific community believed that , although geology had shown that the Earth and life were very old , human beings had appeared suddenly just a few thousand years before the present . However , a series of archaeological discoveries in the 1840s and 1850s showed stone tools associated with the remains of extinct animals . By the early 1860s , as summarized in Charles Lyell 's 1863 book Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man , it had become widely accepted that humans had existed during a prehistoric period — which stretched many thousands of years before the start of written history . This view of human history was more compatible with an evolutionary origin for humanity than was the older view . On the other hand , at that time there was no fossil evidence to demonstrate human evolution . The only human fossils found before the discovery of Java Man in the 1890s were either of anatomically modern humans or of Neanderthals that were too close , especially in the critical characteristic of cranial capacity , to modern humans for them to be convincing intermediates between humans and other primates .
Therefore , the debate that immediately followed the publication of On the Origin of Species centered on the similarities and differences between humans and modern apes . Carolus Linnaeus had been criticised in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his ground breaking classification system . Richard Owen vigorously defended the classification suggested by Georges Cuvier and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach that placed humans in a separate order from any of the other mammals , which by the early 19th century had become the orthodox view . On the other hand , Thomas Henry Huxley sought to demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between humans and apes . In one famous incident , which became known as the Great Hippocampus Question , Huxley showed that Owen was mistaken in claiming that the brains of gorillas lacked a structure present in human brains . Huxley summarized his argument in his highly influential 1863 book Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature . Another viewpoint was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace . They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes , but questioned whether any purely materialistic mechanism could account for all the differences between humans and apes , especially some aspects of the human mind .
In 1871 , Darwin published The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , which contained his views on human evolution . Darwin argued that the differences between the human mind and the minds of the higher animals were a matter of degree rather than of kind . For example , he viewed morality as a natural outgrowth of instincts that were beneficial to animals living in social groups . He argued that all the differences between humans and apes were explained by a combination of the selective pressures that came from our ancestors moving from the trees to the plains , and sexual selection . The debate over human origins , and over the degree of human uniqueness continued well into the 20th century .
= = = Alternatives to natural selection = = =
The concept of evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles within a few years of the publication of Origin , but the acceptance of natural selection as its driving mechanism was much less widespread . The four major alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century were theistic evolution , neo @-@ Lamarckism , orthogenesis , and saltationism .
Theistic evolution was the idea that God intervened in the process of evolution , to guide it in such a way that the living world could still be considered to be designed . The term was promoted by Charles Darwin 's greatest American advocate Asa Gray . However , this idea gradually fell out of favor among scientists , as they became more and more committed to the idea of methodological naturalism and came to believe that direct appeals to supernatural involvement were scientifically unproductive . By 1900 , theistic evolution had largely disappeared from professional scientific discussions , although it retained a strong popular following .
In the late 19th century , the term neo @-@ Lamarckism came to be associated with the position of naturalists who viewed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the most important evolutionary mechanism . Advocates of this position included the British writer and Darwin critic Samuel Butler , the German biologist Ernst Haeckel , and the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope . They considered Lamarckism to be philosophically superior to Darwin 's idea of selection acting on random variation . Cope looked for , and thought he found , patterns of linear progression in the fossil record . Inheritance of acquired characteristics was part of Haeckel 's recapitulation theory of evolution , which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history . Critics of neo @-@ Lamarckism , such as the German biologist August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace , pointed out that no one had ever produced solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics . Despite these criticisms , neo @-@ Lamarckism remained the most popular alternative to natural selection at the end of the 19th century , and would remain the position of some naturalists well into the 20th century .
Orthogenesis was the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change , in a unilinear fashion , towards ever @-@ greater perfection . It had a significant following in the 19th century , and its proponents included the Russian biologist Leo S. Berg and the American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn . Orthogenesis was popular among some paleontologists , who believed that the fossil record showed a gradual and constant unidirectional change .
Saltationism was the idea that new species arise as a result of large mutations . It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection , and was popular with early geneticists such as Hugo de Vries , William Bateson , and early in his career , Thomas Hunt Morgan . It became the basis of the mutation theory of evolution .
= = = Mendelian genetics , biometrics , and mutation = = =
The rediscovery of Gregor Mendel 's laws of inheritance in 1900 ignited a fierce debate between two camps of biologists . In one camp were the Mendelians , who were focused on discrete variations and the laws of inheritance . They were led by William Bateson ( who coined the word genetics ) and Hugo de Vries ( who coined the word mutation ) . Their opponents were the biometricians , who were interested in the continuous variation of characteristics within populations . Their leaders , Karl Pearson and Walter Frank Raphael Weldon , followed in the tradition of Francis Galton , who had focused on measurement and statistical analysis of variation within a population . The biometricians rejected Mendelian genetics on the basis that discrete units of heredity , such as genes , could not explain the continuous range of variation seen in real populations . Weldon 's work with crabs and snails provided evidence that selection pressure from the environment could shift the range of variation in wild populations , but the Mendelians maintained that the variations measured by biometricians were too insignificant to account for the evolution of new species .
When Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with breeding the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , he was a saltationist who hoped to demonstrate that a new species could be created in the lab by mutation alone . Instead , the work at his lab between 1910 and 1915 reconfirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance . His work also demonstrated that most mutations had relatively small effects , such as a change in eye color , and that rather than creating a new species in a single step , mutations served to increase variation within the existing population .
= = 1920s – 1940s = =
= = = Population genetics = = =
The Mendelian and biometrician models were eventually reconciled with the development of population genetics . A key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher . In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes , and that natural selection could change gene frequencies in a population , resulting in evolution . In a series of papers beginning in 1924 , another British geneticist , J. B. S. Haldane , applied statistical analysis to real @-@ world examples of natural selection , such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths , and showed that natural selection worked at an even faster rate than Fisher assumed .
The American biologist Sewall Wright , who had a background in animal breeding experiments , focused on combinations of interacting genes , and the effects of inbreeding on small , relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift . In 1932 , Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small , isolated sub @-@ population away from an adaptive peak , allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks . The work of Fisher , Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics . This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics , which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked .
= = = Modern evolutionary synthesis = = =
In the first few decades of the 20th century , most field naturalists continued to believe that Lamarckian and orthogenetic mechanisms of evolution provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world . But as the field of genetics continued to develop , those views became less tenable . Theodosius Dobzhansky , a postdoctoral worker in Thomas Hunt Morgan 's lab , had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by Russian geneticists such as Sergei Chetverikov . He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of microevolution developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of macroevolution observed by field biologists , with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species . Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that , contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists , these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity , with marked differences between sub @-@ populations . The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form . In Britain , E. B. Ford , the pioneer of ecological genetics , continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic polymorphisms such as human blood types . Ford 's work would contribute to a shift in emphasis during the course of the modern synthesis towards natural selection over genetic drift .
Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch showing the influence of local environmental factors on the geographic distribution of sub @-@ species and closely related species . Mayr followed up on Dobzhansky 's work with the 1942 book Systematics and the Origin of Species , which emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation in the formation of new species . This form of speciation occurs when the geographical isolation of a sub @-@ population is followed by the development of mechanisms for reproductive isolation . Mayr also formulated the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations .
In the 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution , George Gaylord Simpson showed that the fossil record was consistent with the irregular non @-@ directional pattern predicted by the developing evolutionary synthesis , and that the linear trends that earlier paleontologists had claimed supported orthogenesis and neo @-@ Lamarckism did not hold up to closer examination . In 1950 , G. Ledyard Stebbins published Variation and Evolution in Plants , which helped to integrate botany into the synthesis . The emerging cross @-@ disciplinary consensus on the workings of evolution would be known as the modern evolutionary synthesis . It received its name from the 1942 book Evolution : The Modern Synthesis by Julian Huxley .
The evolutionary synthesis provided a conceptual core — in particular , natural selection and Mendelian population genetics — that tied together many , but not all , biological disciplines . It helped establish the legitimacy of evolutionary biology , a primarily historical science , in a scientific climate that favored experimental methods over historical ones . The synthesis also resulted in a considerable narrowing of the range of mainstream evolutionary thought ( what Stephen Jay Gould called the " hardening of the synthesis " ) : by the 1950s , natural selection acting on genetic variation was virtually the only acceptable mechanism of evolutionary change ( panselectionism ) , and macroevolution was simply considered the result of extensive microevolution .
= = 1940s – 1960s : Molecular biology and evolution = =
The middle decades of the 20th century saw the rise of molecular biology , and with it an understanding of the chemical nature of genes as sequences of DNA and of their relationship — through the genetic code — to protein sequences . At the same time , increasingly powerful techniques for analyzing proteins , such as protein electrophoresis and sequencing , brought biochemical phenomena into realm of the synthetic theory of evolution . In the early 1960s , biochemists Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed the molecular clock hypothesis ( MCH ) : that sequence differences between homologous proteins could be used to calculate the time since two species diverged . By 1969 , Motoo Kimura and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock , arguing that — at the molecular level at least — most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutation and genetic drift ( rather than natural selection ) cause a large portion of genetic change : the neutral theory of molecular evolution . Studies of protein differences within species also brought molecular data to bear on population genetics by providing estimates of the level of heterozygosity in natural populations .
From the early 1960s , molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology . Established evolutionary biologists — particularly Ernst Mayr , Theodosius Dobzhansky , and George Gaylord Simpson , three of the architects of the modern synthesis — were extremely skeptical of molecular approaches , especially when it came to the connection ( or lack thereof ) to natural selection . The molecular @-@ clock hypothesis and the neutral theory were particularly controversial , spawning the neutralist @-@ selectionist debate over the relative importance of mutation , drift and selection , which continued into the 1980s without a clear resolution .
= = Late 20th century = =
= = = Gene @-@ centered view = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , George C. Williams strongly critiqued explanations of adaptations worded in terms of " survival of the species " ( group selection arguments ) . Such explanations were largely replaced by a gene @-@ centered view of evolution , epitomized by the kin selection arguments of W. D. Hamilton , George R. Price and John Maynard Smith . This viewpoint would be summarized and popularized in the influential 1976 book The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins . Models of the period seemed to show that group selection was severely limited in its strength ; though newer models do admit the possibility of significant multi @-@ level selection .
In 1973 , Leigh Van Valen proposed the term " Red Queen , " which he took from Through the Looking @-@ Glass by Lewis Carroll , to describe a scenario where a species involved in one or more evolutionary arms races would have to constantly change just to keep pace with the species with which it was co @-@ evolving . Hamilton , Williams and others suggested that this idea might explain the evolution of sexual reproduction : the increased genetic diversity caused by sexual reproduction would help maintain resistance against rapidly evolving parasites , thus making sexual reproduction common , despite the tremendous cost from the gene @-@ centric point of view of a system where only half of an organism 's genome is passed on during reproduction .
However , contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis , Hanley et al. found that the prevalence , abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat . Furthermore , Parker , after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance , failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in their host . At an even more fundamental level , Heng and Gorelick and Heng reviewed evidence that sex , rather than enhancing diversity , acts as a constraint on genetic diversity . They considered that sex acts as a coarse filter , weeding out major genetic changes , such as chromosomal rearrangements , but permitting minor variation , such as changes at the nucleotide or gene level ( that are often neutral ) to pass through the sexual sieve . The adaptive function of sex , today , remains a major unresolved issue in biology . The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by Birdsell and Wills . A principal alternative view to the Red Queen hypothesis is that sex arose , and is maintained , as a process for repairing DNA damage , and that genetic variation is produced as a byproduct .
The gene @-@ centric view has also led to an increased interest in Charles Darwin 's old idea of sexual selection , and more recently in topics such as sexual conflict and intragenomic conflict .
= = = Sociobiology = = =
W. D. Hamilton 's work on kin selection contributed to the emergence of the discipline of sociobiology . The existence of altruistic behaviors has been a difficult problem for evolutionary theorists from the beginning . Significant progress was made in 1964 when Hamilton formulated the inequality in kin selection known as Hamilton 's rule , which showed how eusociality in insects ( the existence of sterile worker classes ) and many other examples of altruistic behavior could have evolved through kin selection . Other theories followed , some derived from game theory , such as reciprocal altruism . In 1975 , E. O. Wilson published the influential and highly controversial book Sociobiology : The New Synthesis which claimed evolutionary theory could help explain many aspects of animal , including human , behavior . Critics of sociobiology , including Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin , claimed that sociobiology greatly overstated the degree to which complex human behaviors could be determined by genetic factors . They also claimed that the theories of sociobiologists often reflected their own ideological biases . Despite these criticisms , work has continued in sociobiology and the related discipline of evolutionary psychology , including work on other aspects of the altruism problem .
= = = Evolutionary paths and processes = = =
One of the most prominent debates arising during the 1970s was over the theory of punctuated equilibrium . Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould proposed that there was a pattern of fossil species that remained largely unchanged for long periods ( what they termed stasis ) , interspersed with relatively brief periods of rapid change during speciation . Improvements in sequencing methods resulted in a large increase of sequenced genomes , allowing the testing and refining of evolutionary theories using this huge amount of genome data . Comparisons between these genomes provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation . These genomic analyses have produced fundamental changes in the understanding of the evolutionary history of life , such as the proposal of the three @-@ domain system by Carl Woese . Advances in computational hardware and software allow the testing and extrapolation of increasingly advanced evolutionary models and the development of the field of systems biology . One of the results has been an exchange of ideas between theories of biological evolution and the field of computer science known as evolutionary computation , which attempts to mimic biological evolution for the purpose of developing new computer algorithms . Discoveries in biotechnology now allow the modification of entire genomes , advancing evolutionary studies to the level where future experiments may involve the creation of entirely synthetic organisms .
= = = Microbiology , horizontal gene transfer , and endosymbiosis = = =
Microbiology was largely ignored by early evolutionary theory . This was due to the paucity of morphological traits and the lack of a species concept in microbiology , particularly amongst prokaryotes . Now , evolutionary researchers are taking advantage of their improved understanding of microbial physiology and ecology , produced by the comparative ease of microbial genomics , to explore the taxonomy and evolution of these organisms . These studies are revealing unanticipated levels of diversity amongst microbes .
One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in Japan in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer . This transfer of genetic material between different species of bacteria came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of antibiotic resistance . More recently , as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand , it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms . These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today 's organisms , the so @-@ called " tree of life , " is more similar to an interconnected web or net .
Indeed , the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of organelles sees a form of horizontal gene transfer as a critical step in the evolution of eukaryotes such as fungi , plants , and animals . The endosymbiotic theory holds that organelles within the cells of eukorytes such as mitochondria and chloroplasts , had descended from independent bacteria that came to live symbiotically within other cells . It had been suggested in the late 19th century when similarities between mitochondria and bacteria were noted , but largely dismissed until it was revived and championed by Lynn Margulis in the 1960s and 1970s ; Margulis was able to make use of new evidence that such organelles had their own DNA that was inherited independently from that in the cell 's nucleus .
= = = Evolutionary developmental biology = = =
In the 1980s and 1990s , the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis came under increasing scrutiny . There was a renewal of structuralist themes in evolutionary biology in the work of biologists such as Brian Goodwin and Stuart Kauffman , which incorporated ideas from cybernetics and systems theory , and emphasized the self @-@ organizing processes of development as factors directing the course of evolution . The evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould revived earlier ideas of heterochrony , alterations in the relative rates of developmental processes over the course of evolution , to account for the generation of novel forms , and , with the evolutionary biologist Richard Lewontin , wrote an influential paper in 1979 suggesting that a change in one biological structure , or even a structural novelty , could arise incidentally as an accidental result of selection on another structure , rather than through direct selection for that particular adaptation . They called such incidental structural changes " spandrels " after an architectural feature . Later , Gould and Elisabeth Vrba discussed the acquisition of new functions by novel structures arising in this fashion , calling them " exaptations . "
Molecular data regarding the mechanisms underlying development accumulated rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s . It became clear that the diversity of animal morphology was not the result of different sets of proteins regulating the development of different animals , but from changes in the deployment of a small set of proteins that were common to all animals . These proteins became known as the " developmental @-@ genetic toolkit . " Such perspectives influenced the disciplines of phylogenetics , paleontology and comparative developmental biology , and spawned the new discipline of evolutionary developmental biology also known as evo @-@ devo .
= = 21st century = =
= = = Macroevolution and microevolution = = =
One of the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis was that macroevolution ( the evolution of phylogenic clades at the species level and above ) was solely the result of the mechanisms of microevolution ( changes in gene frequency within populations ) operating over an extended period of time . During the last decades of the 20th century some paleontologists raised questions about whether other factors , such as punctuated equilibrium and group selection operating on the level of entire species and even higher level phylogenic clades , needed to be considered to explain patterns in evolution revealed by statistical analysis of the fossil record . Near the end of the 20th century some researchers in evolutionary developmental biology suggested that interactions between the environment and the developmental process might have been the source of some of the structural innovations seen in macroevolution , but other evo @-@ devo researchers maintained that genetic mechanisms visible at the population level are fully sufficient to explain all macroevolution .
= = = Epigenetic inheritance = = =
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence . By the first decade of the 21st century it had become accepted that epigenetic mechanisms were a necessary part of the evolutionary origin of cellular differentiation . Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally thought to be a mechanism involved in differentiation , with epigenetic patterns " reset " when organisms reproduce , there have been some observations of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance . This shows that in some cases nongenetic changes to an organism can be inherited and it has been suggested that such inheritance can help with adaptation to local conditions and affect evolution . Some have suggested that in certain cases a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur .
= = Unconventional evolutionary theory = =
= = = Omega Point = = =
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 's metaphysical Omega Point theory , found in his book The Phenomenon of Man ( 1959 ) , describes the gradual development of the universe from subatomic particles to human society , which he viewed as its final stage and goal .
= = = Gaia hypothesis = = =
Teilhard de Chardin 's ideas have been seen by advocates of the Gaia hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock , which holds that the living and nonliving parts of Earth can be viewed as a complex interacting system with similarities to a single organism , as being connected to Lovelock 's ideas . The Gaia hypothesis has also been viewed by Lynn Margulis and others as an extension of endosymbiosis and exosymbiosis . This modified hypothesis postulates that all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth 's environment that promotes life overall .
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= Smashed ( film ) =
Smashed is a 2012 American drama film directed by James Ponsoldt , written by Ponsoldt and Susan Burke , and starring Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Aaron Paul . Winstead and Paul play a married couple , Kate and Charlie Hannah , both alcoholics . After a series of embarrassing incidents caused by her drinking habit , Kate decides to get sober with the help of a coworker and a sponsor from Alcoholics Anonymous .
The script was partly based on Burke 's own experience of giving up alcohol at a young age , since she felt that her narrative had not yet been told on film . She and Ponsoldt wrote the script over six months , and the main roles were cast in September 2011 . The film 's US $ 500 @,@ 000 budget was financed by independent investors including Minnesota Vikings owner Zygi Wilf . It was shot in Los Angeles in October 2011 . It premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2012 and was released by Sony Pictures Classics on October 12 , 2012 . The film received positive reviews , with Winstead 's performance receiving unanimous praise , and was nominated for several awards for her acting .
= = Plot = =
Kate Hannah ( Mary Elizabeth Winstead ) , an elementary school teacher , arrives at work hungover and vomits in front of her class . Asked by a student if she is pregnant , she pretends she is , then continues the lie to the school principal , Mrs. Barnes ( Megan Mullally ) . Her co @-@ worker Dave ( Nick Offerman ) reveals that he knows she has been drinking and she makes him swear not to tell anyone .
Attending a party with her husband Charlie ( Aaron Paul ) and his brother Owen ( Kyle Gallner ) , Kate drinks heavily . While leaving , she meets a woman who asks Kate for a ride . Kate is offered crack and the two get high together . The next morning , Kate wakes alone on the street . She finds her car and drives home , where Charlie acknowledges they both are alcoholics . They get intoxicated and have sex before Charlie passes out . Kate heads out alone to buy wine but is turned down by the cashier . She urinates on the floor because the bathroom door is locked , then steals a bottle of wine .
Waking up , Kate realizes she has passed out again . At work , Dave , a recovering alcoholic , invites her to an Alcoholics Anonymous ( AA ) meeting . There , she befriends Jenny ( Octavia Spencer ) , who has chosen a passion for food and cooking over alcohol . Kate decides to become sober and change her life . Dave drives Kate home , but bluntly makes an offensive comment which upsets her . When Kate and Charlie visit her estranged alcoholic mother , Rochelle ( Mary Kay Place ) , Kate mentions the AA meetings but Rochelle is skeptical ; Kate 's father left them after getting sober and now lives in another state with his " shiny new family " .
Kate is surprised the next day when she is thrown a baby shower by her colleagues . She reconciles with Dave , putting his comments behind them . At home , Kate is angry when it becomes clear Charlie told Owen and his friend about Kate smoking crack . That night , she rebuffs Charlie 's sexual advances . At school , Kate is questioned by a curious student as to why she is not gaining weight . She subsequently feigns a miscarriage and her students accuse her of killing her baby , for which she reprimands them .
Kate tells Charlie she feels she must confess to Mrs. Barnes the truth about her faked pregnancy . Charlie discourages her , warning that she will lose her job , and they begin to fight over financial issues . Kate lashes back that she would never depend on Charlie 's parents ' money and that she has struggled her whole life . Kate decides to tell Mrs. Barnes the truth and is fired . In a bar , she relapses . Jenny and Dave drive her home , where she starts an altercation with Charlie .
After some time , Kate speaks at an AA meeting , celebrating one year of sobriety , while Charlie gets in trouble for riding a bicycle while drunk . Kate visits Charlie and they play croquet . Charlie asks if she would move back in with him if he begins going to AA meetings . Kate says he must get sober for himself , not for her . Charlie then asks Kate to play another round , to give him a chance to redeem himself . The film ends before Kate gives her answer .
= = Cast = =
Mary Elizabeth Winstead as Kate Hannah
Aaron Paul as Charlie Hannah
Octavia Spencer as Jenny
Nick Offerman as Dave Davies
Megan Mullally as Principal Patricia Barnes
Mary Kay Place as Rochelle
Kyle Gallner as Owen Hannah
Bree Turner as Freda
Mackenzie Davis as Millie
Richmond Arquette as Arlo
Natalie Dreyfuss as Amber
Brad Carter as Felix
= = Production = =
Smashed was conceived by James Ponsoldt and Susan Burke after they had a conversation about things they had done while drunk . Some of the story 's details were based on Burke 's own experience ; she was an alcoholic until she was 24 years old , when she started attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . Burke felt that her experiences with alcoholism had not been represented on film before , and so she decided to write about a young woman deciding to become sober . Burke and Ponsoldt discussed the story , characters and tone in detail before they began to write the script . Since they lived on opposite sides of the United States , they communicated by email , dividing the script into 15 @-@ page installments which they wrote alternately . The entire writing process took six months .
Casting negotiations for the film 's main roles — played by Mary Elizabeth Winstead , Aaron Paul , Octavia Spencer and Nick Offerman — took place in September 2011 . To prepare for her role , Winstead talked with Burke about her recovery and attended a variety of AA meetings , where she spoke with other young women who had gotten sober . To act drunk , she used Ivana Chubbuck 's method as described in her book The Power of the Actor . Paul said that in preparation for the film he recorded himself " getting severely intoxicated " and studied the footage . In order to build a rapport together , Winstead and Paul got drunk together the night before filming began , which Winstead described as being " very messy " .
Smashed was filmed in Los Angeles over 19 days in October 2011 . It was shot on a $ 500 @,@ 000 budget , which was sourced by producers Jonathan Schwartz and Andrea Sperling of Super Crispy Entertainment from independent financiers , including Minnesota Vikings owner Zygi Wilf .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Smashed premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2012 . It was also screened at the Deauville American Film Festival , the Toronto International Film Festival , the Athens Film Festival , Jameson CineFest , the Stockholm International Film Festival , and the Hamptons International Film Festival .
Sony Pictures Classics bought the film 's distribution rights after its premiere at Sundance and gave it a limited release on October 12 , 2012 . On its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 26 @,@ 943 from four theaters , averaging $ 6 @,@ 736 per theater and ranking number 53 at the box office . The film earned $ 376 @,@ 597 domestically from 13 weeks in release , with a widest release of 50 theaters . It earned $ 123 @,@ 128 internationally for a total gross of $ 499 @,@ 725 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , it holds a rating of 84 % based on 102 reviews with an average score of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Metacritic gave the film a score of 71 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews .
Variety critic Justin Chang commended Smashed for its " sheer emotional generosity " and Ponsoldt and Burke for their optimistic and sympathetic approach to the story . Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the film 's neutral and unsentimental tone and its " refus [ al ] to indulge a voyeuristic taste for ... sordid details " . Similarly , Empire magazine 's James White commended the film for avoiding clichés and condescension " by combining a light , frank , comic touch with real emotion and weighty , human performances by all those involved " , and gave it 4 out of 5 stars . In a review for The Hollywood Reporter , Todd McCarthy praised Smashed for its emotional intimacy and realism .
Winstead received critical acclaim for her role . Film critic Roger Ebert , who gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , wrote that she " is sort of wonderful in this movie , worn and warm " and commended her decision not to portray the character as a victim . Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers described Winstead 's performance as " unmissable and unforgettable " , praising the comedy and intellect she simultaneously brought to the role . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt that Winstead was striking as Kate and speculated that Smashed would prove to be " the doorway to great things " in her career .
On the other hand , Michael O 'Sullivan , writing for The Washington Post gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , likening it to " a dramatic public service announcement " rather than an insightful narrative . Slant Magazine 's Chris Cabin also opined that the story was underdeveloped and that the film " offers a cheap and easy sort of inspiration in lieu of genuine inquiry " into the recovery process of alcoholics . Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle did not find the film to be insightful , writing that the filmmakers were " preaching to the choir " with their portrayal of alcoholism and recovery .
= = = Accolades = = =
When Smashed premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , Ponsoldt was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize in the Dramatic category , while producers Andrea Sperling and Jonathan Schwartz received a nomination for the Special Jury Prize for Excellence in Independent Film Producing . Winstead was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead . Octavia Spencer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress at the Black Reel Awards . For their work on the film , casting directors Avy Kaufman and Kim Coleman were nominated for a Casting Society of America Artios Award for a Low Budget Feature in the Comedy or Drama category .
= = Soundtrack = =
A soundtrack to accompany the film was released digitally by Lakeshore Records on October 9 , 2012 . It features a mix of the film 's original score , composed by Andy Cabic and Eric D. Johnson , as well as music from other artists heard throughout various portions of the film .
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= USS Michigan ( BB @-@ 27 ) =
USS Michigan ( BB @-@ 27 ) , a South Carolina @-@ class battleship , was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 26th state . She was the second member of her class , the first dreadnought battleships built for the US Navy . She was laid down in December 1906 , launched in May 1908 ; sponsored by Mrs. F. W. Brooks , daughter of Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry ; and commissioned into the fleet 4 January 1910 . Michigan and South Carolina were armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in superfiring twin gun turrets ; they were the first dreadnoughts to feature this arrangement .
Michigan spent her career in the Atlantic Fleet . She frequently cruised the east coast of the United States and the Caribbean Sea , and in April 1914 took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Civil War . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Michigan was employed as a convoy escort and training ship for the rapidly expanding wartime navy . In January 1918 , her forward cage mast collapsed in heavy seas , killing six men . In 1919 , she ferried soldiers back from Europe . The ship conducted training cruises in 1920 and 1921 , but her career was cut short by the Washington Naval Treaty signed in February 1922 , which mandated the disposal of Michigan and South Carolina . Michigan was decommissioned in February 1923 and broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Design = =
Michigan was 452 ft 9 in ( 138 m ) long overall and had a beam of 80 ft 3 in ( 24 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 617 long tons ( 17 @,@ 900 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 ihp ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 34 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 260 km ; 5 @,@ 754 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 869 officers and men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in four twin gun turrets on the centerline , which were placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . The main armored belt was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the magazines , 10 in ( 254 mm ) over the machinery spaces , and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The armored deck was 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 in ( 38 to 64 mm ) thick . The gun turrets had 12 inch thick faces , while the supporting barbettes had 10 inch thick armor plating . Ten inch thick armor also protected the casemate guns . The conning tower had 12 inch thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Michigan was laid down on 17 December 1906 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . Her completed hull was launched on 26 May 1908 ; she was christened after the 26th state by Mrs. F. W. Brooks , daughter of Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry . Fitting out work was completed by 4 January 1910 , when she was commissioned into the US Navy . After entering service , she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . She then began a shakedown cruise down to the Caribbean Sea that lasted until 7 June . Michigan joined training maneuvers off New England beginning on 29 July . A training cruise to Europe followed ; she departed Boston , Massachusetts on 2 November and stops included Portland in the United Kingdom and Cherbourg , France . She arrived in the latter port on 8 December and remained there until the 30th , when she left for the Caribbean . The ship reached Guantanamo Bay , Cuba on 10 January 1911 and continued on to Norfolk , arriving four days later . During this period , future naval aviation pioneer John Henry Towers served aboard the ship as a spotter for the main guns . The long range of the guns , which could shoot further than the horizon , convinced Towers of the need for spotter aircraft .
The ship then cruised the east coast for most of the next two years . On 15 November 1912 , she departed for a longer cruise to the Gulf of Mexico , with stops in Pensacola , Florida , New Orleans , Louisiana , and Galveston , Texas on the way . She then continued further south to Veracruz , Mexico , where she arrived on 12 December . Michigan remained there for two days before beginning the voyage home ; she reached Hampton Roads on 20 December . Patrols off the east coast resumed for the first half of 1913 . On 6 July , she steamed out of Quincy , Massachusetts for another voyage to Mexican waters ; this trip was prompted by the Mexican Civil War , which threatened American interests in the country . She arrived off Tampico on 15 July and thereafter cruised the Mexican coast until 13 January 1914 , when she departed for New York City , arriving seven days later . She then transferred back to Norfolk .
On 14 February , she left the port for a short voyage to Guacanayabo Bay , Cuba , and was back in Hampton Roads by 19 March . Michigan began a third cruise to Mexico on 16 April to support the United States occupation of Veracruz . She reached the city on 22 April and landed a battalion of Marines as part of the occupation force . The ship then patrolled the coast before departing for the United States on 20 June . She reached the Delaware Capes six days later . The normal peacetime routine of cruises off the east coast continued for the next three years . In December 1914 , the ship 's crew experimented with fire control directors to aid in gunlaying ; the experimental directors produced significantly improved results in gunnery tests conducted in early 1915 . In 1916 , one of her forward 12 @-@ inch guns exploded during gunnery training .
= = = World War I = = =
On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany over its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign . Due to her slow speed , Michigan was assigned to Battleship Force 2 that day , and was tasked with training naval recruits and escorting convoys . As part of the training mission , she participated in fleet maneuvers and gunnery exercises . On 15 January 1918 , Michigan was cruising off Cape Hatteras on a training exercise on 15 January 1918 when a heavy gale and rough seas knocked over the forward cage mast . The ship had rolled to port in the heavy seas before rolling sharply back to starboard . The rapid change in direction caused the mast to snap at its narrowest point , which had been damaged in the 1916 barrel explosion and patched over . The accident killed six men and injured another thirteen . Michigan steamed to Norfolk and transferred the injured men to the hospital ship Solace . She then went to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs , arriving on 22 January .
By early April , Michigan was back in service ; for the next several months , she primarily trained gunners in the Chesapeake Bay . While on a convoy escort that had left the United States on 30 September , the ship 's port screw fell off . She was forced to leave the convoy on 8 October and return to port for repairs . She was out of service for the rest of the war . In November 1918 , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe . Michigan was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force in late December 1918 to ferry American soldiers back from Europe . She made two round trips in 1919 during the operation , the first from 18 January to 3 March , and the second from 18 March to 16 April . She brought back 1 @,@ 062 men between the two voyages .
= = = Post @-@ war period = = =
In May , Michigan was sent to Philadelphia for an overhaul that lasted through June . She thereafter returned to her peacetime training routine . On 6 August , she was reduced to limited commission and stationed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . On 19 May 1920 , she steamed to Annapolis to pick up a contingent of midshipmen for a major training cruise . After departing Annapolis , the ship steamed south and transited the Panama Canal before proceeding to Honolulu , Hawaii , where she arrived on 3 July . Michigan visited several naval bases on the west coast of the United States through the summer , before returning to Annapolis on 2 September . Three days later , she was back in Philadelphia , where she was temporarily decommissioned .
Michigan was reactivated in 1921 for another cruise to the Caribbean , departing on 4 April . She returned to Philadelphia on 23 April ; shortly thereafter , the ship became embroiled in a minor scandal . The ship 's commanding officer at the time , Clark Daniel Stearns , instituted a series of sailors ' committees on 3 May to ease tensions between officers and the crew . The commanders of the Atlantic Fleet and Michigan 's squadron decided that the committees were a threat to discipline and evidence of Marxist influences . They contacted the Edwin Denby , then the Secretary of the Navy , who relieved Stearns of command . On 28 May , she picked up another group of midshipmen for another training cruise . This voyage took the ship to Europe , with stops in a number of ports , including Christiana , Norway , Lisbon , Portugal , and Gibraltar . She returned to Hampton Roads via Guantanamo Bay on 22 August .
In the years immediately following the end of the Great War , the United States , Britain , and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs . All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill @-@ advised , and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations , which produced the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 . Under the terms of Article II of the treaty , Michigan and her sister South Carolina were to be scrapped . Michigan put to sea for the last time on 31 August , bound for the breaker 's yard in Philadelphia . She arrived there on 1 September and was decommissioned on 11 February 1923 . She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 10 November and broken up for scrap the following year .
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= Guillermo Endara =
Guillermo David Endara Galimany ( May 12 , 1936 – September 28 , 2009 ) was President of Panama from 1989 to 1994 . Raised in a family allied to Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias , Endara attended school in exile in the United States and Argentina following Arias 's removal from power . Endara later received a law degree in Panama . He subsequently served as a member of Panama 's National Assembly , and briefly as a government minister before heading into exile again following Arias ' third overthrow .
After Arias ' death in 1988 , Endara became a leading opponent of the Manuel Noriega military dictatorship , heading the opposition coalition in the 1989 presidential election . Though his coalition was judged by international observers as having defeated pro @-@ Noriega candidate Carlos Duque , the results were annulled by the government , and Endara and his running mates were attacked in the streets by the paramilitary Dignity Battalions . The assaults received widespread coverage in international media , helping to build support within the U.S. for military action against Noriega . Seven months later , the United States invaded Panama , and swore in Endara as the new president on the first night of the invasion on a U.S. military base .
During his presidency , Endara abolished the Panamanian military and replaced it with a national police force . Endara 's term saw steady economic growth and a return of democratic institutions , but also high unemployment rates . His administration was marked by internal fighting and corruption scandals , and his popularity plummeted . He was succeeded by opposition candidate Ernesto Pérez Balladares on September 1 , 1994 .
Endara ran for office again in 2004 and 2009 , but lost to Democratic Revolutionary Party party candidate Martin Torrijos and to independent candidate Ricardo Martinelli . He died of a heart attack on September 28 , 2009 , several months after his last campaign .
= = Early life and career = =
Endara was born in 1936 in Panama City , Panama . His father , Guillermo Endara Paniza , was an ally of Authentic Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias , and the family went into exile after Arias was overthrown in a 1941 coup . Endara went to school in Argentina and to Black @-@ Foxe Military Institute in Los Angeles in the United States , where he was described as being a " brilliant student " . He later attended the University of Panama Law School , where he graduated first in his class , and New York University .
He returned to Panama in 1963 to practice law , and specialized in labor law . He co @-@ founded the firm of Solis , Endara , Delgado and Guevara , one of Panama 's most successful law firms . He won his first public office in 1964 , but declined to take it due to evidence of voter fraud in the election .
Endara later served two terms in the National Assembly . In 1968 , Endara served as minister of planning and economic policy during Arias 's very brief third term as president . When Arias was overthrown again in October 1968 , Endara went underground , was jailed briefly in 1971 , and joined Arias in exile until 1977 . Endara remained politically engaged and when Arias died in 1988 , Endara became a leading opposition figure .
= = Opposition to Noriega = =
In the presidential election of 1989 , Endara ran as the candidate of the Democratic Alliance of Civic Opposition ( ADOC ) , a coalition of parties opposed to military ruler Manuel Noriega . His rival was Carlos Duque , a candidate selected by Noriega . The US government contributed $ 10 million to Panamanian opposition campaigns , though it was unknown whether Endara received any of this money .
To safeguard against planned vote @-@ rigging by Noriega , ADOC organized a count of results from the country 's election precincts before they were sent to the district centers . It showed Endara trouncing Duque by a nearly 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin . Noriega 's cronies took phony tally sheets to the district centers , but by this time the opposition 's count was already out . International observers led by former US President Jimmy Carter and a separate group of observers appointed by US President George H.W. Bush also agreed that Endara had won a decisive victory . Noriega had planned to declare Duque the winner regardless of the actual results , but Duque refused to go along . Regardless , Noriega annulled the results before counting was complete due to " foreign interference . "
The next day , Endara and his running mates , Ricardo Arias Calderón and Guillermo Ford , led a contingent of a thousand supporters to protest the annulment of the elections and urge that the ADOC candidates be recognized as the winners . The protest was attacked by a detachment of Dignity Battalions , a paramilitary group supporting Noriega , and the three candidates were badly beaten . Endara was struck with an iron club , leaving a gash on his head . He was briefly hospitalized and received eight stitches . Images of the attacks on Endara and Ford were carried by media around the world , and were credited with building public support in the US for the invasion that would soon follow .
= = Presidency = =
The US armed forces overthrew Noriega 's government during the US invasion of Panama in December 1989 . Endara had by this time taken refuge in the military bases under US control . American officials told Noriega that if he did not accept the presidency , the only alternative would be an undisguised American occupation . Though Endara had opposed US military action during his campaign , he accepted the presidency , stating later that , " morally , patriotically , civically I had no other choice " . He was certified the winner of the election and inaugurated at Fort Clayton on December 20 , 1989 . Arias was inaugurated as first vice president , and Ford as second vice president . Unlike previous rulers Omar Torrijos and Noriega , Endara appointed only whites to ministerial positions , excluding Panama 's large mestizo population and other ethnicities .
Seen as a restorer of democracy , Endara was later noted for having defended freedom of speech and democratic institutions . He also oversaw a reform of the Panamanian Defense Forces , purging Noriega loyalists , asserting the primacy of the civilian government , and returning the group from military to a national police force . In October 1994 , the National Assembly passed an amendment abolishing the military at Endara 's urging , becoming the second Latin American country to do so .
In early 1991 , the ADOC coalition began to unravel as Endara , Arias , and Ford publicly criticized one another . On April 8 , accusing Arias 's Christian Democratic Party of not rallying to his support during an impeachment vote , Endara dismissed Arias from the cabinet . Arias resigned from the vice presidency on December 17 , 1992 , stating at a news conference that Endara 's government " does not listen to the people , nor does it have the courage to make changes " . Endara responded that Arias 's resignation was " demagoguery " and " merely starting his 1994 political campaign ahead of time " .
Endara 's term in office saw marked economic recovery from the nation 's years of military rule . During his presidency , Panama had an average annual economic growth of 8 % . However , unemployment also rose near 19 % . In February 1990 , the overweight Endara began a hunger strike in the Metropolitan Cathedral to call attention to the nation 's poverty and to pressure US President George H. W. Bush to dispense previously pledged American aid . In the course of the strike , he lost more than thirty of his two hundred and sixty pounds .
By May 1992 , Endara 's public approval rating had fallen from its initial 70 % to only 10 % . The Associated Press later described Endara 's administration as being " tarnished by scandal " . Among other financial scandals , Endara 's wife Ana Mae Diaz was accused of reselling food that had been donated by Italy on the streets of Panama City . In 1992 , Diaz won $ 125 @,@ 000 in the national lottery and indicated that she intended to keep the money rather than donating it ; the incident was also cited as an example of the Endara 's administration 's lack of concern for Panama 's poor .
= = Later career = =
In 2004 , Endara broke with the Arnulfista party over differences of opinion with the party 's leader , Panamanian president Mireya Moscoso , and accused the party of corruption . He ran in the 2004 presidential election as the candidate of the Solidarity Party , on a platform of reducing crime and government corruption . His primary rival was Democratic Revolutionary Party ( PRD ) candidate Martín Torrijos , son of the former military dictator Omar Torrijos . Martín Torrijos ran on a platform of strengthening democracy and negotiating a free trade agreement with the US , and was supported by popular musician and politician Ruben Blades . Endara finished second , receiving 31 % of the vote to Torrijos ' 47 % .
He later founded his own political party , the Moral Vanguard of the Fatherland , and in 2009 was again a candidate for the Panamanian general elections . Ricardo Martinelli of the Democratic Change party won the election with 61 % of the vote , while PRD candidate Balbina Herrera won 37 % . Endara placed a distant third , with 2 % of the vote .
Just a few months later , on September 28 , 2009 , Endara died at the age 73 in his apartment in Panama City , of a heart attack while preparing dinner . He was given a state funeral on September 30 attended by President Martinelli as well as former presidents Perez Balladares , Moscoso , and Torrijos .
= = Personal life = =
Endara married his first wife Marcela , in 1961 ; the couple had one daughter , Marcelita , and three grandchildren , Javier , Marcela Victoria and Jacob . Marcela died of a heart attack in 1989 while Endara was hospitalized from the attack by the Dignity Brigades . He remarried on June 11 , 1990 , at the age of 54 , to Ana Mae Diaz Chen , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old law student of Chinese origin . Endara was reportedly so happy in the marriage that he would even leave cabinet meetings for " a quick cuddle " . The marriage received widespread coverage and mockery in the Panamanian press , including a new nickname for Endara , El Gordo Feliz ( " Happy Fatty " ) .
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= When Love Was Blind =
When Love Was Blind is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on young blind woman , May Read , who is saved from her burning home by Frank Larson . In the act of saving her , Frank is disfigured , but the two fall and love , marry and have a child . Two years later , the family physician offers to restore May 's sight through a surgery . Frank consents despite his fears that May will not love him if she gazes upon his disfigured face . The surgery is a success and the doctor tells May not to remove the bandages . May ignores this warning and is permanently blinded after attempting to gaze at her husband , but she is content knowing her baby is beautiful . Directed by Lucius J. Henderson and starred Lucille Younge , the film was a critical success . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film is focuses on May Read , the daughter of a wealthy widow , who was blinded by an unknown affliction when she was a child . While her mother is away , a fire starts in the house and May is left in the blaze while the servants flee . Frank Larson makes his way into the burning house and brings May out to the safety of the street , but doing so has disfigured him for life . May and Frank fall in love and the couple are married with the blessing of May 's mother .
Two years pass and couple have their first child . Their family physician offers to perform an operation to restore May 's sight . Despite Frank 's worries that his wife will not love him if she should see his scarred face , Frank consents to the operation . The operation is a success and the doctor warns May not to remove the bandages as she will lose her sight again . May 's desire to see her child is so strong that she removes the bandages and gazes upon her child . Upon trying to gaze upon her husband , who is standing in strong light , May is permanently blinded . The film concludes with May being content with her blindness and knowing that her baby is as beautiful .
= = Production = =
Little is known about the production of the work . The film was shot at the Thanhouser Studio in New Rochelle , New York under the direction of Lucius J. Henderson and starred Lucille Younge as May Read . A surviving film still shows the " disfigured husband " , giving the possibility of identifying the actor who played Frank Larson . The film is presumed lost because it is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel film , approximately 960 feet long , was released on January 24 , 1911 . Reviews for the film from critics and industry publications were positive . The Billboard gave the film a positive review for its moving story of true love shown by the actors playing the blind wife and facially disfigured husband . The reviewer also noted that the photography was up to the usual high standard of Thanhouser releases . The Moving Picture World opened with the declaration that , " When this picture is past , the wonder will linger long in the memory whether the wife would have loved her husband just the same if she had seen him in the short time when her affliction was alleviated . And it must be admitted that the producers have added materially to the dramatic interest of the film by leaving that question unanswered . " The New York Dramatic Mirror review praised the film for its photography , setting and acting , but highlighted technical inconsistencies in the progression of the fire and the overly drawn out struggle of the father in the smoke . Walton of The Moving Picture News also praised the film , stating that " The situations are well handled ; the acting of the principals shows the true grip of the characters . The work of this firm of late has been not only artistic but throbbing with that clean , human life which is winning high praise . " In local papers , the film was reviewed positively by theater advertisements , owing to the sentimental nature of the film and the technical execution of the fire scene .
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= Targeted Killing in International Law =
Targeted Killing in International Law is a book about the legality of targeted killing , written by Nils Melzer . It was first published by Oxford University Press in May 2008 . The book explores the history of targeted killing as a government strategy by multiple countries including the United States , the United Kingdom , Israel , Switzerland and Germany ; for both military and law enforcement purposes . Melzer argues that directly after the September 11 attacks in the United States , perceptions of the tactic became more positive .
Melzer holds a PhD degree in law from University of Zürich . His dissertation dealt with targeted killing and the book updates and revises that work . He had earlier written on the subject for Yearbook of Humanitarian International Law in 2006 . Melzer serves as a legal advisor for the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . He has lectured at the Master @-@ level at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights .
The book received a favorable reception and was a joint winner of the 2009 Paul Guggenheim Prize in International Law given by the Geneva Graduate Institute . It garnered positive reviews in publications including the International Criminal Justice Review , the European Journal of International Law , the Leiden Journal of International Law , the Australian Yearbook of International Law , the American Journal of International Law , and in the book Legislating the War on Terror : An Agenda for Reform .
= = Background = =
Nils Melzer graduated summa cum laude from the University of Zürich with a PhD degree in law . Melzer worked for the District Court of Meilen , Zürich , first as a Judicial Clerk and then as Judicial Secretary . Melzer serves as a legal advisor for the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . He lectured at the Master @-@ level at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights .
Prior to the book , Melzer published " Targeted Killing or Less Harmful Means ? – Israel 's High Court Judgment on Targeted Killing and the Restrictive Function of Military Necessity " in the Yearbook of Humanitarian International Law in 2006 , and a dissertation in 2007 . Melzer also authored " Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law " , published in 2009 by ICRC . Melzer 's research was utilized in Section IX of the ICRC 's Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law .
Targeted Killing in International Law is part of the series , Oxford Monographs in International Law . The hardback was first published by Oxford University Press on 29 May 2008 , and subsequently in the United States by Oxford University Press , USA in July 2008 . In January 2009 , the work was published online at Oxford Scholarship Online . On 10 September 2009 , Oxford University Press released a paperback in the UK . Oxford University Press , USA released a paperback on 9 November 2009 .
= = Content summary = =
Nils Melzer presents an historical , legal and moral examination of targeted killing . The author observes that after September 11 , the Western world grew more supportive of targeted killing than ever before . The book recounts in depth how state @-@ sanctioned targeted killing is perceived in other countries . He defines targeted killing as the premeditated selection of an individual person not yet in custody for elimination by force . Melzer analyzes all areas of the topic .
The book discusses related legal practices of countries including the United States , the United Kingdom , Israel , Switzerland and Germany . Israel was the first country to publicly acknowledge the practice — in November 2000 . The author connects this policy initiative with Israel 's ongoing conflict with Palestinian militants . Melzer argues that this policy was controversial — the issue came before the Israeli Supreme Court , where the matter was not decided for almost five years . The court 's judgment was issued on 14 December 2006 , but neither forbade nor endorsed the practice . Melzer asserts that it left multiple important legal conundra unresolved . Its significance was that it dealt not with a single incident , but rather with the nature of the policy itself and set forth conditions for examining the legality of future episodes .
Melzer claims that during the Vietnam War the Central Intelligence Agency used targeted killings as part of the Phoenix Program , attempting to eliminate Vietcong sympathizers . Melzer cites a source who contends that some 40 @,@ 000 individuals may have been killed under this program . The author sees the air raids on Muammar Gaddafi in the 1986 bombing of Libya in response to the Lockerbie bombing as another instance . He argues that after September 11 , 2001 , the policy became more acceptable in the U.S. to adopt targeted killings as a tactic .
According to Melzer , after the September 11 attacks , U.S. strategists began to support targeted killings and accepted advice from Israel on how to use such tactics to deal with suicide bombers . Melzer describes an abrupt change where military members were ordered to " shoot to kill " , replacing prior orders to incapacitate . The author asserts that in at least one case in 2005 , a person was killed because they were thought to be a terrorist holding a bomb . It was later revealed that this person suffered from mental illness and may have had a medical history of bipolar disorder . The shooting was determined to be justifiable under the law and criminal charges were not filed .
Melzer discusses the shift in perceptions towards acceptance by United Kingdom law enforcement after September 11 . The Metropolitan Police officially endorsed a " shoot to kill " strategy directly after the attack . Melzer finds this policy shift incongruous , due to the fact that targeted killing had never before been acceptable as police strategy . Prior to the attack , targeted killing was a criminal offense .
= = Reception = =
Targeted Killing in International Law was a joint @-@ winner of the 2009 Paul Guggenheim Prize in International Law given by the Geneva Graduate Institute . In the chapter " Targeted Killing in U.S. Counterterrorism Strategy and Law " authored by Kenneth Anderson as a contributor to the book Legislating the War on Terror : An Agenda for Reform , he characterizes Melzer 's book as an admirable opus on the subject . Anderson describes the book in more depth in a footnote , calling it a complete and thorough academic reference book . He goes on to criticize the perspective of the book for describing and then rejecting objections by the United States to arguments addressed in the work . Anderson writes that the book is both one scholars must have to educate themselves on the subject , while simultaneously lamenting its advocacy for U.S. legal positions . Anderson observes the author covers all facets of targeted killing in the book .
In a review of the book for the journal International Criminal Justice Review , Robert M. Worley of Penn State Altoona comments favorably on the comprehensive nature of Melzer 's research and his descriptions of the differences of the practice of targeted killing in varying countries . Worley comments on the relevance of the book to scholars in various fields , including history , law , law enforcement , and terrorism analysis . Worley concludes his review by recommending the book for those with a fascination in researching criminal justice or the law . William Abresch comments favorably on Targeted Killing in International Law , in a review for the European Journal of International Law . He writes that the book is an important addition to the field of scholarship regarding how international law governs the practice of targeted killing . Abresch calls the author 's writing style logical , and praises the book 's organizational structure including its separate sections on use of targeted in war contrasted with use by police .
A review of the book in the Leiden Journal of International Law by Tamás Hoffmann recommends the work to multiple potential readers , including those who engage in targeting killing , academics , and students . Hoffmann calls it a well @-@ researched monograph and helpful reference work on the subject . The review places the book within the context of addressing legal issues inherent in debating the murky concept of targeted killing . Hoffmann states the book furthers prior attempts to come to a resolution on the question of the practice 's legality . Helen Durhan praises the writing quality of Melzer 's work , in a review for the Australian Yearbook of International Law . Durhan writes the work is organized in an easily readable format and covers the topic with neutrality . She goes on to call the book a work representing the need for concerned discussion prior to implementing any policy involved in eliminating people . Of the author 's focus throughout the work , Durhan observes that the author handles discussion of the legality of targeted killing in a clear and precise manner . The review concludes Melzer 's thorough analysis goes a long way towards furthering scholars ' impressions of legal issues surrounding when it is permitted for sovereign governments to kill people .
Writing in a review for the American Journal of International Law , Michael N. Schmitt observes that the arguments put forth in the book by Melzer are indeed accurate . Schmitt writes that Melzer correctly argues that in the police model sequential events within the legal system lead to precedent for engaging in targeted killing . Schmitt describes the book as an excellent overview of many aspects of law regarding targeted killing . Schmitt concludes , " Targeted Killing in International Law is not just a major contribution to the legal literature , it has justifiably emerged as the premier work on the subject . "
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= Meteorological history of Hurricane Mitch =
Hurricane Mitch 's meteorological history began with its origins over Africa as a tropical wave and lasted until its dissipation as an extratropical cyclone north of the United Kingdom . Tropical Depression Thirteen formed on October 22 , 1998 , over the southwestern Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave that exited Africa on October 10 . It executed a small loop , and while doing so intensified into Tropical Storm Mitch . A weakness in a ridge allowed the storm to track slowly to the north . After becoming disorganized due to wind shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low , Mitch quickly intensified in response to improving conditions which included warm waters and good outflow . It became a hurricane on October 24 and developed an eye . After turning to the west , Mitch rapidly intensified , first into a major hurricane on October 25 and then into a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale the next day .
At peak intensity , Mitch maintained maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) while off the northern coast of Honduras . Hurricane Hunters reported a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) , which at the time was the lowest in the month of October and tied for the fourth lowest for any Atlantic hurricane . Initially , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) and various tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated a turn to the north , threatening the Yucatán Peninsula . Instead , Mitch turned to the south due to a ridge that was not observed while the storm was active . Land interaction imparted weakening , and the hurricane made landfall on Honduras on October 29 with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Turning westward , Mitch slowly weakened over land and maintained deep convection over adjacent waters . After moving across mountainous terrain in Central America , the surface circulation of Mitch dissipated on November 1 . The next day , the remnants reached the Gulf of Mexico and reorganized into a tropical storm on November 3 . Mitch accelerated to the northeast ahead of a cold front , moving across the Yucatán Peninsula before striking southwestern Florida on November 5 . Shortly thereafter , the storm became an extratropical cyclone , which was tracked by the NHC until November 9 .
= = Origins = =
The origin of Hurricane Mitch can be traced to a tropical wave – an elongated area of low air pressure moving from east to west – that moved through western Africa on October 8 , as evidenced by radiosonde data . On October 10 , the wave exited the coast , and it continued generally westward without development due to strong wind shear . The wave reached the eastern Caribbean Sea on October 18 , and over the subsequent few days developed an organizing area of convection , or thunderstorms . The system organized enough to prompt a Hurricane Hunters investigation , which observed a small circulation center and flight @-@ level tropical storm force winds . As a result , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated the system had developed into a tropical cyclone by 0000 UTC on October 22 , located 415 mi ( 665 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica .
Upon being classified , Tropical Depression Thirteen was already near tropical storm status , with established outflow . At the time , the circulation was on the northern periphery of the convection . Initially , an upper @-@ level low to the north was shearing the convection , but steady intensification was expected due to generally favorable conditions , with an anticyclone expected to develop aloft . The depression remained nearly stationary in the southwestern Caribbean Sea , eventually executing a small loop about 260 mi ( 420 km ) east of San Andrés island . The convective structure initially was described as " amorphous " , with two rainbands extending from the center . Late on October 22 , the Hurricane Hunters observed flight @-@ level winds of 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) , which indicated surface winds of at least tropical storm @-@ force . Based on the reading , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Mitch .
= = Intensification = =
When Mitch was upgraded to tropical storm status , it had a small radius of maximum winds , only 9 mi ( 14 km ) at flight @-@ level . A trough moving through the eastern United States weakened a ridge to the north , allowing the storm to move slowly northward . Additional ridging was forecast to build behind the trough , which would turn Mitch to the west to an area near the Yucatán Channel in five days . Significant intensification was initially hampered by the upper @-@ level low to the northwest generating wind shear over Mitch . As a result , the convection weakened on October 23 , despite an otherwise improving cloud pattern . Tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated significant strengthening to winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) once an anticyclone aloft became established , although the NHC noted that " it [ was ] difficult to visualize such intensification with the present poorly defined pattern observed on satellite , and knowing that the global models tend to get rid of westerlies too fast . " After about 12 hours of being disorganized , the thunderstorms reformed early on October 24 , after the upper @-@ level low weakened and shear diminished . An eye quickly formed in the center of the convection . Based on Hurricane Hunter reports of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) flight @-@ level winds , the NHC upgraded Mitch to hurricane status on October 24 . By that time , the storm was moving slowly to the north , located about 295 mi ( 475 km ) south of Kingston .
Shortly after becoming a hurricane , Mitch began undergoing rapid deepening . It developed a strong central dense overcast , fueled by low shear and warm water temperatures . The eye became better organized , and after the anticyclone became established , the hurricane developed well @-@ defined outflow in all directions . Early on October 25 , Mitch intensified into a major hurricane , which is a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . By that time , the hurricane had begun turning to the west , due to an intensifying ridge over the Gulf of Mexico . With what the NHC described as an " ideal environment for strengthening " , Mitch continued rapidly intensifying . In a 24 ‑ hour period ending late on October 25 , the barometric pressure fell 52 mbar ( 1 @.@ 5 inHg ) to 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) . While it was strengthening , Mitch made its closest point of approach to Jamaica , passing about 230 mi ( 370 km ) west @-@ southwest of the island . The NHC noted the potential for weak steering currents when the hurricane reached the western Caribbean , and the agency anticipated a general northward turn toward the Yucatán Peninsula .
The NHC estimated that Mitch intensified into a Category 5 hurricane at 1200 UTC on October 26 . At 1900 UTC that day , the Hurricane Hunters observed flight @-@ level winds of 193 mph ( 311 km / h ) in the hurricane 's northeastern quadrant , suggesting peak maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) . Around the same time , a dropsonde recorded a minimum pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) . At the time , Mitch was considered the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane , tied with Hurricane Camille in 1969 , and the strongest in the month of October , surpassing Hurricane Hattie in 1961 . Both records were surpassed by subsequent hurricanes . At the time , the hurricane was located about 100 mi ( 160 km ) off the north coast of Honduras . Its tropical storm force winds extended 175 mi ( 280 km ) from the center , and hurricane force winds reached 60 mi ( 95 km ) from the center .
= = Central America landfall = =
While Mitch was at peak intensity , the NHC noted that it was " not yet clear which country or countries in the northwest Caribbean are most threatened . " By late on October 26 , the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) had forecast the hurricane to continue to the west and strike Belize , while the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) computer model anticipated a general movement to the north in the western Caribbean . Mitch maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , and around that time it moved over Swan Island offshore Honduras . The motion became more westward , despite continued predictions for a northerly turn . The convection around the eye became ragged on October 27 . Gradual weakening occurred due to the southern half of the circulation moving across Honduras , which cut off inflow from the south . The eye became less distinct , and early on October 28 , Mitch weakened below Category 5 status .
Due to a weak mid @-@ level anticyclone over the Gulf of Mexico that was not observed operationally , Mitch began a slow southerly motion on October 27 , passing very near Guanaja . The NHC had anticipated the movement to be part of a small loop in the Gulf of Honduras , although the agency noted continued uncertainty . Steadily deteriorating , Mitch weakened below major hurricane intensity late on October 28 , due to land interaction , upwelling , and possibly an eyewall replacement cycle . On October 29 , the hurricane made landfall in Honduras , east of La Ceiba , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Despite being over land , the NHC continued to predict a turn to the north , which would allow for restrengthening .
Late on October 29 , Mitch weakened to tropical storm status . It moved slowly across Honduras , turning to the west . The large circulation dropped heavy rainfall throughout Central America , particularly in Honduras and Nicaragua , causing widespread flooding . While over land , Mitch initially maintained an area of deep convection , which allowed it to maintain tropical storm force winds . On October 31 , the circulation became poorly defined while moving over increasingly mountainous terrain ; however , the strongest convection persisted over the adjacent Pacific Ocean , and the NHC noted the potential for Mitch to become a Pacific tropical cyclone . Later that day , Mitch weakened into a tropical depression near the border of Guatemala and Honduras . An approaching trough weakened the ridge in the western Gulf of Mexico , allowing Mitch to make the long @-@ intended turn to the northwest . Convection gradually diminished , and the surface circulation of Mitch dissipated on November 1 near the border of Mexico and Guatemala .
= = Regeneration and extratropical transition = =
Although the surface low pressure center dissipated , the remnants of Mitch maintained a circulation aloft that reached the Bay of Campeche on November 2 . That day , the system began to trigger convection once again . Late on November 3 , the Hurricane Hunters observed a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center and flight @-@ level winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . On that basis , the NHC began reissuing advisories on Mitch about 55 mi ( 90 km ) west @-@ southwest of Campeche , Campeche on the Yucatán Peninsula . Upon reforming , Mitch was moving to the east @-@ northeast , influenced by an approaching cold front . Early on November 4 , Mitch made landfall just north of Campeche with winds of about 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , and it quickly weakened into a tropical depression while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula .
While Mitch was over eastern Mexico , it had a rainband of deep convection in the eastern periphery . With moderately warm waters and the potential for baroclinity , re @-@ intensification was expected . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico for a second time on November 4 , Mitch restrengthened into a tropical storm , although it was not a purely tropical cyclone ; convection was minimal near the core , and the strongest winds were over 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center . Mitch accelerated toward the coast of Florida as it interacted with the approaching cold front . On November 5 , the circulation became elongated , and the NHC commented that " if [ it ] were not the remnants of Mitch , [ they ] would probably not be calling [ it ] a tropical cyclone . " The storm strengthened to reach winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) before making a final landfall in southwestern Florida near Naples . It quickly crossed the state , producing five tornadoes and tropical storm @-@ force winds , and the storm emerged into the southwestern Atlantic Ocean . Late on November 5 , a Hurricane Hunters flight could not locate a well @-@ defined center associated with Mitch , instead observing an elongated circulation embedded in the cold front . Based on the observations , the NHC declared Mitch as an extratropical cyclone .
The extratropical remnants of Mitch continued quickly to the northeast . On November 6 , they passed north of Bermuda , and the following day intensified slightly to winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . By November 9 , the remnants passed west of the British Isles , and were last monitored by the NHC later that day .
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= Ernest Shackleton =
Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton CVO OBE FRGS ( / ˈʃækəltən / ; 15 February 1874 – 5 January 1922 ) was a polar explorer who led three British expeditions to the Antarctic , and one of the principal figures of the period known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Born in Kilkea , Athy , County Kildare , Ireland , Shackleton and his Anglo @-@ Irish family moved to Sydenham in suburban south London when he was ten . His first experience of the polar regions was as third officer on Captain Robert Falcon Scott 's Discovery Expedition 1901 – 04 , from which he was sent home early on health grounds , after he and his companions Scott and Wilson set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82 ° S.
During the second expedition 1907 – 1909 he and three companions established a new record Farthest South latitude at 88 ° S , only 97 geographical miles ( 112 statute miles , 180 km ) from the South Pole , the largest advance to the pole in exploration history . Also , members of his team climbed Mount Erebus , the most active Antarctic volcano . For these achievements , Shackleton was knighted by King Edward VII on his return home .
After the race to the South Pole ended in December 1911 with Roald Amundsen 's conquest , Shackleton turned his attention to the crossing of Antarctica from sea to sea , via the pole . To this end he made preparations for what became the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1914 – 17 . Disaster struck this expedition when its ship , Endurance , became trapped in pack ice and was slowly crushed before the shore parties could be landed . The crew escaped by camping on the sea ice until it disintegrated , then by launching the lifeboats to reach Elephant Island and ultimately the inhabited island of South Georgia , a stormy ocean voyage of 720 nautical miles and Shackleton 's most famous exploit . In 1921 , he returned to the Antarctic with the Shackleton @-@ Rowett Expedition , but died of a heart attack while his ship was moored in South Georgia . At his wife 's request he was buried there .
Away from his expeditions , Shackleton 's life was generally restless and unfulfilled . In his search for rapid pathways to wealth and security , he launched business ventures which failed to prosper , and he died heavily in debt . Upon his death , he was lauded in the press , but was thereafter largely forgotten , while the heroic reputation of his rival Scott was sustained for many decades . Later in the 20th century , Shackleton was " rediscovered " , and rapidly became a role model for leadership as one who , in extreme circumstances , kept his team together in a survival story described by cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski as " incredible " .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Ernest Shackleton was born on 15 February 1874 in Kilkea near Athy , County Kildare , Ireland , about 46 miles ( 74 km ) from Dublin . Ernest 's father was Henry Shackleton , and his mother was Henrietta Letitia Sophia Gavan . His father 's family was Anglo @-@ Irish , originally from Yorkshire , England . His mother 's family was Irish , from counties Cork and Kerry . Ernest was the second of their ten children and the first of two sons ; the second , Frank , achieved notoriety as a suspect , later exonerated , in the 1907 theft of Ireland 's Crown Jewels .
In 1880 , when Ernest was six , Henry Shackleton gave up his life as a landowner to study medicine at Trinity College , Dublin , moving his family into the city . Four years later , the family moved again , from Ireland to Sydenham in suburban London . Partly this was in search of better professional prospects for the newly qualified doctor , but another factor may have been unease about their Anglo @-@ Irish ancestry , following the assassination by Irish nationalists of Lord Frederick Cavendish , the British Secretary for Ireland , in 1882 .
= = = Education = = =
From early childhood , Shackleton was a voracious reader , a pursuit which sparked a passion for adventure . He was schooled by a governess until the age of eleven , when he began at Fir Lodge Preparatory School in West Hill , Dulwich , in southeast London . At the age of thirteen , he entered Dulwich College . The young Shackleton did not particularly distinguish himself as a scholar , and was said to be " bored " by his studies . He was quoted later as saying : " I never learned much geography at school ... Literature , too , consisted in the dissection , the parsing , the analysing of certain passages from our great poets and prose @-@ writers ... teachers should be very careful not to spoil [ their pupils ' ] taste for poetry for all time by making it a task and an imposition . " In his final term at the school , however , he was still able to achieve fifth place in his class of thirty @-@ one .
= = = Merchant Navy officer = = =
Shackleton 's restlessness at school was such that he was allowed to leave at 16 and go to sea . The options available were a Royal Naval cadetship at HMS Britannia , which Dr Shackleton could not afford ; the mercantile marine cadet ships Worcester and Conway ; or an apprenticeship " before the mast " on a sailing vessel . The third option was chosen . His father was able to secure him a berth with the North Western Shipping Company , aboard the square @-@ rigged sailing ship Hoghton Tower .
During the following four years at sea , Shackleton learned his trade , visiting the far corners of the earth and forming acquaintances with a variety of people from many walks of life , learning to be at home with all kinds of men . In August 1894 , he passed his examination for Second Mate and accepted a post as third officer on a tramp steamer of the Welsh Shire Line . Two years later , he had obtained his First Mate 's ticket , and in 1898 , he was certified as a Master Mariner , qualifying him to command a British ship anywhere in the world .
In 1898 , Shackleton joined Union @-@ Castle Line , the regular mail and passenger carrier between Southampton and Cape Town . He was , as a shipmate recorded , " a departure from our usual type of young officer " , content with his own company though not aloof , " spouting lines from Keats [ and ] Browning " , a mixture of sensitivity and aggression but , withal , sympathetic . Following the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 , Shackleton transferred to the troopship Tintagel Castle where , in March 1900 , he met an army lieutenant , Cedric Longstaff , whose father Llewellyn W. Longstaff was the main financial backer of the National Antarctic Expedition then being organised in London . Shackleton used his acquaintance with the son to obtain an interview with Longstaff senior , with a view to obtaining a place on the expedition . Longstaff , impressed by Shackleton 's keenness , recommended him to Sir Clements Markham , the expedition 's overlord , making it clear that he wanted Shackleton accepted . On 17 February 1901 , his appointment as third officer to the expedition 's ship Discovery was confirmed ; on 4 June he was commissioned into the Royal Navy , with the rank of sub @-@ lieutenant in the Reserves . Although officially on leave from Union @-@ Castle , this was in fact the end of Shackleton 's Merchant Navy service .
= = Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 03 = =
The National Antarctic Expedition , known as the Discovery Expedition after the ship Discovery , was the brainchild of Sir Clements Markham , president of the Royal Geographical Society , and had been many years in preparation . It was led by Robert Falcon Scott , a Royal Navy torpedo lieutenant lately promoted Commander , and had objectives that included scientific and geographical discovery .
Although Discovery was not a Royal Navy unit , Scott required the crew , officers and scientific staff to accept voluntarily the conditions of the Naval Discipline Act , and the ship and expedition were run on Royal Navy lines . Shackleton accepted this , even though his own background and instincts favoured a different , more informal style of leadership . Shackleton 's particular duties were listed as : " In charge of seawater analysis . Ward @-@ room caterer . In charge of holds , stores and provisions [ … ] He also arranges the entertainments . "
Discovery departed London on 31 July 1901 , arriving at the Antarctic coast , via Cape Town and New Zealand , on 8 January 1902 . After landing , Shackleton took part in an experimental balloon flight on 4 February . He also participated , with the scientists Edward Wilson and Hartley Ferrar , in the first sledging trip from the expedition 's winter quarters in McMurdo Sound , a journey which established a safe route on to the Great Ice Barrier . During the Antarctic winter of 1902 , in the confines of the iced @-@ in Discovery , Shackleton edited the expedition 's magazine The South Polar Times .
According to steward Clarence Hare , he was " the most popular of the officers among the crew , being a good mixer " , though claims that this represented an unofficial rival leadership to Scott 's are unsupported . Scott chose Shackleton to accompany Wilson and himself on the expedition 's southern journey , a march southwards to achieve the highest possible latitude in the direction of the South Pole . This march was not a serious attempt on the Pole , although the attainment of a high latitude was of great importance to Scott , and the inclusion of Shackleton indicated a high degree of personal trust .
The party set out on 2 November 1902 . The march was , Scott wrote later , " a combination of success and failure " . A record Farthest South latitude of 82 ° 17 ' was reached , beating the previous record established in 1900 by Carsten Borchgrevink . The journey was marred by the poor performance of the dogs , whose food had become tainted , and who rapidly fell sick . All 22 dogs died during the march . The three men all suffered at times from snow blindness , frostbite and , ultimately , scurvy . On the return journey , Shackleton had by his own admission " broken down " and could no longer carry out his share of the work .
He would later deny Scott 's claim in The Voyage of the Discovery , that he had been carried on the sledge . However , he was in a seriously weakened condition ; Wilson 's diary entry for 14 January reads : " Shackleton has been anything but up to the mark , and today he is decidedly worse , very short winded and coughing constantly , with more serious symptoms that need not be detailed here but which are of no small consequence one hundred and sixty miles from the ship " .
On 4 February 1903 , the party finally reached the ship . After a medical examination ( which proved inconclusive ) , Scott decided to send Shackleton home on the relief ship Morning , which had arrived in McMurdo Sound in January 1903 . Scott wrote : " He ought not to risk further hardship in his present state of health . " There is conjecture that Scott 's motives for removing him was resentment of Shackleton 's popularity , and that ill @-@ health was used as an excuse to get rid of him .
Years after the death of Scott , Wilson and Shackleton , Albert Armitage , the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command , claimed that there had been a falling @-@ out on the southern journey , and that Scott had told the ship 's doctor that " if he does not go back sick he will go back in disgrace . " There is no corroboration of Armitage 's story . Shackleton and Scott stayed on friendly terms , at least until the publication of Scott 's account of the southern journey in The Voyage of the Discovery . Although in public they remained mutually respectful and cordial , according to biographer Roland Huntford , Shackleton 's attitude to Scott turned to " smouldering scorn and dislike " ; salvage of wounded pride required " a return to the Antarctic and an attempt to outdo Scott " .
= = Between the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions , 1903 – 07 = =
After a period of convalescence in New Zealand , Shackleton returned to England via San Francisco and New York . As the first significant person to return from the Antarctic , he found that he was in demand ; in particular , the Admiralty wished to consult him about its further proposals for the rescue of Discovery . With Sir Clements Markham 's blessing , he accepted a temporary post assisting the outfitting of the Terra Nova for the second Discovery relief operation , but turned down the offer to sail with her as chief officer . He also assisted in the equipping of the Argentinean corvette Uruguay , which was being fitted out for the relief of the stranded Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Nordenskiöld . In search of more permanent employment , Shackleton applied for a regular commission in the Royal Navy , via the back @-@ door route of the Supplementary List , but despite the sponsorship of Markham and of the president of the Royal Society , he was not successful . Instead , he became a journalist , working for the Royal Magazine , but he found this unsatisfactory . He was then offered , and accepted , the secretaryship of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society ( RSGS ) , a post which he took up on 11 January 1904 . On 9 April 1904 he married Emily Dorman , with whom he would have three children : Raymond , Cecily , and Edward .
In 1905 , Shackleton became a shareholder in a speculative company that aimed to make a fortune transporting Russian troops home from the Far East . Despite his assurances to Emily that " we are practically sure of the contract " , nothing came of this scheme . He also ventured into politics , unsuccessfully standing in the 1906 General Election as the Liberal Unionist Party 's candidate for Dundee in opposition to Irish Home Rule . In the meantime he had taken a job with wealthy Clydeside industrialist William Beardmore ( later Lord Invernairn ) , with a roving commission which involved interviewing prospective clients and entertaining Beardmore 's business friends . Shackleton by this time , however , was making no secret of his ambition to return to Antarctica at the head of his own expedition .
Beardmore was sufficiently impressed with Shackleton to offer financial support , but other donations proved hard to come by . Nevertheless , in February 1907 , Shackleton presented to the Royal Geographic Society his plans for an Antarctic expedition , the details of which , under the name British Antarctic Expedition , were published in the Royal Society 's newsletter , Geographic Journal . The aim was the conquest of both the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole . Shackleton then worked hard to persuade others of his wealthy friends and acquaintances to contribute , including Sir Philip Lee Brocklehurst , who subscribed £ 2 @,@ 000 ( 2011 equivalent £ 157 @,@ 000 ) to secure a place on the expedition ; author Campbell Mackellar ; and Guinness baron Lord Iveagh , whose contribution was secured less than two weeks before the departure of the expedition ship Nimrod . On 4 August 1907 , Shackleton was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order , 4th Class ( MVO ; the present @-@ day grade of Lieutenant ) .
= = Nimrod Expedition ( 1907 – 09 ) = =
On 1 January 1908 , Nimrod sailed for the Antarctic from Lyttelton Harbour , New Zealand . Shackleton 's original plans had envisaged using the old Discovery base in McMurdo Sound to launch his attempts on the South Pole and South Magnetic Pole . However , before leaving England , he had been pressured to give an undertaking to Scott that he would not base himself in the McMurdo area , which Scott was claiming as his own field of work . Shackleton reluctantly agreed to look for winter quarters at either the Barrier Inlet ( which Discovery had briefly visited in 1902 ) or King Edward VII Land .
To conserve coal , the ship was towed 1 @,@ 650 miles ( 2 @,@ 655 km ) by the steamer Koonya to the Antarctic ice , after Shackleton had persuaded the New Zealand government and the Union Steamship Company to share the cost . In accordance with Shackleton 's promise to Scott , the ship headed for the eastern sector of the Great Ice Barrier , arriving there on 21 January 1908 . They found that the Barrier Inlet had expanded to form a large bay , in which were hundreds of whales , which led to the immediate christening of the area as the Bay of Whales . It was noted that ice conditions were unstable , precluding the establishment of a safe base there . An extended search for an anchorage at King Edward VII Land proved equally fruitless , so Shackleton was forced to break his undertaking to Scott and set sail for McMurdo Sound , a decision which , according to second officer Arthur Harbord , was " dictated by common sense " in view of the difficulties of ice pressure , coal shortage and the lack of any nearer known base .
Nimrod arrived at McMurdo Sound on 29 January , but was stopped by ice 16 miles ( 26 km ) north of Discovery 's old base at Hut Point . After considerable weather delays , Shackleton 's base was eventually established at Cape Royds , about 24 miles ( 39 km ) north of Hut Point . The party was in high spirits , despite the difficult conditions ; Shackleton 's ability to communicate with each man kept the party happy and focused .
The " Great Southern Journey " , as Frank Wild called it , began on 29 October 1908 . On 9 January 1909 , Shackleton and three companions ( Wild , Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams ) reached a new Farthest South latitude of 88 ° 23 ' S , a point only 112 miles ( 180 km ) from the Pole . En route the South Pole party discovered the Beardmore Glacier ( named after Shackleton 's patron ) and became the first persons to see and travel on the South Polar Plateau . Their return journey to McMurdo Sound was a race against starvation , on half @-@ rations for much of the way . At one point , Shackleton gave his one biscuit allotted for the day to the ailing Frank Wild , who wrote in his diary : " All the money that was ever minted would not have bought that biscuit and the remembrance of that sacrifice will never leave me " . They arrived at Hut Point just in time to catch the ship .
The expedition 's other main accomplishments included the first ascent of Mount Erebus , and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole , reached on 16 January 1909 by Edgeworth David , Douglas Mawson , and Alistair Mackay . Shackleton returned to the United Kingdom as a hero , and soon afterwards published his expedition account , Heart of the Antarctic . Emily Shackleton later recorded : " The only comment he made to me about not reaching the Pole was ' a live donkey is better than a dead lion , isn 't it ? ' and I said ' Yes darling , as far as I am concerned ' " .
In 1910 , Shackleton made a series of three recordings describing the expedition using an Edison Phonograph .
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind in 1909 were recovered in 2010 , for analysis by a distilling company . A revival of the vintage ( and since lost ) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which discovered the lost spirits .
= = Between expeditions 1909 – 14 = =
= = = Public hero = = =
On Shackleton 's return home , public honours were quickly forthcoming . King Edward VII received him on 10 July and raised him to a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) ; in the King 's Birthday Honours list in November , he was made a knight , becoming Sir Ernest Shackleton . He was honoured by the Royal Geographical Society , who awarded him a Gold Medal ; a proposal that the medal be smaller than that earlier awarded to Captain Scott was not acted on . All the members of the Nimrod Expedition shore party received silver Polar Medals on 23 November , with Shackleton receiving a clasp to his earlier medal . Shackleton was also appointed a Younger Brother of Trinity House , a significant honour for British mariners .
Besides the official honours , Shackleton 's Antarctic feats were greeted in Britain with great enthusiasm . Proposing a toast to the explorer at a lunch given in Shackleton 's honour by the Royal Societies Club , Lord Halsbury , a former Lord Chancellor , said : " When one remembers what he had gone through , one does not believe in the supposed degeneration of the British race . One does not believe that we have lost all sense of admiration for courage [ and ] endurance " . The heroism was also claimed by Ireland : the Dublin Evening Telegraph 's headline read " South Pole Almost Reached By An Irishman " , while the Dublin Express spoke of the " qualities that were his heritage as an Irishman " . Shackleton 's fellow @-@ explorers expressed their admiration ; Roald Amundsen wrote , in a letter to RGS Secretary John Scott Keltie , that " the English nation has by this deed of Shackleton 's won a victory that can never be surpassed " . Fridtjof Nansen sent an effusive private letter to Emily Shackleton , praising the " unique expedition which has been such a complete success in every respect " . The reality was , however , that the expedition had left Shackleton deeply in debt , unable to meet the financial guarantees he had given to backers . Despite his efforts , it required government action , in the form of a grant of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( 2008 : £ 1 @.@ 5 million ) to clear the most pressing obligations . It is likely that many debts were not pressed and were written off .
= = = Biding time = = =
In the period immediately after his return , Shackleton engaged in a strenuous schedule of public appearances , lectures and social engagements . He then sought to cash in on his celebrity by making a fortune in the business world . Among the ventures which he hoped to promote were a tobacco company , a scheme for selling to collectors postage stamps overprinted " King Edward VII Land " ( based on Shackleton 's appointment as Antarctic postmaster by the New Zealand authorities ) , and the development of a Hungarian mining concession he had acquired near the city of Nagybanya , now part of Romania . None of these enterprises prospered , and his main source of income was his earnings from lecture tours . He still harboured thoughts of returning south , even though in September 1910 , having recently moved with his family to Sheringham in Norfolk , he wrote to Emily : " I am never again going South and I have thought it all out and my place is at home now " . He had been in discussions with Douglas Mawson about a scientific expedition to the Antarctic coast between Cape Adare and Gaussberg , and had written to the RGS about this in February 1910 .
Any future resumption by Shackleton of the quest for the South Pole depended on the results of Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , which left from Cardiff in July 1910 . By the spring of 1912 , the world was aware that the pole had been conquered , by the Norwegian Roald Amundsen . The fate of Scott 's expedition was not then known . Shackleton 's mind turned to a project that had been announced , and then abandoned , by the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce , for a continental crossing , from a landing in the Weddell Sea , via the South Pole to McMurdo Sound . Bruce , who had failed to acquire financial backing , was happy that Shackleton should adopt his plans , which were similar to those being followed by the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner . Filchner had left Bremerhaven in May 1911 ; in December 1912 , the news arrived from South Georgia that his expedition had failed . The transcontinental journey , in Shackleton 's words , was the " one great object of Antarctic journeyings " remaining , now open to him .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition 1914 – 17 = =
= = = Preparations = = =
Shackleton published details of his new expedition , grandly titled the " Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition " , early in 1914 . Two ships would be employed ; Endurance would carry the main party into the Weddell Sea , aiming for Vahsel Bay from where a team of six , led by Shackleton , would begin the crossing of the continent . Meanwhile , a second ship , the Aurora , would take a supporting party under Captain Aeneas Mackintosh to McMurdo Sound on the opposite side of the continent . This party would then lay supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier as far as the Beardmore Glacier , these depots holding the food and fuel that would enable Shackleton 's party to complete their journey of 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) across the continent .
Shackleton used his considerable fund @-@ raising skills , and the expedition was financed largely by private donations , although the British government gave £ 10 @,@ 000 ( about £ 680 @,@ 000 in 2008 terms ) . Scottish jute magnate Sir James Caird gave £ 24 @,@ 000 , Midlands industrialist Frank Dudley Docker gave £ 10 @,@ 000 and tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb @-@ Wills gave an undisclosed but reportedly " generous " sum . Public interest in the expedition was considerable ; Shackleton received more than 5 @,@ 000 applications to join it . His interviewing and selection methods sometimes seemed eccentric ; believing that character and temperament were as important as technical ability , he would ask unconventional questions . Thus physicist Reginald James was asked if he could sing ; others were accepted on sight because Shackleton liked the look of them , or after the briefest of interrogations . Shackleton also loosened some traditional hierarchies , expecting all men , including the scientists , to take their share of ship 's chores . He ultimately selected a crew of 56 , twenty @-@ eight on each ship .
Despite the outbreak of the First World War on 3 August 1914 , Endurance was directed by the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , to " proceed " , and left British waters on 8 August . Shackleton delayed his own departure until 27 September , meeting the ship in Buenos Aires .
= = = Crew = = =
While Shackleton led the expedition , the Endurance was captained by Cpt . F. Worsley DSO . The Aurora was captained by Lt. J. Stenhouse DSC .
On the Endurance , the second in command was the experienced explorer Frank Wild . The meteorologist was Cpt . L. Hussey ( also an able banjo player ) . Dr. McIlroy was head of the scientific staff , which included Wordie . Dr. Alexander Macklin was one of two surgeons and also in charge of keeping the 70 dogs healthy . Tom Crean was in more immediate charge as head dog @-@ handler . Other crew included James , Hussey , Greenstreet , a carpenter Henry McNeish , and Clark ( the biologist ) . Of later independent fame was the photographer Frank Hurley . There was a cat named Mrs. Chippy , which should have been called Mr. Chippy , that belonged to the carpenter Henry McNeish . Unfortunately Mrs. Chippy was shot when the Endurance sank , due to the belief it would not have survived the ordeal that followed .
The known dogs ' names were Rugby , Upton Bristol , Millhill , Songster , Sandy , Mack , Mercury , Wolf , Amundsen , Hercules , Hackenschmidt , Samson , Sammy , Skipper , Caruso , Sub , Ulysses , Spotty , Bosun , Slobbers , Sadie , Sue , Sally , Jasper , Tim , Sweep , Martin , Splitlip , Luke , Saint , Satan , Chips , Stumps , Snapper , Painful , Bob , Snowball , Jerry , Judge , Sooty , Rufus , Sidelights , Simeon , Swanker , Chirgwin , Steamer , Peter , Fluffy , Steward , Slippery , Elliott , Roy , Noel , Shakespeare , Jamie , Bummer , Smuts , Lupoid , Spider , and Sailor .
= = = Loss of Endurance = = =
Endurance departed from South Georgia for the Weddell Sea on 5 December , heading for Vahsel Bay . As the ship moved southward , early ice was encountered , which slowed progress . Deep in the Weddell Sea , conditions gradually grew worse until , on 19 January 1915 , Endurance became frozen fast in an ice floe . On 24 February , realising that she would be trapped until the following spring , Shackleton ordered the abandonment of ship 's routine and her conversion to a winter station . She drifted slowly northward with the ice through the following months . When spring arrived in September , the breaking of the ice and its later movements put extreme pressures on the ship 's hull .
Until this point , Shackleton had hoped that the ship , when released from the ice , could work her way back towards Vahsel Bay . On 24 October , however , water began pouring in . After a few days , with the position at 69 ° 5 ' S , 51 ° 30 ' W , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship , saying , " She 's going down ! " ; and men , provisions and equipment were transferred to camps on the ice . On 21 November 1915 , the wreck finally slipped beneath the surface .
For almost two months , Shackleton and his party camped on a large , flat floe , hoping that it would drift towards Paulet Island , approximately 250 miles ( 402 km ) away , where it was known that stores were cached . After failed attempts to march across the ice to this island , Shackleton decided to set up another more permanent camp ( Patience Camp ) on another floe , and trust to the drift of the ice to take them towards a safe landing . By 17 March , their ice camp was within 60 miles ( 97 km ) of Paulet Island but , separated by impassable ice , they were unable to reach it . On 9 April , their ice floe broke into two , and Shackleton ordered the crew into the lifeboats , to head for the nearest land . After five harrowing days at sea , the exhausted men landed their three lifeboats at Elephant Island , 346 miles ( 557 km ) from where the Endurance sank . This was the first time they had stood on solid ground for 497 days . Shackleton 's concern for his men was such that he gave his mittens to photographer Frank Hurley , who had lost his during the boat journey . Shackleton suffered frostbitten fingers as a result .
= = = Open @-@ boat journey = = =
Elephant Island was an inhospitable place , far from any shipping routes . Consequently , Shackleton decided to risk an open @-@ boat journey to the 720 @-@ nautical @-@ mile @-@ distant South Georgia whaling stations , where he knew help was available . The strongest of the tiny 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) lifeboats , christened James Caird after the expedition 's chief sponsor , was chosen for the trip . Ship 's carpenter Harry McNish made various improvements , including raising the sides , strengthening the keel , building a makeshift deck of wood and canvas , and sealing the work with oil paint and seal blood . Shackleton chose five companions for the journey : Frank Worsley , Endurance 's captain , who would be responsible for navigation ; Tom Crean , who had " begged to go " ; two strong sailors in John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy , and finally the carpenter McNish . Shackleton had clashed with McNish during the time when the party was stranded on the ice , but , while he would not forgive the carpenter 's earlier insubordination , Shackleton recognised his value for this particular job .
Shackleton refused to pack supplies for more than four weeks , knowing that if they did not reach South Georgia within that time , the boat and its crew would be lost . The James Caird was launched on 24 April 1916 ; during the next fifteen days , it sailed through the waters of the southern ocean , at the mercy of the stormy seas , in constant peril of capsizing . On 8 May , thanks to Worsley 's navigational skills , the cliffs of South Georgia came into sight , but hurricane @-@ force winds prevented the possibility of landing . The party was forced to ride out the storm offshore , in constant danger of being dashed against the rocks . They would later learn that the same hurricane had sunk a 500 @-@ ton steamer bound for South Georgia from Buenos Aires . On the following day , they were able , finally , to land on the unoccupied southern shore . After a period of rest and recuperation , rather than risk putting to sea again to reach the whaling stations on the northern coast , Shackleton decided to attempt a land crossing of the island . Although it is likely that Norwegian whalers had previously crossed at other points on ski , no one had attempted this particular route before . Leaving McNish , Vincent and McCarthy at the landing point on South Georgia , Shackleton travelled 32 miles ( 51 km ) with Worsley and Crean over mountainous terrain for 36 hours to reach the whaling station at Stromness on 20 May .
The next successful crossing of South Georgia was in October 1955 , by the British explorer Duncan Carse , who travelled much of the same route as Shackleton 's party . In tribute to their achievement , he wrote : " I do not know how they did it , except that they had to — three men of the heroic age of Antarctic exploration with 50 feet of rope between them — and a carpenter 's adze " .
= = = Rescue = = =
Shackleton immediately sent a boat to pick up the three men from the other side of South Georgia while he set to work to organise the rescue of the Elephant Island men . His first three attempts were foiled by sea ice , which blocked the approaches to the island . He appealed to the Chilean government , which offered the use of Yelcho , a small seagoing tug from its navy . Yelcho , commanded by Captain Luis Pardo , and the British whaler SS Southern Sky reached Elephant Island on 30 August 1916 , at which point the men had been isolated there for four and a half months , and Shackleton quickly evacuated all 22 men . The Yelcho took the crew first to Punta Arenas and after some days to Valparaiso in Chile where crowds warmly welcomed them back to civilisation .
There remained the men of the Ross Sea Party , who were stranded at Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound , after Aurora had been blown from its anchorage and driven out to sea , unable to return . The ship , after a drift of many months , had returned to New Zealand . Shackleton travelled there to join Aurora , and sailed with her to the rescue of the Ross Sea party . This group , despite many hardships , had carried out its depot @-@ laying mission to the full , but three lives had been lost , including that of its commander , Aeneas Mackintosh .
= = First World War = =
When Shackleton returned to England in May 1917 , Europe was in the midst of the First World War . Suffering from a heart condition , made worse by the fatigue of his arduous journeys , and too old to be conscripted , he nevertheless volunteered for the army . Repeatedly requesting posting to the front in France , he was by now drinking heavily . In October 1917 , he was sent to Buenos Aires to boost British propaganda in South America . Unqualified as a diplomat , he was unsuccessful in persuading Argentina and Chile to enter the war on the Allied side . He returned home in April 1918 . On 22 July 1918 , he received a temporary army commission in the rank of major .
Shackleton was then briefly involved in a mission to Spitzbergen to establish a British presence there under guise of a mining operation . On the way he was taken ill in Tromsø , possibly with a heart attack . Appointment to a military expedition to Murmansk obliged him to return home before departing for northern Russia .
= = With the Allied Expeditionary Force in the Russian Civil War = =
Four months after the 11 November 1918 Armistice was signed , Shackleton was back in England , full of plans for the economic development of Northern Russia . Specially appointed a temporary honorary major on 25 April 1919 , Shackleton served with the Northern Russia Expeditionary Force in the Russian Civil War under the command of Major @-@ General ( later Field Marshal Lord ) Edmund Ironside . For his " valuable services rendered in connection with Military Operations in North Russia " Shackleton was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1919 King 's Birthday Honours , and was also mentioned in despatches by General Ironside . In the midst of seeking capital , however , Shackleton 's plans foundered when Northern Russia fell to Bolshevik control . He was discharged from the army in October 1919 , retaining his rank of major .
= = Final expedition and death = =
Shackleton returned to the lecture circuit and published his own account of the Endurance expedition , South , in December 1919 . In 1920 , tired of the lecture circuit , Shackleton began to consider the possibility of a last expedition . He thought seriously of going to the Beaufort Sea area of the Arctic , a largely unexplored region , and raised some interest in this idea from the Canadian government . With funds supplied by former schoolfriend John Quiller Rowett , he acquired a 125 @-@ ton Norwegian sealer , named Foca I which he renamed Quest . The plan changed ; the destination became the Antarctic , and the project was defined by Shackleton as an " oceanographic and sub @-@ antarctic expedition " . The goals of the venture were imprecise , but a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent and investigation of some " lost " sub @-@ Antarctic islands , such as Tuanaki , were mentioned as objectives .
Rowett agreed to finance the entire expedition , which became known as the Shackleton @-@ Rowett Expedition . On 16 September 1921 , Shackleton recorded a farewell address on a sound @-@ on @-@ film system created by Harry Grindell Matthews , who claimed it was the first " talking picture " ever made . The expedition left England on 24 September 1921 .
Although some of his former crew members had not received all their pay from the Endurance expedition , many of them signed on with their former " Boss " . When the party arrived in Rio de Janeiro , Shackleton suffered a suspected heart attack . He refused a proper medical examination , so Quest continued south , and on 4 January 1922 , arrived at South Georgia .
In the early hours of the next morning , Shackleton summoned the expedition 's physician , Alexander Macklin , to his cabin , complaining of back pains and other discomfort . According to Macklin 's own account , Macklin told him he had been overdoing things and should try to " lead a more regular life " , to which Shackleton answered : " You are always wanting me to give up things , what is it I ought to give up ? " " Chiefly alcohol , Boss , " replied Macklin . A few moments later , at 2 : 50 a.m. on 5 January 1922 , Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack .
Macklin , who conducted the postmortem , concluded that the cause of death was atheroma of the coronary arteries exacerbated by " overstrain during a period of debility " . Leonard Hussey , a veteran of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic expedition , offered to accompany the body back to Britain ; however , while he was in Montevideo en route to England , a message was received from Emily Shackleton asking that her husband be buried in South Georgia . Hussey returned to South Georgia with the body on the steamer Woodville , and on 5 March 1922 , Shackleton was buried in the Grytviken cemetery , South Georgia , after a short service in the Lutheran church , with Edward Binnie officiating . Macklin wrote in his diary : " I think this is as ' the Boss ' would have had it himself , standing lonely in an island far from civilisation , surrounded by stormy tempestuous seas , & in the vicinity of one of his greatest exploits . "
On 27 November 2011 , the ashes of Frank Wild were interred on the right @-@ hand side of Shackleton 's grave site in Grytviken . The inscription on the rough @-@ hewn granite block set to mark the spot reads " Frank Wild 1873 – 1939 , Shackleton 's right @-@ hand man . "
Study of diaries kept by Eric Marshall , medical officer to the 1907 – 09 expedition , suggests that Shackleton suffered from an atrial septal defect ( " hole in the heart " ) , a congenital heart defect , which may have been a cause of his health problems .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Early legacy = = =
Before the return of Shackleton 's body to South Georgia , there was a memorial service held for him with full military honours at Holy Trinity Church , Montevideo , and on 2 March a service was held at St Paul 's Cathedral , London , at which the King and other members of the royal family were represented . Within a year the first biography , The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton , by Hugh Robert Mill , was published . This book , as well as being a tribute to the explorer , was a practical effort to assist his family ; Shackleton died some £ 40 @,@ 000 in debt ( 2011 : £ 1 @.@ 6 million ) . A further initiative was the establishment of a Shackleton Memorial Fund , which was used to assist the education of his children and the support of his mother .
During the ensuing decades Shackleton 's status as a polar hero was generally outshone by that of Captain Scott , whose polar party had by 1925 been commemorated on more than 30 monuments in Britain alone , including stained glass windows , statues , busts and memorial tablets . A statue of Shackleton designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens was unveiled at the Royal Geographical Society 's Kensington headquarters in 1932 , but public memorials to Shackleton were relatively few . Likewise , the printed word saw much more attention given to Scott – a forty @-@ page booklet on Shackleton , published in 1943 by OUP as part of a " Great Exploits " series , is described by cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski as " a lone example of a popular literary treatment of Shackleton in a sea of similar treatments of Scott " . This disparity continued into the 1950s .
= = = Later legacy = = =
In 1959 Alfred Lansing 's Endurance : Shackleton 's Incredible Voyage was published . This was the first of a number of books about Shackleton that began to appear , showing him in a highly positive light . At the same time , attitudes towards Scott were gradually changing as a more critical note was sounded in the literature , culminating in Roland Huntford 's 1979 treatment of him in his dual biography Scott and Amundsen , described by Barczewski as a " devastating attack " . This negative picture of Scott became accepted as the popular truth as the kind of heroism that Scott represented fell victim to the cultural shifts of the late twentieth century . Within a few years he was thoroughly overtaken in public esteem by Shackleton , whose popularity surged while that of his erstwhile rival declined . In 2002 , in a BBC poll conducted to determine the " 100 Greatest Britons " , Shackleton was ranked 11th while Scott was down in 54th place . In 2007 , the Shackleton Foundation was founded to honour the legacy of Ernest Shackleton by supporting inspirational leaders who exemplify his indomitable spirit and strive to make a positive difference to the world .
In 2001 Margaret Morrell and Stephanie Capparell presented Shackleton as a model for corporate leadership in their book Shackleton 's Way : Leadership Lessons from the Great Antarctic Explorer . They wrote : " Shackleton resonates with executives in today 's business world . His people @-@ centred approach to leadership can be a guide to anyone in a position of authority " . Other management writers were soon following this lead , using Shackleton as an exemplar for bringing order from chaos . The Centre for Leadership Studies at the University of Exeter ( United Kingdom ) offers a course on Shackleton , who also features in the management education programmes of several American universities . In Boston USA a " Shackleton School " was set up on " Outward Bound " principles , with the motto " The Journey is Everything " . Shackleton has also been cited as a model leader by the US Navy , and in a textbook on Congressional leadership , Peter L Steinke calls Shackleton the archetype of the " nonanxious leader " whose " calm , reflective demeanor becomes the antibiotic warning of the toxicity of reactive behaviour " . The Athy Heritage Centre @-@ Museum , Athy , County Kildare , Ireland established in 2001 the Ernest Shackleton Autumn School , which is held annually , to honour the memory of Ernest Shackleton and to commemorate the era of heroic polar exploration .
Shackleton 's death marked the end of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , a period of discovery characterised by journeys of geographical and scientific exploration in a largely unknown continent without any of the benefits of modern travel methods or radio communication . In the preface to his 1922 book The Worst Journey in the World , Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard , one of Scott 's team on the Terra Nova Expedition , wrote : " For a joint scientific and geographical piece of organisation , give me Scott ; for a Winter Journey , Wilson ; for a dash to the Pole and nothing else , Amundsen : and if I am in the devil of a hole and want to get out of it , give me Shackleton every time " .
In 1993 Trevor Potts re @-@ enacted the Boat Journey from Elephant Island to South Georgia in honour of Sir Ernest Shackleton , totally unsupported , in a replica of the James Caird .
In 2002 , Channel 4 produced Shackleton , a TV serial depicting the 1914 expedition with Kenneth Branagh in the title role . Broadcast in the United States on the A & E Network , it won two Emmy Awards . In a 2011 Christie 's auction in London , a biscuit that Shackleton gave " a starving fellow traveller " on the 1907 – 09 Nimrod expedition sold for £ 1250 . In January 2013 , a joint British @-@ Australian team set out to duplicate Shackleton 's 1916 trip across the Southern Ocean . Led by explorer and environmental scientist Tim Jarvis , the team was assembled at the request of Alexandra Shackleton , Sir Ernest 's granddaughter , who felt the trip would honour her grandfather 's legacy . In October 2015 , Shackleton 's decorations and medals were auctioned ; the sale raised £ 585 @,@ 000 .
Shackleton is the name of one of the halls of residence for Merchant Navy Officer Cadets at Warsash Maritime Academy in Southampton , one of Britain 's Merchant Navy Training Colleges .
= = Awards and decorations = =
= = = British decorations = = =
Polar Medal ( 1904 ; with clasp for Nimrod Expedition : 1909 )
Knight Bachelor ( 1909 )
Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO , 1909 ; MVO 4th Class : 1907 )
Officer of the Order of the British Empire , Military Division ( OBE , 1918 )
British War Medal ( 1918 )
Allied Victory Medal ( 1918 , with MID )
= = = Other decorations = = =
Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog of Denmark ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of the Polar Star of Sweden ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of St. Olav of Norway ( 1909 )
Officer of the Legion of Honour of France ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy ( 1910 )
Order of St. Anna , 3rd Class , of Russia ( 1910 )
Order of the Crown of Prussia , 3rd Class ( 1911 )
Officer of the Chilean Order of Merit ( 1916 )
= = = Awards = = =
Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of Antwerp ( 1909 )
Boston Medal , with bar ( 1910 )
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= The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou =
" The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of Family Guy , which originally aired on February 18 , 2007 . The episode follows Stewie , who develops a tan , but becomes obsessed with his new look and attempts to keep it , eventually stopping after being told by the doctor he may now have cancer . Meanwhile , Peter discovers Chris being tormented by a bully , goes to the bully 's house to speak with him , and ends up beating him up .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Julius Wu . It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 53 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Mike Barker , Jeff Bergman , Chris Cox , Michael Clarke Duncan , Keir Gilchrist , Beth Littleford and Rachael MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
While babysitting Stewie , Peter takes him along on an all day golf game and Stewie ends up with a tan all over his body . Stewie decides he likes being tanned and begins frequently to use a tanning bed in his room . He also holds a party for tanned people only . Stewie tells Brian to wake him up after fifteen minutes of tanning but Brian falls asleep and wakes up six and a half hours later . Stewie is extremely sunburned , barely able to move and in great pain . When Stewie eventually begins to peel , Brian spots a mole on Stewie 's stomach . Convinced it is skin cancer , Stewie begins to live out his dying wishes with Brian forced to help him since it was entirely his fault he caused the cancer in the first place . One of Stewie 's requests was to visit the Chicago Museum of Art . As his last request he has Brian record his final thoughts . In the end , Stewie hears from Dr. Hartman that he does not have cancer and gives up tanning . Stewie then sees that Brian drew himself being hanged instead of his final thoughts , prompting the baby to quip " Oh , you are just the worst type of person " .
Meanwhile , Chris learns that his best customer , Herbert , has made Kyle , a neighbor 's son and a bully , his new paper boy . Chris decides to confront them both but ends up getting pushed over by Kyle and laughed at by Kyle 's friends subsequently returning home in tears much to Peter and Lois ' concern . Peter goes to talk with Kyle who makes fun of him over and over . Unable to control his anger toward Kyle , Peter beats him up leaving Kyle bleeding and bruised . Kyle ’ s mother agrees not to press charges if Peter apologizes to Kyle which he reluctantly does . Kyle comments on how good bullying makes you feel which encourages Peter to become a bully . Peter splashes a pot of boiling water over Lois and makes her punch herself in the face . He also hits Stewie on his sunburned buttocks , knocks Chris out of his chair , and sticks his large butt out at Meg to fart repeatedly in her face following her backwards around the kitchen table until she finally trips and vomits on the floor at which Peter gets mad with her . When Peter also bullies his friends , such as using Joe as a marionette and pulling Cleveland 's pants down , Lois points out that he is as bad as his old school bully , Randy Fulcher . Deciding he should bully him instead , Peter finds Randy who is now suffering from multiple sclerosis . Thinking , when Randy says “ I have MS , ” that he is bragging that he has a monkey ’ s scrotum , Peter is about to beat up Randy but is stopped by Chris who beats Peter up instead and finally convinces him bullying is wrong . As the event is witnessed by a wrong sounding Kermit the Frog and a wrong sounding Swedish Chef , a wrong sounding Fozzie Bear ( voiced by Michael Clarke Duncan ) asks them if they want to hear a joke as the episode ends .
= = Production = =
David Goodman comments , regarding the plot partially following Herbert that " there is always a bit of trouble pitching a Herbert storyline to the network . " Samm Levine had originally been selected to voice Kyle , but the character was recast because , as show producer Seth MacFarlane comments , " it seemed a lot funnier when Peter was beating up a kid if he was younger and more defenseless . " A deleted scene had been made which showed Chris asking for money and stating " I spent my last ten bucks on a ham costume , " and Peter replying with " it 's just sitting there right now , but you know what the great thing is , it 's just three months until Halloween and I am done . " Peter 's ancestor shown preparing to wrestle with a kangaroo was described by Seth MacFarlane to be " a very strange gag , " which was added after the other parts of the episode had been created . Quagmire 's profanity @-@ laced tirade during the golf game was bleeped out on TV , but uncensored on DVD . The scene of Stewie remembering the time the Griffins had a nymphomaniac from Wisconsin in their attic was edited as FOX objected to the sounds of the woman having an orgasm being shown over a shot of a wide @-@ awake Stewie .
The voice of a guest at the tanning @-@ party which Stewie is hosting was provided by Mike Barker . David A. Goodman comments on the DVD commentary that " It 's nice to hear Mike Barker back on Family Guy . , " as Barker had performed multiple voices of characters in previous episodes . Peter asking " I 'm going to prison , aren 't I ? " when hiding in the tree after beating up Chris 's bully caused a little bit of trouble for the show , though it was never edited when aired on TV . A sketch had been created showing Brian falling asleep when watching Late Night with Bib Fortuna while Stewie was still in the tanning booth , but it did not seem good enough to air , so it was never broadcast . When Stewie is being sprayed by Brian with sun @-@ screen , Ralph Furley enters the room and mistakenly thinks he sees Brian ejaculating on Stewie . The cream was originally intended to keep squirting out of the bottle as if Brian were continuing to ejaculate despite Mr. Furley 's presence , but the animation didn 't look right and was removed . MacFarlane comments that he was amazed that broadcasting standards allowed them to get away with the scene , even though Brian 's line , " This isn 't what it looks like " was edited to keep the ejaculation illusion from being blatant ( the TV version goes from Mr. Furley yelling , " Brian " and Brian reacting to Mr. Furley running out and saying , " Never mind , I 'll come back later ! " ) . A deleted scene was made and designed to happen directly after Peter sickens Meg by farting in her face in which Peter steals Chris 's lunch money and runs for the bus . The gag showing Dick Cheney as a Wal @-@ Mart greeter had Cheney 's greeting , " Go fuck yourself " bleeped out on TV , but not DVD . Peter falling to the floor after being pushed away from hitting Randy by Chris was very difficult to do , as it is difficult to do slow @-@ motion in animation . The DVD version includes an extra scene in the car , in which Peter shows Chris how he looks like an anus by wearing a hoodie , pulling the hood on the drawstring tight around his mouth , and pushing a chocolate candy bar out of the hole to simulate defecation .
In addition to Barker and the regular cast , actor Jeff Bergman , voice actor Chris Cox , actor Michael Clarke Duncan , actor Keir Gilchrist , actress Beth Littleford and voice actress Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton also has a guest appearance as well .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie is listening to the instrumental version of I Say A Little Prayer while tanning .
An unused ending to the episode had been similar to the ending of 1984 American comedy film Revenge of the Nerds , but " it never really clicked , " hence , it was not broadcast .
Stewie at a party with other tan @-@ obsessed people is a reference to the Tony Lacey scene in Annie Hall .
Stewie reciting a poem he wrote to Brian is a reference to non @-@ fiction novel Tuesdays with Morrie .
While Peter is confronting Kyle , Kyle begins imitating Peter 's voice in a childish way . Peter replies to this by saying that Kyle makes him sound like Michael Stipe : The then @-@ lead singer of rock band R.E.M.
Stewie and Brian visiting the Art Institute of Chicago as one of Stewie 's last wishes is a reference to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off .
There is a dispute between Peter and Lois in regards to how different LEGO is from Mega Bloks .
While Stewie is tanning , he begins to sing his own version of the Kokomo ( song ) by The Beach Boys .
A parody of Kellogg ’ s Frosted Flakes ’ Tony the Tiger called Terry the Tiger is seen in the Griffin kitchen , saying “ They ’ re food ! ”
When Lois notices Stewie 's sunburn , she tells Peter that it was similar to the time he fed his Mogwai after midnight . A cutaway scene shows Peter feeding the Mogwai a drumstick , causing it to turn into Fran Drescher , whose head Peter then microwaves .
When Lois wipes off Stewie 's fake pencil mustache , Stewie compares the saliva being cleaned on his upper lip to the time he had dinner with Martin Landau . A cutaway shows Martin Landau having a distinct speech pattern by not chewing up his food as he speaks .
When Brian advises Stewie to “ wait and see ” whether or not he has cancer , Stewie says “ Jim Henson had a wait and see attitude , and look what happened to him . Now we ’ ve got wrong @-@ sounding Muppets , ” a reference to Henson ’ s deadly Streptococcus pneumoniae infection that was discovered too late which led to his death in 1990 . The scene then cuts to Kermit the Frog and the Swedish Chef in a dialogue sequence , with much different voice tones . The two would later appear at the end of the show , discussing the preceding events , when Fozzie Bear walks in , and says in a deep voice ( supplied by actor Michael Clarke Duncan ) : “ Wocka wocka . Who wants to hear a funny @-@ ass joke ? ” .
When Peter realizes that he should bully Randy Fulcher , he compares this to Dick Cheney being a Wal @-@ Mart greeter . He greets each costumer with " Go fuck yourself " , a reference to a 2004 incident where he said those words to Senator Patrick Leahy , after he asked the vice president about Halliburton 's alleged war profiteering .
When Stewie gets off his beach chair during a tan , Stewie is seen drinking a can of TaB , and then slowly looking to the camera – a parody of TaB commercials in the ' 80s .
The title of the episode " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " is a reference to the 2004 Wes Anderson movie " The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou " .
= = Reception = =
In a significant improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 53 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , being slightly edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! and King of the Hill .
Ahsan Haque of IGN gave " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " a 7 @.@ 4 / 10 and commented " the random filler jokes just don 't work , especially in this episode as both Jim Henson 's Muppets and Frosted Flakes ' Tony the Tiger are misused as random source material for jokes that simply fail to deliver , " adding that " The idea of Peter going overboard with his newfound desire to bully his family and friends is also not quite as funny as it could have been . " In a negative review by Brett Love of TV Squad. he noted " [ the episode ] was something of the opposite of " Peter 's Two Dads . " Where that one excelled with the structure of the story , this one wasn 't as strong .
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= Australian Army ship Crusader ( AV 2767 ) =
Crusader ( AV2767 ) was an Australian Army amphibious operations support ship of World War II . She was launched shortly before the war ended and entered service in late 1945 . From 1945 to 1947 she was mainly used to return Australian Army equipment from the islands off New Guinea . She was also loaned to the Australian Shipping Control Board in early 1947 and transported earth moving equipment and timber between Melbourne and Tasmania . However , the Army did not need a ship with Crusader 's capabilities after the war , and she was sold in 1947 to the Queensland Cement and Lime Company which operated her as a coral barge on the Brisbane River until the mid @-@ 1980s . The ship was scuttled in 1986 and subsequently became a popular dive wreck .
= = Design and construction = =
During late 1944 and early 1945 the Australian Army suffered from a shortage of shipping , leading to delays in moving heavy equipment and small watercraft from Australia to operational areas in the South West Pacific . While several British and United States vessels were eventually made available in mid @-@ 1945 , the Australian Army 's chief engineer , Major General Clive Steele , chose to design and build a heavy lift ship for the Army . Steele personally designed the ship , which was intended to support amphibious operations and transport supplies . He deliberately underestimated the project 's cost in order to gain approval for the ship 's design and construction .
The ship 's design incorporated a number of unusual features . Crusader had a shallow draft to allow her to operate close to the shore , as well as four rudders and six engines driving six propellers to give her a high degree of manoeuvrability . While the ship required engines capable of generating a total of 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) , the largest engines which were available in Australia at the time each generated only 220 horsepower ( 160 kW ) horsepower . Only six of these engines could be fitted into the ship , and she was considered under powered during her Army service . Her hold could carry 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) of stores and an additional 40 vehicles could be embarked on her deck . The ship also had six 30 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 30 t ) cranes to move heavy equipment , as well as six bridge @-@ like structures which were used to embark and disembark vehicles . This equipment allowed her to discharge cargo at the rate of 90 long tons ( 91 t ) at any one time . Crusader had a ' box @-@ like ' appearance , and her design did not impress naval engineers .
Crusader was built by the Melbourne Harbour Trust at Williamstown Dockyard in Williamstown , Victoria . She was the largest all @-@ welded steel vessel to have been constructed in Australia at the time , and her final price of £ 124 @,@ 000 was considerably more than Steele 's deliberate underestimate . The ship was launched on 8 August 1945 after being named by Steele 's wife , and later became the largest ship to be commissioned by the Australian Army during World War II . Construction of a sister ship , to be called AV2768 Corsair , was also begun , but this ship was cancelled when the war ended .
= = Service history = =
The ship completed her sea trials in late November 1945 , and subsequently entered service with the Army 's No. 2 Ordnance Craft Park . In February 1946 Crusader sailed to Rabaul in New Britain and later Torokina , Bougainville . During these and later voyages she proved successful in her intended role , and returned supplies and equipment from the islands to Australia . She also transported the bodies of 600 Australian servicemen killed during the fighting in the Solomon Islands to Port Moresby for permanent interment in the war cemetery there . Other unusual tasks undertaken by the vessel included transporting 800 native New Guineans from Aitape , Madang , Torokina and Wewak to a dispersal centre located in Rabaul and moving 44 tanks from Torokina to Sydney .
By January 1947 the Army no longer needed a ship with Crusader 's capabilities , and she was loaned to the Australian Shipping Control Board . In February that year she transported a load of earth moving equipment from Melbourne to Launceston , and carried a cargo of timber back to Melbourne . She continued to be manned by an Army crew and made several further trips between Tasmania and the mainland , but in April 1947 it was reported that the ship was to be scrapped on the grounds that she was considered unseaworthy . Gil Duthie , the Federal member for Wilmot , sought to have Crusader retained in service until the shortage of shipping capable of transporting heavy loads to and from Tasmania was rectified . The Shipping Control Board rejected Duthrie 's representations on the grounds that Crusader would need extensive alterations before she could be permanently used for commercial trade , and it would take at least a year to complete the necessary works . However , the Board gave a commitment to make other ships available to transport timber from Tasmania . Crusader was subsequently offered for sale , and was purchased by the Queensland Cement and Lime Company ( QCL ) . She arrived at Brisbane on 28 September 1947 and was subsequently renamed Cementco .
QCL used Cementco as a self @-@ propelled coral barge . The ship was converted to this role in Brisbane by the firms Evans Deakin , Evans Anderson and Phelan . Modifications included moving the wheel @-@ house from the aft superstructure to about 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the bow and extensively altering the cargo holds to carry up to 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coral . After these works were completed in July 1948 The Courier @-@ Mail reported that they had " made the strangest vessel on the Australian waterfront even stranger " . Cementco 's stern was later extended so that each member of her crew had their own cabin .
In her new role the ship carried coral which had been dredged from Moreton Bay by the converted Landing Ship Tank Coral ( the former HMAS LST 3022 ) to QCL 's cement factory at Darra in Brisbane . Like the rest of QCL 's small fleet , Cementco underwent a period of extensive maintenance at the Cairncross dry dock in Brisbane once every three years . During the 1974 Brisbane flood the ship 's crew had to fasten Cementco to the pylons of the Story Bridge to prevent her from being carried down the Brisbane River .
Cementco continued to transport coral until the mid @-@ 1980s , when QCL was acquired by the firm Holderbank and another ship was purchased to transport clinker to the company 's new factory at Gladstone . She was subsequently laid up at Mary Street Wharf while attempts were made to sell her ; during this period she was renamed Crusader II to avoid confusion with a new ship named Cementco . A buyer was not found , and in 1986 Cementco was sunk at Flinders Reef off Cape Moreton where she later became a popular dive wreck .
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= Robert Burnell =
Robert Burnell ( sometimes spelled Robert Burnel ; c . 1239 – 25 October 1292 ) was an English bishop who served as Lord Chancellor of England from 1274 to 1292 . A native of Shropshire , he served as a minor royal official before entering into the service of Prince Edward , the future King Edward I of England . When Edward went on the Eighth Crusade in 1270 , Burnell stayed in England to secure the prince 's interests . He served as regent after the death of King Henry III of England while Edward was still on crusade . He was twice elected Archbishop of Canterbury , but his personal life — which included a long @-@ term mistress who was rumoured to have borne him four sons — prevented his confirmation by the papacy . In 1275 Burnell was elected Bishop of Bath and Wells , after Edward had appointed him Lord Chancellor in 1274 .
Burnell was behind the efforts of the royal officials to enforce royal rights during his term of office as chancellor , including the implementation of the Quo warranto procedures . He also helped with the legislative and legal reforms of Edward 's reign . During Burnell 's tenure the chancellor 's office and records became fixed in London rather than travelling with the king . Burnell went abroad on diplomatic missions for Edward , and for a time governed Gascony . He continued to enjoy the king 's trust until his death in 1292 ; one historian has suggested that Burnell may have been the most important royal official of the 13th century .
= = Early life = =
By 1198 Burnell 's family had bestowed its name on the village of Acton Burnell in Shropshire , where Burnell was born probably in about 1239 , as he was close in age to King Edward . His father was probably Roger Burnell , who died in about 1259 . He had three brothers , two of whom died fighting the Welsh at the Battle of Moel @-@ y @-@ don in 1282 ; the third , Hugh , died in 1286 . Hugh 's son Philip was Robert 's eventual heir . Burnell worked as a clerk in the royal chancery , the office responsible for the writing of documents , before moving to the household of Prince Edward , later King Edward I of England . By 1257 Burnell was spending most of his time with the prince and the prince 's household . After Simon de Montfort 's victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Burnell continued to serve Edward , and was named the prince 's clerk in December 1264 . As a reward for his service , Burnell was given the prebend of Holme in the diocese of York some time before 1267 , and was named Archdeacon of York in December 1270 . He also held the office of chancellor to Edward from the time of the Battle of Evesham in 1265 until 1270 , when Edward left on crusade .
Prince Edward tried to have Burnell elected to the Archbishopric of Canterbury in 1270 , but was frustrated by the Canterbury cathedral chapter 's members , who instead elected their prior , William Chillenden . Eventually Pope Gregory X set Chillenden aside and installed his own choice in the see , Robert Kilwardby . Burnell did not accompany the prince on crusade in late 1270 , although he had originally planned to do so . Instead , he was appointed one of the four lieutenants who looked after Edward 's interests while the prince was away . Thus he was still in England when Henry III died in November 1272 . Burnell acted as one of the regents of the kingdom until August 1274 , when the prince , now king , returned from Palestine . During the regency Burnell supervised a parliament , dealt with raids on the Welsh Marches and resolved a trade conflict with Flanders . After the king 's return to England Burnell was made chancellor . The historian Richard Huscroft considers that Burnell gained valuable experience governing England during Edward 's absence , ensuring Burnell 's dominance in the English government after Edward 's return .
= = Chancellor and bishop = =
On 23 January 1275 Burnell was elected to the see of Bath and Wells . He received the temporalities of the see on 19 March 1275 and was consecrated on 7 April 1275 . Three years later Edward once more tried to secure the see of Canterbury for his favourite . Burnell was elected to the archbishopric in June or July 1278 , but the election was quashed by Pope Nicholas III in January 1279 . King Edward sent a deputation , including the eventual appointee , John Peckham , to secure Nicholas ' confirmation of the election . The pope named three cardinals as investigators , and then appointed Peckham instead . The bishop 's second failure to obtain the archbishopric was probably a consequence of his lifestyle , which included keeping a mistress . Edward made one final attempt to promote his friend to a wealthier see in early 1280 , when Burnell was nominated to become Bishop of Winchester , but Pope Nicholas III quashed the election on 28 June 1280 .
Burnell was the chief and most influential of Edward I 's advisers during the first half of his reign . As part of his duties Burnell spent most of his time in attendance on the king . He heard many requests and petitions from those who desired patronage or other advancements , and was diligent and active in dealing with routine business . Burnell played a leading role in the legislation introduced by King Edward . The king 's major legislative acts mainly date to Burnell 's tenure of the office of chancellor , from 21 September 1274 until Burnell 's death in 1292 . Burnell was instrumental in the enforcement of royal writs and enactments , including the Statutes of Westminster , enacted in 1275 , 1285 , and 1290 . Those of 1275 attempted to deal with the usurpation of royal rights . Keeping the peace in the realm and the extension of royal jurisdiction to cover rape was dealt with in the statutes from 1285 , along with a number of other issues . The last statute , from 1290 , regulated land law , the result of pressure from the magnates , the leading laymen of England .
During Burnell 's time in office Edward and his royal officials made great efforts to reassert royal rights that were felt to have been usurped by the king 's subjects . These efforts were made under writs of Quo warranto , which asked the recipient what royal grant or warrant gives the recipient the authority to exercise a right or a power . They were first issued in 1278 , after earlier attempts to recover royal rights through parliament unintentionally resulted in too much work for that body . Through these writs , attempts were made to enforce the rule that the only correct way to receive a privilege or grant of land was through a written charter , which might have deprived most of the magnates of England of their lands and rights . Most lands at that time were held not by documentary grants , but by the force of custom . By the 1290s the government was forced to back down and permit rights as they had been allowed from " time out of mind " .
The distinction between the king 's personal household department of the Wardrobe and the governmental department of the Chancery , which was headed by the chancellor , disappeared almost entirely during Burnell 's period of office . The Wardrobe had developed as a less formal department for the collection and distribution of money , but under Edward had effectively become a treasury for warfare . There was no rivalry between the holders of the Great Seal , the official seal of government and used for formal documents , and the Privy Seal , used to authenticate the king 's less formal letters . During Burnell 's time in office the king only used a Privy Seal warrant , or an informal set of instructions for the chancellor to issue a letter from the Chancery under the Great Seal , when the king and Burnell were apart ; after Burnell 's death the number of Privy Seal warrants increased greatly .
Edward had such trust in his chancellor and the chancellor 's clerks that Burnell and the clerks were allowed to dispense with the hanaper system , which required fees for sealing charters to be paid into the hanaper department of the Chancery for disbursal . Robert and his clerks were permitted to enjoy the profits from the fees of their office . Burnell was also responsible for the decision to force the Court of Chancery to settle in London , rather than following the king and his court around the country . A Chancery memorandum of 1280 records that the chancellor , along with the other ministers , now had the duty of sorting the many petitions that came into the government and only passing on the most urgent to the king .
As bishop , Burnell had a wall built around the cathedral at Wells , which helped to improve the security of the cathedral and its outlying buildings . He left the court each year at Lent , when he returned to his diocese and attended to its affairs . Peckham appointed Burnell to be his deputy when the archbishop went to Wales in 1282 . It was probably Burnell who suggested a compromise in 1285 over the jurisdictions of the royal and ecclesiastical courts , which allowed royal officials to return cases involving only religious matters to the church courts .
= = Foreign service = =
Burnell was active in the king 's foreign policy , especially towards France , Scotland and Wales , and undertook a number of diplomatic missions to those countries . Burnell served as the royal spokesman on several of these occasions , one of them being at Paris in 1286 when he made a speech detailing the history of English – French relations since the Treaty of Paris of 1259 . The speech was a prelude to discussions , successfully concluded , involving the homage that Edward owed to King Philip IV of France , for Edward 's land in France . Burnell was employed in Gascony during the late 1280s , helping to administer that duchy and to reorganise its government . He showed himself sensitive to the Gascon desire for independence and did not attempt to impose the same systems of government that were used in England . The historian Michael Prestwich therefore argues that the first half of Edward 's reign was the period when Gascony enjoyed its most successful government under the Plantagenets . Later , in June 1291 , Burnell gave two speeches at the great council of English and Scottish nobles in Norham to decide the succession to the Scottish crown . Edward had been asked to mediate an end to the crisis over the succession , or the Great Cause as it was known in England .
In Welsh affairs , Burnell attended a number of councils dealing with Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , Prince of Wales , and in 1277 he escorted Llywelyn to Westminster , where Llywelyn pledged homage to Edward . Burnell was present during Edward 's conquest of Wales in the 1280s ; he witnessed documents in Rhuddlan in 1282 , and subsequently at Conwy and Caernarfon .
Sometime before 1290 Burnell vowed to go on crusade to help reinforce the crusader city of Acre , which was threatened by Muslims in the late 1280s , but he never fulfilled his obligation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Burnell died in Berwick , on 25 October 1292 . His body , without his heart , is interred in the nave of Wells Cathedral ; his heart was buried at Bath Abbey . Although he was usually busy with royal business , Burnell managed to expand his bishopric and provide for his relatives . He amassed great wealth , and acquired numerous estates in Shropshire , Worcestershire , Somerset , Kent , Surrey and elsewhere . At his death , he owned 82 manors over 19 counties , most of them his personal property rather than that of the diocese of Bath and Wells .
Even after he became a bishop Burnell kept a mistress , Juliana . Rumours circulated that she bore him four sons , and that he had a number of daughters , all of which Burnell denied . He kept a magnificent household , sufficient for him to be able to host a parliament at his home in Acton Burnell in autumn 1283 . He married off a number of young female relatives , rumoured to be his daughters , to noblemen . Amabilla Burnell married a member of a royal justice 's family , and a Joan Burnell was the subject of a guarantee to the bishop that the son of William of Greystoke would marry her . A William Burnell was dean of Wells Cathedral , and was named as one of the bishop 's executors . Robert Burnell 's eventual heir was his nephew , Philip .
Burnell built extensively at Acton Burnell Castle , and large parts of his house have survived . It was substantially different in plan from the older hall @-@ style houses , which had the private quarters at the back of a large hall . At Acton Burnell the bishop 's quarters were well away from the building 's main public spaces , and included a latrine . The house was not quite a castle , but it was designed to have some defensive capability . The overall form of the structure was of a fortified hall @-@ house , much like the Norman @-@ era hall @-@ keeps . He also built the chapel and great hall in the Bishop 's Palace in Wells .
Burnell was a dominant figure during the first part of Edward 's reign , and he controlled most aspects of royal administration . He was involved not only in domestic issues but also in foreign relations , a responsibility he retained for two decades after Edward 's return to England in 1274 . Huscroft argues that he may have been the most important royal administrator of the 13th century .
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= India =
India , officially the Republic of India ( Sanskrit : Bhārata Gaṇarājya ) , is a country in South Asia . It is the seventh @-@ largest country by area , the second @-@ most populous country ( with over 1 @.@ 2 billion people ) , and the most populous democracy in the world . Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south , the Arabian Sea on the south @-@ west , and the Bay of Bengal on the south @-@ east , it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west ; China , Nepal , and Bhutan to the north @-@ east ; and Myanmar ( Burma ) and Bangladesh to the east . In the Indian Ocean , India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives ; in addition , India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia .
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires , the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history . Four religions — Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Sikhism — originated here , whereas Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Christianity , and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also shaped the region 's diverse culture . Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non @-@ violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi .
Currently , the Indian economy is the world 's seventh @-@ largest by nominal GDP and third @-@ largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . Following market @-@ based economic reforms in 1991 , India became one of the fastest @-@ growing major economies ; it is considered a newly industrialised country . However , it continues to face the challenges of poverty , corruption , malnutrition and inadequate public healthcare . A nuclear weapons state and a regional power , it has the third @-@ largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations . India is a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7 union territories . India is a pluralistic , multilingual , and a multi @-@ ethnic society . It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats .
= = Etymology = =
The name India is derived from Indus , which originates from the Old Persian word Sindhi . The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu , which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River . The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi ( Ινδοί ) , which translates as " The people of the Indus " .
The geographical term Bharat ( Bhārat , pronounced [ ˈbʱaːrət ̪ ] ) , which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country , is used by many Indian languages in its variations . It is a modernisation of the historical name Bharatavarsha , which gained increasing currency from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards as a native name of India . Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E. It is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata . Gaṇarājya ( literally , people 's State ) is the Sanskrit / Hindi term for " republic " dating back to the ancient times .
Hindustan ( [ ɦɪnd ̪ ʊˈst ̪ aːn ] ) is an ancient Persian name for India dating to 3 century B.C.E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then , often being thought of as the " Land of the Hindus . " Its meaning varied , referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient India = = =
The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30 @,@ 000 years ago . Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent , including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh . Around 7000 BCE , the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan . These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation , the first urban culture in South Asia ; it flourished during 2500 – 1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India . Centred around cities such as Mohenjo @-@ daro , Harappa , Dholavira , and Kalibangan , and relying on varied forms of subsistence , the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide @-@ ranging trade .
During the period 2000 – 500 BCE , in terms of culture , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age . The Vedas , the oldest scriptures of Hinduism , were composed during this period , and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo @-@ Aryan migration into the subcontinent . The caste system arose during this period , creating a hierarchy of priests , warriors , free peasants and traders , and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure ; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical , state @-@ level polities . On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation . In southern India , a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period , as well as by nearby traces of agriculture , irrigation tanks , and craft traditions .
In the late Vedic period , around the 6th century BCE , the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north @-@ western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas . The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non @-@ Vedic religious movements , two of which became independent religions . Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar , Mahavira . Buddhism , based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class ; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India . In an age of increasing urban wealth , both religions held up renunciation as an ideal , and both established long @-@ lasting monastic traditions . Politically , by the 3rd century BCE , the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire . The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south , but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas . The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire @-@ building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka 's renunciation of militarism and far @-@ flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma .
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that , between 200 BCE and 200 CE , the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras , the Cholas , and the Pandyas , dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South @-@ East Asia . In North India , Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family , leading to increased subordination of women . By the 4th and 5th centuries , the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms . Under the Guptas , a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself . The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture , which found patrons among an urban elite . Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well , and Indian science , astronomy , medicine , and mathematics made significant advances .
= = = Medieval India = = =
The Indian early medieval age , 600 CE to 1200 CE , is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity . When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE , attempted to expand southwards , he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan . When his successor attempted to expand eastwards , he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards , they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south , who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south . No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region . During this time , pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society , as were new non @-@ traditional ruling classes . The caste system consequently began to show regional differences .
In the 6th and 7th centuries , the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language . They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent . Indian royalty , big and small , and the temples they patronised , drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities , which became economic hubs as well . Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation . By the 8th and 9th centuries , the effects were felt in South @-@ East Asia , as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern @-@ day Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , and Java . Indian merchants , scholars , and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission ; South @-@ East Asians took the initiative as well , with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages .
After the 10th century , Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans , using swift @-@ horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion , repeatedly overran South Asia 's north @-@ western plains , leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206 . The sultanate was to control much of North India , and to make many forays into South India . Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites , the sultanate largely left its vast non @-@ Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs . By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century , the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia , setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers , learned men , mystics , traders , artists , and artisans from that region into the subcontinent , thereby creating a syncretic Indo @-@ Islamic culture in the north . The sultanate 's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire . Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate , the empire came to control much of peninsular India , and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards .
= = = Early modern India = = =
In the early 16th century , northern India , being then under mainly Muslim rulers , fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors . The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule , but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites , leading to more systematic , centralised , and uniform rule . Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity , especially under Akbar , the Mughals united their far @-@ flung realms through loyalty , expressed through a Persianised culture , to an emperor who had near @-@ divine status . The Mughal state 's economic policies , deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well @-@ regulated silver currency , caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets . The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India 's economic expansion , resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms , textiles , and architecture . Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India , such as the Marathas , the Rajputs , and the Sikhs , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule , which , through collaboration or adversity , gave them both recognition and military experience . Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India . As the empire disintegrated , many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs .
By the early 18th century , with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred , a number of European trading companies , including the English East India Company , had established coastal outposts . The East India Company 's control of the seas , greater resources , and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite ; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies . Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s . India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had , but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials , and many historians consider this to be the onset of India 's colonial period . By this time , with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration , the Company began to more consciously enter non @-@ economic arenas such as education , social reform , and culture .
= = = Modern India = = =
Historians consider India 's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885 . The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state . These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty , the surveillance of the population , and the education of citizens ( English Education Act 1835 ) . Technological changes — among them , railways , canals , and the telegraph — were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe . However , disaffection with the Company also grew during this time , and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions , including invasive British @-@ style social reforms , harsh land taxes , and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes , the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule . Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858 , it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government . Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British @-@ style parliamentary system , the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest . In the decades following , public life gradually emerged all over India , leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 .
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks — many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far @-@ away markets . There was an increase in the number of large @-@ scale famines , and , despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers , little industrial employment was generated for Indians . There were also salutary effects : commercial cropping , especially in the newly canalled Punjab , led to increased food production for internal consumption . The railway network provided critical famine relief , notably reduced the cost of moving goods , and helped nascent Indian @-@ owned industry . After World War I , in which approximately one million Indians served , a new period began . It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislations , by more strident Indian calls for self @-@ rule , and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non @-@ co @-@ operation , of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol . During the 1930s , slow legislative reform was enacted by the British ; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections . The next decade was beset with crises : Indian participation in World War II , the Congress 's final push for non @-@ co @-@ operation , and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism . All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947 , but tempered by the partition of India into two states : India and Pakistan .
Vital to India 's self @-@ image as an independent nation was its constitution , completed in 1950 , which put in place a secular and democratic republic . In the 60 years since , India has had a mixed record of successes and failures . It has remained a democracy with civil liberties , an active Supreme Court , and a largely independent press . Economic liberalisation , which was begun in the 1990s , has created a large urban middle class , transformed India into one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies , and increased its geopolitical clout . Indian movies , music , and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture . Yet , India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty , both rural and urban ; by religious and caste @-@ related violence ; by Maoist @-@ inspired Naxalite insurgencies ; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India . It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan . The India – Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998 . India 's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world 's newer nations ; however , in spite of its recent economic successes , freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved .
= = Geography = =
India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent , lying atop the Indian tectonic plate , and part of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate . India 's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate , then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , began a north @-@ eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south @-@ west , and later , south and south @-@ east . Simultaneously , the vast Tethyn oceanic crust , to its northeast , began to subduct under the Eurasian plate . These dual processes , driven by convection in the Earth 's mantle , both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under @-@ thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas . Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas , plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river @-@ borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain . Cut off from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar Desert .
The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India , the oldest and geologically most stable part of India . It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India . These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal @-@ rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east . To the south , the remaining peninsular landmass , the Deccan Plateau , is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats ; the plateau contains the country 's oldest rock formations , some over one billion years old . Constituted in such fashion , India lies to the north of the equator between 6 ° 44 ' and 35 ° 30 ' north latitude and 68 ° 7 ' and 97 ° 25 ' east longitude .
India 's coastline measures 7 @,@ 517 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 700 mi ) in length ; of this distance , 5 @,@ 423 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 400 mi ) belong to peninsular India and 2 @,@ 094 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 mi ) to the Andaman , Nicobar , and Lakshadweep island chains . According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts , the mainland coastline consists of the following : 43 % sandy beaches ; 11 % rocky shores , including cliffs ; and 46 % mudflats or marshy shores .
Major Himalayan @-@ origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra , both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal . Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi ; the latter 's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes . Major peninsular rivers , whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding , include the Godavari , the Mahanadi , the Kaveri , and the Krishna , which also drain into the Bay of Bengal ; and the Narmada and the Tapti , which drain into the Arabian Sea . Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India ; the latter is shared with Bangladesh . India has two archipelagos : the Lakshadweep , coral atolls off India 's south @-@ western coast ; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea .
The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert , both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons . The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in , keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes . The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture @-@ laden south @-@ west summer monsoon winds that , between June and October , provide the majority of India 's rainfall . Four major climatic groupings predominate in India : tropical wet , tropical dry , subtropical humid , and montane .
= = Biodiversity = =
India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots . One of 17 megadiverse countries , it hosts 8 @.@ 6 % of all mammalian , 13 @.@ 7 % of all avian , 7 @.@ 9 % of all reptilian , 6 % of all amphibian , 12 @.@ 2 % of all piscine , and 6 @.@ 0 % of all flowering plant species . About 21 @.@ 2 % of the country 's landmass is covered by forests ( tree canopy density > 10 % ) , of which 12 @.@ 2 % comprises moderately or very dense forests ( tree canopy density > 40 % ) . Endemism is high among plants , 33 % , and among ecoregions such as the shola forests . Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands , Western Ghats , and North @-@ East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya . Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India ; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India ; and the babul @-@ dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain . The medicinal neem , widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies , is a key Indian tree . The luxuriant pipal fig tree , shown on the seals of Mohenjo @-@ daro , shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment .
Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana , from which the Indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present . Peninsular India 's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species . Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction . Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya . Thus , while 45 @.@ 8 % of reptiles and 55 @.@ 8 % of amphibians are endemic , only 12 @.@ 6 % of mammals and 4 @.@ 5 % of birds are . Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome 's toad of the Western Ghats . India contains 172 IUCN @-@ designated threatened animal species , or 2 @.@ 9 % of endangered forms . These include the Asiatic lion , the Bengal tiger , the snow leopard and the Indian white @-@ rumped vulture , which , by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac @-@ laced cattle , nearly became extinct .
The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife . In response the system of national parks and protected areas , first established in 1935 , was substantially expanded . In 1972 , India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness ; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988 . India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves , four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves ; twenty @-@ five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention .
= = Politics = =
India is the world 's most populous democracy . A parliamentary republic with a multi @-@ party system , it has six recognised national parties , including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , and more than 40 regional parties . The Congress is considered centre @-@ left in Indian political culture , and the BJP right @-@ wing . For most of the period between 1950 — when India first became a republic — and the late 1980s , the Congress held a majority in the parliament . Since then , however , it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP , as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi @-@ party coalitions at the centre .
In the Republic of India 's first three general elections , in 1951 , 1957 , and 1962 , the Jawaharlal Nehru @-@ led Congress won easy victories . On Nehru 's death in 1964 , Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister ; he was succeeded , after his own unexpected death in 1966 , by Indira Gandhi , who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971 . Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975 , the Congress was voted out of power in 1977 ; the then @-@ new Janata Party , which had opposed the emergency , was voted in . Its government lasted just over three years . Voted back into power in 1980 , the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984 , when Indira Gandhi was assassinated ; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi , who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year . The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition , led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front , won the elections ; that government too proved relatively short @-@ lived , lasting just under two years . Elections were held again in 1991 ; no party won an absolute majority . The Congress , as the largest single party , was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao .
A two @-@ year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996 . Several short @-@ lived alliances shared power at the centre . The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996 ; it was followed by two comparatively long @-@ lasting United Front coalitions , which depended on external support . In 1998 , the BJP was able to form a successful coalition , the National Democratic Alliance ( NDA ) . Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the NDA became the first non @-@ Congress , coalition government to complete a five @-@ year term . In the 2004 Indian general elections , again no party won an absolute majority , but the Congress emerged as the largest single party , forming another successful coalition : the United Progressive Alliance ( UPA ) . It had the support of left @-@ leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP . The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers , and it no longer required external support from India 's communist parties . That year , Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re @-@ elected to a consecutive five @-@ year term . In the 2014 general election , the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties . The Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi , who was formerly Chief Minister of Gujarat .
= = = Government = = =
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India , which serves as the country 's supreme legal document . It is a republic and representative democracy , in which " majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law " . Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states . The government abides by constitutional checks and balances . The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 , states in its preamble that India is a sovereign , socialist , secular , democratic republic . India 's form of government , traditionally described as " quasi @-@ federal " with a strong centre and weak states , has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political , economic , and social changes .
The federal government comprises three branches :
Executive : The President of India is the head of state and is elected indirectly by a national electoral college for a five @-@ year term . The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power . Appointed by the president , the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament . The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president , the vice @-@ president , and the Council of Ministers — the cabinet being its executive committee — headed by the prime minister . Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament . In the Indian parliamentary system , the executive is subordinate to the legislature ; the prime minister and his council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament .
Legislative : The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament . It operates under a Westminster @-@ style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the Rajya Sabha ( " Council of States " ) and the lower called the Lok Sabha ( " House of the People " ) . The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six @-@ year terms . Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state 's share of the national population . All but two of the Lok Sabha 's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote ; they represent individual constituencies via five @-@ year terms . The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo @-@ Indian community , in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented .
Judicial : India has a unitary three @-@ tier independent judiciary that comprises the Supreme Court , headed by the Chief Justice of India , 24 High Courts , and a large number of trial courts . The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre ; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts . It has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution , as well as to invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union territories . All states , as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi , have elected legislatures and governments , both patterned on the Westminster model . The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators . In 1956 , under the States Reorganisation Act , states were reorganised on a linguistic basis . Since then , their structure has remained largely unchanged . Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts . The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages .
= = Foreign relations and military = =
Since its independence in 1947 , India has maintained cordial relations with most nations . In the 1950s , it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . In the late 1980s , the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries : a peace @-@ keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990 ; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d 'état attempt in Maldives . India has tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan ; the two nations have gone to war four times : in 1947 , 1965 , 1971 , and 1999 . Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir , while the fourth , the 1971 war , followed from India 's support for the independence of Bangladesh . After waging the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan , India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union ; by the late 1960s , the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier .
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia , India has wide @-@ ranging defence relations with Israel and France . In recent years , it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organisation . The nation has provided 100 @,@ 000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents . It participates in the East Asia Summit , the G8 + 5 , and other multilateral forums . India has close economic ties with South America , Asia , and Africa ; it pursues a " Look East " policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations , Japan , and South Korea that revolve around many issues , but especially those involving economic investment and regional security .
China 's nuclear test of 1964 , as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war , convinced India to develop nuclear weapons . India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998 . Despite criticism and military sanctions , India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , considering both to be flawed and discriminatory . India maintains a " no first use " nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its " minimum credible deterrence " doctrine . It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and , in collaboration with Russia , a fifth @-@ generation fighter jet . Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant @-@ class aircraft carriers and Arihant @-@ class nuclear submarines .
Since the end of the Cold War , India has increased its economic , strategic , and military co @-@ operation with the United States and the European Union . In 2008 , a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States . Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group , ending earlier restrictions on India 's nuclear technology and commerce . As a consequence , India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state . India subsequently signed co @-@ operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia , France , the United Kingdom , and Canada .
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation 's armed forces ; with 1 @.@ 325 million active troops , they compose the world 's third @-@ largest military . It comprises the Indian Army , the Indian Navy , and the Indian Air Force ; auxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary groups : the Assam Rifles , the Special Frontier Force , and the Indian Coast Guard . The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US $ 36 @.@ 03 billion , or 1 @.@ 83 % of GDP . For the fiscal year spanning 2012 – 2013 , US $ 40 @.@ 44 billion was budgeted . According to a 2008 SIPRI report , India 's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US $ 72 @.@ 7 billion . In 2011 , the annual defence budget increased by 11 @.@ 6 % , although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government . As of 2012 , India is the world 's largest arms importer ; between 2007 and 2011 , it accounted for 10 % of funds spent on international arms purchases . Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean .
= = Economy = =
According to the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , the Indian economy in 2015 was nominally worth US $ 2 @.@ 183 trillion ; it is the 7th @-@ largest economy by market exchange rates , and is , at US $ 8 @.@ 027 trillion , the third @-@ largest by purchasing power parity , or PPP . With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5 @.@ 8 % over the past two decades , and reaching 6 @.@ 1 % during 2011 – 12 , India is one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies . However , the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP . Until 1991 , all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics . Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world . An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy ; since then it has slowly moved towards a free @-@ market system by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows . India 's recent economic model is largely capitalist . India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995 .
The 486 @.@ 6 @-@ million worker Indian labour force is the world 's second @-@ largest , as of 2011 . The service sector makes up 55 @.@ 6 % of GDP , the industrial sector 26 @.@ 3 % and the agricultural sector 18 @.@ 1 % . India 's foreign exchange remittances were US $ 70 billion in year 2014 , the largest in the world , contributed to its economy by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries . Major agricultural products include rice , wheat , oilseed , cotton , jute , tea , sugarcane , and potatoes . Major industries include textiles , telecommunications , chemicals , pharmaceuticals , biotechnology , food processing , steel , transport equipment , cement , mining , petroleum , machinery , and software . In 2006 , the share of external trade in India 's GDP stood at 24 % , up from 6 % in 1985 . In 2008 , India 's share of world trade was 1 @.@ 68 % ; In 2011 , India was the world 's tenth @-@ largest importer and the nineteenth @-@ largest exporter . Major exports include petroleum products , textile goods , jewellery , software , engineering goods , chemicals , and leather manufactures . Major imports include crude oil , machinery , gems , fertiliser , and chemicals . Between 2001 and 2011 , the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14 % to 42 % . India was the second largest textile exporter after China in the world in calendar year 2013 .
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7 @.@ 5 % for several years prior to 2007 , India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century . Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985 ; India 's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030 . Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness , India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication , 24th in the banking sector , 44th in business sophistication , and 39th in innovation , ahead of several advanced economies , as of 2010 . With 7 of the world 's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India , the country is viewed as the second @-@ most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States , as of 2009 . India 's consumer market , the world 's eleventh @-@ largest , is expected to become fifth @-@ largest by 2030 .
Driven by growth , India 's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US $ 329 in 1991 , when economic liberalisation began , to US $ 1 @,@ 265 in 2010 , and is estimated to increase to US $ 2 @,@ 110 by 2016 ; however , it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Sri Lanka , and Thailand , and is expected to remain so in the near future . However , it is higher than Pakistan , Nepal , Afghanistan , Bangladesh and others .
According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report , India 's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045 . During the next four decades , Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8 % , making it potentially the world 's fastest @-@ growing major economy until 2050 . The report highlights key growth factors : a young and rapidly growing working @-@ age population ; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels ; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class . The World Bank cautions that , for India to achieve its economic potential , it must continue to focus on public sector reform , transport infrastructure , agricultural and rural development , removal of labour regulations , education , energy security , and public health and nutrition .
In 2016 , the Economist Intelligence Unit ( EIU ) released Top 10 cheapest cities in the world which 4 of it were from India : Bangalore ( 2nd ) , Mumbai ( 3rd ) , Chennai ( 6th ) and New Delhi ( 8th ) based on the cost of 160 products and services .
= = = Sectors = = =
India 's telecommunication industry , the world 's fastest @-@ growing , added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010 – 11 , and after the first quarter of 2013 , India surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the world after China and the US
Its automotive industry , the world 's second fastest growing , increased domestic sales by 26 % during 2009 – 10 , and exports by 36 % during 2008 – 09 . India 's capacity to generate electrical power is 250 gigawatts , of which 8 % is renewable . At the end of 2011 , the Indian IT industry employed 2 @.@ 8 million professionals , generated revenues close to US $ 100 billion equalling 7 @.@ 5 % of Indian GDP and contributed 26 % of India 's merchandise exports .
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry . The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $ 48 @.@ 5 billion by 2020 . India 's R & D spending constitutes 60 % of the biopharmaceutical industry . India is among the top 12 biotech destinations of the world . The Indian biotech industry grew by 15 @.@ 1 % in 2012 – 13 , increasing its revenues from 204 @.@ 4 Billion INR ( Indian Rupees ) to 235 @.@ 24 Billion INR ( 3 @.@ 94 B US $ - exchange rate June 2013 : 1 US $ approx . 60 INR ) . Although hardly 2 % of Indians pay income taxes .
= = = Poverty = = =
Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades , India continues to face socio @-@ economic challenges . India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank 's international poverty line of US $ 1 @.@ 25 per day , the proportion having decreased from 60 % in 1981 to 42 % in 2005 , and 25 % in 2011 . 30 @.@ 7 % of India 's children under the age of five are underweight . According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015 , 15 % of Indian population is undernourished . The Mid @-@ Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates . Since 1991 , economic inequality between India 's states has consistently grown : the per @-@ capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3 @.@ 2 times that of the poorest . Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly , with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US $ 462 billion .
India has the highest number of people living in conditions of slavery , 18 million , most of whom are in bonded labour . India has the largest number of child labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an estimated 12 @.@ 6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations .
= = Demographics = =
With 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 193 @,@ 422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report , India is the world 's second @-@ most populous country . Its population grew by 17 @.@ 64 % during 2001 – 2011 , compared to 21 @.@ 54 % growth in the previous decade ( 1991 – 2001 ) . The human sex ratio , according to the 2011 census , is 940 females per 1 @,@ 000 males . The median age was 24 @.@ 9 in the 2001 census . The first post @-@ colonial census , conducted in 1951 , counted 361 @.@ 1 million people . Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the " Green Revolution " have caused India 's population to grow rapidly . India continues to face several public health @-@ related challenges .
Life expectancy in India is at 68 years with life expectancy for women being 69 @.@ 6 years and for men being 67 @.@ 3 . There are around 50 physicians per 100 @,@ 000 Indians . The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31 @.@ 2 % between 1991 and 2001 . Yet , in 2001 , over 70 % lived in rural areas . The level of urbanisation increased from 27 @.@ 81 % in 2001 Census to 31 @.@ 16 % in 2011 Census . The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991 . According to the 2011 census , there are 53 million @-@ plus cities in India ; among them Mumbai , Delhi , Bangalore , Hyderabad , Chennai , Ahmedabad , and Kolkata , in decreasing order by population . The literacy rate in 2011 was 74 @.@ 04 % : 65 @.@ 46 % among females and 82 @.@ 14 % among males . The rural urban literacy gap which was 21 @.@ 2 percentage points in 2001 , dropped to 16 @.@ 1 percentage points in 2011 . The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas . Kerala is the most literate state with 93 @.@ 91 % literacy ; while Bihar the least with 63 @.@ 82 % .
India is home to two major language families : Indo @-@ Aryan ( spoken by about 74 % of the population ) and Dravidian ( 24 % ) . Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Sino @-@ Tibetan language families . India has no national language . Hindi , with the largest number of speakers , is the official language of the government . English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a " subsidiary official language " ; it is important in education , especially as a medium of higher education . Each state and union territory has one or more official languages , and the constitution recognises in particular 22 " scheduled languages " . The Constitution of India recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7 @.@ 5 % of the country 's population . The 2011 census reported that Hinduism ( 79 @.@ 8 % of the population ) is the largest religion in India , followed by Islam ( 14 @.@ 23 % ) . Other religions or none ( 5 @.@ 97 % of the population ) include Christianity ( 2 @.@ 30 % ) , Sikhism ( 1 @.@ 72 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 70 % ) , Jainism , Judaism , Zoroastrianism , and the Bahá 'í Faith . India has the world 's largest Hindu , Sikh , Jain , Zoroastrian , and Bahá 'í populations , and has the third @-@ largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non @-@ Muslim majority country .
= = Culture = =
Indian cultural history spans more than 4 @,@ 500 years . During the Vedic period ( c . 1700 – 500 BCE ) , the foundations of Hindu philosophy , mythology , theology and literature were laid , and many beliefs and practices which still exist today , such as dhárma , kárma , yóga , and mokṣa , were established . India is notable for its religious diversity , with Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism , Islam , Christianity , and Jainism among the nation 's major religions . The predominant religion , Hinduism , has been shaped by various historical schools of thought , including those of the Upanishads , the Yoga Sutras , the Bhakti movement , and by Buddhist philosophy .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Much of Indian architecture , including the Taj Mahal , other works of Mughal architecture , and South Indian architecture , blends ancient local traditions with imported styles . Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours . Vastu shastra , literally " science of construction " or " architecture " and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan , explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings ; it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs . As applied in Hindu temple architecture , it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras , a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu @-@ Purusha mandala , a square that embodied the " absolute " . The Taj Mahal , built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife , has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as " the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world 's heritage " . Indo @-@ Saracenic Revival architecture , developed by the British in the late 19th century , drew on Indo @-@ Islamic architecture .
= = = Literature = = =
The earliest literary writings in India , composed between 1700 BCE and 1200 CE , were in the Sanskrit language . Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana , the dramas of Kālidāsa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam ( The Recognition of Śakuntalā ) , and poetry such as the Mahākāvya . Kamasutra , the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in India . Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South India , the Sangam literature , consisting of 2 @,@ 381 poems , is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature . From the 14th to the 18th centuries , India 's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr , Tulsīdās , and Guru Nānak . This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression ; as a consequence , medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions . In the 19th century , Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions . In the 20th century , Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles . Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots : the northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools . Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music ; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well @-@ known form of the latter . Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms . Among the better @-@ known folk dances are the bhangra of Punjab , the bihu of Assam , the chhau of Odisha , West Bengal and Jharkhand , garba and dandiya of Gujarat , ghoomar of Rajasthan , and the lavani of Maharashtra . Eight dance forms , many with narrative forms and mythological elements , have been accorded classical dance status by India 's National Academy of Music , Dance , and Drama . These are : bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu , kathak of Uttar Pradesh , kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala , kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh , manipuri of Manipur , odissi of Odisha , and the sattriya of Assam . Theatre in India melds music , dance , and improvised or written dialogue . Often based on Hindu mythology , but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events , Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat , the jatra of West Bengal , the nautanki and ramlila of North India , tamasha of Maharashtra , burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh , terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu , and the yakshagana of Karnataka .
= = = Motion pictures , television = = =
The Indian film industry produces the world 's most @-@ watched cinema . Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese , Bengali , Bhojpuri , Hindi , Kannada , Malayalam , Punjabi , Gujarati , Marathi , Odia , Tamil , and Telugu languages . South Indian cinema attracts more than 75 % of national film revenue .
Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state @-@ run medium of communication , and had slow expansion for more than two decades . The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and , since then , satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society . Today , television is the most penetrative media in India ; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers , 462 million with satellite and / or cable connections , compared to other forms of mass media such as press ( 350 million ) , radio ( 156 million ) or internet ( 37 million ) .
= = = Society = = =
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy . The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent . Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups , often termed as jātis , or " castes " . India declared untouchability to be illegal in 1947 and has since enacted other anti @-@ discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives . At the workplace in urban India and in international or leading Indian companies , the caste related identification has pretty much lost its importance .
Family values are important in the Indian tradition , and multi @-@ generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India , though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas . An overwhelming majority of Indians , with their consent , have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elders in the family . Marriage is thought to be for life , and the divorce rate is extremely low . As of 2001 , just 1 @.@ 6 percent of Indian women were divorced but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence . Child marriages are common , especially in rural areas ; many women wed before reaching 18 , which is their legal marriageable age . Female infanticide and female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio , as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50 million more males than females in the nation . However a report from 2011 has shown improvement in the gender ratio . The payment of dowry , although illegal , remains widespread across class lines . Deaths resulting from dowry , mostly from bride burning , are on the rise .
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin . The best known include Diwali , Ganesh Chaturthi , Thai Pongal , Holi , Durga Puja , Eid ul @-@ Fitr , Bakr @-@ Id , Christmas , and Vaisakhi . India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories – Republic Day , Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti . Other sets of holidays , varying between nine and twelve , are officially observed in individual states .
= = = Clothing = = =
Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE . Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors , including climate and faith . Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men . Stitched clothes , such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta – pyjama combinations or European @-@ style trousers and shirts for men , are also popular . Use of delicate jewellery , modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India , is part of a tradition dating back some 5 @,@ 000 years ; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans .
= = = Sports = = =
In India , several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular , such as kabaddi , kho kho , pehlwani and gilli @-@ danda . Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts , such as kalarippayattu , musti yuddha , silambam , and marma adi , originated in India . Chess , commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga , is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters . Pachisi , from which parcheesi derives , was played on a giant marble court by Akbar .
The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country . India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports , and has won several medals at the Olympics , the World Shooting Championships , and the Commonwealth Games . Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton ( Saina Nehwal is the top ranked female badminton player in the world ) , boxing , and wrestling . Football is popular in West Bengal , Goa , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , and the north @-@ eastern states . India is scheduled to host the 2017 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup .
Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India . The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have , as of 2012 , taken eight gold , one silver , and two bronze Olympic medals , making it the sport 's most successful team in the Olympics .
India has also played a major role in popularising cricket . Thus , cricket is , by far , the most popular sport in India . The Indian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup events , the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 , shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka , and won 2013 ICC Champions Trophy . Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) ; the Ranji Trophy , the Duleep Trophy , the Deodhar Trophy , the Irani Trophy , and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions . The BCCI is also responsible for conducting an annual Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Premier League .
India has hosted or co @-@ hosted several international sporting events : the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games ; the 1987 , 1996 , and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments ; the 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games ; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy ; the 2010 Hockey World Cup ; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games . Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open , the Mumbai Marathon , the Delhi Half Marathon , and the Indian Masters . The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014 .
India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games . An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date . The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement ; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching .
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= Atlantic Wall =
The Atlantic Wall ( German : Atlantikwall ) was an extensive system of coastal defence and fortifications built by Nazi Germany between 1942 and 1944 along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against an anticipated Allied invasion of Nazi @-@ occupied Europe from Great Britain during World War II .
Hitler ordered the construction of the fortifications in 1942 . Almost a million French workers were drafted to build it . The wall was frequently mentioned in Nazi propaganda , where its size and strength were usually exaggerated . The fortifications included colossal coastal guns , batteries , mortars , and artillery , and thousands of German troops were stationed in its defences . When the Allies eventually invaded the Normandy beaches in 1944 , most of the defences were stormed within hours . Today , ruins of the wall exist in all of the nations where the wall was built , although many structures have fallen into the ocean or have been demolished over the years .
= = Background = =
World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 , with Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland . Two days later , Britain and France declared war on Germany . Poland 's geographical location , however , prevented the Allies from intervening directly . Four weeks into the attack , the Germans had successfully occupied Poland .
Less than a month after this victory , Adolf Hitler issued a directive stating that Germany must be ready for an offensive through France and the Low Countries . However , the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German high command ; OKW ) was convinced that preparations would take at least until the following year . After furious arguments , Hitler reluctantly agreed to wait . In May 1940 , three massive German army groups overran France and the Low Countries in little more than six weeks .
= = History = =
= = = Creation = = =
On 23 March 1942 , Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 40 , which called for the creation of an " Atlantic Wall " . He ordered naval and submarine bases to be heavily defended . Fortifications remained concentrated around ports until late in 1943 , when defences were increased in other areas . Nazi propaganda claimed that the wall stretched from the cape of Norway down to the Spanish border .
Organisation Todt , which had designed the Siegfried Line during the prewar years along the Franco @-@ German border , was the chief engineering group responsible for the design and construction of the wall 's major gun emplacements and fortifications . The Vichy regime imposed a compulsory labour system , drafting some 600 @,@ 000 French workers to construct these permanent fortifications along the Dutch , Belgian , and French coasts facing the English Channel .
= = = British attacks = = =
Throughout most of 1942 – 43 , the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it , with only two large @-@ scale British attacks . Operation Chariot , launched near St Nazaire in March 1942 , was an attempt to destroy German pumping machinery and installations . The second attack was the Dieppe Raid , launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences and provide combat experience for Canadian troops . The Germans were defeated at St. Nazaire , but had little difficulty in repulsing the attack at Dieppe , where they inflicted heavy casualties . Although the Dieppe raid was a disaster for the Allies , it alarmed Hitler , who was sure an Allied invasion in the West would shortly follow . Following Dieppe , Hitler gave Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , the overall German Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in the West , 15 further divisions to shore up the German positions .
= = = Reorganisation = = =
Early in 1944 , with an Allied invasion of Nazi @-@ occupied Europe becoming ever more likely , Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was assigned to improve the wall 's defences . Believing the existing coastal fortifications to be entirely inadequate , he immediately began strengthening them . Rommel 's main concern was Allied air power . He had seen it first @-@ hand when fighting the British and Americans in North Africa , and it had left a profound impression on him . He feared that any German counterattack would be broken up by Allied aircraft long before it could make a difference . Under his direction , hundreds of reinforced concrete pillboxes were built on the beaches , or sometimes slightly inland , to house machine guns , antitank guns , and light and heavy artillery . Land mines and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches , and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore . The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches .
= = = D @-@ Day = = =
By the time of the Allied invasion , the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France . More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches . In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists , the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops , which the troops called Rommelspargel ( " Rommel 's Asparagus " ) . Low @-@ lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded . Rommel believed that Germany would inevitably be defeated unless the invasion could be stopped on the beach , declaring , " It is absolutely necessary that we push the British and Americans back from the beaches . Afterwards it will be too late ; the first 24 hours of the invasion will be decisive . "
The Channel Islands were heavily fortified , particularly the island of Alderney , which is closest to Britain . Hitler had decreed that one @-@ twelfth of the steel and concrete used in the Atlantic Wall should go to the Channel Islands , because of the propaganda value of controlling British territory . The islands were some of the most densely fortified areas in Europe , with a host of Hohlgangsanlage tunnels , casemates , and coastal artillery positions . Walcheren Island is considered to be the " strongest concentration of defences the Nazis had ever constructed . "
However , as the Channel Islands lacked strategic significance , the Allies bypassed them when they invaded Normandy . As a result , the German garrisons stationed on the islands did not surrender until 9 May 1945 — one day after Victory in Europe Day . The garrison on Alderney did not surrender until 16 May . Because most of their garrisons surrendered peacefully , the Channel Islands are host to some of the best @-@ preserved Atlantic Wall sites .
= = Fortresses = =
Many major ports and positions were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall , receiving heavy fortifications . Hitler ordered all positions to fight to the end , and some of them remained in German hands until Germany 's unconditional surrender . Several of the port fortresses were resupplied by submarines after being surrounded by Allied Forces . The defenders of these positions included foreign volunteers and SS troops .
= = Preservation = =
= = = France = = =
Immediately after the war , there was little interest in preserving the wall due to the negative memories associated with the Nazi occupation . One of the best preserved parts is the Todt Battery . In 2011 , renewed efforts to preserve the wall were spearheaded by organisations in Germany , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom . Many of the beach fortifications have toppled or are underwater , while the ones further inland are still mainly extant due to their location .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Although the defensive wall was never fully completed , many bunkers still exist near Ostend , Channel Islands , Scheveningen , Den Haag , Katwijk , and in Scandinavia .
= = = Printed = = =
Ambrose , Stephen ( 1994 ) . D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1944 : The Climactic Battle Of World War II . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 67334 @-@ 3 .
Darman , Peter ( 2012 ) . The Allied Invasion Of Europe . Rosen Publishing Group . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4488 @-@ 9234 @-@ 1 .
Delaforce , Patrick ( 2005 ) . Smashing The Atlantic Wall : The Destruction Of Hitler 's Coastal Fortresses . Casemate Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 256 @-@ 8 .
Hakim , Joy ( 1995 ) . A History Of Us : War , Peace And All That Jazz . Oxford University . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 509514 @-@ 6 .
Hastings , Max ( 2004 ) . Armageddon : The Battle for Germany 1944 – 45 . Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 90836 @-@ 8 .
Kaufmann , J. E. ; Robert , Jurga ( 2003 ) . Fortress Third Reich : German Fortifications And Defense Systems In World War II . Da Capo Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 81239 @-@ 8 .
McNab , Chris ( 2014 ) . Hitler ’ s Fortresses : German Fortifications And Defences 1939 – 45 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78200 @-@ 828 @-@ 6 .
Mountbatten , Chris ( 2007 ) . Combined Operations : The Official Story Of The Commandos . Read Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 4067 @-@ 5957 @-@ 0 .
Pauls , Michael ; Facaros , Dana ( 2007 ) . Cadogan Guide Dordogne , the Lot & Bordeaux . New Holland Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86011 @-@ 354 @-@ 3 .
Saunders , Anthony ( 2001 ) . Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Fortress Europe . University of Michigan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7509 @-@ 4554 @-@ 7 .
Stephenson , Charles ; Taylor , Chris ( 2013 ) . The Channel Islands 1941 – 45 : Hitler 's Impregnable Fortress . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4728 @-@ 0375 @-@ 7 .
Williamson , Louis ( 2012 ) . U @-@ Boat Bases And Bunkers 1941 – 45 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78200 @-@ 002 @-@ 0 .
Williams , Paul ( 2013 ) . Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Pas De Calais . Casemate Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84884 @-@ 817 @-@ 7 .
Zuehlke , Mark ( 2009 ) . Terrible Victory : First Canadian Army And The Scheldt Estuary Campaign : September 13 – November 6 , 1944 . D & M Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 926685 @-@ 80 @-@ 9 .
= = = Online = = =
" Assault Plan " . United States Army Center of Military History . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
Schofield , Hugh ( 13 September 2011 ) . " Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Should France Preserve It ? " . British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 25 March 2015 .
" Jersey – My Island – History – German Occupation " . British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 25 March 2015 .
= = = Media = = =
Lighting War ( television documentary ) . United States : World Media Rights . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
The Great Landings ( television documentary ) . France : France 2 . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
Overlord ( television documentary ) . United States : World Media Rights . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
The Atlantic Wall features in the novel Villa Normandie by Kevin Doherty .
The many constructions of the Wall still standing have been photographed by Jonathan Andrew .
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= Marilyn Monroe =
Marilyn Monroe ( born Norma Jeane Mortenson ; June 1 , 1926 – August 5 , 1962 ) was an American actress and model . Famous for playing " dumb blonde " characters , she became one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s , emblematic of the era 's attitudes towards sexuality . Although she was a top @-@ billed actress for only a decade , her films grossed $ 200 million by the time of her unexpected death in 1962 . She continues to be considered a major popular culture icon .
Born and raised in Los Angeles , Monroe spent most of her childhood in foster homes and an orphanage and married for the first time at the age of sixteen . While working in a factory as part of the war effort in 1944 , she met a photographer and began a successful pin @-@ up modeling career . The work led to short @-@ lived film contracts with Twentieth Century @-@ Fox ( 1946 – 47 ) and Columbia Pictures ( 1948 ) . After a series of minor film roles , she signed a new contract with Fox in 1951 . Over the next two years , she became a popular actress with roles in several comedies , including As Young as You Feel and Monkey Business , and in the dramas Clash by Night and Don 't Bother to Knock . Monroe faced a scandal when it was revealed that she had posed for nude photos before becoming a star , but rather than damaging her career , the story increased interest in her films .
By 1953 , Monroe was one of the most bankable Hollywood stars , with leading roles in three films : the noir Niagara , which focused on her sex appeal , and the comedies Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and How to Marry a Millionaire , which established her star image as a " dumb blonde " . Although she played a significant role in the creation and management of her public image throughout her career , she was disappointed at being typecast and underpaid by the studio . She was briefly suspended in early 1954 for refusing a film project , but returned to star in one of the biggest box office successes of her career , The Seven Year Itch ( 1955 ) . When the studio was still reluctant to change her contract , Monroe founded a film production company in late 1954 , Marilyn Monroe Productions ( MMP ) . She dedicated 1955 to building her company and began studying method acting at the Actors Studio . In late 1955 , Fox awarded her a new contract , which gave her more control and a larger salary . After a critically acclaimed performance in Bus Stop ( 1956 ) and acting in the first independent production of MMP , The Prince and the Showgirl ( 1957 ) , she won a Golden Globe for Best Actress for Some Like It Hot ( 1959 ) . Her last completed film was the drama The Misfits ( 1961 ) .
Monroe 's troubled private life received much attention . She struggled with addiction , depression , and anxiety . She had two highly publicized marriages , to baseball player Joe DiMaggio and playwright Arthur Miller , which both ended in divorce . She died at the age of 36 from an overdose of barbiturates at her home in Los Angeles on August 5 , 1962 . Although the death was ruled a probable suicide , several conspiracy theories have been proposed in the decades following her death .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Childhood and first marriage ( 1926 – 44 ) = = =
Monroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson at the Los Angeles County Hospital on June 1 , 1926 , as the third child of Gladys Pearl Baker ( née Monroe , 1902 – 84 ) . Gladys , the daughter of two poor Midwestern migrants to California , was a flapper and worked as a film negative cutter at Consolidated Film Industries . When she was fifteen , she married a man nine years her senior , John Newton Baker , and had two children by him , Robert ( 1917 – 33 ) and Berniece ( born 1919 ) . She filed for divorce in 1921 , and Baker took the children with him to his native Kentucky . Monroe was not told that she had a sister until she was twelve , and met her for the first time as an adult . Gladys married her second husband Martin Edward Mortensen in 1924 , but they separated before she became pregnant with Monroe ; they divorced in 1928 . The identity of Monroe 's father is unknown and Baker was most often used as her surname .
Monroe 's early childhood was stable and happy . While Gladys was mentally and financially unprepared for a child , she was able to place Monroe with foster parents Albert and Ida Bolender in the rural town of Hawthorne soon after the birth . They raised their foster children according to the principles of evangelical Christianity . At first , Gladys lived with the Bolenders and commuted to work in Los Angeles , until longer work shifts forced her to move back to the city in early 1927 . She then began visiting her daughter on the weekends , often taking her to the cinema and to sightsee in Los Angeles . Although the Bolenders wanted to adopt Monroe , by the summer of 1933 , Gladys felt stable enough for Monroe to move in with her and bought a small house in Hollywood . They shared it with lodgers , actors George and Maude Atkinson and their daughter , Nellie . Some months later , in January 1934 , Gladys had a mental breakdown and was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia . After several months in a rest home , she was committed to the Metropolitan State Hospital . She spent the rest of her life in and out of hospitals , and was rarely in contact with Monroe .
Monroe was declared a ward of the state , and her mother 's friend , Grace McKee Goddard , took responsibility over her and her mother 's affairs . In the following four years , she lived with several foster families , and often switched schools . For the first sixteen months , she continued living with the Atkinsons ; she was sexually abused during this time . Always a shy girl , she now also developed a stutter and became withdrawn . In the summer of 1935 , she briefly stayed with Grace and her husband Erwin " Doc " Goddard and two other families , until Grace placed her in the Los Angeles Orphans Home in Hollywood in September 1935 . While the orphanage was " a model institution " , and was described in positive terms by her peers , Monroe found being placed there traumatizing , as to her " it seemed that no one wanted me " .
Encouraged by the orphanage staff , who thought that Monroe would be happier living in a family , Grace became her legal guardian in 1936 , although she was not able to take her out of the orphanage until the summer of 1937 . Monroe 's second stay with the Goddards lasted only a few months , as Doc molested her . After staying with various of her and Grace 's relatives and friends in Los Angeles and Compton , Monroe found a more permanent home in September 1938 , when she began living with Grace 's aunt , Ana Atchinson Lower , in the Sawtelle district . She was enrolled in Emerson Junior High School and was taken to weekly Christian Science services with Lower . While otherwise a mediocre student , Monroe excelled in writing and contributed to the school 's newspaper . Due to the elderly Lower 's health issues , Monroe returned to live with the Goddards in Van Nuys in either late 1940 or early 1941 . After graduating from Emerson , she began attending Van Nuys High School .
In early 1942 , the company that Doc Goddard worked for required him to relocate to West Virginia . California laws prevented the Goddards from taking Monroe out of state , and she faced the possibility of having to return to the orphanage . As a solution , she married their neighbors ' son , 21 @-@ year @-@ old factory worker James " Jim " Dougherty , on June 19 , 1942 , just after her 16th birthday . Monroe subsequently dropped out of high school and became a housewife ; she later stated that the " marriage didn 't make me sad , but it didn 't make me happy , either . My husband and I hardly spoke to each other . This wasn 't because we were angry . We had nothing to say . I was dying of boredom . " In 1943 , Dougherty enlisted in the Merchant Marine . He was initially stationed on Catalina Island , where she lived with him until he was shipped out to the Pacific in April 1944 ; he would remain there for most of the next two years . After Dougherty 's departure , Monroe moved in with his parents and began working at the Radioplane Munitions Factory to participate in the war effort and to earn her own income .
= = = Modeling and first film roles ( 1945 – 49 ) = = =
In late 1944 , Monroe met photographer David Conover , who had been sent by the U.S. Army Air Forces ' First Motion Picture Unit ( FMPU ) to the factory to shoot morale @-@ boosting pictures of female workers . Although none of her pictures were used by the FMPU , she quit working at the factory in January 1945 and began modeling for Conover and his friends . She moved out of her in @-@ laws ' home , and defying them and her husband , signed a contract with the Blue Book Model Agency in August 1945 . She began to occasionally use the name Jean Norman when working , and had her curly brunette hair straightened and dyed blond to make her more employable . As her figure was deemed more suitable for pin @-@ up than fashion modeling , she was employed mostly for advertisements and men 's magazines . According to the agency 's owner , Emmeline Snively , Monroe was one of its most ambitious and hard @-@ working models ; by early 1946 , she had appeared on 33 magazine covers for publications such as Pageant , U.S. Camera , Laff , and Peek .
Impressed by her success , Snively arranged a contract for Monroe with an acting agency in June 1946 . After an unsuccessful interview with producers at Paramount Pictures , she was given a screentest by Ben Lyon , a 20th Century @-@ Fox executive . Head executive Darryl F. Zanuck was unenthusiastic about it , but he was persuaded to give her a standard six @-@ month contract to avoid her being signed by rival studio RKO Pictures . Monroe began her contract in August 1946 , and together with Lyon selected the screen name of " Marilyn Monroe " . The first name was picked by Lyon , who was reminded of Broadway star Marilyn Miller ; the last was picked by Monroe after her mother 's maiden name . In September 1946 , she was granted a divorce from Dougherty , who was against her having a career .
Monroe had no film roles during the first months of her contract and instead dedicated her days to acting , singing and dancing classes . Eager to learn more about the film industry and to promote herself , she also spent time at the studio lot to observe others working . Her contract was renewed in February 1947 , and she was soon given her first two film roles : nine lines of dialogue as a waitress in the drama Dangerous Years ( 1947 ) and a one @-@ line appearance in the comedy Scudda Hoo ! Scudda Hay ! ( 1948 ) . The studio also enrolled her in the Actors ' Laboratory Theatre , an acting school teaching the techniques of the Group Theatre ; she later stated that it was " my first taste of what real acting in a real drama could be , and I was hooked " . Monroe 's contract was not renewed in August 1947 , and she returned to modeling while also doing occasional odd jobs at the studio .
Determined to make it as an actor , Monroe continued studying at the Actors ' Lab , and in October appeared as a blonde vamp in the short @-@ lived play Glamour Preferred at the Bliss @-@ Hayden Theater , but the production was not reviewed by any major publication . To promote herself , she frequented producers ' offices , befriended gossip columnist Sidney Skolsky , and entertained influential male guests at studio functions , a practice she had begun at Fox . She also became a friend and occasional sexual partner of Fox executive Joseph M. Schenck , who persuaded his friend Harry Cohn , the head executive of Columbia Pictures , to sign her in March 1948 .
While at Fox her roles had been that of a " girl next door " , at Columbia she was modeled after Rita Hayworth . Monroe 's hairline was raised by electrolysis and her hair was bleached even lighter , to platinum blond . She also began working with the studio 's head drama coach , Natasha Lytess , who would remain her mentor until 1955 . Her only film at the studio was the low @-@ budget musical Ladies of the Chorus ( 1948 ) , in which she had her first starring role as a chorus girl who is courted by a wealthy man . During the production , she began an affair with her vocal coach , Fred Karger , who paid to have her slight overbite corrected . Despite the starring role and a subsequent screen test for the lead role in Born Yesterday ( 1950 ) , Monroe 's contract was not renewed . Ladies of the Chorus was released in October and was not a success .
After leaving Columbia in September 1948 , Monroe became a protégée of Johnny Hyde , vice president of the William Morris Agency . Hyde began representing her and their relationship soon became sexual , although she refused his proposals of marriage . To advance Monroe 's career , he paid for a silicone prosthesis to be implanted in her jaw and possibly for a rhinoplasty , and arranged a bit part in the Marx Brothers film Love Happy ( 1950 ) . Monroe also continued modeling , and in May 1949 posed for nude photos taken by Tom Kelley . Although her role in Love Happy was very small , she was chosen to participate in the film 's promotional tour in New York that year .
= = = Breakthrough ( 1950 – 52 ) = = =
Monroe appeared in six films released in 1950 . She had bit parts in Love Happy , A Ticket to Tomahawk , Right Cross and The Fireball , but also made minor appearances in two critically acclaimed films : John Huston 's crime film The Asphalt Jungle and Joseph Mankiewicz 's drama All About Eve . In the former , Monroe played Angela , the young mistress of an aging criminal . Although only on the screen for five minutes , she gained a mention in Photoplay and according to Spoto " moved effectively from movie model to serious actress " . In All About Eve , Monroe played Miss Caswell , a naïve young actress .
Following Monroe 's success in these roles , Hyde negotiated a seven @-@ year contract with 20th Century @-@ Fox in December 1950 . He died of a heart attack only days later , leaving her devastated . Despite her grief , 1951 became the year in which she gained more visibility . In March , she was a presenter at the 23rd Academy Awards , and in September , Collier 's became the first national magazine to publish a full @-@ length profile of her . She had supporting roles in four low @-@ budget films : in the MGM drama Home Town Story , and in three moderately successful comedies for Fox , As Young as You Feel , Love Nest , and Let 's Make It Legal . According to Spoto all four films featured her " essentially [ as ] a sexy ornament " , but she received some praise from critics : Bosley Crowther of The New York Times described her as " superb " in As Young As You Feel and Ezra Goodman of the Los Angeles Daily News called her " one of the brightest up @-@ and @-@ coming [ actresses ] " for Love Nest . To further develop her acting skills , Monroe began taking classes with Michael Chekhov and mime Lotte Goslar . Her popularity with audiences was also growing : she received several thousand letters of fan mail a week , and was declared " Miss Cheesecake of 1951 " by the army newspaper Stars and Stripes , reflecting the preferences of soldiers in the Korean War . In her private life , Monroe was in a relationship with director Elia Kazan , and also briefly dated several other men , including directors Nicholas Ray and Yul Brynner and actor Peter Lawford .
The second year of the Fox contract saw Monroe become a top @-@ billed actress , with gossip columnist Florabel Muir naming her the year 's " it girl " and Hedda Hopper describing her as the " cheesecake queen " turned " box office smash " . In February , she was named the " best young box office personality " by the Foreign Press Association of Hollywood , and began a highly publicized romance with retired New York Yankee Joe DiMaggio , one of the most famous sports personalities of the era . The following month , a scandal broke when she revealed in an interview that she had posed for nude pictures in 1949 , which were featured in calendars . The studio had learned of the photographs some weeks earlier , and to contain the potentially disastrous effects on her career , they and Monroe had decided to talk about them openly while stressing that she had only posed for them in a dire financial situation . The strategy succeeded in getting her public sympathy and increased interest in her films : the following month , she was featured on the cover of Life as " The Talk of Hollywood " . Monroe added to her reputation as a new sex symbol with other publicity stunts that year , such as wearing a revealing dress when acting as Grand Marshal at the Miss America Pageant parade , and by stating to gossip columnist Earl Wilson that she usually wore no underwear .
Regardless of the popularity her sex appeal brought , Monroe wished to present more of her acting range , and in the summer of 1952 appeared in two commercially successful dramas . The first was Fritz Lang 's Clash by Night , for which she was loaned to RKO and played a fish cannery worker ; to prepare , she spent time in a real fish cannery in Monterey . She received positive reviews for her performance : The Hollywood Reporter stated that " she deserves starring status with her excellent interpretation " , and Variety wrote that she " has an ease of delivery which makes her a cinch for popularity " . The second film was the thriller Don 't Bother to Knock , in which she starred as a mentally disturbed babysitter and which Zanuck had assigned for her to test her abilities in a heavier dramatic role . It received mixed reviews from critics , with Crowther deeming her too inexperienced for the difficult role , and Variety blaming the script for the film 's problems .
Monroe 's three other films in 1952 continued her typecasting in comic roles which focused on her sex appeal . In We 're Not Married ! , her starring role as a beauty pageant contestant was created solely to " present Marilyn in two bathing suits " , according to its writer Nunnally Johnson . In Howard Hawks ' Monkey Business , in which she was featured opposite Cary Grant , she played a secretary who is a " dumb , childish blonde , innocently unaware of the havoc her sexiness causes around her " . In O. Henry 's Full House , her final film of the year , she had a minor role as a prostitute .
During this period Monroe gained a reputation for being difficult on film sets , which worsened as her career progressed : she was often late or did not show up at all , did not remember her lines , and would demand several re @-@ takes before she was satisfied with her performance . A dependence on her acting coaches , first Natasha Lytess and later Paula Strasberg , also irritated directors . Monroe 's problems have been attributed to a combination of perfectionism , low self @-@ esteem , and stage fright ; she disliked the lack of control she had on her work on film sets , and never experienced similar problems during photo shoots , in which she had more say over her performance and could be more spontaneous instead of following a script . To alleviate her anxiety and chronic insomnia , she began to use barbiturates , amphetamines and alcohol , which also exacerbated her problems , although she did not become severely addicted until 1956 . According to Sarah Churchwell , some of Monroe 's behavior especially later in her career was also in response to the condescension and sexism of her male co @-@ stars and directors . Similarly , Lois Banner has stated that she was bullied by many of her directors .
= = = Rising star ( 1953 ) = = =
Monroe starred in three movies released in 1953 , emerging as a major sex symbol and one of Hollywood 's most bankable performers . The first of these was the Technicolor film noir Niagara , in which she played a femme fatale scheming to murder her husband , played by Joseph Cotten . By then , Monroe and her make @-@ up artist Allan " Whitey " Snyder had developed the make @-@ up look that became associated with her : dark arched brows , pale skin , " glistening " red lips and a beauty mark . According to Sarah Churchwell , Niagara was one of the most overtly sexual films of Monroe 's career , and it included scenes in which her body was covered only by a sheet or a towel , considered shocking by contemporary audiences . Its most famous scene is a 30 @-@ second long shot of Monroe shown walking from behind with her hips swaying , which was heavily used in the film 's marketing .
Upon Niagara 's release in January , women 's clubs protested against it as immoral , but it proved popular with audiences , grossing $ 6 million in the box office . While Variety deemed it " clichéd " and " morbid " , The New York Times commented that " the falls and Miss Monroe are something to see " , as although Monroe may not be " the perfect actress at this point ... she can be seductive – even when she walks " . Monroe continued to attract attention with her revealing outfits in publicity events , most famously at the Photoplay awards in January 1953 , where she won the " Fastest Rising Star " award . She wore a skin @-@ tight gold lamé dress , which prompted veteran star Joan Crawford to describe her behavior as " unbecoming an actress and a lady " to the press .
While Niagara made Monroe a sex symbol and established her " look " , her second film of the year , the satirical musical comedy Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , established her screen persona as a " dumb blonde " . Based on Anita Loos ' bestselling novel and its Broadway version , the film focuses on two " gold @-@ digging " showgirls , Lorelei Lee and Dorothy Shaw , played by Monroe and Jane Russell . The role of Lorelei was originally intended for Betty Grable , who had been 20th Century @-@ Fox 's most popular " blonde bombshell " in the 1940s ; Monroe was fast eclipsing her as a star who could appeal to both male and female audiences . As part of the film 's publicity campaign , she and Russell pressed their hand and footprints in wet concrete outside Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in June . Gentlemen Prefer Blondes was released shortly after and became one of the biggest box office successes of the year by grossing $ 5 @.@ 3 million , more than double its production costs . Crowther of The New York Times and William Brogdon of Variety both commented favorably on Monroe , especially noting her performance of " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " ; according to the latter , she demonstrated the " ability to sex a song as well as point up the eye values of a scene by her presence " .
In September , Monroe made her television debut in the Jack Benny Show , playing Jack 's fantasy woman in the episode " Honolulu Trip " . Her third movie of the year , How to Marry a Millionaire , co @-@ starred Betty Grable and Lauren Bacall and was released in November . It featured Monroe in the role of a naïve model who teams up with her friends to find rich husbands , repeating the successful formula of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . It was the second film ever released in CinemaScope , a widescreen format which Fox hoped would draw audiences back to theaters as television was beginning to cause losses to film studios . Despite mixed reviews , the film was Monroe 's biggest box office success so far , earning $ 8 million in world rentals .
Monroe was listed in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in both 1953 and 1954 , and according to Fox historian Aubrey Solomon became the studio 's " greatest asset " alongside CinemaScope . Monroe 's position as a leading sex symbol was confirmed in December , when Hugh Hefner featured her on the cover and as centerfold in the first issue of Playboy . The cover image was a shot of her at the Miss America Pageant parade in 1952 , and the centerfold featured one of her 1949 nude photographs .
= = = Conflicts with 20th Century @-@ Fox and marriage to Joe DiMaggio ( 1954 – 55 ) = = =
Although Monroe had become one of 20th Century @-@ Fox 's biggest stars , her contract had not changed since 1950 , meaning that she was paid far less than other stars of her stature and could not choose her projects or co @-@ workers . She was also tired of being typecast , and her attempts to appear in films other than comedies or musicals had been thwarted by Zanuck , who had a strong personal dislike of her and did not think she would earn the studio as much revenue in dramas . When she refused to begin shooting yet another musical comedy , a film version of The Girl in Pink Tights , which was to co @-@ star Frank Sinatra , the studio suspended her on January 4 , 1954 .
The suspension was front page news and Monroe immediately began a publicity campaign to counter any negative press and to strengthen her position in the conflict . On January 14 , she and Joe DiMaggio , whose relationship had been subject to constant media attention since 1952 , were married at the San Francisco City Hall . They then traveled to Japan , combining a honeymoon with his business trip . From there , she traveled alone to Korea , where she performed songs from her films as part of a USO show for over 60 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines over a four @-@ day period . After returning to Hollywood in February , she was awarded Photoplay 's " Most Popular Female Star " prize . She reached a settlement with the studio in March : it included a new contract to be made later in the year , and a starring role in the film version of the Broadway play The Seven Year Itch , for which she was to receive a bonus of $ 100 @,@ 000 .
The following month saw the release of Otto Preminger 's Western River of No Return , in which Monroe appeared opposite Robert Mitchum . She called it a " Z @-@ grade cowboy movie in which the acting finished second to the scenery and the CinemaScope process " , although it was popular with audiences . The first film she made after returning to Fox was the musical There 's No Business Like Show Business , which she strongly disliked but the studio required her to do in exchange for dropping The Girl in Pink Tights . The musical was unsuccessful upon its release in December , and Monroe 's performance was considered vulgar by many critics .
In September 1954 , Monroe began filming Billy Wilder 's comedy The Seven Year Itch , in which she starred opposite Tom Ewell as a woman who becomes the object of her married neighbor 's sexual fantasies . Although the film was shot in Hollywood , the studio decided to generate advance publicity by staging the filming of one scene on Lexington Avenue in New York . In it , Monroe is standing on a subway grate with the air blowing up the skirt of her white dress , which became one of the most famous scenes of her career . The shoot lasted for several hours and attracted a crowd of nearly 2 @,@ 000 spectators , including professional photographers .
While the publicity stunt placed Monroe on front pages all over the world , it also marked the end of her marriage to DiMaggio , who was furious about it . The union had been troubled from the start by his jealousy and controlling attitude ; Spoto and Banner have also asserted that he was physically abusive . After returning to Hollywood , Monroe hired famous attorney Jerry Giesler and announced that she was filing for divorce in October 1954 . The Seven Year Itch was released the following June , and grossed over $ 4 @.@ 5 million at the box office , making it one of the biggest commercial successes that year .
After filming for Itch wrapped in November , Monroe began a new battle for control over her career and left Hollywood for the East Coast , where she and photographer Milton Greene founded their own production company , Marilyn Monroe Productions ( MMP ) – an action that has later been called " instrumental " in the collapse of the studio system . Announcing its foundation in a press conference in January 1955 , Monroe stated that she was " tired of the same old sex roles . I want to do better things . People have scope , you know . " She asserted that she was no longer under contract to Fox , as the studio had not fulfilled its duties , such as paying her the promised bonus for The Seven Year Itch . This began a year @-@ long legal battle between her and the studio . The press largely ridiculed Monroe for her actions and she was parodied in Itch writer George Axelrod 's Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? ( 1955 ) , in which her lookalike Jayne Mansfield played a dumb actress who starts her own production company .
Monroe dedicated 1955 to studying her craft . She moved to New York and began taking acting classes with Constance Collier and attending workshops on method acting at the Actors Studio , run by Lee Strasberg . She grew close to Strasberg and his wife Paula , receiving private lessons at their home due to her shyness , and soon became like a family member . She dismissed her old drama coach , Natasha Lytess , and replaced her with Paula ; the Strasbergs remained an important influence for the rest of her career . Monroe also started undergoing psychoanalysis at the recommendation of Strasberg , who believed that an actor must confront their emotional traumas and use them in their performances .
In her private life , Monroe continued her relationship with DiMaggio despite the ongoing divorce proceedings while also dating actor Marlon Brando and playwright Arthur Miller . She had first been introduced to Miller by Kazan in the early 1950s . The affair between Monroe and Miller became increasingly serious after October 1955 , when her divorce from DiMaggio was finalized , and Miller separated from his wife . The studio feared that Monroe would be blacklisted and urged her to end the affair , as Miller was being investigated by the FBI for allegations of communism and had been subpoenaed by the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . The FBI also opened a file on her . Despite the risk to her career , Monroe refused to end the relationship , later calling the studio heads " born cowards " .
By the end of the year , Monroe and Fox had come to an agreement about a new seven @-@ year contract . It was clear that MMP would not be able to finance films alone , and the studio was eager to have Monroe working again . The contract required her to make four movies for Fox during the seven years . The studio would pay her $ 100 @,@ 000 for each movie , and granted her the right to choose her own projects , directors and cinematographers . She would also be free to make one film with MMP per each completed film for Fox .
= = = Critical acclaim and marriage to Arthur Miller ( 1956 – 59 ) = = =
Monroe began 1956 by announcing her win over 20th Century @-@ Fox ; the press , which had previously derided her , now wrote favorably about her decision to fight the studio . Time called her a " shrewd businesswoman " and Look predicted that the win would be " an example of the individual against the herd for years to come " . She also officially changed her name to Marilyn Monroe in March . Her relationship with Miller prompted some negative comments from the press , including Walter Winchell 's statement that " America 's best @-@ known blonde moving picture star is now the darling of the left @-@ wing intelligentsia . " Monroe and Miller were married at the Westchester County Court in White Plains , New York on June 29 , and two days later had a Jewish ceremony at his agent 's house at Waccabuc , New York . Monroe converted to Judaism with the marriage , which led Egypt to ban all of her films . The media saw the union as mismatched given her star image as a sex symbol and his position as an intellectual , as demonstrated by Variety 's headline " Egghead Weds Hourglass " .
The first film that Monroe chose to make under the new contract was the drama Bus Stop , released in August 1956 . She played Chérie , a saloon singer whose dreams of stardom are complicated by a naïve cowboy who falls in love with her . For the role , she learnt an Ozark accent , chose costumes and make @-@ up that lacked the glamour of her earlier films , and provided deliberately mediocre singing and dancing . Broadway director Joshua Logan agreed to direct , despite initially doubting her acting abilities and knowing of her reputation for being difficult . The filming took place in Idaho and Arizona in early 1956 , with Monroe " technically in charge " as the head of MMP , occasionally making decisions on cinematography and with Logan adapting to her chronic lateness and perfectionism . The experience changed Logan 's opinion of Monroe , and he later compared her to Charlie Chaplin in her ability to blend comedy and tragedy . Bus Stop became a box office success , grossing $ 4 @.@ 25 million , and received mainly favorable reviews . The Saturday Review of Literature wrote that Monroe 's performance " effectively dispels once and for all the notion that she is merely a glamour personality " and Crowther proclaimed : " Hold on to your chairs , everybody , and get set for a rattling surprise . Marilyn Monroe has finally proved herself an actress . " She received a Golden Globe for Best Actress nomination for her performance .
In August 1956 , Monroe began filming MMP 's first independent production , The Prince and the Showgirl , at Pinewood Studios in England . It was based on Terence Rattigan 's The Sleeping Prince , a play about an affair between a showgirl and a prince in the 1910s . The main roles had first been played on stage by Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh ; he reprised his role and directed and co @-@ produced the film . The production was complicated by conflicts between him and Monroe . He angered her with the patronizing statement " All you have to do is be sexy " , and by wanting her to replicate Leigh 's interpretation . He also disliked the constant presence of Paula Strasberg , Monroe 's acting coach , on set .
In retaliation to what she considered Olivier 's " condescending " behavior , Monroe started arriving late and became uncooperative , stating later that " if you don 't respect your artists , they can 't work well . " Her drug use increased and , according to Spoto , she became pregnant and miscarried during the production . She also had arguments with Greene over how MMP should be run , including whether Miller should join the company . Despite the difficulties , the film was completed on schedule by the end of the year . It was released in June 1957 to mixed reviews , and proved unpopular with American audiences . It was better received in Europe , where she was awarded the Italian David di Donatello and the French Crystal Star awards , and was nominated for a BAFTA .
After returning to the United States , Monroe took an 18 @-@ month hiatus from work to concentrate on married life on the East Coast . She and Miller split their time between their apartment in New York and an eighteenth @-@ century farmhouse they purchased in Roxbury , Connecticut , and spent the summer in Amagansett , Long Island . She became pregnant in mid @-@ 1957 , but it was ectopic and had to be terminated . She suffered a miscarriage a year later . Her gynecological problems were largely caused by endometriosis , a disease from which she suffered throughout her adult life . Monroe was also briefly hospitalized during this time due to a barbiturate overdose . During the hiatus , she dismissed Greene from MMP and bought his share of the company as they could not settle their disagreements and she had begun to suspect that he was embezzling money from the company .
Monroe returned to Hollywood in July 1958 to act opposite Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis in Billy Wilder 's comedy on gender roles , Some Like It Hot . Although she considered the role of Sugar Kane another " dumb blonde " , she accepted it due to Miller 's encouragement and the offer of receiving ten percent of the film 's profits in addition to her standard pay . The difficulties of the film 's production have since become " legendary " . Monroe would demand dozens of re @-@ takes , and could not remember her lines or act as directed – Curtis famously stated that kissing her was " like kissing Hitler " due to the number of re @-@ takes . Monroe herself privately likened the production to a sinking ship and commented on her co @-@ stars and director saying " [ but ] why should I worry , I have no phallic symbol to lose . " Many of the problems stemmed from a conflict between her and Wilder , who also had a reputation for being difficult , on how she should play the character . Monroe made Wilder angry by asking him to alter many of her scenes , which in turn made her stage fright worse , and it is suggested that she deliberately ruined several scenes to act them her way .
In the end , Wilder was happy with Monroe 's performance , stating : " Anyone can remember lines , but it takes a real artist to come on the set and not know her lines and yet give the performance she did ! " Despite the difficulties of its production , when Some Like It Hot was released in March 1959 , it became a critical and commercial success . Monroe 's performance earned her a Golden Globe for Best Actress , and prompted Variety to call her " a comedienne with that combination of sex appeal and timing that just can 't be beat " . It has been voted one of the best films ever made in polls by the American Film Institute and Sight & Sound .
= = = Career decline and personal difficulties ( 1960 – 62 ) = = =
After Some Like It Hot , Monroe took another hiatus until late 1959 , when she returned to Hollywood to star in the musical comedy Let 's Make Love , about an actress and a millionaire who fall in love when performing in a satirical play . She chose George Cukor to direct and Miller re @-@ wrote portions of the script , which she considered weak ; she accepted the part solely because she was behind on her contract with Fox , having only made one of four promised films . Its production was delayed by her frequent absences from set . She had an affair with Yves Montand , her co @-@ star , which was widely reported by the press and used in the film 's publicity campaign . Let 's Make Love was unsuccessful upon its release in September 1960 ; Crowther described Monroe as appearing " rather untidy " and " lacking ... the old Monroe dynamism " , and Hedda Hopper called the film " the most vulgar picture she 's ever done " . Truman Capote lobbied for her to play Holly Golightly in a film adaptation of Breakfast at Tiffany 's , but the role went to Audrey Hepburn as its producers feared that Monroe would complicate the production .
The last film that Monroe completed was John Huston 's The Misfits , which Miller had written to provide her with a dramatic role . She played a recently divorced woman who becomes friends with three aging cowboys , played by Clark Gable , Eli Wallach and Montgomery Clift . Its filming in the Nevada desert between July and November 1960 was again difficult . Monroe and Miller 's four @-@ year marriage was effectively over , and he began a new relationship . Monroe disliked that he had based her role partly on her life , and thought it inferior to the male roles ; she also struggled with Miller 's habit of re @-@ writing scenes the night before filming . Her health was also failing : she was in pain from gallstones , and her drug addiction was so severe that her make @-@ up usually had to be applied while she was still asleep under the influence of barbiturates . In August , filming was halted for her to spend a week detoxing in a Los Angeles hospital .
Monroe and Miller separated after filming wrapped , and she was granted a quick divorce in Mexico in January 1961 . The Misfits was released the following month , failing at the box office . Its reviews were mixed , with Bosley Crowther calling Monroe " completely blank and unfathomable " and stating that " unfortunately for the film 's structure , everything turns upon her " . Despite the film 's initial failure , in 2015 Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute described it as a classic .
Monroe was next to star in a television adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham 's short story Rain for NBC , but the project fell through as the network did not want to hire her choice of director , Lee Strasberg . Instead of working , she spent the first six months of 1961 preoccupied by health problems , undergoing surgery for her endometriosis and a cholecystectomy , and spending four weeks in hospital care – including a brief stint in a mental ward – for depression . She was helped by her ex @-@ husband Joe DiMaggio , with whom she now rekindled a friendship . In spring 1961 , Monroe also moved back to California after six years on the East Coast . She dated Frank Sinatra for several months , and in early 1962 purchased a house in Brentwood , Los Angeles .
Monroe returned to the public eye in spring 1962 : she received a " World Film Favorite " Golden Globe award and began to shoot a new film for 20th Century @-@ Fox , Something 's Got to Give , a re @-@ make of My Favorite Wife ( 1940 ) . It was to be co @-@ produced by MMP , directed by George Cukor and to co @-@ star Dean Martin and Cyd Charisse . Days before filming began , Monroe caught sinusitis ; despite medical advice to postpone the production , Fox began it as planned in late April . Monroe was too ill to work for the majority of the next six weeks , but despite confirmations by multiple doctors , the studio tried to pressurize her by alleging publicly that she was faking it . On May 19 , she took a break to sing " Happy Birthday " on stage at President John F. Kennedy 's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden in New York . She drew attention with her costume : a beige , skintight dress covered in rhinestones , which made her appear nude . Monroe 's trip to New York caused even more irritation in Fox executives , who had wanted her to cancel it .
Monroe next filmed a scene for Something 's Got to Give in which she swam naked in a swimming pool . To generate advance publicity , the press were invited to take photographs of the scene , which were later published in Life ; this was the first time that a major star had posed nude while at the height of their career . When she was again on sick leave for several days , Fox decided that it could not afford to have another film running behind schedule when it was already struggling to cover the rising costs of Cleopatra ( 1963 ) . On June 7 , Monroe was fired and sued for $ 750 @,@ 000 in damages . She was replaced by Lee Remick , but after Martin refused to make the film with anyone other than Monroe , Fox sued him as well and shut down the production . The studio blamed Monroe for the film 's demise and began spreading negative publicity about her , even alleging that she was mentally disturbed .
Fox soon regretted its decision , and re @-@ opened negotiations with Monroe later in June ; a settlement about a new contract , including re @-@ commencing Something 's Got to Give and a starring role in the black comedy What a Way to Go ! ( 1964 ) , was reached later that summer . To repair her public image , Monroe engaged in several publicity ventures , including interviews for Life and Cosmopolitan and her first photo shoot for Vogue . For Vogue , she and photographer Bert Stern collaborated for two series of photographs , one a standard fashion editorial and another of her posing nude , which were both later published posthumously with the title The Last Sitting . In the last weeks of her life , she was also planning on starring in a biopic of Jean Harlow .
= = Death = =
Monroe was found dead in the bedroom of her Brentwood home by her psychiatrist , Dr. Ralph Greenson , in the early morning hours of August 5 , 1962 . Greenson had been called there by her housekeeper Eunice Murray , who was staying overnight and had awoken at 3 : 00 a.m. " sensing that something was wrong " . Murray had seen light from under Monroe 's bedroom door , but had not been able to get a response and found the door locked . The death was officially confirmed by Monroe 's physician , Dr. Hyman Engelberg , who arrived at the house at around 3 : 50 a.m. At 4 : 25 a.m. , they notified the Los Angeles Police Department .
The Los Angeles County Coroners Office was assisted in their investigation by experts from the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Team . It was estimated that Monroe had died between 8 : 30 and 10 : 30 p.m. , and the toxicological analysis concluded that the cause of death was acute barbiturate poisoning , as she had 8 mg % of chloral hydrate and 4 @.@ 5 mg % of pentobarbital ( Nembutal ) in her blood , and a further 13 mg % of pentobarbital in her liver . Empty bottles containing these medicines were found next to her bed . The possibility of Monroe having accidentally overdosed was ruled out as the dosages found in her body were several times over the lethal limit . Her doctors and psychiatrists stated that she had been prone to " severe fears and frequent depressions " with " abrupt and unpredictable " mood changes , and had overdosed several times in the past , possibly intentionally . Due to these facts and the lack of any indication of foul play , her death was classified a probable suicide .
Monroe 's unexpected death was front @-@ page news in the United States and Europe . According to Lois Banner , " it 's said that the suicide rate in Los Angeles doubled the month after she died ; the circulation rate of most newspapers expanded that month " , and the Chicago Tribune reported that they had received hundreds of phone calls from members of the public requesting information about her death . French artist Jean Cocteau commented that her death " should serve as a terrible lesson to all those , whose chief occupation consists of spying on and tormenting film stars " , her former co @-@ star Laurence Olivier deemed her " the complete victim of ballyhoo and sensation " , and Bus Stop director Joshua Logan stated that she was " one of the most unappreciated people in the world " . Her funeral , held at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery on August 8 , was private and attended by only her closest associates . It was arranged by Joe DiMaggio and her business manager Inez Melson . Hundreds of spectators crowded the streets around the cemetery . Monroe was later interred at crypt No. 24 at the Corridor of Memories .
Several conspiracy theories about Monroe 's death have been proposed in the decades afterwards , including murder and accidental overdose . The murder speculations first gained mainstream attention with the publication of Norman Mailer 's Marilyn : A Biography in 1973 , and in the following years became widespread enough for the Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp to conduct a " threshold investigation " in 1982 to see whether a criminal investigation should be opened . No evidence of foul play was found .
= = Screen persona and reception = =
When beginning to develop her star image , 20th Century @-@ Fox wanted Monroe to replace the aging Betty Grable , their most popular " blonde bombshell " of the 1940s . While the 1940s had been the heyday of actresses perceived as tough and smart , such as Katharine Hepburn and Barbara Stanwyck , who appealed to women @-@ dominated audiences , the studio wanted Monroe to be a star of the new decade that would draw men to movie theaters . She played a significant part in the creation of her public image from the beginning , and towards the end of her career exerted almost full control over it . Monroe devised many of her publicity strategies , cultivated friendships with gossip columnists such as Sidney Skolsky and Louella Parsons , and controlled the use of her images . Besides Grable , she was often compared to another iconic blonde , 1930s film star Jean Harlow . The comparison was partly prompted by Monroe , who named Harlow as her childhood idol , wanted to play her in a biopic , and even employed Harlow 's hair stylist to color her hair .
Monroe 's screen persona centered on her blond hair , and the stereotypes associated with it , especially dumbness , naïveté , sexual availability and artificiality . She often used a breathy , childish voice in her films , and in interviews gave the impression that everything she said was " utterly innocent and uncalculated " , parodying herself with double entendres that came to be known as " Monroeisms " . For example , when she was asked what she had on in the 1949 nude photo shoot , she replied , " I had the radio on " . Having begun her career as a pin @-@ up model , Monroe 's hourglass figure was one of her most often noted features . Film scholar Richard Dyer has written that Monroe was often positioned so that her curvy silhouette was on display , and in her publicity photos often posed like a pin @-@ up . Her distinctive , hip @-@ swinging walk also drew attention to her body , earning her the nickname " the girl with the horizontal walk " .
Clothing played an important part in Monroe 's star image . She often wore white to emphasize her blondness , and drew attention by wearing revealing outfits that showed off her figure . Her publicity stunts often revolved around her clothing exposing large amounts of her body or even malfunctioning , such as when one of the shoulder straps of her dress suddenly snapped during a press conference . In press stories , Monroe was portrayed as the embodiment of the American Dream , as a girl who had risen from a miserable childhood to Hollywood stardom . Stories of her time spent in foster families and an orphanage were exaggerated and even partly fabricated in her studio biographies .
Although Monroe 's screen persona as a dim @-@ witted but sexually attractive blonde was a carefully crafted act , audiences and film critics believed it to be her real personality and that she was not acting in her comedies . This became an obstacle in her later career , when she wanted to change her public image and pursue other kinds of roles , or to be respected as a businesswoman . Academic Sarah Churchwell , who has studied narratives about Monroe , has stated :
The biggest myth is that she was dumb . The second is that she was fragile . The third is that she couldn 't act . She was far from dumb , although she was not formally educated , and she was very sensitive about that . But she was very smart indeed – and very tough . She had to be both to beat the Hollywood studio system in the 1950s . [ ... ] The dumb blonde was a role – she was an actress , for heaven 's sake ! Such a good actress that no one now believes she was anything but what she portrayed on screen .
Lois Banner has written that she often subtly parodied her status as a sex symbol in her films and public appearances . Monroe stated that she was influenced by Mae West , saying that she " learned a few tricks from her – that impression of laughing at , or mocking , her own sexuality " . In the 1950s , she also studied comedy in classes given by mime and dancer Lotte Goslar , famous for her comic stage performances , and had her accompany her on film sets to instruct her . In Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , one of the films in which she played an archetypal dumb blonde , Monroe had the sentence " I can be smart when it 's important , but most men don 't like it " added to her character 's lines in the script .
Dyer has stated Monroe 's star image was created mainly for the male gaze and that she usually played " the girl " , who is defined solely by her gender , in her films . Her roles were almost always chorus girls , secretaries , or models ; occupations where " the woman is on show , there for the pleasure of men . " Film scholar Thomas Harris , who analyzed Monroe 's public image in 1957 , wrote that her working class roots and lack of family made her appear more sexually available , " the ideal playmate " , in contrast to her contemporary Grace Kelly , who was also marketed as an attractive blonde , but due to her upper @-@ class background came to be seen as a sophisticated actress , unattainable for the majority of male viewers .
According to Dyer , Monroe became " virtually a household name for sex " in the 1950s and " her image has to be situated in the flux of ideas about morality and sexuality that characterised the fifties in America " , such as Freudian ideas about sex , the Kinsey report ( 1953 ) , and Betty Friedan 's The Feminine Mystique ( 1963 ) . By appearing vulnerable and unaware of her sex appeal , Monroe was the first sex symbol to present sex as natural and without danger , in contrast to the 1940s femme fatales . Spoto likewise describes her as the embodiment of " the postwar ideal of the American girl , soft , transparently needy , worshipful of men , naïve , offering sex without demands " , which is echoed in Molly Haskell 's statement that " she was the fifties fiction , the lie that a woman had no sexual needs , that she is there to cater to , or enhance , a man 's needs . " Monroe 's contemporary Norman Mailer wrote that " Marilyn suggested sex might be difficult and dangerous with others , but ice cream with her " , while Groucho Marx characterized her as " Mae West , Theda Bara , and Bo Peep all rolled into one " . According to Haskell , due to her status as a sex symbol , Monroe was less popular with women than with men , as they " couldn 't identify with her and didn 't support her " , although this would change after her death .
Dyer has also argued that platinum blonde hair became such a defining feature of Monroe because it made her " racially unambiguous " and exclusively white just as the Civil Rights Movement was beginning , and that she should be seen as emblematic of racism in twentieth @-@ century popular culture . Banner agrees that it may not be a coincidence that Monroe launched a trend of platinum blonde actresses during the Civil Rights Movement , but has also criticized Dyer , pointing out that in her highly publicized private life Monroe associated with people who were seen as " white ethnics " , such as Joe DiMaggio ( Italian @-@ American ) and Arthur Miller ( Jewish ) . According to Banner , she sometimes challenged prevailing racial norms in her publicity photographs ; for example , in an image featured in Look in 1951 , she was shown in revealing clothes while practicing with African @-@ American singing coach Phil Moore .
Monroe was perceived as a specifically American star , " a national institution as well known as hot dogs , apple pie , or baseball " according to Photoplay . Banner calls her the symbol of populuxe , a star whose joyful and glamorous public image " helped the nation cope with its paranoia in the 1950s about the Cold War , the atom bomb , and the totalitarian communist Soviet Union " . Historian Fiona Handyside writes that the French female audiences associated whiteness / blondness with American modernity and cleanliness , and so Monroe came to symbolize a modern , " liberated " woman whose life takes place in the public sphere . Film historian Laura Mulvey has written of her as an endorsement for American consumer culture :
If America was to export the democracy of glamour into post @-@ war , impoverished Europe , the movies could be its shop window ... Marilyn Monroe , with her all American attributes and streamlined sexuality , came to epitomise in a single image this complex interface of the economic , the political , and the erotic . By the mid 1950s , she stood for a brand of classless glamour , available to anyone using American cosmetics , nylons and peroxide .
To profit from Monroe 's popularity , 20th Century @-@ Fox cultivated several lookalike actresses , including Jayne Mansfield and Sheree North . Other studios also attempted to create their own Monroes : Universal Pictures with Mamie Van Doren , Columbia Pictures with Kim Novak , and Rank Organisation with Diana Dors .
= = Legacy = =
According to The Guide to United States Popular Culture , " as an icon of American popular culture , Monroe 's few rivals in popularity include Elvis Presley and Mickey Mouse ... no other star has ever inspired such a wide range of emotions – from lust to pity , from envy to remorse . " Art historian Gail Levin has stated that Monroe may have been " the most photographed person of the 20th century " , and The American Film Institute has named her the sixth greatest female screen legend in American film history . The Smithsonian Institution has included her on their list of " 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time " , and both Variety and VH1 have placed her in the top ten in their rankings of the greatest popular culture icons of the twentieth century . Hundreds of books have been written about Monroe , she has been the subject of films , plays , operas , and songs , and has influenced artists and entertainers such as Andy Warhol and Madonna . She also remains a valuable brand : her image and name have been licensed for hundreds of products , and she has been featured in advertising for multinational corporations such as Max Factor , Chanel , Mercedes @-@ Benz , and Absolut Vodka .
Monroe 's enduring popularity is linked to her conflicted public image . On the one hand , she remains a sex symbol , beauty icon and one of the most famous stars of classical Hollywood cinema . On the other , she is also remembered for her troubled private life , unstable childhood , struggle for professional respect , and her death and the conspiracy theories surrounding it . She has been written about by scholars and journalists interested in gender and feminism , such as Gloria Steinem , Jacqueline Rose , Molly Haskell , Sarah Churchwell , and Lois Banner . Some , such as Steinem , have viewed her as a victim of the studio system . Others , such as Haskell , Rose , and Churchwell , have instead stressed Monroe 's proactive role in her career and her participation in the creation of her public persona .
Due to the contrast between her stardom and troubled private life , Monroe is closely linked to broader discussions about modern phenomena such as mass media , fame , and consumer culture . According to academic Susanne Hamscha , because of her continued relevance to ongoing discussions about modern society , Monroe is " never completely situated in one time or place " but has become " a surface on which narratives of American culture can be ( re- ) constructed " , and " functions as a cultural type that can be reproduced , transformed , translated into new contexts , and enacted by other people " . Similarly , Banner has called Monroe the " eternal shapeshifter " who is re @-@ created by " each generation , even each individual ... to their own specifications " .
While Monroe remains a cultural icon , critics are divided on her legacy as an actress . David Thomson called her body of work " insubstantial " and Pauline Kael wrote that she could not act , but rather " used her lack of an actress 's skills to amuse the public . She had the wit or crassness or desperation to turn cheesecake into acting – and vice versa ; she did what others had the ' good taste ' not to do " . In contrast , according to Peter Bradshaw , Monroe was a talented comedian who " understood how comedy achieved its effects " , and Roger Ebert wrote that " Monroe 's eccentricities and neuroses on sets became notorious , but studios put up with her long after any other actress would have been blackballed because what they got back on the screen was magical " . Similarly , Jonathan Rosenbaum stated that " she subtly subverted the sexist content of her material " and that " the difficulty some people have discerning Monroe 's intelligence as an actress seems rooted in the ideology of a repressive era , when superfeminine women weren 't supposed to be smart " .
= = Filmography = =
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= The World Without Us =
The World Without Us is a non @-@ fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared , written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books . It is a book @-@ length expansion of Weisman 's own February 2005 Discover article " Earth Without People " . Written largely as a thought experiment , it outlines , for example , how cities and houses would deteriorate , how long man @-@ made artifacts would last , and how remaining lifeforms would evolve . Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years , and that radioactive waste , bronze statues , plastics , and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest @-@ lasting evidence of human presence on Earth .
The author of four previous books and numerous articles for magazines , Weisman traveled to interview academics , scientists and other authorities . He used quotations from these interviews to explain the effects of the natural environment and to substantiate predictions . The book has been translated and published in many countries . It was successful in the U.S. , reaching # 6 on the New York Times Best Seller list and # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best @-@ Sellers list in September 2007 . It ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's top 10 non @-@ fiction books of 2007 .
20th Century Fox has purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture .
= = Background = =
The idea of exploring the effects of the depopulating of the Earth is an old one , having been a regular trope in science fiction novels for decades . Post @-@ apocalyptic literature in general had often tried to imagine the fate of civilization and its artifacts after the end of humanity . Indeed , an extremely popular 1949 novel , Earth Abides , portrayed the breakdown of urban systems and structures after a pandemic , through the eyes of a survivor , who muses at the end of the first chapter : " What would happen to the world and its creatures without man ? That he was left to see . "
The World Without Us applies a more ecological view to Earth Abides . Before writing it , the author , Alan Weisman , had written four books , including , Gaviotas : A Village to Reinvent the World , in 1998 , about the eco @-@ village of Gaviotas in Colombia ; and An Echo In My Blood , in 1999 , about his family 's history immigrating from Ukraine to the United States . He has worked as an international journalist for American magazines and newspapers , and at the time of writing the book was an Associate Professor of Journalism and Latin American Studies at the University of Arizona . The position required him to teach only one class in the spring semester , and he was free to travel and conduct research the rest of the year .
The idea for The World Without Us was suggested to Weisman in 2004 by Josie Glausiusz , an editor at Discover . She had pondered the idea for several years and asked Weisman to write a feature on the subject after she re @-@ read " Journey through a Doomed Land " , an article he published in 1994 in Harper 's Magazine about the state of Chernobyl eight years after abandonment . His Discover article , " Earth Without People " , published in the February 2005 issue and re @-@ printed in The Best American Science Writing 2006 anthology , describes how nature has thrived in the abandoned Korean Demilitarized Zone and how nature would overwhelm the built environment of New York City . Using interviews with paleoecologists , the article speculates that megafauna would return and that forest cover , like the Białowieża Forest , would spread over Europe and the eastern United States . The article raises the prospect of failing power plants , chemical plants , dams , and petroleum tanks .
To expand this into a book , Weisman 's agent found an editor and publisher at St. Martin 's Press . Among the 23 @-@ page bibliography are two articles he wrote for the Los Angeles Times Magazine ( " Naked Planet " on persistent organic pollutants , and " The Real Indiana Jones " on the Mayan civilization ) and one published in the Condé Nast Traveler ( " Diamond in the Wild " on diamond mining ) , as well as Discover 's " Earth Without People " . Additional research saw Weisman travel to England , Cyprus , Turkey , Panama , and Kenya . Interviews with academics quoted in the book include biologist E. O. Wilson on the Korean Demilitarized Zone , archaeologist William Rathje on plastics in garbage , forest botanist Oliver Rackham on vegetative cover across Britain , anthropologist Arthur Demarest on the crash of Mayan civilization , paleobiologist Douglas Erwin on evolution , and philosopher Nick Bostrom on Transhumanism .
= = Synopsis = =
The book is divided into 27 chapters , with a prelude , coda , bibliography and index . Each chapter deals with a new topic , such as the potential fates of plastics , petroleum infrastructure , nuclear facilities , and artworks . It is written from the point of view of a science journalist with explanations and testimonies backing his predictions . There is no unifying narrative , cohesive single @-@ chapter overview , or thesis .
Weisman 's thought experiment pursues two themes : how nature would react to the disappearance of humans and what legacy humans would leave behind . To foresee how other life could continue without humans , Weisman reports from areas where the natural environment exists with little human intervention , like the Białowieża Forest , the Kingman Reef , and the Palmyra Atoll . He interviews biologist E. O. Wilson and visits with members of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement at the Korean Demilitarized Zone where few humans have penetrated since 1953 . He tries to conceive how life may evolve by describing the past evolution of pre @-@ historic plants and animals , but notes Douglas Erwin 's warning that " we can 't predict what the world will be 5 million years later by looking at the survivors " . Several chapters are dedicated to megafauna , which Weisman predicts would proliferate . He profiles soil samples from the past 200 years and extrapolates concentrations of heavy metals and foreign substances into a future without industrial inputs . Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and implications for climatic change are likewise examined .
With material from previous articles , Weisman uses the fate of the Mayan civilization to illustrate the possibility of an entrenched society vanishing and how the natural environment quickly conceals evidence . To demonstrate how vegetation could compromise human built infrastructure , Weisman interviewed hydrologists and employees at the Panama Canal , where constant maintenance is required to keep the jungle vegetation and silt away from the dams . To illustrate abandoned cities succumbing to nature , Weisman reports from Chernobyl , Ukraine ( abandoned in 1986 ) and Varosha , Cyprus ( abandoned in 1974 ) . Weisman finds that their structures crumble as weather does unrepaired damage and other life forms create new habitats . In Turkey , Weisman contrasts the construction practices of the rapidly growing Istanbul , as typical for large cities in less developed countries , with the underground cities in Cappadocia . Due to a large demand for housing in Istanbul much of it was developed quickly with whatever material was available and could collapse in a major earthquake or other natural disaster . Cappadocian underground cities were built thousands of years ago out of volcanic tuff , and are likely to survive for centuries to come .
Weisman uses New York City as a model to outline how an unmaintained urban area would deconstruct . He explains that sewers would clog , underground streams would flood subway corridors , and soils under roads would erode and cave in . From interviews with members of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the New York Botanical Gardens Weisman predicts that native vegetation would return , spreading from parks and out @-@ surviving invasive species . Without humans to provide food and warmth , rats and cockroaches would die off .
Weisman explains that a common house would begin to fall apart as water eventually leaks into the roof around the flashings , erodes the wood and rusts the nails , leading to sagging walls and eventual collapse . After 500 years , all that would be left would be aluminum dishwasher parts , stainless steel cookware , and plastic handles . The longest @-@ lasting evidence on Earth of a human presence would be radioactive materials , ceramics , bronze statues , and Mount Rushmore . In space , the Pioneer plaques , the Voyager Golden Record , and radio waves would outlast the Earth itself .
Breaking from the theme of the natural environment after humans , Weisman considers what could lead to the sudden , complete demise of humans without serious damage to the built and natural environment . That scenario , he concludes , is extremely unlikely . He also considers transhumanism , the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement , the Church of Euthanasia and John A. Leslie 's The End of the World : the Science and Ethics of Human Extinction . Weisman concludes the book considering a new version of the one @-@ child policy . While he admits it is a " draconian measure " , he states , " The bottom line is that any species that overstretches its resource base suffers a population crash . Limiting our reproduction would be damn hard , but limiting our consumptive instincts may be even harder . " He responded to criticism of this saying " I knew in advance that I would touch some people 's sensitive spots by bringing up the population issue , but I did so because it 's been missing too long from the discussion of how we must deal with the situation our economic and demographic growth have driven us too ( sic ) " .
= = Publication = =
The book was first published on July 10 , 2007 , as a hardback in the United States by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books , in United Kingdom by Virgin Books and in Canada by HarperCollins . The paperback was released in July 2008 . It has been translated and published in Denmark by Borgen as Verden uden os , France by Groupe Flammarion as Homo disparitus , in Germany by Piper as Die Welt ohne uns , in Portugal by Estrela Polar as O Mundo Sem Nós , in Italy by Einaudi as Il mondo senza di noi , in Poland by CKA as Świat bez nas , and in Japan by Hayakawa Publishing as Jinrui ga kieta sekai .
Pete Garceau designed the cover art for the American release , which one critic said was " a thick layer of sugar @-@ coated sweetness in an effort to not alarm potential readers . ' Yes , I am a book about the environment . But I 'm harmless ! No , really ! ' " The Canadian version , designed by Ellen Cipriano , is similar to the American version but with a photo illustration rather than the disarming cartoon illustration . Cover art for the international releases contrast the natural environment with a decaying built environment . Adam Grupper voiced the ten @-@ hour @-@ long , unabridged English language audiobook which was published by Macmillan Audio and BBC Audiobooks , and released simultaneously with the hardcover book . AudioFile gave the audio presentation its Earphones Award , called Grupper 's reading sincere and balanced , and wrote , " Never veering into sensationalism , always objective and phlegmatic , Grupper takes what could be a depressing topic and makes it a book you just can 't stop listening to " .
= = Reception = =
As the book was released Weisman launched his book tour with stops throughout the United States , Canada and overseas to Lisbon and Brussels . Weisman did television interviews on The Daily Show and The Today Show and radio interviews on Weekend Edition , Talk of the Nation , The Diane Rehm Show , Living on Earth , Marketplace , and As It Happens . Meanwhile , the book debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list for non @-@ fiction hardcovers at # 10 on July 29 and spent nine weeks in the top ten , peaking at # 6 on August 12 and September 9 . In the Canadian market , it spent 10 weeks on The Globe and Mail 's non @-@ fiction best seller list , peaking at # 3 on August 11 . The book reached # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best @-@ Sellers list for non @-@ fiction on September 23 and spent 11 weeks on the USA Today 's Top 150 Best @-@ Selling Books , peaking at # 48 . Reviewers at the Library Journal recommended the book for all environmental collections and the audiobook for most public and academic library audiobook collections . The book ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's top 10 non @-@ fiction books of 2007 and was listed in the Hudson Booksellers ' " Best Books published in 2007 " . In the Amazon.com " Best Books of 2007 " , it placed # 4 overall in the United States and # 1 in the non @-@ fiction category in Canada .
The writing style was positively received as being vivid and well @-@ written , sometimes grim , but with appropriate language . Even an overall negative review by Michael Grunwald in The Washington Post remarked the writing was " always lucid , sometimes elegant " . In The New York Times Book Review Jennifer Schuessler said Weisman has a " flirtation with religious language , his occasionally portentous impassivity giving way to the familiar rhetoric of eco @-@ hellfire " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times found the writing had " an arid , plain , what @-@ if style " while being " strangely uniform in tone " . On the reporting techniques , Kamiya wrote that " [ Weisman 's ] science reporting , at once lucid and full of wonder ... is the heart and soul of this book " and that it is " written as if by a compassionate and curious observer on another planet " . The Plain Dealer book editor Karen Long said Weisman " uses the precise , unhurried language of a good science writer and shows a knack for unearthing unexpected sources and provocative facts " .
Several critics found the lack of an anthropomorphic point of view hurt the book 's relevance . Robert Braile in The Boston Globe wrote that it has " no real context ... no rationale for probing this fantasy other than [ Weisman 's ] unsubstantiated premise that people find it fascinating " . Michael Grunwald in The Washington Post also questioned the premise : " Imagining the human footprint on a post @-@ human planet might be fun for dormitory potheads who have already settled the questions of God 's existence and Fergie 's hotness , but it 's not clear why the rest of us need this level of documentary evidence " . On the other hand , Alanna Mitchell in the Globe and Mail review found relevance in the context of society 's passiveness to resource depletion combined with an anthropomorphic vanity . She writes the " book [ is ] designed to help us find the how of survival by shaking us out of our passive dance with death " .
The book 's environmental focus was also criticized by some . Christopher Orlet of The American Spectator wrote that it is " a prime example of the wrongheaded , extremist views of the Greens " . Braile agrees that the book could be " an environmentalist 's nightmare , possibly fueling the cheap shots taken at the green movement ... by critics who say environmentalists care more about nature than people " . Environmentalist Alex Steffen found the book presents nothing new , but that using the sudden and clean disappearance of humans provides a unique framework , although extremely unlikely and insensitive . Two critics who call the book a " Jeremiad " ultimately gave it a positive review . The Guardian says " we learn during the course of this book , to feel good about the disappearance of humanity from the Earth " .
Other critics hailed the environmental perspective . Chauncey Mabe of the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel calls the book " one of the most satisfying environmental books of recent memory , one devoid of self @-@ righteousness , alarmism or tiresome doomsaying " . Tom Spears of the CanWest News Service concludes " it 's more a portrait of ourselves , taken through an odd lens " and " [ s ] ometimes an obituary is the best biography " .
= = Genre = =
The book is categorized as non @-@ fiction science but some commentators emphasize it may be better described as speculative fiction . The World Without Us is grounded in environmental and science journalism . Like other environmental books , it discusses the impact that the human race has had on the planet . Weisman 's thought experiment removes the judgments and sufferings of humans by focusing on a hypothetical post @-@ human world . This approach to the genre , which " throw [ s ] the spotlight on the earth itself " , was found to be creative and objective . There have been other books that address similar topics , such as Gregory Benford 's 1999 book Deep Time : How Humanity Communicates Across Millennia . Science fiction writers such as H. G. Wells ( The War of the Worlds , 1898 ) and John Wyndham ( The Day of the Triffids , 1951 ) had earlier touched upon the possible fate of cities and other man @-@ made structures after the sudden removal of their creators . Similar parallels in the decay of civilization are detailed in 1949 post @-@ apocalyptic science fiction novel by Berkeley English professor George R. Stewart , Earth Abides .
Addressing his approach , Weisman said that eliminating the human element eliminated the " fear factor " that people are doing something wrong or that they will die ; it is meant to be read as a fantasy , according to the author . Josie Appleton of Spiked related the book to " today 's romanticisation of nature " in that it linked " the decadence and detachment of a modern consumerist society " with an ignorance of the efforts required to produce products so easily disposed . Appleton also felt the book countered the " Nature knows best " notion by highlighting the randomness of natural forces .
Weisman 's science journalism style uses interviews with academic and professional authorities to substantiate conclusions , while maintaining the " cool and dispassionate [ tone ] ... of a scientific observer rather than an activist " . Weisman said he purposely avoided the activist label : " Some of our finest science and nature writers only get read by people who already agree with them . It 's nice to get some affirmation for whatever it is you believe is true , even if it 's quite sobering , but I wanted to write something that people would read ... without minimizing the significance of what 's going on , nor trivializing it , nor oversimplifying it . " Richard Fortey compares the book to the works of Jared Diamond , Tim Flannery and E.O. Wilson , and writes that The World Without Us " narrowly avoids engendering the gloom @-@ and @-@ doom ennui that tends to engulf the poor reader after reading a catalogue of human rapacity " . Mark Lynas in the New Statesman noted that " whereas most environmental books sag under the weight of their accumulated bad news , The World Without Us seems refreshingly positive " . Demonstrating the optimism on the grim subject matter Appleton quotes an ecologist from the book saying " if the planet can recover from the Permian , it can recover from the human " .
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= Mystery Date ( Mad Men ) =
" Mystery Date " is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 56th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Victor Levin , and directed by Matt Shakman . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on April 8 , 2012 .
The episode takes place in July 1966 , featuring much discussion among the characters about the then @-@ unsolved Richard Speck murders in Chicago . Don runs into an ex @-@ lover and cannot seem to escape her presence . Joan 's husband , Greg , returns from his tour of duty in Vietnam only to reveal that he is being sent back for another year of service . Sally becomes frightened after reading stories on the Speck murders , leading her step @-@ grandmother to educate her on the concepts of fear and defense . Dawn spends the night at Peggy 's apartment after becoming too afraid to return home because of racial violence near Harlem .
The episode 's title is derived from the 1965 Milton Bradley board game for teenage girls , Mystery Date , wherein several female players draw cards to advance to opening a door , hoping to find one of a variety of desirable male dates on the other side , while simultaneously hoping to avoid the lone undesirable one . A vintage television commercial for the game is viewed by Don 's daughter Sally during the episode .
The storylines involving Joan , Sally , and Peggy were well received , although some felt the dream sequence was a heavy @-@ handed way to have Don deal with his past infidelities . " Mystery Date " had consistent viewership with the previous week , with 2 @.@ 8 million overall viewers and 1 @.@ 0 million viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Critics noted the dark atmosphere of the episode , with Weiner comparing it to a horror movie . The episode carried themes of sexual violence and the concept of masculinity .
= = Plot = =
Joyce Ramsay walks into Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce with graphic photos of the recently committed murders of eight nurses in Chicago . There were nine possible victims , with the one survivor hiding under the bed until the murderer left . Ginsberg reacts in disgust to the other employees ' fascination with the murder photos .
Don Draper , on the elevator to SCDP 's offices with Megan , is coughing profusely , sweaty , and feverish . A flirty former lover , Andrea Rhodes , walks into the elevator and starts to home in on Don before Don introduces Megan as his wife . Don tries to assuage a slightly perturbed Megan , who is upset over how many of Don 's old flames they run into in Manhattan . Don works with new hire Michael Ginsberg and Ken Cosgrove on the pitch to Butler Footwear . Ginsberg goes rogue during the presentation and ends up pitching a commercial based on Cinderella , which the group had earlier rejected as being too cliche - although that was what the executives were expecting , and they reject the pitch they had earlier approved in favor of a Cinderella campaign . Don is enraged and admonishes Ginsberg for the act ; Ginsberg doesn 't seem to realize the seriousness of his transgression until Ken points out he was on the verge of being fired . Afterwards , Don returns home early to an empty house and collapses on his bed in a weakened state .
Don awakens to a knock on the door . It 's Andrea , still in her tight yellow dress . Don directs her to leave immediately and forces her to go out through the apartment 's service elevator . After Don returns to bed , Andrea walks into his bedroom again , having entered through the unlocked back door . She seduces Don and the two end up having sex in his bed . In a post @-@ coital moment , Andrea declares to Don that he will continue meeting her for trysts because he can 't change who he is . Don flies off the handle and chokes her to death . Panicking , he kicks her under the bed , but one of her red shoes remains visible , recalling both the visual of Ginsberg 's Cinderella pitch and the lone survivor from the Richard Speck murders . Don awakens the next morning to realize he was having a fever dream . He says nothing of his vision to Megan and tells her she doesn 't need to worry about him .
Sally 's overbearing step @-@ grandmother Pauline is babysitting Sally while Betty and Henry are out of town . Sally overhears Pauline having a telephone conversation about the murders in Chicago . After stealing a newspaper out of the garbage and reading about the murder , Sally becomes frightened and unable to sleep . Pauline comforts Sally by suggesting the nurses asked for their fate for presumed lasciviousness . Pauline takes out a butcher knife , intending to use it for protection , and splits a Seconal with Sally . Betty and Henry return home the next day to find Pauline asleep on a couch with the butcher knife on a table by her side . Sally is asleep underneath the couch , once again recalling the visual of the Speck survivor .
Roger asks Peggy to devise a new Mohawk Airlines campaign over the weekend , in an attempt to cover for the fact that he had neglected to put the creative team on that task a week earlier . Peggy , realizing that for once she has the upper hand , agrees to the favor only after Roger hands over all the cash in his wallet ( $ 410 , an exorbitant amount in 1966 ) , rejecting the ten dollars which Roger initially offered her ( explaining that " the work is ten dollars ; the lie is extra . " ) . While working late , Peggy discovers Dawn sleeping in Don 's office . Peggy offers Dawn a spot on her couch at home , as Dawn worries about returning to her own home in Harlem due to racial tension in the area . Peggy and Dawn drink beers at Peggy 's apartment , while Peggy reveals insecurity over whether she " acts like a man " or not . While leaving her apartment 's living room , Peggy has an awkward moment with Dawn when Peggy realizes that her purse ( with Roger 's cash still inside ) is alone on the table next to Dawn . Peggy cleans up and leaves the purse next to Dawn . Peggy wakes up the next morning to find a note from Dawn apologizing for inconveniencing Peggy .
Joan 's husband Greg returns home from the Vietnam War after a year of service , greeting their new baby boy , and spending an afternoon with Joan in bed . Afterwards , Greg breaks bad news to Joan — he is being shipped back out again for another year . Joan complains about the government 's lies , but Greg backs up his duty to the country . During a dinner at a fancy restaurant with Joan 's mother and Greg 's parents , Greg is forced by his mother to reveal that he in fact volunteered to go back , sending Joan into a rage . She is absolutely horrified that Greg would abandon his duties as a father to head back to war , where he " feels like a good man " . The next morning , Joan sits him down and tells him to leave . Through her teeth , she proclaims that he was " never a good man " , subtly referring to the time he raped her back in the second season . Greg storms out , and Joan informs her mother that " it 's over " . Joan spends the night lying awake next to her sleeping mother and child .
= = Production = =
" Mystery Date " was written by creator Matthew Weiner and co @-@ executive producer Victor Levin . The episode was also directed by Matt Shakman . Director Matt Shakman had never worked on an episode of Mad Men before this episode . This was also the first episode of the series that co @-@ writer Victor Levin had penned . Levin had actually worked in advertising before becoming a television writer . He was the Associate Creative Director at both the Young and Rubicam advertising agency as well as BBDO . Both agencies had been either mentioned or depicted on Mad Men in the past . Levin also won two Clio awards for his work in advertising , which was an award Don won last season in the episode " Waldorf Stories " .
" The theme of sexual violence , of what it means to be a man , is a big part of that episode , " creator Matthew Weiner said of " Mystery Date " . " There 's this idea of this carnal , dangerous impulsive male . Of the dream sequence , Hamm said , " Unlike a lot of things on our show , it 's very visceral and immediate and scary and weird " with Hamm noting that Weiner compared the episode to a horror film . The scene in which Peggy blackmails Roger was one of Elisabeth Moss 's favorite moments , with Moss saying that she was " playing Roger Sterling " in that scene .
Weiner was fascinated by the presences of the Richard Speck murders in the media , despite the 40 race riots occurring in America around the same time . " Part of that force is the sex drive . No one wants to be a victim of that , but when you look at Pauline 's interest in the murders , it 's sexual . It 's such a deep touchstone of creepiness , " he noted .
The footage of Don returning to bed after kicking Andrea out of the apartment was actually reverse footage of Don getting out of bed only minutes before , which led some to believe that this was a directorial touch by Shakman to help the viewer discern the dream sequence by including unreal footage .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Mystery Date " received steady viewership that was consistent with the ratings for the previous week . It received 2 @.@ 8 million viewers , down only from 2 @.@ 9 from " Tea Leaves " . The episode also received a 1 @.@ 0 rating in the important 18 @-@ 49 demographic , the same rating as the week before .
= = = Critical reception = = =
While the portions of the episode focusing on Joan , Peggy , and Sally were critically acclaimed , some critics were mixed on the value of the dream sequence . One writer for Zap2it declared the episode one of the best episodes yet . Alan Sepinwall , writing for Hitfix said that the episode was " full of nightmares and self @-@ realizations " as well as " horrifying images " . Sepinwall wrote that the " only way the strangulation scene would have been acceptable to me was with the understanding going in that it was a dream . Had the show not telegraphed that — or had I not figured it out — and Don woke up the next morning with no corpse on the floor , I 'd have been irked . " One writer for Paste Magazine noted that the " brilliantly shot " episode had a " Hitchcockian feel " , and pointed to the use of " reverse point @-@ of @-@ view shots " and " close @-@ ups of hands on doorknobs that added an air of suspense not usually present on Mad Men . " Eric Goldman of IGN declared it the " best episode yet for Season 5 , with some very good material for Joan , Peggy , Don and Sally packed into a busy hour . " Goldman praised the resolution to the Harris marriage , crediting Weiner with mastering " the slow burn on this show , and it was just so gratifying to finally have this issue be dealt with . "
Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post called the episode " deeply unsettling " on purpose . She said that " Violence against women was inescapable in this episode , but what made Mad Men 's exploration of the topic worthwhile and compelling was the fact that two women in this episode asserted their power and control over their lives . It wasn 't a story about helplessness and victimization ; it was an episode about everything from sweaty discomfort to outright terror , and how we deal with those emotions . " John Swansburg , writing for Slate , said the episode was a " dud , " with the fever dream a " very obvious ( and not particularly enlightening ) way to depict Don wrestling with his infidelity issues . " Jordan Bartel of the Baltimore Sun compared " Mystery Date " to a Stephen King novel . Meredith Blake of the Los Angeles Times admitted that the dream sequence was " heavy @-@ handed " but that " there ’ s also something terribly convincing about the link ' Mystery Date ' posits between Don ’ s seemingly insatiable sexual appetite and his personal demons . If only these things dissipated as easily as a fever . " Rolling Stone writer Sarene Leeds praised Christina Hendricks ' performance and the dream sequence , asking " even though it wasn 't " real , " what makes Don Draper any different from Richard Speck , the student @-@ nurse murderer ? "
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= Freida Pinto =
Freida Selena Pinto ( born 18 October 1984 ) is an Indian actress who has appeared mainly in American and British films . She was born and raised in Mumbai , India , and decided when young that she would become an actress . As a student at St. Xavier 's College , Mumbai , she took part in amateur plays . After graduation , she briefly worked as a model and then as a television presenter .
Pinto rose to prominence through the 2008 British drama Slumdog Millionaire , her first appearance in a film . She won the Breakthrough Performance Award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival and was nominated for various awards at the British Academy Film Awards , the MTV Movie Awards and the Teen Choice Awards . She has appeared in several American and British productions , often playing supporting roles . Her biggest commercial success came with the 2011 science fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes . Pinto received major attention for portraying the title character in Michael Winterbottom 's Trishna ( 2011 ) . Her performance in the biographical drama Desert Dancer ( 2014 ) received critical acclaim .
Although the Indian media has credited Pinto with breaking the stereotypical image of an Indian woman in foreign films , she has been a lesser @-@ known figure in Indian cinema . Along with her film career , she promotes humanitarian causes and is vocal about women 's empowerment .
= = Early life and background = =
Pinto was born on 18 October 1984 in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , into a family of Mangalorean Catholics , a community originating in the former Portuguese colony of Goa . Her mother Sylvia Pinto was the principal of St. John 's Universal School in Goregaon , Mumbai , and her father Frederick Pinto was a senior branch manager for the Bank of Baroda . Her elder sister , Sharon , works for NDTV .
Pinto had a middle class upbringing in the suburb of Malad . She first wanted to be an actress when she was five years old , often dressing up and imitating television actors during her childhood . She later recalled being inspired by Sushmita Sen 's victory in the 1994 Miss Universe competition , explaining that " the country was really proud of her , and I was like , one day , I want to do the same " . Pinto attended the Carmel of St. Joseph School in Malad , and then studied at St. Xavier 's College , Mumbai . Her major was in English literature , with minors in psychology and economics . At college , she participated in amateur theatre , but declined acting and modeling assignments until her graduation in 2005 .
Despite her interest in acting from an early age , Pinto was undecided on which career path to take until watching Monster ( 2003 ) while at college . She stated : " I guess it was when I watched Monster ... I pretty much knew . I had to find a way . I had to do something like that , something completely transformational . " In 2005 , Pinto began a modeling career and joined Elite Model Management India , with whom she worked for two and a half years . She was featured in several television and print advertisements for products such as Wrigley 's Chewing Gum , Škoda , Vodafone India , Airtel , Visa , eBay , and De Beers .
Around the same time , Pinto began going to auditions for films and television shows . She was chosen to host Full Circle , an international travel show that aired on Zee International Asia Pacific between 2006 and 2008 . The show took her to countries all over the world , including Afghanistan , Fiji , Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand . Her auditions for both Bollywood and Hollywood productions , including for the role of Bond girl Camille Montes in Marc Forster 's Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) , were largely unsuccessful . Pinto later claimed that it was a good learning experience , stating that she was " glad things happened the way they happened . I needed to be rejected , and I needed to learn that it 's part of the game ... I can have 100 rejections , but I 'm sure there 's going to be one particular thing that is almost destined for me to have . "
= = Acting career = =
= = = Beginnings and breakthrough ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
In 2007 , Pinto 's modeling agency selected her and six other models to audition for the female lead in Danny Boyle 's film Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) after a request by its casting director . After undergoing six months of extensive auditions , Pinto won the role of Latika , the love interest of the main character Jamal , played by Dev Patel . During the post @-@ production phase , she attended an acting course at the Barry John Acting Studio in Mumbai . Although the course taught her about the " technical aspects " of acting , she stated that " in terms of the actual experience , there 's nothing like going out there and actually playing the part ... So for me , my favorite acting school was the six months of auditioning with Danny Boyle " . Acclaimed particularly for its plot and soundtrack , Slumdog Millionaire emerged as a sleeper hit ; made on a budget of $ 15 million , the film grossed US $ 377 @.@ 9 million worldwide . It was the most successful film at the 81st Academy Awards : it was nominated for ten awards , of which it won eight , including the award for Best Picture . Pinto won the Breakthrough Performance Award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival , and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture , along with other cast members from the film . She was also nominated for Best Actress in a Supporting Role at the BAFTA Awards . Pinto 's performance in the film drew little attention from critics as her screen presence in the film was limited . The Telegraph ( Calcutta ) opined " it 's difficult to form an opinion " on her character ; its columnist Bharathi S. Pradhan noted " Slumdog Millionaire wasn 't really a test of Freida 's acting abilities . "
Following the success of Slumdog Millionaire , Pinto signed up for two art house productions . In Woody Allen 's comedy @-@ drama You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger ( 2010 ) , she acted alongside Antonio Banderas , Josh Brolin , Anthony Hopkins , Anupam Kher and Naomi Watts . She played a " mystery woman " who draws the attention of the character played by Brolin . Premiering at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival , the film received mixed reviews upon its release . Pinto then starred in Julian Schnabel 's Miral ( 2010 ) , based on a semi @-@ biographical novel by Rula Jebreal , playing an orphaned Palestinian woman who grew up in a refugee camp in Israel . Before the film 's production began in the Palestinian territories , Pinto prepared for the role by visiting several refugee camps in the area . She stated that she could relate to her character 's experiences because of her knowledge about her relatives ' experiences during the partition of India in the 1940s . The film received largely negative reviews , and Pinto 's performance divided critics : Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent wrote that " Miral ... is played very engagingly by Freida Pinto " , while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian stated that " [ Pinto ] looks uneasy and miscast " .
= = = 2011 – present = = =
Pinto had four releases in 2011 . The first was the science fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes , a reboot of the Planet of the Apes series . She played the role of Caroline Aranha , a primatologist who falls in love with the main character , played by James Franco . To prepare for her role , she researched the career of English anthropologist Jane Goodall . The film went on to gross US $ 481 @.@ 8 million worldwide ; it remains her highest @-@ grossing film as of April 2016 . Pinto 's character received criticism for being too one @-@ dimensional : Anthony Quinn of The Independent called it a " failure " , and Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described the character as the most " boringly decorous tag @-@ along girlfriend seen onscreen in years . " Pinto 's second screen appearance of the year was playing the title character in Michael Winterbottom 's Trishna . The film , based on Thomas Hardy 's novel Tess of the d 'Urbervilles , gave Pinto the role of a teenage Rajasthani peasant , who leaves her family to work for a British @-@ born Indian hotelier , played by Riz Ahmed . It premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival and gained a mixed response from critics . Nishat Bari of India Today called Pinto 's role her " most substantial " one to that point . Philip French of The Guardian stated that Pinto " captivates " in the lead role , while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called her performance " touchingly beautiful " . In contrast , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote that Pinto is " one of [ the film 's ] loveliest attractions , but she and her director haven 't been able to give Trishna a pulse " .
Pinto 's third film role in 2011 was playing Princess Lailah in the poorly received independent film Day of the Falcon , a period drama set in the 1930s Middle East , where she was cast alongside Antonio Banderas , Mark Strong and Liya Kebede . Despite overall negative reviews , Andy Webster of The New York Times described Pinto and Kebede as " refreshing " and praised their " independent presences amid the stiflingly male @-@ dominated milieu " . Pinto 's final screen appearance of the year was in the fantasy @-@ action film Immortals , in which she played the oracle priestess Phaedra . Despite receiving mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from critics , the film grossed US $ 226 @.@ 9 million worldwide . Writing for The Hollywood Reporter , Todd McCarthy remarked that Phaedra was " capably embodied " by Pinto .
After 2011 , Pinto had no new film releases for two years . In 2013 , she appeared in the music video for Bruno Mars ' single " Gorilla " . She was criticised by the Indian media for appearing in the video ; The Times of India and Hindustan Times dismissed it as little more than " dirty dancing " . The same year , Pinto was also one of the narrators in the documentary film Girl Rising , produced for the campaign of the same name which promotes access to education for girls all over the world .
Pinto 's first cinematic appearance in two years was in the biographical drama Desert Dancer ( 2014 ) , which was about the life of Iranian choreographer Afshin Ghaffarian . She played the heroin @-@ addicted Elaheh , the love interest of the lead character played by Reece Ritchie . The role required her to do dance training consisting of eight hours of rehearsals a day for 14 weeks . She also attended a few sessions at rehabilitation centres in the United States to prepare for her role . It received largely negative reviews , although Andy Webster of The New York Times noted that " Pinto , even with an unfocused and underwritten role , is captivating " .
Pinto 's first film of 2015 was Terrence Malick 's Knight of Cups , an experimental film that featured an ensemble cast including Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Natalie Portman , and Antonio Banderas . She played Helen , a model with whom Bale embarks on a " dalliance " . She talked about acting without a script : " It is definitely a bit nerve @-@ racking on the first day because you don 't know where you are going to go . But once you figure that out , then it doesn 't really matter . It is actually very relaxing . It is fun and liberating . It is an experience that I completely embrace " . Premiering at the competition section of the 65th Berlin International Film Festival , the film received average to mixed reviews from critics . The film was released in the United States in March 2016 . She was among the 100 narrators of Unity ( 2015 ) , a documentary that explores the relationships between Earth 's species . Her third release of that year was the Colombian action film Blunt Force Trauma , in which she starred opposite Ryan Kwanten and Mickey Rourke as a woman looking for her brother 's murderer . John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter criticised the film , stating that it " takes itself much more seriously than viewers will . " As of October 2015 , Pinto is working on Andy Serkis ' Jungle Book , a motion capture adventure fantasy film based on Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book . She will portray Mowgli 's adoptive mother in the film .
= = Personal life = =
Before beginning her film career , Pinto was engaged to Rohan Antao , who had been her publicist at one point . She ended the relationship in January 2009 and began dating her Slumdog Millionaire co @-@ star Dev Patel , who is six years her junior . In 2012 , Pinto stated that she does not want to act with Patel again as she feels that they would not be able to replicate the " chemistry " they had in their debut film . After a six @-@ year relationship , the couple separated amicably in December 2014 . After the success of Slumdog Millionaire , Pinto had " no fixed address " , but instead split her time between Mumbai , London , and Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview with USA Today , she stated that she lives in Los Angeles .
Feminism to me is equality . There is no man over woman and vice versa . Feminism is a very misconstrued and misunderstood topic . As soon as we say feminism , it does not mean all men should become subordinate and women should be the ones who rule the world . The only way we can have a progressive and successful country or world is when men and women treat each other as equals
Alongside her acting career , Pinto has been actively involved with several humanitarian causes and is vocal about the uplifting of women and underprivileged children . She has cited Angelina Jolie and Malala Yousafzai as " massive " inspirations in this regard . In 2010 , Pinto joined Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf in support of their philanthropic organisation , the Agassi Foundation . She raised $ 75 @,@ 000 for their annual fund raiser — " The 15th Grand Slam for Children " — which was aimed at providing education for underprivileged children . Two years later , she was appointed as the global ambassador of Plan International 's Because I am a Girl , a campaign that promotes gender equality with the aim of lifting millions of girls out of poverty .
In 2013 , Pinto appeared in a video clip for Gucci 's " Chime for Change " campaign to raise funds and awareness of women 's issues in terms of education , health , and justice . The following year , she participated at the " Girls ' rights summit " in London , where she called for more progress toward the end of female genital mutilation and child marriage . In March 2015 , she spoke out against the Indian government 's ban on India 's Daughter , Leslee Udwin 's documentary on the 2012 Delhi gang rape . During its premier at the United States , she said the film needs to reach the public as it is not a " shame @-@ India documentary " . In a 2015 interview , she stated : " This film in no way is propagating violence in order to solve the problem . In fact , what we 're saying is let 's do this in the most civilized possible way ever " .
In February 2016 , Pinto announced that she would be a part of a nonprofit organisation called " We Do It Together " , which provides finance for feature films , documentaries , and television shows that focus on women 's empowerment .
= = Media image = =
Although she played a small role in Slumdog Millionaire , the film catapulted Pinto to widespread recognition . The media has often speculated about her roles and earnings . In March 2009 , The Daily Telegraph reported Pinto as the highest @-@ paid Indian actress , although she had not appeared in a Bollywood film to that point . CNN @-@ IBN called her " India 's best export to [ the ] West " , while The Telegraph ( Calcutta ) described her as " arguably the biggest global star from India " .
Pinto has been frequently included in beauty and fashion polls conducted by various magazines . She was featured in People magazine 's annual lists — " World 's Most Beautiful People " and " World 's Best Dressed Women " in 2009 . That year , she was also included in Vogue 's list of the " top ten most stylish women " . In 2011 , Pinto was included as the only Indian celebrity among the " 50 Most Beautiful Women in Film " , a list compiled by Los Angeles Times Magazine . The following year , People named her one of the " Most Beautiful at Every Age " . She was featured in the " Top 99 Most Desirable Women " poll conducted by AskMen , consecutively from 2010 to 2012 .
In 2009 , Pinto was made a spokeswoman for L 'Oréal Paris . Two years later , a controversy arose when she appeared in an advert promoting a L 'Oréal product ; it showed Pinto in what was perceived to be a lighter skin tone due to make @-@ up or editing . The company denied claims of retouching Pinto 's picture .
A popular actress in Hollywood , Pinto remains a relatively little @-@ known figure in India ; critics and analysts have attributed the fact to the failure of Slumdog Millionaire in the country . Indian sociologist Ashis Nandy remarked : " My periscope does not pick her up " , while journalist Khalid Mohamed stated : " She is not a factor in Mumbai . " The Indian media has criticised her " fluctuating " accents — in Hindi and English — and attributed her inability to find roles in Bollywood to her dark complexion . Despite these criticisms , Pinto has been credited by the media for having avoided being stereotyped as an Indian in Hollywood , as she often plays characters of other nationalities . In a 2012 interview with Hindustan Times , she said she consciously avoids roles that depict stereotypes .
Pinto balances out her career by working in " big budget Hollywood blockbusters " alongside " smart independent films " . When asked about her preference for Hollywood , she replied : " I just wanted to become an actor . As an actor , you don 't have to limit yourself to a particular culture or ethnicity . I want to spread my tentacles everywhere and am ready for a film offer from any part of the world . "
= = Filmography = =
= = = Music video appearances = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Molecular diagnostics =
Molecular diagnostics is a collection of techniques used to analyse biological markers in the genome and proteome — the individual 's genetic code and how their cells express their genes as proteins — by applying molecular biology to medical testing . The technique is used to diagnose and monitor disease , detect risk , and decide which therapies will work best for individual patients .
By analysing the specifics of the patient and their disease , molecular diagnostics offers the prospect of personalised medicine .
These tests are useful in a range of medical specialisms , including infectious disease , oncology , human leukocyte antigen typing ( which investigates and predicts immune function ) , coagulation , and pharmacogenomics — the genetic prediction of which drugs will work best . They overlap with clinical chemistry ( medical tests on bodily fluids ) .
= = History = =
The field of molecular biology grew in the late twentieth century , as did its clinical application . In 1980 , Yuet Wai Kan et al. suggested a prenatal genetic test for Thalassemia that did not rely upon DNA sequencing — then in its infancy — but on restriction enzymes that cut DNA where they recognised specific short sequences , creating different lengths of DNA strand depending on which allele ( genetic variation ) the fetus possessed . In the 1980s , the phrase was used in the names of companies such asMolecular Diagnostics Incorporated and Bethseda Research Laboraties Molecular Diagnostics .
During the 1990s , the identification of newly discovered genes and new techniques for DNA sequencing led to the appearance of a distinct field of molecular and genomic laboratory medicine ; in 1995 , the Association for Molecular Pathology ( AMP ) was formed to give it structure . In 1999 , the AMP co @-@ founded The Journal of Medical Diagnostics . Informa Healthcare launched Expert Reviews in Medical Diagnostics in 2001 . From 2002 onwards , the HapMap Project aggregated information on the one @-@ letter genetic differences that recur in the human population — the single nucleotide polymorphisms — and their relationship with disease . In 2012 , molecular diagnostic techniques for Thalassemia use genetic hybridization tests to identify the specific single nucleotide polymorphism causing an individual 's disease .
As the commercial application of molecular diagnostics has become more important , so has the debate about patenting of the genetic discoveries at its heart . In 1998 , the European Union 's Directive 98 / 44 / ECclarified that patents on DNA sequences were allowable . In 2010 in the US , AMP sued Myriad Genetics to challenge the latter 's patents regarding two genes , BRCA1 , BRCA2 , which are associated with breast cancer . In 2013 , the U.S. Supreme Court partially agreed , ruling that a naturally occurring gene sequence could not be patented .
= = Techniques = =
= = = Development from research tools = = =
The industrialisation of molecular biology assay tools has made it practical to use them in clinics . Miniaturisation into a single handheld device can bring medical diagnostics into the clinic and into the office or home . The clinical laboratory requires high standards of reliability ; diagnostics may require accreditation or fall under medical device regulations . As of 2011 , some US clinical laboratories nevertheless used assays sold for " research use only " .
Laboratory processes need to adhere to regulations , for example Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments , Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act , Good Laboratory Practice , and Food and Drug Administration specifications in the United States . Laboratory Information Management Systems help by tracking these processes . Regulation applies to both staff and supplies . As of 2012 , twelve US states require molecular pathologists to be licensed ; several boards such as the American Board of Medical Genetics and the American Board of Pathology certify technologists , supervisors , and laboratory directors .
Automation maximises throughput and reduces the possibility of error or contamination during manual handling . Single devices to do the assay from beginning to end are now available .
= = = Assays = = =
Molecular diagnostics uses biological assays such as PCR @-@ ELISA or Fluorescence in situ hybridization . The assay detects a molecule , often in low concentrations , that is a marker of disease or risk in a sample taken from a patient . Preservation of the sample before analysis is critical . Manual handling should be minimised . The fragile RNA molecule poses certain challenges . As part of the cellular process of expressing genes as proteins , it offers a measure of gene expression but it is vulnerable to hydrolysis and breakdown by ever @-@ present RNAse enzymes . Samples can be snap @-@ frozen in liquid nitrogen or incubated in preservation agents .
Because molecular diagnostics can detect slighter markers , it is less intrusive than a biopsy . For example , because cell @-@ free nucleic acids exist in human plasma , a simple blood sample can be enough to sample genetic information from tumours , transplants or an unborn fetus . Molecular diagnostics based on nucleic acids use polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) to vastly increase the number of nucleic acid molecules and amplify the target . The detection of the marker might use real time PCR , direct sequencing , or microarray chips — prefabricated chips that test many markers at once . The same principle applies to the proteome and the genome . High @-@ throughput protein arrays can use complementary DNA or antibodies to bind and hence can detect many different proteins in parallel .
= = Applications = =
= = = Prenatal = = =
Conventional prenatal tests for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down Syndrome rely on analysing the number and appearance of the chromosomes — the karyotype . Molecular diagnostics tests such as microarray comparative genomic hybridisation test a sample of DNA instead , and because of cell @-@ free DNA in plasma , could be less invasive , but as of 2013 it is still an adjunct to the conventional tests .
= = = Treatment = = =
Some of a patient 's single nucleotide polymorphisms — slight differences in their DNA — can help predict how quickly they will metabolise particular drugs ; this is called pharmacogenomics . For example , the enzyme CYP2C19 metabolises several drugs , such as the anti @-@ clotting agent Clopidogrel , into their active forms . Some patients possess polymorphisms in specific places on the 2C19 gene that make poor metabolisers of those drugs ; physicians can test for these polymorphisms and find out whether the drugs will be fully effective for that patient . Advances in molecular biology have helped show that some syndromes that were previously classed as a single disease are actually multiple subtypes with entirely different causes and treatments . Molecular diagnostics can help diagnose the subtype — for example of infections and cancers — or the genetic analysis of a disease with an inherited component , such as Silver @-@ Russell syndrome .
= = = Infectious disease = = =
Molecular diagnostics are used to identify infectious diseases such as chlamydia , influenza virus and tuberculosis ; or specific strains such as H1N1 virus . Genetic identification can be swift ; for example a loop @-@ mediated isothermal amplification test diagnoses the malaria parasite and is rugged enough for developing countries . But despite these advances in genome analysis , in 2013 infections are still more often identified by other means — their proteome , bacteriophage , or chromatographic profile . Molecular diagnostics are also used to understand the specific strain of the pathogen — for example by detecting which drug resistance genes it possesses — and hence which therapies to avoid .
= = = Disease risk management = = =
A patient 's genome may include an inherited or random mutation which affects the probability of developing a disease in the future . For example , Lynch syndrome is a genetic disease that predisposes patients to colorectal and other cancers ; early detection can lead to close monitoring that improves the patient 's chances of a good outcome . Cardiovascular risk is indicated by biological markers and screening can measure the risk that a child will be born with a genetic disease such as Cystic fibrosis . Genetic testing is ethically complex : patients may not want the stress of knowing their risk . In countries without universal healthcare , a known risk may raise insurance premiums .
= = = Cancer = = =
Cancer is a change in the cellular processes that cause a tumour to grow out of control . Cancerous cells sometimes have mutations in oncogenes , such as KRAS and CTNNB1 ( β @-@ catenin ) . Analysing the molecular signature of cancerous cells — the DNA and its levels of expression via messenger RNA — enables physicians to characterise the cancer and to choose the best therapy for their patients . As of 2010 , assays that incorporate an array of antibodies against specific protein marker molecules are an emerging technology ; there are hopes for these multiplex assays that could measure many markers at once . Other potential future biomarkers include micro RNA molecules , which cancerous cells express more of than healthy ones .
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= Lecrae =
Lecrae Devaughn Moore ( born October 9 , 1979 ) , mononymously known as Lecrae , is an American Christian hip hop artist , songwriter , record producer and actor . He is the president , co @-@ owner and co @-@ founder of the independent record label Reach Records , and the co @-@ founder and president of the non @-@ profit organization ReachLife Ministries . To date , he has released seven studio albums and three mixtapes as a solo artist , and has released three studio albums , a remix album , and one EP as the leader of the hip hop group 116 Clique . He produced much of his earlier material along with other early Reach Records releases . Lecrae , in reference to his label as a Christian rapper , has stated that his music is just hip hop , though it reflects his Christian faith . In May 2016 , Lecrae signed to Columbia Records in a joint deal between his label and Columbia .
Lecrae debuted with Real Talk in 2004 through Reach Records . His third solo album , Rebel , released in 2008 , became the first Christian hip hop album to reach No. 1 on the Billboard Gospel chart . Rehab followed in 2010 , and Lecrae began attracting mainstream attention when he performed at the 2011 BET Hip Hop Awards Cypher and appeared on the Statik Selektah song " Live & Let Live " from Population Control . On May 10 , 2012 , Lecrae released his first mixtape , Church Clothes , which was hosted by DJ Don Cannon . Considered his breakthrough into mainstream hip hop , the mixtape was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in less than 48 hours . His sixth studio album , Gravity , came out on September 4 , 2012 , and has been called the most important album in Christian hip hop history by Rapzilla and Atlanta Daily World . The album debuted as the best @-@ selling album overall in the iTunes Store , No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and won the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards , marking the first time that a hip hop artist received this award . Lecrae released his seventh album , Anomaly , on September 9 , 2014 . It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 with 88 @,@ 587 copies sold through the first week , the first album to top both the Billboard 200 and the Gospel chart simultaneously .
Lecrae received nominations for Artist of the Year at the 43rd , 44th , 45th , and 46th GMA Dove Awards , the last of which he won , and for Best Gospel Artist at the 2013 and 2015 BET Awards , the latter of which he won , a first for a rap artist . Lecrae 's filmography includes a role in the television film A Cross to Bear ( 2012 ) and a brief role as Dr. Malmquist in the comedy film Believe Me ( 2014 ) . In the social sphere , Lecrae has advocated for the preservation of responsibility and fatherhood as a value among men in the United States , and in 2013 partnered with Dwyane Wade and Joshua DuBois in the multimedia initiative This Is Fatherhood as part of the Obama administration 's Fatherhood and Mentoring Initiative . He has also contributed articles to Billboard discussing racial tension and injustice in the United States , where he has called for willingness to listen to the oppressed as well as pointing out a need for spiritual healing .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born and raised by his single mother in Southern Houston , Texas , Lecrae moved often early in life , living in San Diego , Denver , and Dallas . He has stated that he would go to church with his Christian grandmother , but considered it for " older people " and said it " wasn 't for me . " Lecrae never met his father , who ended up becoming a drug addict . In the song " Good , Bad , Ugly " , Lecrae reveals that when he was almost eight , a female baby sitter sexually molested him , an incident which Lecrae believes distorted his view of sexuality , influencing his later promiscuous lifestyle . Experiencing abuse and neglect during his childhood , Lecrae used his ability to rap as a source of significance . According to Lecrae , his grandmother would not allow him to watch rap music videos on television , but he would sneak in late at night . It was in these videos that Lecrae found individuals to look up to . Lecrae states that " there were no Martin Luther Kings or Malcolm Xs , they had all passed away so I had Tupac . " After being shown a gun by his uncle , Lecrae began looking up to gangsters and turned to a life of crime . Lecrae remembers taking a BB gun and standing in the street pointing it to a car , frightening the female driver , simply for fun . At the age of 16 , he started taking drugs , fighting , was arrested in high school for stealing , and eventually ended up on a gang list . Lecrae tried " pretty much every drug there was to try " except for heroin and crack cocaine .
According to CNN , he became a drug dealer and used the Bible that his grandmother gave him as a good luck charm . After being arrested for drug possession , the officer saw the Bible and let Lecrae go on a promise that he would agree to live by it . He eventually turned from drugs to alcohol consumption and a party lifestyle and became a " misfit of a person . " He has described himself during this period as a thrill @-@ seeker , he would pull stunts such as jumping from a third @-@ story building , and gained the nickname " Crazy ' Crae " . Encouraged by his concerned mother to read his Bible , Lecrae said that " I remember ripping the pages out of the Bible and throwing it on the floor . I don 't want this Bible . I couldn 't wrap my hands around this being true or real . " He began to drink and smoke more and look for more women " as the emptiness became more profound . " At age 17 , his personal , financial , and relationship troubles convinced him that he was at a " dead end . " Wanting to do what he considered the mature thing , through the influence of his grandmother , he desired to start attending church . A girl Lecrae attended high school with was there , and she invited him to a Bible study , where he met Darragh , his future wife . Lecrae was surprised to find that the members of the Bible study " were just people like me . They read the same books and listened to the same music . Their character was just different . They were loving and that 's really what drew me in . " Lecrae says that it was at age 19 that he finally decided to live for God , though " it wasn 't overnight " and he " spent a lot of time making bad decisions . "
= = = = Conversion = = = =
Lecrae attended a conference after being invited by a friend , though Lecrae admits that his interest was to meet girls and experience the big city . When he arrived at the conference , Lecrae was awed by the performance of the Christian hip @-@ hop group The Cross Movement . Lecrae says that he saw " guys who had been shot from being in gangs , girls who were extremely promiscuous in the past , I see rappers , dancers and singers ; I see people who came from the same background I came from , and they still embodied who they were culturally , but they were all in love with Jesus and I had never seen that before . " After hearing Pastor James White of Christ Our King Community Church speak on how Christians are bought with a price and the suffering that Jesus underwent in the Crucifixion , Lecrae says that he remembers articulating " God get me out of this , don 't kill me ; do whatever you have to do to get me out of this , just don 't kill me . " Later , Lecrae was driving on a highway when he turned too quickly and his car went into a roll . He had no seatbelt and the roof and windshield of the car caved in , his glasses were molded into the frame of the car , but he survived completely uninjured . Lecrae cites this incident as the one which convinced him to commit his life to Christ . Lecrae went back to his college , the University of North Texas , with a printed version of his testimony to pass out on campus . He started volunteering and performing at a juvenile detention center , and the reception he received convinced him that offering " hope and encouragement " through music was what he wanted to do . However , Lecrae still struggled in his faith − as revealed in " Good , Bad , Ugly " , in 2002 he impregnated a then @-@ girlfriend . Rather than risk scandal , he and his girlfriend had the baby aborted , a decision he says he now deeply regrets .
= = = Early career , Real Talk , and After the Music Stops ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
Five years after his conversion , Lecrae teamed up with Ben Washer to found Reach Records , and at the age of 25 he released his first album , Real Talk . The following year it was re @-@ released by Cross Movement Records and reached No. 29 on the Billboard Gospel Albums chart , staying on the chart for 12 weeks . The album later received a nomination at the 2007 Stellar Awards . In 2005 , Lecrae co @-@ founded the non @-@ profit organization ReachLife Ministries , which equips local Christian leaders with tools , media , curriculum , and conferences that are based on the teachings of the Bible and relevant to hip @-@ hop culture . Also in 2005 , the debut album of 116 Clique , The Compilation Album , was released .
After the success of Real Talk , Lecrae released his second studio album on August 15 , 2006 . After the Music Stops charted at No. 5 on the Billboard Gospel Albums chart , No. 7 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseeker Album charts , and received a nomination for a Dove Award , as was the single " Jesus Muzik " , featuring Trip Lee . In 2007 , 116 Clique released its second album , 13 Letters , reaching No. 10 on the Gospel Albums chart and No. 29 on the Christian Albums chart . 116 Clique also released the remix EP Amped , which peaked at No. 24 on the Gospel Albums chart .
= = = Rebel ( 2008 – 09 ) = = =
On October 8 , 2008 , Lecrae 's third album , Rebel , entered the Billboard charts at No. 60 with 9 @,@ 800 units sold and topped the Billboard Gospel Album charts for two weeks , the first hip @-@ hop album to do so . It also charted at No. 2 on the Christian Albums chart and No. 15 on the Top Independent charts . In 2009 , the album received a nomination at the 40th Dove Awards , as did the Flame song " Joyful Noise " , which featured Lecrae and John Reilly . 2009 also saw Lecrae 's first film role , when he appeared in the documentary Uprise Presents : Word from the Street by the UK @-@ based TV channel OHTV .
= = = Rehab series ( 2010 – 11 ) = = =
On February 5 , 2010 , Lecrae released a charity single entitled " Far Away " , a tribute to the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . Lecrae promised that all proceeds from the single 's sales would go directly to the Haiti relief effort .
On July 7 , Lecrae announced on the Reach Records website that the title of his new album would be Rehab . On August 5 , 2010 , Rapzilla released a new song from Lecrae called " Amp It Up " . Lecrae subsequently clarified on his Twitter account that the song was not a single from Rehab , but rather a theme song for Kanakuk Kamps , a chain of Christian camps for which he writes songs annually . On August 31 , 2010 , Reach Records revealed the track list for Rehab , released it for preorder , and premiered a promotional video " Idols " . A second promotional video , entitled " I Am Dust " , debuted on September 9 , 2010 . Upon its release , Rehab hit No. 16 on the Billboard 200 chart , making it one of the highest selling Christian hip hop albums at that time .
On September 22 , 2010 , Rapzilla reported that the Rehab packaging came with an advertisement encouraging buyers to purchase another upcoming album , Rehab : The Overdose , which saw release on January 11 , 2011 . It included 11 new songs and featured several other Christian artists such as Thi 'sl and Swoope . Rehab : The Overdose debuted at No. 15 on the Billboard 200 . On August 29 , 2011 , Lecrae announced through Twitter that on September 27 , 2011 , he would release a special edition of Rehab , entitled Rehab : Deluxe Edition . On the same day , 116 Clique released their fourth album , entitled Man Up .
On September 7 , 2011 , Rapzilla announced that Lecrae would be featured on the BET Hip Hop Awards Cypher on October 11 , 2011 . Lecrae gained popularity after his verse on the cypher trended nationwide on Twitter and was featured on AllHipHop . Lecrae then appeared as a feature on Statik Selektah 's song " Live and Let Live " from his Population Control album .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough , Gravity , and Church Clothes series ( 2012 – 13 ) = = =
On February 16 , 2012 , Rapzilla announced that Lecrae was preparing to release his first mixtape , Church Clothes . On May 3 , 2012 , Lecrae premiered his music video for the title track of his Church Clothes mixtape online on XXL . The video was noted for including cameos by Kendrick Lamar and DJ Premier , and attracted almost 20 @,@ 000 views in less than a day . Hosted by Don Cannon , the mixtape featured the song Darkest Hour , in which Lecrae collaborated with No Malice of Clipse . Church Clothes was downloaded more than 100 @,@ 000 times in less than 48 hours on DatPiff.com , and in less than a month reached 250 @,@ 000 downloads , a platinum rating on the website . On June 25 , 2012 , a remastered version of the mixtape , without DJ Don Cannon , was released as an EP for sale on iTunes . Due to issues with sampling , this version was much shorter with only seven songs . Upon its release , the EP debuted on the Billboard charts at No. 10 on both the Christian Albums and Gospel Albums charts for the week of July 14 , 2012 .
On April 27 , Lecrae announced that his next album , Gravity , was to be released in late 2012 , and recording sessions began in May . On June 21 , 2012 Lecrae appeared live at the Apple Store in Chicago for Black Music Month . The release date for Gravity , September 4 , 2012 , as well as the album artwork was announced on July 19 , 2012 via Rapzilla .
On August 30 , 2012 , the rapper Saigon announced that Lecrae would be one of the featured artists on his upcoming album The Greatest Story Never Told Chapter 2 : Bread and Circuses , due November 6 , 2012 .
Gravity was released on September 4 , 2012 to critical acclaim . Upon its release , Gravity debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 , with 72 @,@ 000 units sold . The album also debuted at No. 1 on the Christian , Gospel , Independent , and Rap Album charts , No. 3 on the Digital Albums chart , and 24 on the Canadian Albums Chart . After the iTunes deluxe version of the album hit No. 1 on that vendors charts , and the regular version at number No. 2 , Time wrote an article about Lecrae and his success with the album .
On November 7 , 2013 , Lecrae released his second mixtape , entitled Church Clothes Vol . 2 , hosted once again by Don Cannon . The mixtape debuted at No. 21 on the Billboard 200 , No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums and Gospel Albums charts , and No. 3 on the Rap Albums chart . On Datpiff.com , the album was download over 146 @,@ 000 times by November 26 , 2013 .
= = = Anomaly , Church Clothes 3 , first book , and new record deal ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On June 3 , 2014 Lecrae announced through social media that his seventh studio album would be titled Anomaly . The album released on September 9 , 2014 . It is supported by the single " Nuthin " . It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 with over 88 @,@ 000 copies sold through the first week . It is the first time an album tops both the Billboard 200 and the Gospel Albums chart . Lecrae also became the fifth artist following Chris Tomlin ( 2013 ) , TobyMac ( 2012 ) , LeAnn Rimes ( 1997 ) and Bob Carlisle ( 1997 ) to score a number one album on both Christian Albums and the Billboard 200 . Anomaly also marks the sixth time that Lecrae topped the Gospel Albums chart and the fifth time he topped the Christian Albums chart . In its second week of sales , the album sold 31 @,@ 000 copies , bringing the total to 120 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its third week of sales , the album sold another 17 @,@ 000 copies , bringing the total to 137 @,@ 000 copies . As a reward to fans for their support in helping his album go No. 1 on Billboard , Lecrae released a new song , " Non @-@ Fiction " , as a free download on September 17 . The song was subsequently released on October 21 , 2014 in the iTunes store . In August 2015 , Lecrae announced that he will be releasing a memoir titled Unashamed , it was released in May 2016 . On January 15 , 2016 , Lecrae released his third mixtape Church Clothes 3 . In May 2016 , Lecrae signed to Columbia Records , which will release future recordings in conjunction with Reach .
= = Influences and musical style = =
Lecrae 's musical genre is predominantly Southern hip hop , and has been described as falling under the styles of crunk , gangsta rap , and hardcore hip hop . On his third release , Rebel , Lecrae slowed down his style on many songs . Rehab was noted for its stylistic diversity , particularly on the song " Children of the Light " , which featured Dillavou and Sonny Sandoval and incorporated rock , and reggae influences . With the release Gravity , Billboard described Lecrae as incorporating reggae and soul influences into his " signature brash sound . "
Regarding which musical artists have influenced him , Lecrae , in an interview with Essence , cited Tupac , Nas , DJ Quik , Scarface , and The Cross Movement . In an interview with The Christian Post , Lecrae listed his top favorite five hip hop artists as Tupac , Nas , The Ambassador , Snoop Dogg , and , though for his business approach rather than his music , Jay Z. Lecrae also names Outkast and Lauryn Hill as major influences , particularly their albums Aquemini and The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill , respectively , and considers Hill 's song " Adam Lives in Theory " as the top song that nourishes him spiritually . In the song " Non @-@ Fiction " , he lists the Tunnel Rats alongside The Cross Movement as an influence when he was newly converted to Christianity . Theologically , Lecrae follows the Reformed tradition of theology and is considered an influential figure in the New Calvinist movement . He cites Tommy Nelson , John MacArthur , and John Piper , among others , as early influences on his Christian faith , and Lecrae even titled one of his hit songs , " Don 't Waste Your Life " , after the book of the same name by Piper . Lecrae explains that through Nelson , MacArthur , and Piper , he subsequently discovered Spurgeon , Calvin , and Francis Schaeffer , the last of whom Lecrae calls his " personal hero " . Other theologians cited by Lecrae include Tim Keller , Andy Crouch , Randy Alcorn , and Abraham Kuyper . He also looks to Martin Luther King , Jr. for inspiration on working out faith in social issues .
He frequently tells the press that " My music is not Christian , Lecrae is . " He told Miami New Times 's Crossfade that " I think Christian is a wonderful noun , but a terrible adjective . Are there Christian shoes , Christian clothes , Christian plumbers , Christian pipes ? I think if you 're going to , you should label it hip @-@ hop ... hip @-@ hop is a particular poetic style . Labeling it with the faith assumes that the song is going to be some kind of sermon , but there 's a lot of social and political things that I don 't think make it gospel or Christian music . " He also stated , " I like to wrap my mind around a total situation . I 'm a social anthropologist . If I never been homeless , let me try to be homeless for a week and soak up that information . More like a method actor . So for me it 's spending time with people and talking about things from their perspective . "
= = Popular culture = =
Charlotte Hornets guard Jeremy Lin recommended Lecrae and Hillsong in an interview when asked about his pre @-@ game music . Former NFL quarterback Tim Tebow and professional wrestler Ezekiel Jackson have also endorsed Lecrae . During March 2014 , Lecrae signed a ten @-@ day contract with the Atlanta Hawks , and on April 4 , 2014 , he performed live at Philips Arena after the Hawks game . " Dum Dum , " a song by Tedashii featuring Lecrae , was used on an episode of So You Think You Can Dance .
= = Social activism = =
In 2011 , 116 Clique and ReachLife Ministries , both headed by Lecrae , launched a media campaign entitled Man Up , intended to mentor male urban youths on fatherhood and biblical manhood . It features concert tours and a curriculum centered on a short film and a studio album , both titled Man Up , and since 2012 has also featured a string of conference events .
In May 2013 , Lecrae partnered with NBA player Dwyane Wade , filmmaker Art Hooker , and Joshua DuBois , the former head of the Office of Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships under the Obama administration , to create the national media campaign This Is Fatherhood , an initiative " devoted to restoring America 's commitment to healthy fatherhood . " The campaign began on May 1 with a " This is Fatherhood Challenge " , in which contestants could submit videos , songs , and essays about fatherhood through June 10 . The winners received cash prizes and a trip to Washington , D.C. , for a ceremony on Father 's Day . In addition , Lecrae offered studio time and mentoring to the grand prize winner . Lecrae , Wade , DuBois , Jay Z , and U.S. President Barack Obama all made appearances in the campaign 's promotional public service announcements .
Lecrae has also contributed op @-@ ed articles to Billboard on the 2014 Ferguson unrest and the 2015 Charleston church shooting , and has called for understanding and empathy across racial divides and willingness to listen to the oppressed , and also pointed out the need for spiritual healing through Jesus Christ .
= = Personal life = =
Lecrae currently resides in Atlanta since relocating there from Memphis in 2009 , and is married to Darragh Moore . The couple has three children together . Darragh handles the administration for Lecrae 's tours . Lecrae is a graduate of University of North Texas . In an interview with Hip Hop DX , Lecrae stated that Clipse member No Malice sought him out as a spiritual advisor .
On March 14 , 2016 , Canada Christian College bestowed an honorary Doctorate of Music to Lecrae whilst visiting Toronto on his Higher Learning Tour , making him the youngest recipient of such a degree from the college .
= = Discography = =
Real Talk ( 2004 )
After the Music Stops ( 2006 )
Rebel ( 2008 )
Rehab ( 2010 )
Rehab : The Overdose ( 2011 )
Gravity ( 2012 )
Anomaly ( 2014 )
= = Production discography = =
Self @-@ release – Real Talk ( 2004 )
Json – The Seasoning with So Hot Productions and C.I. ( 2005 )
Self @-@ release – After the Music Stops with So Hot Productions , Mac the Doulous , DJ Official , and Tony Stone ( 2006 )
Trip Lee – If They Only Knew with DJ Official , Tony Stone , Mac the Doulous , So Hot Productions ( 2006 )
Tedashii – Kingdom People with Ben Washer ( 2006 )
02 . " Houston We Have a Problem "
04 . " Off Da Hook "
09 . " Lifestyle "
15 . " No More "
19 . " In Ya Hood ( Cypha Remix ) "
Sho Baraka – Turn My Life Up with Bobby Taylor , DJ Official , BenJah , and So Hot Productions ( 2007 )
Self @-@ release – Rebel ( 2008 )
09 . " Change "
Self @-@ release – Gravity ( 2012 )
Self @-@ release – Anomaly ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Lecrae has won many music awards over the space of his career , including two Grammy Awards and seven Dove Awards . In 2013 , he became the first hip hop artist to win the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Album , which was awarded to his sixth album , Gravity , and in 2015 became the first rapper to win the BET Award for Best Gospel Artist .
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= Cliff Burton =
Clifford Lee " Cliff " Burton ( February 10 , 1962 – September 27 , 1986 ) was an American musician , best known as the second bass guitarist for the American thrash metal band Metallica from December 1982 until his death in September 1986 .
Burton joined Metallica in 1982 and performed on the band 's first three studio albums : Kill ' Em All , Ride the Lightning and Master of Puppets . He also received a posthumous writing credit for the song " To Live Is to Die " from the band 's fourth studio album , ... And Justice for All .
On September 27 , 1986 , Burton was killed in a bus accident in Kronoberg County , a rural area of southern Sweden , as the band was touring in support of the Master of Puppets album . Burton was replaced by bassist Jason Newsted the following month . He was also posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with Metallica on April 4 , 2009 . He was selected as the ninth greatest bassist of all time in an online reader poll organized by Rolling Stone magazine in 2011 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Clifford Lee Burton was born in Castro Valley , California , to Ray and Jan Burton . He had two elder siblings , Scott and Connie , and a niece , Nicole . Burton 's interest in music began when his father introduced him to classical music and he began taking piano lessons .
In his teenage years , Burton had an interest in rock , classical , and eventually heavy metal . He began playing the bass at age 13 , after the death of his brother . His parents quoted him as saying , " I 'm going to be the best bassist for my brother . " He practiced up to six hours per day ( even after he joined Metallica ) . Along with classical and jazz , Burton 's other early influences varied from southern rock and country to the blues .
Burton cited Geddy Lee , Geezer Butler , Stanley Clarke , Lemmy Kilmister and Phil Lynott as major influences on his style of bass playing .
= = = Career = = =
While still a student at Castro Valley High School , Burton formed his first band called EZ @-@ Street . The band took its name from a Bay Area topless bar . Other members of EZ Street included future Faith No More guitarist " Big " Jim Martin as well as Faith No More and Ozzy Osbourne drummer Mike Bordin . Burton and Martin continued their musical collaboration after becoming students at Chabot College in Hayward , California . Their second band , Agents of Misfortune , entered the Hayward Area Recreation Department 's Battle of the Bands contest in 1981 . Their audition was recorded on video and features some of the earliest footage of Burton 's trademark playing style . The video also shows Burton playing parts of what would soon be two Metallica songs : his signature bass solo , " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " , and the chromatic intro to " For Whom the Bell Tolls " . Burton joined his first major band , Trauma , in 1982 . Burton recorded the track " Such a Shame " with the band on the second Metal massacre compilation .
In 1982 , Trauma traveled to Los Angeles to perform at the Whisky a Go Go . Among those in attendance were James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich , both members of Metallica , which had formed the previous year . Upon hearing , as Hetfield described it , " this amazing shredding " ( which later became " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " ) , the two went in search of what they thought was an amazing guitar player . When they learned that what they had heard was a bass solo by Burton , they decided to recruit him for their own band . They asked him to replace departed bassist Ron McGovney , and since Burton thought that Trauma was " starting to get a little commercial " , he agreed . The idea of having to move to Los Angeles did not sit well with him , and said he would join only if the band would relocate from Los Angeles to his native San Francisco Bay Area . Metallica , eager to have Burton in the band , left their origin of Los Angeles to make a home in El Cerrito , a town located across the bay from San Francisco .
Burton 's first recording with Metallica was the Megaforce demo . A demo tape the band had made prior to Burton 's joining , No Life ' til Leather , managed to come into the hands of John Zazula , owner of Megaforce Records . The band relocated to Old Bridge , New Jersey and quickly secured a recording contract with Zazula 's label . Its debut album , Kill ' Em All , features Burton 's famous solo piece , " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " , which showcased his use of effects , such as a wah @-@ wah pedal , not commonly used by bass guitarists .
Metallica 's debut album , Kill ' Em All , was originally intended to inherit the name of one of their earlier demo releases ( predating Burton 's participation ) , which was Metal Up Your Ass , but the record company did not like the title and insisted on changing it . After the band learned of the change , Burton said " We should just kill ' em all , man , " which gave the band members an idea for the new title . The album was released on July 25 , 1983 through Megaforce Records .
The band 's second studio album , Ride the Lightning , showcased the band 's increasing musical growth . Burton 's songwriting abilities were growing , and he received credit on six of the album 's eight songs . Burton 's playing style and use of effects is showcased on two tracks : the chromatic intro to " For Whom the Bell Tolls " , and the " lead bass " on " The Call of Ktulu " .
The increase of musicianship on Ride the Lightning caught the attention of major record labels . Metallica was signed to Elektra Records , and began working on its third album , Master of Puppets , which is considered by most critics to be a landmark album in heavy metal . Burton is featured heavily on a number of tracks , most notably the instrumental " Orion " , which again featured Burton 's lead bass playing style . The album also contained Burton 's favorite Metallica song " Master of Puppets " . Master of Puppets was the band 's commercial breakthrough , but it would be Burton 's final album with Metallica .
Burton 's final performance was in Stockholm , Sweden , at the Solnahallen Arena on September 26 , 1986 , one day before his death .
= = = Death = = =
During the European leg of the Damage Inc. tour in support of Master of Puppets , the band complained that the sleeping cubicles on their tour bus were unsatisfactory and uncomfortable . To decide who received pick of the bunks , Kirk Hammett and Burton drew cards . On the evening of September 26 , 1986 , Burton won the game with an ace of spades , thereby getting the first choice of bunk and pointed at Hammett and exclaimed , " I want your bunk ! " Hammett replied , " Fine , take my bunk , I 'll sleep up front , it 's probably better up there anyway . " Burton was sleeping shortly before 7 am on September 27 when , according to the driver , the bus skidded off the road ( the E4 , 12 miles north of Ljungby ) , and flipped onto the grass in Kronoberg County Burton was thrown through the window of the bus , which fell on top of him , resulting in his death .
James Hetfield later stated that he first believed the bus flipped because the driver was drunk . Hetfield stated that he walked long distances down the road looking for black ice and found none . Local freelance photographer Lennart Wennberg ( who attended the crash scene the following morning ) , later asked in an interview about the likelihood that black ice caused the accident , said it was ' out of the question ' because the road was dry and the temperature around 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . This was confirmed by police who found no ice on the road . Ljungby detective Arne Pettersson was reported in a local newspaper to have said the tracks at the accident site were exactly like ones seen when drivers fall asleep at the wheel . However , the driver stated under oath that he had slept during the day and was fully rested ; his testimony was confirmed by the driver of a second tour bus that was carrying the band 's crew and equipment . The driver was determined not at fault for the accident and no charges were brought against him .
= = Legacy = =
Burton 's body was cremated and the ashes scattered at the Maxwell Ranch . At the ceremony , the song " Orion " was played . The lyrics " ... cannot the Kingdom of Salvation take me home " from " To Live Is to Die " are written on Burton 's memorial stone . Shortly after Burton 's death , Jason Newsted from Flotsam and Jetsam became Metallica 's new bassist , a position he held until his resignation in 2001 . The role has since been filled by producer and studio musician Bob Rock and by the former bassist of Suicidal Tendencies and Ozzy Osbourne , Robert Trujillo .
Metallica wrote a tribute to Burton titled " To Live Is to Die " for ... And Justice for All . Burton also received a writing credit for the lyrics and bass parts that were taken from unused bass recordings done by Burton which were re @-@ recorded by Jason Newsted . A non @-@ Metallica tribute to Burton is the song " In My Darkest Hour " by thrash metal band Megadeth . According to Dave Mustaine , due to hearing of Burton 's death , he sat down and wrote the music for the song in one sitting . The lyrics , however , are unrelated to Burton 's death . Mustaine was Metallica 's lead guitarist in the early days and was a close friend of Burton at the time .
On October 3 , 2006 , a memorial stone was unveiled in Sweden near the scene of the fatal crash . It is located by the parking lot to Gyllene Rasten .
Thrash metal band Anthrax dedicated its album Among the Living to him , as did Metal Church with The Dark .
On April 4 , 2009 , Burton was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , with fellow Metallica bandmates James Hetfield , Lars Ulrich and Kirk Hammett . Future bassists Jason Newsted and Robert Trujillo were inducted as well . During the ceremony , the induction was accepted by his father Ray Burton , who shared the stage with the band and mentioned that Cliff 's mother was actually Metallica 's biggest fan .
A biography , To Live Is to Die : The Life and Death of Metallica 's Cliff Burton , written by Joel McIver , was published by Jawbone Press in June 2009 . Hammett provided the book 's foreword .
= = Equipment = =
= = Cliff Burton Signature Bass = =
In January 2013 , guitar manufacturer Aria revealed through Metallica 's official website that they would be releasing a replica of Burton 's bass , called the Aria Pro II Cliff Burton Signature Bass . They had received permission from Burton 's family and former bandmates from Metallica to authorize the production of the instrument . The bass guitar was officially unveiled at Winter NAMM in Anaheim , California . On January 25 , 2013 , Burton 's father Ray attended the press conference where he signed autographs and talked about Burton and the instrument . Current Metallica bassist Robert Trujillo was also present and was the first to try out the bass , playing parts of " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " . It is unknown whether any other members of Metallica attended the event . Ray Burton was quoted as saying , ' " What a beautiful instrument and a wonderful tribute to Cliff . "
Specifications
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Kill ' Em All ( 1983 )
Ride the Lightning ( 1984 )
Master of Puppets ( 1986 )
... And Justice for All ( 1988 ) ( Posthumous writing credit on " To Live Is to Die " )
Garage Inc . ( 1998 ) ( Featured on " Am I Evil ? " & " Blitzkrieg " only )
= = = Demos = = =
No Life ' til Leather ( 1982 ) ( credited but does not play )
Megaforce ( 1983 )
Ride the Lightning ( 1983 )
Master of Puppets ( 1985 )
= = = Compilations = = =
Metal Massacre Vol.II ( with Trauma )
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= Heather Chasen =
Heather Jean Chasen ( born 20 July 1927 ) is a Singapore @-@ born English actress . Chasen is known for her roles in soap operas ; playing Valerie Pollard in the ITV soap opera Crossroads from 1982 – 86 and guest roles in Doctors , Holby City and Family Affairs . Chasen also played many roles in BBC Radio 2 's The Navy Lark from 1959 – 77 , and appeared in the television series Marked Personal from 1973 – 74 . She played Lydia Simmonds in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , a role which received positive reviews from critics , EastEnders cast members and crew . Furthermore , she has appeared extensively in theatre productions and film ; in 2012 , she appeared in a film version of Les Misérables .
= = Early and personal life = =
Chasen was born on 20 July 1927 , in Singapore . Chasen 's father , F.N. Chasen was an English ornithologist , who fought in World War I under the Norfolk Yeomanry as a trooper . In 1921 , he left England , to work at the Raffles Library and Museum in Singapore , marrying Chasen 's mother , Agnes H McCullock , in 1926 . After Chasen 's birth , her parents had another daughter , Christine Elizabeth , on 4 May 1931 . Her parents split in 1938 , and both remarried . Before the Japanese occupation , which led to the Battle of Singapore during World War II , Chasen and her mother left Singapore on the last boat before the occupation . Her father , on a separate ship , HMS Giang Bee , perished however , when it was sunk by the Japanese on 12 February 1942 , and Chasen 's new stepfather , G.C.R Franks , too perished fighting , a month later , on the 22 March . Chasen and her mother moved to England and Chasen trained at Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , where she then acted on stage and went on a tour with Frankie Howerd in Hotel Paradiso . She also appeared with Sybil Thorndike in Call Me Jacky , as well as going on tour with Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. in The Pleasure of his Company , in Toronto . Chasen is good friends with , and previously had a relationship with , Amanda Barrie . In 1949 , she married John Webster in Surrey and has one son with him , Rupert , born in Kensington , 1955 .
= = Career = =
= = = Crossroads and EastEnders = = =
In 2011 , Chasen was cast as Lydia Simmonds , Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) ' s maternal grandmother and Norman Simmonds ' ( George Layton ) mother , in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , after the original actress Margaret Tyzack had to pull out of the role due to personal reasons . Two episodes featuring Tyzack had already been broadcast , and she featured in a further one on 14 April . The producers wanted to keep Lydia in the show as they had plans for her , so Chasen was cast and she replaced Tyzack in the role , beginning filming on 15 April for scenes broadcast from 21 April . EastEnders ' executive producer , Bryan Kirkwood , added : " In order to continue the current storyline we 've taken the decision for Heather Chasen to take over the role of Lydia . " The character died on @-@ screen and Chasen made her last appearance on 13 June 2011 , and , though not credited for it , did a voice @-@ over for the 14 and 28 June episodes . Kirkwood later said " Lydia 's storyline was perfect " and that Chasen had made the part her own after Tyzack 's departure . Brooks said of the storyline as a whole , " I absolutely loved exploring Janine 's background . I was really proud with the scenes with Heather Chasen [ Lydia ] . It was really hard work , but worth it . "
= = = Other work = = =
Chasen has appeared in other television programmes such as The Bill and The Harry Hill Show . She has had guest roles in Z @-@ Cars and Dixon of Dock Green and has voiced a number of characters in the radio show The Navy Lark , most notably WREN Heather Chasen and " battle axe " Ramona Povey . In soaps , she has had four separate stints in the BBC soap opera Doctors , with her most recent stint in 2014 , reprising her role as Grace Barberry from 2012 , played Sylvie Leigh in Holby City and played Madge Bennet in the Channel 5 soap opera , Family Affairs , for five episodes . More earlier credits include , playing " rich bitches " Caroline Kerr , in The Newcomers and Isabel Neal in Marked Personal , alongside Stephanie Beacham . She also played the " evil " headmistress in Schoolgirls in Uniform at the Battersea Arts Centre . In stage and theatre , Chasen appeared in The Rat Trap . Michael Billington from The Guardian described Chasen 's character , Burrage the maid , as " trundling " , rating the play three stars . Other than this , she has appeared in Pardon Ma Prime Minister alongside Gerald Flood and Paul Curran , written by Edward Taylor and John Graham who created the BBC radio series The Men from the Ministry . The Birmingham Mail described the play as " hilarious " and " promising " . One of Chasen 's more recent plays was My Three Angels in which she played Madame Parole , other plays include , The Man Who Came to Dinner , Who Bombed Birmingham playing Margaret Thatcher , and The Lizard of Rock , in which she played the main role , appearing alongside actor Jack Hawkins . Chasen opined that she had a " lovely time " playing Miss Marple in A Murder is Announced alongside Richard Todd and Barbara Murray . In 2009 , Chasen appeared in the award @-@ winning Anglo @-@ Russian feature film Season of Mists , playing Jane . Chasen appeared alongside Marina Blake , Sergei Chonishvili , Ifan Huw Dafydd and ex @-@ EastEnders actor Dudley Sutton . Other films Chasen has appeared in include , The Kiss of Tosca in 2000 , The Toybox in 2003 and Cat Run , a 2011 film .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Chasen was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical , while she appeared in the New York adaptation of A Severed Head between 1963 @-@ 65 . She appeared the cast of the Seasons of Mists which won a number of awards internationally .
= = Filmography = =
Television
Film
Radio
Stage / Theatre
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= Roman Republic =
The Roman Republic ( Latin : Res publica Romana ; Classical Latin : [ ˈreːs ˈpuːb.lɪ.ka roːˈmaː.na ] ) was the period of ancient Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom , traditionally dated to 509 BC , and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire . It was during this period that Rome 's control expanded from the city 's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world .
During the first two centuries of its existence , the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance , from central Italy to the entire Italian peninsula . By the following century , it included North Africa , Spain , and what is now southern France . Two centuries after that , towards the end of the 1st century BC , it included the rest of modern France , Greece , and much of the eastern Mediterranean . By this time , internal tensions led to a series of civil wars , culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar , which led to the transition from republic to empire . The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation . Historians have variously proposed Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC , Caesar 's appointment as dictator for life in 44 BC , and the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . However , most use the same date as did the ancient Romans themselves , the Roman Senate 's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian and his adopting the title Augustus in 27 BC , as the defining event ending the Republic .
Roman government was headed by two consuls , elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates . As Roman society was very hierarchical by modern standards , the evolution of the Roman government was heavily influenced by the struggle between the patricians , Rome 's land @-@ holding aristocracy , who traced their ancestry to the founding of Rome , and the plebeians , the far more numerous citizen @-@ commoners . Over time , the laws that gave patricians exclusive rights to Rome 's highest offices were repealed or weakened , and leading plebeian families became full members of the aristocracy . The leaders of the Republic developed a strong tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war , making military and political success inextricably linked . Many of Rome 's legal and legislative structures ( later codified into the Justinian Code , and again into the Napoleonic Code ) can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states and international organizations .
= = Military history = =
The exact causes and motivations for Rome 's military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate . While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism , historians typically take a much more nuanced view . They argue that Rome 's expansion was driven by short @-@ term defensive and inter @-@ state factors ( that is , relations with city @-@ states and kingdoms outside Rome 's hegemony ) , and the new contingencies that these decisions created . In its early history , as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy , neighboring city @-@ states sought the protection a Roman alliance would bring . As such , early republican Rome was not an " empire " or " state " in the modern sense , but an alliance of independent city @-@ states ( similar to the Greek hegemonies of the same period ) with varying degrees of genuine independence ( which itself changed over time ) engaged in an alliance of mutual self @-@ protection , but led by Rome . With some important exceptions , successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation , but to the restoration of the way things were . But the defeated city would be weakened ( sometimes with outright land concessions ) and thus less able to resist Romanizing influences , such as Roman settlers seeking land or trade with the growing Roman confederacy . It was also less able to defend itself against its non @-@ Roman enemies , which made attack by these enemies more likely . It was , therefore , more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome .
This growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face , and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers . The result was more alliance @-@ seeking , on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city @-@ states seeking membership ( and protection ) within that confederacy . While there were exceptions to this ( such as military rule of Sicily after the First Punic War ) , it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire , at least in certain locations . This shift mainly took place in parts of the west , such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal .
In contrast , Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance @-@ seeking and military occupation . In the 2nd century BC , Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance @-@ seeking , but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome . According to Polybius , who sought to trace how Rome came to dominate the Greek east in less than a century , this was mainly a matter of several Greek city @-@ states seeking Roman protection against the Macedonian kingdom and Seleucid Empire in the face of destabilisation created by the weakening of Ptolemaic Egypt . In contrast to the west , the Greek east had been dominated by major empires for centuries , and Roman influence and alliance @-@ seeking led to wars with these empires that further weakened them and therefore created an unstable power vacuum that only Rome could fill . This had some important similarities to ( and important differences from ) the events in Italy centuries earlier , but this time on a global scale .
Historians see the growing Roman influence over the east , as with the west , as not a matter of intentional empire @-@ building , but constant crisis management narrowly focused on short @-@ term goals within a highly unstable , unpredictable , and inter @-@ dependent network of alliances and dependencies . With some major exceptions of outright military rule , the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city @-@ states and kingdoms ( with varying degrees of independence , both de jure and de facto ) until it transitioned into the Roman Empire . It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control .
= = = Early Republic ( 458 – 274 BC ) = = =
= = = = Early Italian campaigns ( 458 – 396 BC ) = = = =
The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence , aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region . Initially , Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages , or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond . One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities , both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers . Rome defeated Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC , the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC , the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC , the Battle of Aricia , and especially the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii .
By the end of this period , Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours , and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes .
= = = = Celtic invasion of Italy ( 390 – 387 BC ) = = = =
By 390 BC , several Gallic tribes were invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe . The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome 's sphere of influence . These towns , overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and ferocity , called on Rome for help . The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390 – 387 BC . The Gauls , led by chieftain Brennus , defeated the Roman army of approximately 15 @,@ 000 troops , pursued the fleeing Romans back to Rome , and sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off . Romans and Gauls continued to war intermittently in Italy for more than two centuries .
= = = = Roman expansion into Italy ( 343 – 282 BC ) = = = =
After recovering surprisingly fast from the sack of Rome , the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy . The First Samnite War from 343 BC to 341 BC was relatively short : the Romans beat the Samnites in two battles , but were forced to withdraw before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War . Rome beat the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum , after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule .
The Second Samnite War , from 327 BC to 304 BC , was much longer and more serious for both Romans and Samnites . The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course . But the Romans won the Battle of Bovianum , and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards , leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms . By 304 BC , the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory , founding several colonies .
Seven years after their defeat , with Roman dominance of the area looking assured , the Samnites rose again and defeated a Roman army in 298 BC , to open the Third Samnite War . Following this success they built a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome . At the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region .
= = = = Pyrrhic War ( 280 – 275 BC ) = = = =
By the beginning of the 3rd century , Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula , but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean Basin at the time : Carthage and the Greek kingdoms .
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony in Italy erupted into open warfare in a naval confrontation , the Greek colony appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus , ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of Epirus . Motivated by a personal desire for military accomplishment , Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25 @,@ 000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC .
Despite early victories , Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable . Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy . Facing unacceptably heavy losses from each encounter with the Roman army , Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula ( hence the term " Pyrrhic victory " ) . In 275 BC , Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum . While Beneventum was indecisive , Pyrrhus realised his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns . Seeing little hope for further gains , he withdrew completely from Italy .
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome . Rome had shown it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean , and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad . Rome quickly moved into southern Italia , subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies . Now , Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula , and won an international military reputation .
= = = Mid @-@ Republic ( 264 – 133 BC ) = = =
= = = = Punic Wars ( 264 – 146 BC ) = = = =
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when inhabitants of Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay – Rome and Carthage – to resolve internal conflicts . The war saw land battles in Sicily early on , but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa . Before the First Punic War there was no Roman navy to speak of . The new war in Sicily against Carthage , a great naval power , forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors .
The first few naval battles were disasters for Rome . However , after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine , a Roman naval force was able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet , and further naval victories followed . The Carthaginians then hired Xanthippus of Carthage , a Spartan mercenary general , to reorganise and lead their army . He cut off the Roman army from its base by re @-@ establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy . The Romans then again defeated the Carthaginians in naval battle at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and left Carthage with neither a fleet nor sufficient financial means to raise one . For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically , and the Carthaginians sued for peace .
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca attacked an Iberian town which had diplomatic ties to Rome . Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy . Hannibal 's successes in Italy began immediately , and reached an early climax at the Battle of Cannae , where 70 @,@ 000 Romans were killed .
The Romans held off Hannibal in three battles , but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies . By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army . Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the Metaurus River . Unable to defeat Hannibal on Italian soil , the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa under Scipio Africanus to threaten the Carthaginian capital . Hannibal was recalled to Africa , and defeated at the Battle of Zama .
Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War , but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed / attacked Carthaginian merchants . Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies , and defence against robbing / pirates was considered as " war action " : Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage . Carthage was almost defenceless , and submitted when besieged . However , the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the ( desert ) inland far off any coastal or harbour region , and the Carthaginians refused . The city was besieged , stormed , and completely destroyed .
Ultimately , all of Carthage 's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome . Note that " Carthage " was not an ' empire ' , but a league of Punic colonies ( port cities in the western Mediterranean ) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ( " Attic " ) leagues , under leadership of Carthage . Punic Carthage was gone , but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule .
= = = = Kingdom of Macedonia , the Greek poleis , and Illyria ( 215 – 148 BC ) = = = =
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia , located in the north of the Greek peninsula , to attempt to extend his power westward . Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy , to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome . However , Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet . The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations , but they ultimately achieved their objective of pre @-@ occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal .
The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great 's empire : Ptolemaic Egypt , Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire . In 202 BC , internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt 's position , thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states . Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt . Fearing this increasingly unstable situation , several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance . The delegation succeeded , even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy . Our primary source about these events , the surviving works of Polybius , do not state Rome 's reason for getting involved . Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome 's new Greek allies . Doubting Rome 's strength ( a reasonable doubt , given Rome 's performance in the First Macedonian War ) Philip ignored the request , and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies , beginning the Second Macedonian War . Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome , Philip 's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman @-@ Greek army . In 197 BC , the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae , and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests . The Romans declared the " Peace of the Greeks " , believing that Philip 's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable . They pulled out of Greece entirely , maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies .
With Egypt and Macedonia weakened , the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world . Now not only Rome 's allies against Philip , but even Philip himself , sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids . The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor , and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece , but of Rome itself . The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been , because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire , and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great 's former empire .
Fearing the worst , the Romans began a major mobilization , all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul . They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy . This fear was shared by Rome 's Greek allies , who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War , but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war . A major Roman @-@ Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War , Scipio Africanus , and set out for Greece , beginning the Roman @-@ Syrian War . After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses , the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae ( as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier ) . Like the Spartans , the Seleucids lost the battle , and were forced to evacuate Greece . The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont , which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia . The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia , resulting in a complete Roman victory . The Seleucids sued for peace , and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests . Although they still controlled a great deal of territory , this defeat marked the decline of their empire , as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east ( the Parthians ) and the west ( the Greeks ) . Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century , when it was eclipsed by Pontus . Following Magnesia , Rome again withdrew from Greece , assuming ( or hoping ) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace . In fact , it did the opposite .
In 179 BC Philip died . His talented and ambitious son , Perseus , took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece . With her Greek allies facing a major new threat , Rome declared war on Macedonia again , starting the Third Macedonian War . Perseus initially had some success against the Romans . However , Rome responded by sending a stronger army . This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians duly capitulated , ending the war .
Convinced now that the Greeks ( and therefore the rest of the region ) would not have peace if left alone , Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world , and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics . Yet , Macedonian agitation continued . The Fourth Macedonian War , 150 to 148 BC , was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re @-@ establish the old kingdom . The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna .
The Achaean League chose this moment to fight Rome but was swiftly defeated . In 146 BC ( the same year as the destruction of Carthage ) , Corinth was besieged and destroyed , which led to the league 's surrender . After nearly a century of constant crisis management in Greece , which always led back to internal instability and war when she withdrew , Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces , Achaea and Epirus .
= = = Late Republic ( 147 – 30 BC ) = = =
= = = = Jugurthine War ( 111 – 104 BC ) = = = =
The Jugurthine War of 111 – 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia . It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa , after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain . Following Jugurtha 's usurpation of the throne of Numidia , a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars , Rome felt compelled to intervene . Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation . Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery .
= = = = Celtic threat ( 121 BC ) and Germanic threat ( 113 – 101 BC ) = = = =
In 121 BC , Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes ( from a region in modern France ) , both of which they defeated with apparent ease . The Cimbrian War ( 113 – 101 BC ) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC . The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories , and clashed with Rome and her allies . At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated , which ended the threat .
= = = = Internal unrest ( 135 – 71 BC ) = = = =
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals , and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns , led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state . Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period , in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters . In the 1st century BC at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred . This pattern continued until 27 BC , when Octavian ( later Augustus ) successfully challenged the Senate 's authority , and was made princeps ( first citizen ) .
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three " Servile Wars " involving slave uprisings against the Roman state . The third and final uprising was the most serious , involving ultimately between 120 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus . In 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns , but not its rewards . Although they lost militarily , the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500 @,@ 000 Italians .
The internal unrest reached its most serious state , however , in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88 BC . In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome , a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city . Sulla 's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic , and caused the founding of the Roman Empire .
= = = = Conflicts with Mithridates ( 89 – 63 BC ) and the Cilician pirates ( 67 BC ) = = = =
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus , a large kingdom in Asia Minor ( modern Turkey ) , from 120 to 63 BC . Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom , and Rome for her part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring . In 88 BC , Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80 @,@ 000 Romans living in his kingdom . The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War . The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper , but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival , Gaius Marius . A peace was made between Rome and Pontus , but this proved only a temporary lull .
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own . In the Third Mithridatic War , first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes the Great . Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night @-@ time Battle of the Lycus .
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates , largely from Cilicia . The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia . Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates . It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia ( Spain ) , Africa , and Italy .
= = = = Caesar 's early campaigns ( 59 – 50 BC ) = = = =
During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula ( modern Portugal and Spain ) , Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle . After his term as consul in 59 BC , he was appointed to a five @-@ year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul ( part of current northern Italy ) , Transalpine Gaul ( current southern France ) and Illyria ( part of the modern Balkans ) . Not content with an idle governorship , Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul ( modern France and Belgium ) , which would give him the dramatic military success he sought . When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near ( not into ) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul , Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars , fought between 58 BC and 49 BC .
Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 and 57 BC . In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions into Britain , the first Roman to do so . Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia , completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul . By 50 BC , all of Gaul lay in Roman hands . Gaul never regained its Celtic identity , never attempted another rebellion , and , except for the Crisis of the Third Century , remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the empire in 476 .
= = = = Triumvirates and Caesarian ascension ( 53 – 30 BC ) = = = =
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( " Pompey the Great " ) to share power and influence . In 53 BC , Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire ( modern Iraq and Iran ) . After initial successes , he marched his army deep into the desert ; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory , surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished . The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and , consequently , Caesar and Pompey began to move apart . While Caesar was fighting in Gaul , Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies . In 51 BC , some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state , which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies . Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial .
By the spring of 49 BC , the hardened legions of Caesar crossed the river Rubicon , the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army , and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome , while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome . Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania ( modern Spain ) but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece . Pompey initially defeated Caesar , but failed to follow up on the victory , and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC , despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one , albeit with inferior quality troops . Pompey fled again , this time to Egypt , where he was murdered .
Pompey 's death did not end the civil war , as Caesar 's many enemies fought on . In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army , but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus , after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Hispania . Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda .
Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state , enforcing and entrenching his powers . His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler . Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger , a group of senators hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate in March 44 BC . Mark Antony , Caesar 's lieutenant , condemned Caesar 's assassination , and war broke out between the two factions . Antony was denounced as a public enemy , and Caesar 's adopted son and chosen heir , Gaius Octavianus , was entrusted with the command of the war against him . At the Battle of Mutina Mark Antony was defeated by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa , who were both killed .
Octavian came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC when the Second Triumvirate was formed . In 42 BC Mark Antony and Octavian fought the Battle of Philippi against Caesar 's assassins Brutus and Cassius . Although Brutus defeated Octavian , Antony defeated Cassius , who committed suicide . Brutus did likewise soon afterwards .
However , civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian , Lepidus and Mark Antony failed . The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony . At the naval Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece , Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra . Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole " imperium " within the city of Rome , permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory , since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command . In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names " Augustus " and " Princeps " , indicating his primary status above all other Romans , and he adopted the title " Imperator Caesar " making him the first Roman Emperor .
= = Political history = =
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases . The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC . The final phase ended with the transition that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire , in 27 BC . Throughout the history of the Republic , the constitutional evolution was driven by the conflict of the orders between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens .
= = = Patrician era ( 509 – 367 BC ) = = =
The last king of the Roman Kingdom , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , was overthrown in 509 BC by a group of noblemen led by Lucius Junius Brutus . Tarquin made a number of attempts to retake the throne , including the Tarquinian conspiracy , the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium , all of which failed to achieve Tarquin 's objectives . The most important constitutional change during the transition from kingdom to republic involved a new form of chief magistrate . Before the revolution , a king would be elected by the senators for a life term . Now , two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term . Each consul would check his colleague , and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office . Consular political powers , when exercised conjointly with a consular colleague , were no different from those of the old king .
In 494 BC , the city was at war with two neighboring tribes . The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy , and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill . The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials . The patricians agreed , and the plebeians returned to the battlefield . The plebeians called these new officials " plebeian tribunes " . The tribunes would have two assistants , called " plebeian aediles " . During the 5th century BC , a series of reforms were passed . The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the plebeian would have the full force of law . In 443 BC , the censorship was created . From 375 BC to 371 BC , the republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the tribunes used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates .
= = = Conflict of the Orders ( 367 – 287 BC ) = = =
In 367 BC a law was passed which required the election of at least one plebeian aedile each year . Also in 366 BC , the praetorship and curule aedileship were created . Shortly after the founding of the Republic , the Comitia Centuriata ( " Assembly of the Centuries " ) became the principal legislative assembly . In this assembly , magistrates were elected and laws were passed .
After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians , the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship . Plebiscites of 342 BC placed limits on political offices ; an individual could hold only one office at a time , and ten years must elapse between the end of his official term and his re @-@ election . Further laws attempted to relieve the burden of debt from plebeians by banning interest on loans . In 337 BC , the first plebeian praetor was elected . During these years , the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close . The senate realised the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals . To win over the tribunes , the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate . As the tribunes and the senators grew closer , plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families . In time , the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office .
Shortly before 312 BC , the Plebeian Council enacted the Plebiscitum Ovinium . During the early republic , only consuls could appoint new senators . This initiative , however , transferred this power to the censors . It also required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate . By this point , plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices . Thus , the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly . However , it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well @-@ known political family , as a new patrician @-@ like plebeian aristocracy emerged . The old nobility existed through the force of law , because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office . The new nobility existed due to the organization of society . As such , only a revolution could overthrow this new structure .
By 287 BC , the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor . The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness . The plebeians demanded relief , but the senators refused to address their situation . The result was the final plebeian secession . The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill . To end the secession , a dictator was appointed . The dictator passed a law ( the Lex Hortensia ) , which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council . This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law . The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC . The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians . The result was that control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of voters , but to the new plebeian nobility .
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians . However , the plight of the average plebeian had not changed . A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had , but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been . The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights . The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms . The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work .
= = = Supremacy of the New Nobility ( 287 – 133 BC ) = = =
The Hortensian Law deprived the patricians of their last weapon against the plebeians , and thus resolved the last great political question of the era . No such important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC . The important laws of this era were still enacted by the senate . In effect , the plebeians were satisfied with the possession of power , but did not care to use it . The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy . This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic .
In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer . The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight , while their farms fell into disrepair . The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices . As commodity prices fell , many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit . The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers . Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome , and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies . Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most . A new culture of dependency was emerging , in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief .
= = = From the Gracchi to Caesar ( 133 – 49 BC ) = = =
The prior era saw great military successes , and great economic failures . The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms . Now , the military situation had stabilised , and fewer soldiers were needed . This , in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad , inflamed the unemployment situation further . The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist .
= = = = The Gracchi = = = =
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC . He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own . The aristocrats , who stood to lose an enormous amount of money , were bitterly opposed to this proposal . Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council , but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius . Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius . The theory , that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people , was counter to Roman constitutional theory . If carried to its logical end , this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will , and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority . His law was enacted , but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates when he stood for reelection to the tribunate .
Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC . Gaius Gracchus ' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces . In the past , for example , the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate " ) . Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had . Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions , and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional . Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome 's Italian allies . This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support . He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC , but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3 @,@ 000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome . Though the senate retained control , the Gracchi had strengthened the political influence of the plebeians .
= = = = The populares and the optimates = = = =
In 118 BC , King Micipsa of Numidia ( current @-@ day Algeria and Tunisia ) died . He was succeeded by two legitimate sons , Adherbal and Hiempsal , and an illegitimate son , Jugurtha . Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons . Jugurtha , however , turned on his brothers , killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia . Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance , and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers . Eventually , Jugurtha renewed his offensive , leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome . He also bribed several Roman commanders , and at least two tribunes , before and during the war . His nemesis , Gaius Marius , a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family , returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators . Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end , capturing Jugurtha in the process . The apparent incompetence of the Senate , and the brilliance of Marius , had been put on full display . The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius .
Several years later , in 88 BC , a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power , king Mithridates of Pontus . The army , however , was defeated . One of Marius ' old quaestors , Lucius Cornelius Sulla , had been elected consul for the year , and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates . Marius , a member of the " populares " party , had a tribune revoke Sulla 's command of the war against Mithridates . Sulla , a member of the aristocratic ( " optimates " ) party , brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome . Sulla was so angry at Marius ' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate . He then returned to his war against Mithridates . With Sulla gone , the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city .
During the period in which the populares party controlled the city , they flouted convention by re @-@ electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten @-@ year interval between offices . They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office , and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation . Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates . In 83 BC , he returned to Rome , overcame all resistance , and recaptured the city . Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius ' supporters . Sulla , having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms , was naturally conservative . As such , he sought to strengthen the aristocracy , and by extension the senate . Sulla made himself dictator , passed a series of constitutional reforms , resigned the dictatorship , and served one last term as consul . He died in 78 BC .
= = = = Pompey , Crassus and the Catilinarian Conspiracy = = = =
In 77 BC , the senate sent one of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( " Pompey the Great " ) , to put down an uprising in Hispania . By 71 BC , Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission . Around the same time , another of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Marcus Licinius Crassus , had just put down the Spartacus @-@ led gladiator / slave revolt in Italy . Upon their return , Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla 's constitution . They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party . If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC , they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla 's constitution . The two were soon elected , and quickly dismantled most of Sulla 's constitution .
Around 66 BC , a movement to use constitutional , or at least peaceful , means to address the plight of various classes began . After several failures , the movement 's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals . The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina . The movement was based in the town of Faesulae , which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation . The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome , and be aided by an uprising within the city . After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators , Catiline would be free to enact his reforms . The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC . The consul for the year , Marcus Tullius Cicero , intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members . As a result , the top conspirators in Rome ( including at least one former consul ) were executed by authorisation ( of dubious constitutionality ) of the senate , and the planned uprising was disrupted . Cicero then sent an army , which cut Catiline 's forces to pieces .
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited . The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers . The violent nature of the conspiracy , in conjunction with the senate 's skill in disrupting it , did a great deal to repair the senate 's image .
= = = = First Triumvirate = = = =
In 62 BC , Pompey returned victorious from Asia . The Senate , elated by its successes against Catiline , refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made . Pompey , in effect , became powerless . Thus , when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC , he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , now known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements would be ratified . Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC , and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years . Crassus was promised a future consulship .
Caesar became consul in 59 BC . His colleague , Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , was an extreme aristocrat . Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies . Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws , and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage . Caesar was then made governor of three provinces . He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58 BC . Clodius set about depriving Caesar 's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero . Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case . Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy , resulting in Cicero going into self @-@ imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down . Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years . Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens .
= = = = The end of the First Triumvirate = = = =
Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey 's followers , who in response funded counter @-@ gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo . The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling . Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar 's command from him . Eventually , the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca . Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC , and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years . Crassus led an ill @-@ fated expedition with legions led by his son , Caesar 's lieutenant , against the Kingdom of Parthia . This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae . Finally , Pompey 's wife , Julia , who was Caesar 's daughter , died in childbirth . This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar .
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC , a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome . This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC , when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo . On 1 January 49 BC , an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate . The ultimatum was rejected , and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year , he would be considered an enemy of the Republic . Meanwhile , the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar . On 7 January of 49 BC , the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum , which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers . Pompey 's army , however , was composed largely of untested conscripts . On 10 January , Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army ( in violation of Roman laws ) and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece . Caesar entered the city unopposed .
= = = The period of transition ( 49 – 29 BC ) = = =
A period of reform occurred between 49 BC , when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon , and 29 BC , when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium . During this period the previous century 's gradual unravelling of republican institutions accelerated rapidly . By 29 BC , Rome had completed its transition from a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies to the capital of a world empire .
With Pompey defeated and order restored , Caesar wanted to achieve undisputed control over the government . The powers which he gave himself were later assumed by his imperial successors . His assumption of these powers decreased the authority of Rome 's other political institutions .
Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate , and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship . In 48 BC , Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers . This made his person sacrosanct , gave him the power to veto the senate , and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council . In 46 BC , Caesar was given censorial powers , which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans . Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900 . This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige , and made it increasingly subservient to him . While the assemblies continued to meet , he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election , and all bills to the assemblies for enactment . Thus , the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him .
Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC , and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC . This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator .
= = = = Caesar 's assassination and the Second Triumvirate = = = =
Caesar was assassinated on March 15 , 44 BC . The assassination was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus . Most of the conspirators were senators , who had a variety of economic , political , or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination . Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king . Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes . Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar 's death in fear of retaliation . The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic .
After the assassination , Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great @-@ nephew , Gaius Octavian . Along with Marcus Lepidus , they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate . They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution . As such , the Senate and assemblies remained powerless , even after Caesar had been assassinated . The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . Eventually , however , Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle . Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC , and he committed suicide with his lover , Cleopatra . In 29 BC , Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire and later accepted the title of Augustus ( " Exalted One " ) . He was convinced that only a single strong ruler could restore order in Rome .
= = Military = =
The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organisation and constitution of the Roman armed forces . The Roman military was split into the Roman army and the Roman navy , although these two branches were less distinct than they tend to be in modern defence forces . Within the top @-@ level branches of army and navy , structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution .
As with most ancient civilizations , Rome 's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders , exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples , and maintaining internal order . From the outset , Rome 's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome 's wars were characterized by one of two types . The first is the foreign war , normally begun as a counter @-@ offensive or defense of an ally . The second is the civil war , which plagued the Roman Republic in its final century . Roman armies were not invincible , despite their formidable reputation and host of victories . Over the centuries the Romans " produced their share of incompetents " who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats . Nevertheless , it was generally the fate of the greatest of Rome 's enemies , such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal , to win early battles but lose the war . The history of Rome 's campaigning is , if nothing else , a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses .
= = = Hoplite armies ( 509 – c . 315 BC ) = = =
During this period , Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north , who themselves seem to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks . Traditionally , the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city 's penultimate king , Servius Tullius ( ruled 578 to 534 BC ) . According to Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus , the front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens , who were able to purchase the best equipment . Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it .
One disadvantage of the phalanx was that it was only effective when fighting in large , open spaces , which left the Romans at a disadvantage when fighting in the hilly terrain of central Italian peninsula . In the 4th century BC , the Romans abandoned the phalanx in favour of the more flexible manipular formation . This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390 BC ; it is more likely , however , that they were copied from Rome 's Samnite enemies to the south , possibly as a result of Samnite victories during the Second Samnite War ( 326 to 304 BC ) .
= = = Manipular legion ( c . 315 – 107 BC ) = = =
During this period , an army formation of around 5 @,@ 000 men ( of both heavy and light infantry ) was known as a legion . The manipular army was based upon social class , age and military experience . Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class .
The maniples were typically deployed into three discrete lines based on the three heavy infantry types :
1 . Each first line maniple were leather @-@ armoured infantry soldiers who wore a bronze breastplate and a bronze helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm ( 12 in ) in height and carried an iron @-@ clad wooden shield . They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears .
2 . The second infantry line was armed and armoured in the same manner as was the first infantry line . The second infantry line , however , wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid brass breastplate .
3 . The third infantry line was the last remnant of the hoplite @-@ style ( the Greek @-@ style formation used occasionally during the early Republic ) troops in the Roman army . They were armed and armoured in the same manner as were the soldiers in the second line , with the exception that they carried a lighter spear .
The three infantry classes may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society , but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class . Young , unproven men would serve in the first line , older men with some military experience would serve in the second line , and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line .
The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops , typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion . The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians . There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line . Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples . The light infantry consisted of 1 @,@ 200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes . They were armed with a sword and a small shield , as well as several light javelins .
Rome 's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome 's army was provided by the Socii , such as the Etruscans , Umbrians , Apulians , Campanians , Samnites , Lucani , Bruttii , and the various southern Greek cities . Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770 @,@ 000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War , of which 700 @,@ 000 were infantry and 70 @,@ 000 met the requirements for cavalry . Rome 's Italian allies would be organized in alae , or wings , roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions , though with 900 cavalry instead of 300 .
A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300 BC , but it was massively upgraded about forty years later , during the First Punic War . After a period of frenetic construction , the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ( " Punic " ) pattern . Once completed , it could accommodate up to 100 @,@ 000 sailors and embarked troops for battle . The navy thereafter declined in size .
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars , in addition to a shortage of manpower , exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion , at least in the short term . In 217 BC , near the beginning of the Second Punic War , Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long @-@ standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners . During the 2nd century BC , Roman territory saw an overall decline in population , partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars . This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes . As a result , the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state , which it had not had to do in the past .
The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur , perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard @-@ issue equipment . In addition , the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome 's allies for the provision of allied troops . Eventually , the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions .
= = = The legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius ( 107 – 27 BC ) = = =
In process known as the Marian reforms , Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military . In 107 BC , all citizens , regardless of their wealth or social class , were made eligible for entry into the Roman army . This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries , of removing property requirements for military service . The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes , which had already become blurred , had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry . The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock , while non @-@ citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry . The army 's higher @-@ level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy .
Unlike earlier in the Republic , legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land . Instead , they received standard pay , and were employed by the state on a fixed @-@ term basis . As a consequence , military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society , to whom a salaried pay was attractive . A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat " acquired a stronger and more elevated position " within the state .
The legions of the late Republic were , structurally , almost entirely heavy infantry . The legion 's main sub @-@ unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen . The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub @-@ unit , and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each . Each century was separated further into 10 " tent groups " of 8 men each . The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry . Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men . Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied ( non @-@ Roman ) troops .
However , the most obvious deficiency of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry , especially heavy cavalry . As Rome 's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry @-@ based to largely cavalry @-@ based troops , the infantry @-@ based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage , particularly in the East .
After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean , the Roman navy underwent short @-@ term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands . Under Caesar , an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia ; under Pompey , a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates . During the civil war that followed , as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities .
= = Politics = =
The Constitution of the Roman Republic was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent . The Roman constitution was not formal or even official . It was largely unwritten , uncodified , and constantly evolving .
= = = Senate of the Roman Republic = = =
The senate 's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators . This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom , as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators . The senate passed decrees , which were called senatus consulta . These were officially " advice " from the senate to a magistrate . In practice , however , they were usually followed by the magistrates . The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy . Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict , the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs . The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined , and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law @-@ making . Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors , who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate , making the senate a partially elected body . During times of military emergency , such as the civil wars of the 1st century BC , this practice became less prevalent , as the Roman Dictator , Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members .
= = = Legislative Assemblies = = =
The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal , to marry , to vote , to hold office , to enter binding contracts , and to special tax exemptions . An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called " optimo jure . " The optimo jure elected their assemblies , whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates , enacted legislation , presided over trials in capital cases , declared war and peace , and forged or dissolved treaties . There were two types of legislative assemblies . The first was the comitia ( " committees " ) , which were assemblies of all optimo jure . The second was the concilia ( " councils " ) , which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure .
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes , which would each gather into their own assemblies . The Comitia Centuriata ( " Centuriate Assembly " ) was the assembly of the centuries ( i.e. soldiers ) . The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul . The centuries would vote , one at a time , until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries . The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers ( consuls and praetors ) . It also elected censors . Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war , and ratify the results of a census . It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases .
The assembly of the tribes ( i.e. the citizens of Rome ) , the Comitia Tributa , was presided over by a consul , and was composed of 35 tribes . The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups , but rather geographical subdivisions . The order that the thirty @-@ five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot . Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes , the voting would end . While it did not pass many laws , the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors , curule aediles , and military tribunes . The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes , but excluded the patricians ( the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome ) . They elected their own officers , plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles . Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly . This assembly passed most laws , and could also act as a court of appeal .
= = = Executive Magistrates = = =
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers . Only the People of Rome ( both plebeians and patricians ) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate . The most powerful constitutional power was imperium . Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors . Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force . All magistrates also had the power of coercion . This was used by magistrates to maintain public order . While in Rome , all citizens had a judgement against coercion . This protection was called provocatio ( see below ) . Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens . This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents .
One check on a magistrate 's power was his collegiality . Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people . Another such check was provocatio . Provocatio was a primordial form of due process . It was a precursor to habeas corpus . If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen , that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune . In addition , once a magistrate 's one @-@ year term of office expired , he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again . This created problems for some consuls and praetors , and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended . In effect , they would retain the powers of the office ( as a promagistrate ) , without officially holding that office .
The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates ; each consul served for one year . Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters . While in the city of Rome , the consuls were the head of the Roman government . They would preside over the senate and the assemblies . While abroad , each consul would command an army . His authority abroad would be nearly absolute . Praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies . Every five years , two censors were elected for an 18 @-@ month term , during which they would conduct a census . During the census , they could enroll citizens in the senate , or purge them from the senate . Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome , such as managing public games and shows . The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome , and the governors in the provinces . Their duties were often financial .
Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians , they were sacrosanct . Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge , taken by the plebeians , to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office . All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity . One consequence was that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune , to disregard his veto , or to interfere with a tribune . In times of military emergency , a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months . Constitutional government would be dissolved , and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state . When the dictator 's term ended , constitutional government would be restored .
= = Culture = =
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome , and its famed seven hills . The city also had several theatres , gymnasiums , and many taverns , baths and brothels . Throughout the territory under Rome 's control , residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas , and in the capital city of Rome , to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill , from which the word " palace " is derived . The vast majority of the population lived in the city center , packed into apartment blocks .
Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples , as did the city of Rome itself . Aqueducts brought water to urban centers and wine and cooking oil were imported from abroad . Landlords generally resided in cities and left their estates in the care of farm managers . To stimulate a higher labor productivity , many landlords freed large numbers of slaves .
Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century BC , Greek culture was increasingly ascendant , in spite of tirades against the " softening " effects of Hellenised culture . By the time of Augustus , cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young ( sometimes even the girls ) . Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas , and much of ancient Roman cuisine was essentially Greek . Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style .
= = = Social structure = = =
Many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks . In architecture and sculpture , the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent . The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch and the dome . Rome has also had a tremendous impact on European cultures following it . Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence , as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid . Latin , the Republic 's primary language , remains used for liturgical purposes by the Roman Catholic Church , and up to the 19th century was used extensively in scholarly writings in , for example , science and mathematics . Roman law laid the foundations for the laws of many European countries and their colonies .
The center of the early social structure was the family , which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas . The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family ; he was the master over his wife , his children , the wives of his sons , the nephews , the slaves and the freedmen , disposing of them and of their goods at will , even putting them to death . Roman law recognised only patrician families as legal entities .
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order ; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold . Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered ; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom . Generally , mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation . However , Rome did not have a law enforcement arm . All actions were treated as " torts , " which were brought by an accuser who was forced to prove the entire case himself . If the accused were a noble and the victim , not a noble , the likelihood of finding for the accused was small . At most , the accused might have to pay a fine for killing a slave . It is estimated that over 25 % of the Roman population was enslaved .
= = = Clothing = = =
Men typically wore a toga , and women a stola . The woman 's stola differed in looks from a toga , and was usually brightly coloured . The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class . The tunic worn by plebeians , or common people , like shepherds and slaves , was made from coarse and dark material , whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool . A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus , a tunic bearing small purple studs . Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes , called tunica laticlavia . Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians . Boys , up until the festival of Liberalia , wore the toga praetexta , which was a toga with a crimson or purple border . The toga virilis , ( or toga pura ) was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome . The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield . The toga pulla was worn when in mourning .
Even footwear indicated a person 's social status . Patricians wore red and orange sandals , senators had brown footwear , consuls had white shoes , and soldiers wore heavy boots . The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers , sometimes worn in sandals .
= = = Dining = = =
The staple foods were generally consumed around 11 o 'clock , and consisted of bread , lettuce , cheese , fruits , nuts , and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before . The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite , the olive , in reference to his own diet , which he describes as very simple : " As for me , olives , endives , and smooth mallows provide sustenance . " The family ate together , sitting on stools around a table . Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups .
Wine was considered the basic drink , consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive . Cato the Elder once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce . Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well . Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism , the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans . An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals . Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony , and Cicero 's own son Marcus ( Cicero Minor ) . Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker .
= = = Education and language = = =
Following various military conquests in the Greek East , Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system . They began physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army . Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis . Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning , weaving , and sewing . Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC . Education began at the age of around six , and in the next six to seven years , boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading , writing and counting . By the age of twelve , they would be learning Latin , Greek , grammar and literature , followed by training for public speaking . Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt , and good orators commanded respect .
The native language of the Romans was Latin . Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin , an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC , the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin , which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar , vocabulary , and eventually pronunciation . Rome 's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe , and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectised in different locations , gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages . Many of these languages , including French , Italian , Portuguese , Romanian and Spanish , flourished , the differences between them growing greater over time . Although English is Germanic rather than Roman in origin , English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin @-@ derived words .
= = = The arts = = =
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors . Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome . As the republic expanded , authors began to produce poetry , comedy , history , and tragedy . Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry . His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome . Lucretius , in his On the Nature of Things , attempted to explicate science in an epic poem . The genre of satire was common in Rome , and satires were written by , among others , Juvenal and Persius . The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity .
In the 3rd century BC , Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular , and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists . Portrait sculpture during the period utilised youthful and classical proportions , evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism . Advancements were also made in relief sculptures , often depicting Roman victories .
Music was a major part of everyday life . The word itself derives from Greek μουσική ( mousike ) , " ( art ) of the Muses " . Many private and public events were accompanied by music , ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres . In a discussion of any ancient music , however , non @-@ specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1 @,@ 000 years ; thus , our ideas of melody , scales , harmony , and even the instruments we use may not have been familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier .
Over time , Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed , and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined . The Roman concrete has remained a riddle , and even after more than 2 @,@ 000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently . The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence . Roman cities were well planned , efficiently managed and neatly maintained .
= = = Sports and entertainment = = =
The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ( " Field of Mars " ) , which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers . Later , the Campus became Rome 's track and field playground . In the campus , the youth assembled to play and exercise , which included jumping , wrestling , boxing and racing . Equestrian sports , throwing , and swimming were also preferred physical activities . In the countryside , pastimes included fishing and hunting . Board games played in Rome included dice ( Tesserae or Tali ) , Roman Chess ( Latrunculi ) , Roman Checkers ( Calculi ) , Tic @-@ tac @-@ toe ( Terni Lapilli ) , and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula , predecessors of backgammon . Other activities included chariot races , and musical and theatrical performances .
= = = Religion = = =
Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome , around 800 BC . However , the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC , when Romans came in contact with Greek culture , and adopted many of the Greek religious beliefs . Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices . In a sense , each household was a temple to the gods . Each household had an altar ( lararium ) , at which the family members would offer prayers , perform rites , and interact with the household gods . Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European pantheon , others were based on Greek gods . The two most famous deities were Jupiter ( the king God ) and Mars ( the god of war ) . With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean , Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture , as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism .
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= Battle of the Bowling Alley =
In the Battle of the Bowling Alley ( August 12 – 25 , 1950 ) , United Nations ( UN ) forces defeated North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War near the city of Taegu , South Korea . The battle took place in a narrow valley , dubbed the " Bowling Alley " , which was north of Taegu . It followed a week of fighting between the North Korean People 's Army 13th Division and the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 1st Division along the latter 's last defensible line in the hills north of the city . Reinforcements , including the US Army 's 27th and 23rd Infantry Regiments were committed to bolster the South Koreans ' defenses . This battle and several others were smaller engagements of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter .
For another week , North Korean divisions launched all the troops they had in massed attacks against the ROK and US lines . Their attacks , which usually occurred at night and were supported by armor and artillery , advanced with infantry and tanks in close support of one another . Each North Korean attack ran into well @-@ established UN lines , where US tanks , mines and entrenched infantry were positioned to counter them . Strikes by US aircraft ravaged the attacking North Koreans . The fighting was fierce with many casualties on both sides , particularly where the North and South Koreans fought one another . The repeated attacks eventually broke and pushed back the North Korean forces . They continued their push against the Pusan Perimeter until they were turned back in the Battle of Inchon .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War on June 25 , 1950 , the United Nations voted to enter the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , simultaneously committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of pushing back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . But US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the US 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Nevertheless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division fought for several weeks while the 1st Cavalry , 7th Infantry and 25th Infantry Divisions and Eighth United States Army supporting units were arriving . Advance elements of the 24th were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the division were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th was finally annihilated in the Battle of Taejon , but was able to delay the North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
After the fight at Taejon , UN forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area from the west . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju , east of Hadong , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to Pusan open to direct North Korean attacks . The UN formations were subsequently able to defeat the North Koreans in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 , halting their advance from the west . Suffering mounting losses , the Korean People 's Army force withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Taegu = = =
Meanwhile , the Eighth Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker had established Taegu as his headquarters . At the center of the Pusan Perimeter line , Taegu stood at the entrance to the Naktong River valley , an area where North Korean forces could advance in large numbers in close support . The natural barriers provided by the Naktong River to the south and the mountainous terrain to the north converged around Taegu , a transportation hub and the last major South Korean city aside from Pusan itself to remain in UN hands . From south to north , the city was defended by the US 1st Cavalry Division , the ROK 1st Division , and the ROK 6th Division , which were under the command of ROK II Corps . The 1st Cavalry Division was spread out along a long line on the Naktong River to the south , with its 5th Cavalry and 8th Cavalry regiments holding a 24 @,@ 000 @-@ meter ( 79 @,@ 000 ft ) line along the river south of Waegwan , facing west . The 7th Cavalry held position to the east in reserve , along with artillery forces , ready to reinforce anywhere a North Korean crossing could be attempted . The ROK 1st Division held a northwest @-@ facing line in the mountains immediately north of the city while the ROK 6th Division held position to the east , guarding the narrow valley holding the Kunwi road into the Pusan Perimeter area .
Five North Korean divisions amassed around Taegu to oppose the UN forces in the city . From south to north , the 10th , 3rd , 15th , 13th , and 1st North Korean Divisions occupied a wide line encircling Taegu from Tuksong @-@ dong and around Waegwan to Kunwi . The North Korean army planned to use the natural corridor of the Naktong River valley from Sangju to Taegu as its main axis of attack for the next push south , so the North Korean divisions all eventually moved through this valley , crossing the Naktong at different areas along the low ground . Elements of the NK 105th Armored Division also supported the attack .
= = Prelude = =
= = = US forces assemble = = =
During mid @-@ August , US 27th Infantry Regiment of the US 25th Infantry Division was mopping up North Korean resistance from the southern part of the Naktong Bulge area to counter a North Korean attack there . The regiment , temporarily attached to the US 24th Infantry Division , was recalled by the Eighth Army when a new North Korean threat formed to the north of Taegu , alarming Walker . Acting on the threat , Walker relieved the regiment from the 24th Infantry Division on August 14 and the next day ordered it northward to Kyongsan as a reserve force . Arriving at Kyongsan on August 16 , Colonel John H. Michaelis , 27th Infantry 's commander , was ordered to reconnoiter routes east , north , northwest , and west of Kyongsan and counter any North Korean attacks from these directions . During the day , two North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks came through the ROK 1st Division lines 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Taegu at Tabu @-@ dong , but South Korean 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka teams knocked out both of them . The ROK 1st Division , also in the area , was ordered to assemble in the hills around the road and wait for reinforcements or make a last stand if needed to prevent the North Koreans from coming any closer to Taegu . To its east was the ROK 6th Division and to its west was the Naktong River .
At 12 : 00 the next day , August 17 , Eighth Army ordered the 27th Infantry to move its headquarters and a reinforced battalion " without delay " to a point across the Kumho River 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Taegu on the road from Tabu @-@ dong to Sangju " to secure Taegu from enemy penetration " from that direction . South Korean sources reported a North Korean regiment , led by six T @-@ 34 tanks , had entered the village of Kumhwa , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong . The 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry , a platoon of the Heavy Mortar Company , and most of the 8th Field Artillery Battalion moved north to Ch 'ilgok where the ROK 1st Division command post was located . By nightfall , the entire 27th Regiment was north of Taegu on the Tabu @-@ dong road , reinforced by C Company , 73rd Tank Battalion . US Army commanders also ordered the 37th Field Artillery Battalion to move from the area around Kyongju and P 'ohang @-@ dong , where a heavy battle had been in progress for days , for attachment to the US 27th Infantry Regiment in order to reinforce the 8th Field Artillery Battalion above Taegu . It arrived there the next day . At the front , ROK 1st Division commander Brigadier General Paik Sun @-@ yup assumed senior command of the 27th Infantry and the other US units , to the chagrin of Michaelis .
= = = NK forces assemble = = =
In its engagements during the Perimeter battle , the North Korean 13th Division , with 9 @,@ 500 men , had forced South Korean troops into the Tabu @-@ dong corridor and started advancing on Taegu . This division had battled the ROK 11th and 12th Regiments in the Yuhak @-@ san area for a week before it broke through to the corridor on August 17 . A regimental commander of the division said later it suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties in the process . On August 18 , the 13th Division was concentrated mostly west of the road just north of Tabu @-@ dong .
To the west of the NK 13th Division , the NK 15th Division with 5 @,@ 000 men was also deployed on Yuhak @-@ san . It , too , had begun battling the ROK 1st Division , but thus far only in minor engagements . The North Korean High Command then ordered the NK 15th Division to move from its position northwest of Tabu @-@ dong eastward , to the Yongch 'on front , where the NK 8th Division had tried and failed to advance to the Taegu lateral corridor . The NK 15th Division left the Yuhak @-@ san area on August 20 . Meanwhile , the NK 1st Division , to the east of the 13th , advanced to the Kunwi area , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Taegu . The North Korean command ordered it to proceed to the Tabu @-@ dong area and maneuver astride the 13th Division for the attack on Taegu down the Tabu @-@ dong corridor . At the same time , the North Koreans received their only substantial tank reinforcements during the Pusan Perimeter fighting . On August 15 , the NK 105th Armored Division received 21 new T @-@ 34 tanks and 200 troop replacements , which it distributed to the divisions attacking Taegu . The tank regiment with the NK 13th Division reportedly had 14 T @-@ 34 tanks .
On August 18 , the NK 13th Division was astride the Sangju – Taegu road just above Tabu @-@ dong and only 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Taegu . The Eighth Army ordered the 27th Infantry Regiment to attack north along the road to counter the threat . At the same time , two regiments of the ROK 1st Division were to attack along high ground on either side of the road . The plan called for a limited @-@ objective attack to restore the ROK 1st Division lines in the vicinity of Sokchok , a village 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong . M26 Pershing tanks of C Company , 73rd Tank Battalion , and two batteries of the 37th Field Artillery Battalion were to support the 27th Infantry in the attack .
= = = Terrain = = =
In front of the 27th Infantry position , the poplar @-@ lined Taegu – Sangju road ran northward in the narrow mountain valley . A stream on the west closely paralleled the road , which was nearly straight on a north @-@ south axis through the 27th Infantry position and for some distance northward . This stretch of the road later became known as the " Bowling Alley . " About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in front of the 27th Infantry position the road forked at a small village called Ch 'onp 'yong @-@ dong ; the western prong was the main Sangju road , the eastern one was the road to Kunwi . At the road fork , the Sangju road bends to the northwest in a long curve . The village of Sinjumak lay on this curve a short distance north of the fork . Hills protected it against direct fire from the 27th Infantry position . It was there that the North Korean tanks remained hidden during the daytime .
Rising from the valley on the west side was the Yuhak @-@ san mountain range which swept up to a height of 2 @,@ 700 feet ( 820 m ) . On the east , a similar mountain range rose to a height of 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) , culminating 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) southward in a mountain called Ka @-@ san , more than 2 @,@ 900 feet ( 880 m ) high at its walled summit . The Kunwi and Sangju roads from the northeast and northwest entered the natural and easy corridor between Yuhak @-@ san and Ka @-@ san at Ch 'onp 'yong @-@ dong , leading into the Taegu basin . The battles in the Bowling Alley occurred south of this road junction .
= = Battle = =
= = = Deadlock = = =
The ROK 1st Infantry Division , with 7 @,@ 500 men had held the line around the Bowling Alley since August 12 . The Bowling Alley area was selected because of its advantageous high ground which provided natural barriers to funnel North Korean troops into smaller fronts where South Korean defenses could attack them from the high ground in concealed positions . In the meantime , the NK 3rd , 13th , and 15th Divisions were advancing south and preparing to close on Taegu . The North Korean 13th Division converged on the Tabu @-@ dong corridor and a vicious melee ensued between the North and South Korean troops , with ROK 1st Division 's 11th , 12th , and 13th regiments committed against the NK 13th Division 's 19th , 21st and 23rd regiments . The fight became a battle of attrition . As the two sides closed on one another , the battle took a brutal turn by August 15 as supplies ran low and units were locked in close quarters combat with little ammunition for the weapons . Fighting across the entire front became hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and grenade fights at close range . The two divisions were so evenly matched that neither could make any appreciable gains for days of fighting and huge numbers of casualties .
The bloody fighting obliged Paik to call for emergency reinforcements to hold the line . The Eighth Army responded immediately by sending the US 27th Infantry from the US 25th Infantry Division as well as the ROK 10th Regiment from the ROK 8th Division to reinforce the ROK 1st Division 's three regiments . US Air Force aircraft also conducted a carpet bombing campaign against the advancing North Korean positions to undetermined effect . Around that time the NK 15th Division , which had been supporting the NK 13th Division , withdrew from the front to attack elsewhere , leaving the ROK 1st Division , with the US 27th Infantry , and the NK 13th Division as principal opponents in the conflict that followed .
= = = US infantry advance = = =
As the 27th Infantry 's trucks rolled northward from Tabu @-@ dong and approached their Line of Departure , the men inside could see the North Koreans and South Koreans fighting on the ridges overlooking the road . The infantry dismounted and deployed an attacking line , with the 1st Battalion on the left of the road and the 2nd Battalion on the right . With US tanks leading the infantry on the road , the two battalions crossed the line at 13 : 00 . The tanks opened fire against the mountain escarpments to aid the South Korean infantry engaged there . The US infantry on either side of the road swept the lower hills , as the tanks on the road paced their advance with the infantry . A North Korean outpost line in the valley withdrew and there was almost no North Korean opposition during the first hour of the US advance . North Korean outpost lines were 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) in front of their main positions . The 27th Infantry had reached a point about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong when Michaelis was informed that neither of the ROK regiments on the high ground flanking the valley road had been able to advance . He was ordered to halt and form a perimeter defense with both battalions astride the road .
The two battalions of the 27th Infantry went into a perimeter defense just north of the village of Soi @-@ ri . The 1st Battalion , on the left of the road , took a position with C Company on high ground in front , and with A Company on a ridge behind it . On their right , B Company was placed parallel to A Company , and carried the line across the stream and the narrow valley to the road . There the 2nd Battalion took up the defense line with E Company on the road and F Company on its right , while G Company held a ridge behind F Company . Thus , the two battalions presented a four @-@ company front , with one company holding a refused flank position on either side . A platoon of tanks took positions on the front line , two tanks on the road and two in the stream bed , with four more tanks in reserve . The artillery went into firing positions behind the force . Six bazooka teams took up positions in front of the infantry positions along the road and in the stream bed . At the same time , the ROK 1st Division remained in control of the high ground on either side of the 27th Infantry positions .
= = = August 18 attack = = =
The first of seven successive North Korean night attacks struck the 27th Infantry defensive perimeter shortly after dark that night , August 18 . North Korean mortars and artillery fired a heavy preparation for the general attack for several hours . Two T @-@ 34 tanks and an SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled gun moved out of the village of Sinjumak 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in front of the 27th Infantry lines . Infantry followed them , some in trucks and others on foot . The lead tank moved slowly and without firing , apparently observing , while the second one and the SU @-@ 76 fired repeatedly into F Company 's position . As the tanks drew near , a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team from F Company destroyed the second one in the line .
Bazooka teams also hit the lead tank , causing its crew to abandon it . Fire from the 8th Field Artillery Battalion knocked out the self @-@ propelled gun , destroyed two trucks , and killed or wounded an estimated 100 North Korean troops at the point of the advance . US First Lieutenant Lewis Millett , an artillery forward observer and later a Medal of Honor winner after he transferred to the infantry , directed this artillery fire on the North Koreans , even as a T @-@ 34 tank approached within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of his position . Three more North Korean tanks had come down the road but , on realizing that the Americans had effective anti @-@ tank weapons , they switched on their running lights and retreated north without engaging the UN troops . Around 00 : 30 on August 19 the first North Korean attack had stalled and they withdrew . North Korean troops made a second effort , much weaker than the first , around 02 : 30 but artillery and mortar fire dispersed them before they reached the UN lines .
Over the course of the next week , the US troops were able to discern the North Koreans ' system of attack and use it to their advantage . The North Koreans used a system of flares to signal various actions and coordinate them . It quickly became apparent to the defending Americans that green flares were used to signal an attack on a given area . So the 27th Infantry obtained its own green flares and then , after the North Korean attack had begun , fired them over its main defensive positions . This confused the attacking forces and often drew them to the points of greatest US strength where they suffered massive casualties from defensive machine @-@ gun crossfire . The US troops also began using land mines in front of their positions to stall the North Koreans . The mines stopped the tanks and the infantry tried to remove them . When this happened , US troops fired flares to illuminate the scene and pre @-@ registered artillery and mortar fire blasted the immobilized North Koreans . This tactic was effective in inflicting further significant casualties .
= = = Stalemate = = =
On the morning of August 19 , the ROK 11th and 13th Regiments launched counterattacks along the ridges with some gains , however the fight continued to produce heavy casualties for both sides . Walker ordered another reserve unit , a battalion of the ROK 10th Regiment , to the Taegu front to close a gap between the ROK 1st and 6th Divisions . Later in the day , Walker also ordered the US 23rd Infantry Regiment , under command of Colonel Paul L. Freeman , Jr . , to move up and establish a defense perimeter around the 8th and 37th Field Artillery Battalions at their positions 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Taegu , to protect them from North Korean attack . This was the only occasion during the war that two US regiments were assigned to a South Korean command . The 3rd Battalion , 23rd Infantry took up a defensive position around the artillery while the 2nd Battalion occupied a defensive position on the road behind the 27th Infantry . The next day the two battalions exchanged places . South Korean troops , suffering losses from the fighting , began recruiting students and civilians from nearby villages to fight .
There was little fighting on the ground during the day on August 20 . However , US aircraft attacked North Korean positions around Taegu repeatedly during the day , often in close proximity to American ground forces . As night fell , North Korean troops launched a second attack , firing a barrage of 120 – mm. mortar shells into the US 27th Infantry 's Heavy Weapons Company area at 17 : 00 ; several of their tanks also began advancing down the corridor . The US troops responded with artillery and mortar fire , hitting the North Korean column and its accompanying infantry . Waiting Americans held their small arms and machine gun fire until the North Koreans were within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of their positions . The combined fire of all the US weapons repulsed this attack .
The next morning , August 21 , a US patrol of two platoons of infantry and M26 Pershing tanks went up the road toward the North Korean positions . White flags had appeared in front of the American line , and civilians in the area said many North Koreans wanted to surrender . The US patrol 's mission was to investigate this situation and to form an estimate of North Koreans losses . The patrol advanced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , engaging small North Korean groups and receiving some artillery fire . On its way it destroyed five disabled North Korean tanks with thermite grenades . The patrol also found a 37 mm anti @-@ tank gun , two SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and a 120 mm mortar among the destroyed North Korean equipment , as well as recognizing a large number of North Korean dead . At the point of farthest advance , the patrol found and destroyed an abandoned T @-@ 34 tank in a village schoolhouse courtyard .
= = = August 21 attack = = =
That evening , the 27th Infantry placed two belts of antipersonnel mines and trip flares across the road and stream bed 250 yards ( 230 m ) and 150 yards ( 140 m ) in front of its positions in the valley . After dusk , the North Koreans began shelling the general area of the 27th Infantry positions until just before midnight . ROK troops had planned to mount an attack , but it became apparent that the North Koreans would hit first . Then the NK 13th Division launched a major attack against the entire UN front in and around the valley . Nine US tanks supported the infantry troops in the valley . Because it was on higher ground and positioned in front of all the other American units , C Company on the left of the road usually was the first to detect an approaching attack . That evening the C Company commander telephoned the regimental headquarters that he could hear tanks . When the artillery fired an illuminating shell he was able to count 19 North Korean vehicles in the attacking column on the road . The tanks and self @-@ propelled guns approached the American positions , firing rapidly . Most of their shells landed in the rear areas . North Korean infantry moved forward on both sides of the road . Simultaneously , other North Korean units attacked the ROK troops on the high ridges flanking the valley .
American artillery and mortar fire bombarded the North Koreans , trying to separate the tanks from the infantry . US machine gun fire opened on the NK infantry only after they had entered the mine field and were at close range . The US Pershing tanks in the front line held their fire until the North Korean tanks came very close . One of the American tanks knocked out the lead North Korean tank and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team from F Company knocked out a towed gun , the third vehicle in column . The trapped second tank was disabled by bazooka fire and abandoned by its crew . It was during this fight that the battle received its name . The US troops at the battle noted the tank shells being fired up and down the valley in the dark looked " like bowling balls . "
Artillery and 90 mm tank fire destroyed seven more North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks , three more SU @-@ 76 towed guns , and several trucks and personnel carriers . This night battle , which was at times very intense , lasted about five hours . The US B Battery , 8th Field Artillery Battalion alone fired 1 @,@ 661 105 mm rounds , the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortar platoon fired 902 rounds , the 81 mm mortar platoon fired 1 @,@ 200 rounds , and F Company , 27th Infantry fired 385 60 mm mortar rounds . The North Korean column was completely destroyed . US patrols after daylight estimated the North Koreans had suffered 1 @,@ 300 casualties in the fight . Eleven prisoners captured by the patrol said the action had decimated their units and that the division was only at 25 percent strength .
= = = NK flanking moves = = =
During the night battle , North Korean forces infiltrated along the high ridge line around the east flank of the 27th Infantry and appeared the next day at about 12 : 00 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) in the rear of that regiment and only 9 miles ( 14 km ) from Taegu . This force was a regiment of the NK 1st Division , and was 1 @,@ 500 men strong . The regiment had just arrived from the Kunwi area to join in the battle for Taegu . It began ambushing supply lines to the American forces in the valley . One of the regiment 's companies attacked the ROK 1st Division 's headquarters with intent to capture Paik , but was repulsed by the ROK 10th Regiment .
About this time , Michaelis sent an urgent message to Eighth Army saying that the ROK troops on his left had given way and that " those people are not fighting . " One of the battalions of the ROK 11th Regiment had been driven back and was retreating in disarray . Prisoners told him that about 1 @,@ 000 North Koreans were on his west flank . He asked for an air strike . Had these South Korean troops been driven from this high ground , the perimeter position of the 27th Infantry Regiment would have been untenable . Paik bitterly resented Michaelis ' charge that his men were not fighting , and in the argument , Eighth Army Korean Military Advisory Group advisers visited each ROK unit to ensure they were remaining in position . Paik personally rallied the ROK 11th Regiment for a charge back into its positions , impressing Michaelis . Later , Michaelis apologized to Paik though their relationship for the remainder of the battle remained strained .
The afternoon of August 22 , US 2nd Battalion , 23rd Infantry , guarding the support artillery behind the 27th Infantry , came under attack by the NK 1st Division troops that had passed around the forward positions . Freeman reported to Eighth Army at 16 : 40 that the North Koreans had shelled the rear battery of the 37th Field Artillery Battalion , that North Korean infantry were between the US 27th and US 23rd Regiments on the road , and that other North Korean groups had passed around the east side of his forward battalion . An intense artillery barrage began falling on the headquarters area of the 8th Field Artillery Battalion at 16 : 05 , and 25 minutes later two direct hits destroyed the fire direction center , killing four officers and two non @-@ commissioned officers . The individual batteries quickly took over control of the battalion fires and continued to support the infantry , while the battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Company withdrew under fire .
UN aircraft launched air strikes on the North Korean @-@ held ridge east of the road and on the valley beyond . That night , Walker released control of the 23rd Infantry , less the 1st Battalion , to the US 1st Cavalry Division with orders for it to clear the North Koreans from the road and the commanding ground overlooking the main supply route .
About 10 : 00 , Lieutenant Colonel Chong Pong Uk , commanding the artillery regiment supporting the NK 13th Division , walked up alone to a ROK 1st Division position 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong and defected . Chong , the highest ranking North Korean prisoner of war thus far in the war , gave precise information on the location of his artillery . According to him , there were seven 122 mm howitzers and thirteen 76 mm guns emplaced and camouflaged in an orchard 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong , in a little valley on the north side of Yuhak @-@ san . Upon receiving this information , Eighth Army immediately prepared to destroy the North Korean weapons . Fighter @-@ bombers attacked the orchard site with napalm , and US artillery took the location under fire . Chong was eventually commissioned in South Korea 's armed forces .
= = = Final moves = = =
During the night of August 22 – 23 , the North Koreans launched a weak attack against the 27th Infantry , which was quickly repulsed . Just before 12 : 00 on August 23 , however , a violent action occurred some distance behind the front line when about 100 North Korean soldiers , undetected , succeeded in reaching the positions of K Company , 27th Infantry and of the 1st Platoon , C Company , 65th Engineer Combat Battalion . They overran parts of these positions before being driven off and suffering 50 killed . Meanwhile , as ordered by Walker , the 2nd Battalion , 23rd Infantry , after repelling several North Korean night attacks , counterattacked at dawn and seized the high ground overlooking the road at the artillery positions . At the same time the 3rd Battalion started an all @-@ day attack that swept a stretch of high ground east of the road . This action largely cleared the North Koreans from the area behind and on the flanks of the 27th Infantry . At 13 : 35 , Michaelis reported from the Bowling Alley to Eighth Army that the NK 13th Division had blown the road to his front , had mined it , and was withdrawing .
The next day , August 24 , the 23rd Infantry continued clearing the rear areas and by night it estimated that there were fewer than 200 North Koreans behind the forward positions . The Bowling Alley front was quiet during the day . Shortly after midnight on August 24 the North Koreans launched what had by now become their regular nightly attack down the Bowling Alley . This attack was in an estimated two @-@ company strength supported by a few tanks . The 27th Infantry broke up the attack and two more North Korean tanks were destroyed by the supporting artillery fire . This was the last night the 27th Infantry Regiment spent in the Bowling Alley .
With the North Koreans turned back north of Taegu , Walker issued orders for the 27th Infantry to leave the Bowling Alley and return to the 25th Division in the Masan area . The ROK 1st Division was to assume responsibility for the Bowling Alley , but the US 23rd Infantry was to remain north of Taegu in its support . ROK relief of the 27th Infantry began at 18 : 00 , 25 August , and continued throughout the night until completed at 03 : 45 August 26 . Survivors of the 1st Regiment , NK 1st Division , joined the rest of that division in the mountains east of the Taegu – Sangju road near the walled summit of Ka @-@ san . Prisoners reported that the 1st Regiment was down to about 400 men and had lost all its 120 mm mortars , 76 mm howitzers , and antitank guns as a result of its action on the east flank of the NK 13th Division at the Bowling Alley .
= = Aftermath = =
The confirmed North Korean losses from August 18 to 25 included 13 T @-@ 34 tanks , five SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and 23 trucks . The NK 13th Division 's troops suffered heavy casualties during the fight with the American unit , with an estimated 3 @,@ 000 killed , wounded and captured . The division withdrew to rebuild . The North Koreans ' total casualties from August 12 to 25 were 5 @,@ 690 killed .
US losses during the battle were extremely light ; unusual for fighting at a time in which other UN offensive forces were paying a heavy price when making similar pushes against the North Korean troops . The US infantry forces suffered only five killed and 54 wounded in the 27th Infantry , plus three killed and 16 wounded in the 23rd Infantry . This brought the total American casualty count to 8 dead , 70 wounded . South Korean troops suffered much more heavily during the fight . An estimated 2 @,@ 300 South Korean men were killed in the fighting ; 2 @,@ 244 enlisted men and 56 officers . However , these losses were not crippling , as volunteers poured in from the surrounding countryside to fight for the South Korean Army .
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= Out of This World Adventures =
Out of This World Adventures was a pulp magazine which published two issues , in July and December 1950 . It included several pages of comics as well as science fiction stories . It was edited by Donald A. Wollheim and published by Avon . Sales were weak , and after two issues Avon decided to cancel it .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years ; Out of This World Adventures was one of these .
In 1947 Avon Books launched the Avon Fantasy Reader , a series of fantasy anthologies in digest format , edited by Donald A. Wollheim . Two years later , Joseph Meyers , Avon 's president , decided to launch a science fiction magazine , and Wollheim purchased six stories for it before it was cancelled for financial reasons . The following year , Avon 's printer , J.W. Clements , suggested to Meyers the idea of a pulp magazine which included a few pages of comics . Meyers asked Wollheim to try the idea , thinking that the additional section might draw comics readers to buy a pulp magazine , and in July 1950 Wollheim duly launched Sparkling Love Stories and Out of This World Adventures . The romance magazine was cancelled after a single issue because of poor sales ; but Out of This World Adventures seemed promising enough to try a second issue , which appeared in December 1950 , along with a third magazine in the part @-@ comic format : Pioneer Western . Neither sold well enough to extend their runs any further .
Donald A. Wollheim was the editor for both issues . His editorial policy was slanted towards interplanetary fiction , according to his editorial in the first issue . The magazine included stories by several writers who were either already well @-@ known or who would go on to more success ; the first issue featured A.E. van Vogt , Lester del Rey , Kris Neville , William Tenn , Mack Reynolds , Ray Cummings and A. Bertram Chandler . Science fiction historians Mike Ashley and Wendy Bousfield both regard Tenn 's story , " The Puzzle of Priipiirii " , as the best in the magazine . The 32 @-@ page comics section , which was taken directly from an existing Avon comic called Out of This World , included comics written by John Michel and Gardner Fox ; the latter , a pastiche of Robert E. Howard 's " Conan " stories , was titled " Crom the Barbarian " and was illustrated by John Giunta . Michel , like Wollheim a member of the Futurians , a group of sf fans and aspiring writers , wrote the lead comic for both issues , though the second issue of the Canadian edition used a different comic section than the U.S. edition . The interior artwork was the responsibility of Avon 's art director , rather than Wollheim , and illustrators such as William McWilliam , who worked on Avon 's comics , were used .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Out of This World Adventures was intended to be bi @-@ monthly , but only two issues were produced , dated July and December 1950 . It was priced at 25 cents for both issues ; each issue was 128 pages and was in pulp format . The publisher was Avon Periodicals for both issues . A Canadian edition appeared , also priced at 25 cents ; the cover of the Canadian edition omitted the dates , but the issues appeared in November 1950 and April 1951 .
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= Titanfall =
Titanfall is a multiplayer first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Respawn Entertainment and published by Electronic Arts . It was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox One on March 11 , 2014 ; an Xbox 360 version ported by Bluepoint Games was released April 8 , 2014 . The game was highly anticipated as the debut title from developers formerly behind the successful Call of Duty franchise .
In Titanfall , players control " pilots " and their mech @-@ style Titans , and fight in six @-@ on @-@ six matches set in war @-@ torn outer space colonies . The game is optimized for fast @-@ paced , continual action , aided by wall @-@ running abilities and populations of computer @-@ controlled soldiers . Up to 50 characters can be active in a single game , and non @-@ player activity is offloaded to Microsoft 's cloud computing services to optimize local graphical performance . The game 's development team began work on the title in 2011 , and their Titan concept grew from a human @-@ sized suit into a battle tank exoskeleton . The team sought to bring " scale , verticality , and story " to its multiplayer genre through elements traditionally reserved for single @-@ player campaigns . The 65 @-@ person project took inspiration from Blade Runner , Star Wars , Abrams Battle Tank , and Masamune Shirow of Ghost in the Shell .
Titanfall won over 60 awards at its E3 2013 reveal , including a record @-@ breaking six E3 Critics Awards and " Best of Show " from several media outlets . It also won official awards at Gamescom and the Tokyo Game Show . Titanfall received generally favorable reviews . Reviewers praised its balance , Smart Pistol weapon , player mobility , and overall accessibility for players of all skill sets , but criticized its thin campaign , disappointing artificial intelligence , and lack of community features and multiplayer modes . Critics considered the game a successful evolution for the first @-@ person shooter genre but did not agree as to whether the game delivered on its anticipation . On March 12 , 2015 , it was announced that a sequel is in production for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
Titanfall is a shooter game played from a first @-@ person perspective . Players fight as free @-@ running foot soldier " pilots " who can command agile , mech @-@ style exoskeletons — " Titans " — to complete team @-@ based objectives . The game is set on derelict and war @-@ torn colonies at the Frontier fringe of space exploration as either the Interstellar Manufacturing Corporation ( IMC ) or the Frontier Militia . Online multiplayer is the sole game mode , but contains single @-@ player elements such as plot , character dialogue , and non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . While Titanfall has no offline , single @-@ player , or local splitscreen modes , it supports system link over a local area network ( LAN ) . Respawn founder Vince Zampella described the game as bringing " scale , verticality , and story " to the first @-@ person shooter genre of multiplayer gaming .
Up to twelve human players choose their pilot types and are dropped on the map , beginning the game . Titans can be deployed periodically , based on an onscreen timer , which must complete its countdown to zero before a Titan can be summoned . Killing other players reduces the amount of time remaining . When summoned , players are told to " standby for Titanfall " , whereupon a Titan drops from the sky , surrounded by a protective forcefield . Unlike player @-@ characters in games like Call of Duty and Battlefield , pilots are agile and accumulate momentum while running ( similar to Tribes ) . Players run on walls , double jump with a jet pack , vault over obstacles , glide across ziplines , and chain together combos . Pilot and Titan controls are identical except where the pilot 's double jump becomes the Titan 's dash , as Titans cannot jump . The Titans , somewhere between battle tanks and a mecha , are slower than the nimble pilots . Battles include artificial intelligence soldiers ( human grunts and robotic spectres ) that are designed as human player competition , support , and scenery . Games end with a race to the losing team 's evacuation dropship .
The pilot 's tactical abilities include x @-@ ray vision , invisibility cloaking , and regenerating speed boosts . Pilots use ten traditional customizable weapons , including a semi @-@ automatic shotgun , machine guns , assault rifles , sniper rifles , and the Smart Pistol Mk5 . The latter locks onto multiple targets before firing multiple shots in a burst . Players generally require three Smart Pistol shots to die . The pistol can also shoot around corners . All pilots have anti @-@ Titan weapons equipped . Pilots can hop on a Titan 's back to " rodeo " and shoot its weak spot , or otherwise use four anti @-@ Titan weapons to take them down . Player @-@ pilots can eject from Titans that take too much damage , and the Titan replacement timer is reset upon the Titan 's death .
There are three unique Titan classes , variants of light , medium , and heavy , with inversely related speed and armor : the all @-@ around Atlas , the ponderous Ogre , and the lithe Stryder . The latter two chassis are unlocked upon finishing both faction campaigns and were later made unlockable by leveling up as well . Each chassis has a respective Core power that works on a cooldown timer : respectively , increased damage , increased shields , and unlimited dashes . Titan tactical ability options include stopping enemy ammunition in midair to throw back in their direction , emitting electrified smoke to hurt and repel pilots climbing the Titan 's back , and deploying a defensive wall . Additionally , players can equip two perk kits to customize for their preferred strategy . Their primary weapons include rocket launchers , lightning cannons , and chainguns . Titans can act autonomously when put in guard and follow modes , which directs the Titan either to protect their vicinity or to tail their pilot , respectively .
There are 15 multiplayer maps and five multiplayer modes in the base game . In Attrition , a traditional Team Deathmatch , teams compete for the greatest kill count , and bot kills and Titan kills are counted . Pilot Hunter is similar to Attrition , but only counts pilot kills . In Hardpoint Domination , the object is to capture and defend areas of the map . In Last Titan Standing , players begin the match in Titans and have a single life . There is also a Capture the Flag mode . All modes are team @-@ based and there are no free @-@ for @-@ alls . Completing challenges unlocks new abilities , weapons , customization opportunities , and burn cards : single @-@ use , single @-@ life power @-@ ups that bestow a temporary gain , such as reduced Titan drop waits , unlimited grenades weapons , or disguise as a computer @-@ controlled Spectre . Players can bring up to three cards into a match . Through multiplayer matches , players earn experience points that unlock new equipment and perks . Players who reach level 50 can " regenerate " to back to level 1 , trading their rank and unlocks for faster experience gain and a prestige icon next to their names .
The game 's " campaign multiplayer " is separate from the game 's regular multiplayer ( called classic internally ) , and serves as an extended tutorial . It plays as multiplayer with single @-@ player elements , such as scripted cinematic sequences , non @-@ playable character dialogue , an in @-@ game soundtrack , and audio briefings . There are separate campaigns for the Militia and IMC factions , and the game randomly assigns the player to one for a series of nine maps . Each mission is paired with a specific game type and map , supplemented by minimal voiceover narration , which was later removed . The Militia are the civilian military of the Frontier and the resistance against IMC use of colony resources . Their most important members include Titan War veteran and former mutiny leader MacAllan , intel specialist and engineer Bish , and Marauder Corps leader Sarah . The corporate conglomerate IMC specializes in natural resource extraction , and came to the resource @-@ rich Frontier for business . Their major players are Frontier operations commander @-@ in @-@ chief Vice Admiral Graves , intel specialist Blisk , and artificial intelligence companion Spyglass .
= = Development = =
Following Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 's release , Activision fired Infinity Ward co @-@ founders Jason West and Vince Zampella in March 2010 for " breaches of contract and insubordination " . Their departure resulted in a series of lawsuits and a staff exodus . Later that year , West and Zampella founded a game development company , Respawn Entertainment , composed largely of the former Infinity Ward staff — those responsible for the successful Call of Duty series . The company started with a completely blank slate . The ideas that became Titanfall slowly accreted over the next two years .
Pre @-@ production began in 2011 , and Respawn 's first game was originally planned for seventh generation consoles . The idea for the game did not come easily , and the team arrived at its multiplayer @-@ only and human @-@ mech focus after much internal debate . The team started with open collaboration about games and game mechanics they found exciting , and no market research . Respawn artist Joel Emslie recalled starting with a human @-@ sized suit as a " second skin " , which the designers grew in size . As Respawn didn 't have the necessary computers , the artists resorted to kitbashing and model making — Emslie prototyped by putting a figurine inside a plastic model kit . The team progressed to detailed , foot @-@ high " mechettes " made of wood , wire , and plastic , which became the Atlas Titan . Project influences include Blade Runner , Star Wars , Abrams Battle Tank , and Masamune Shirow of Ghost in the Shell . Emslie refers to the aesthetic as a " used future " . Their production was unconventional , similar to Infinity Ward 's old practices , and the game didn 't have design documentation . At E3 2011 , Electronic Arts Labels president Frank Gibeau revealed that Respawn 's first project was a science fiction shooter published by Electronic Arts . Two project leads left the company to begin their own studio in mid @-@ 2012 , and West retired in March 2013 .
Rather than responding to the outgoing console generation 's technical restrictions with code optimization and a tight release near the end of the consoles ' life cycle , the team decided to focus on the eighth generation with more time to try new ideas . Zampella announced that Respawn would show at E3 2013 via Twitter on February 25 , 2013 . Their planned announcement leaked early through the premature release of Game Informer 's July 2013 issue on Google Play , which revealed their first game 's title , premise , and release date . Other advance public information included the company 's trademark filing for " Titan " in April 2013 , and an April 2013 Kotaku report of the game 's Titan mech gameplay and Xbox One exclusivity . The game was officially announced during Microsoft 's E3 2013 press conference , with expected Windows PC , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One releases in Q1 2014 . The Xbox 360 version was announced as in development with Respawn 's support at another studio , though Bluepoint Games was not announced as the studio until January 2014 . Electronic Arts CFO Blake Jorgensen later added that the Microsoft exclusivity agreement would last " for the life of the title " , such that other consoles , including the PlayStation 4 , will not receive a Titanfall port . In February 2014 , Zampella tweeted that Respawn was discussing an OS X port for release some time after launch . The team 's small size — less than a quarter of similar triple A studios — also contributed to the game 's exclusivity .
The 65 @-@ person development team experimented with different gameplay before consolidating to three goals : " player mobility , survivability , and the merging of cinematic design with fast @-@ paced action " . They identified contemporary first @-@ person shooters as restricted to " a single plane of movement " , the cardinal directions and hiding in place , and considered new features to increase mobility , such as a three @-@ story @-@ high jump . Final mobility features include wall running and the pilot 's jump kit , which allows for double jumps . The parkour mechanics came from a similar , basic wall running mod made by a Respawn programmer for Half @-@ Life 2 when testing potential game engines . Additionally , the game does not cordon off parts of the environment . Concerning survivability , Respawn chose to populate the environment with dozens of computer @-@ controlled characters to give players the reward of consecutive kills while reducing the player deaths necessary in return . The team spent significant time balancing the " cat and mouse " combat between pilots and Titans . They annulled advanced sniping techniques known as " quickscoping and no @-@ scoping " . Thirdly , the cinematic storytelling segments associated with single @-@ player campaigns were merged into the multiplayer mode .
The decision to combine modes allowed Respawn to conserve resources traditionally split between separate teams . Player count changed weekly and was playtested often , more as a question of design than technical feasibility . Early Titanfall playtest players did not realize that they were playing against human opponents for over 45 minutes . Respawn originally tested teams of eight , 12 , and various decreasing sizes before they decided on teams of six Lead designer Justin Hendry said that more human players make the game " uncomfortable " not due to overcrowding but to the intensity of maintaining one 's surroundings against many points of entrance . Producer Drew McCoy wrote that the non @-@ human artificial intelligence ( AI ) players were not bots meant to replace humans , but " a different class of character in the game " . Each team supports up to 12 AI players alongside the human players ' autonomous mode Titans , for close to 50 active characters per game . The AI players were designed to enliven the battlefield environment with a greater sense of scale and drama , and to increase the game 's complexity with new opportunities for strategy and cannon fodder for Titans . McCoy said the team 's foremost goal was to make the game fun .
Respawn chose to build Titanfall on the Source game engine early in their production cycle due to their developers ' familiarity and its ability to maintain 60 frames per second on both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . In an interview , Respawn software engineer Richard Baker said the company chose Source since Portal 2 performed well on the PlayStation 3 with it , and the console was " the riskiest platform in seventh generation " . The company built upon the engine during development in features such as lighting , rendering , visibility , networking , and tools pipelines . The game also uses Microsoft Azure cloud computing platform for multiplayer servers , physics , and artificial intelligence . Offloading this non @-@ player activity frees the local console for visual rendering tasks and better graphics , and the developers for game development ( instead of backend maintenance ) . This arrangement determines world events in the cloud instead of locally , so position and movement data is downloaded simultaneously by all player @-@ clients . The studio 's cloud server access is considered vital to the game 's viability , and Respawn artist Joel Emslie said they would not have attempted this game without the cloud support . The team ran a small alpha test and followed up with a large beta test to stress test the new Xbox Live compute platform as one of the first games to use the network . The platform broke for seven hours at one point of the test . Lead programmer Jon Shiring figured that the ten problems they found during the test were ten problems they didn 't need to find at launch . Respawn felt that Kinect support did not suit the game and chose not to support the peripheral . The development team reported considerable interest in support for esports competitive play , and while such features were not prioritized for the initial release , Respawn indicated that esports accommodations were under consideration for future iterations .
The game was feature complete as of December 2013 , and the Respawn team continued to address game bugs and balancing issues before launch . Respawn ran a closed beta test with an open registration in February 2014 that saw two million unique users . An Xbox One patch to bring support for Twitch streaming video was designed to coincide with Titanfall 's release . Respawn announced that the release version was finalized for distribution ( " gone gold " ) on February 26 , 2014 .
= = Audio = =
Titanfall 's composer Stephen Barton had previously worked on Call of Duty soundtracks and with Metal Gear Solid composer Harry Gregson @-@ Williams . Barton joined the project in early 2013 . The game 's E3 demo had sparse , placeholder audio and did not feature any final mixes , which were expected to be completed by November 2013 . Barton sought to make the soundtrack " distinctive " , with several main themes that build through the game . The music was designed " as commentary " , to not compete with the action . As a multiplayer game , Barton produced a large number of tracks to avoid repetition . The sound ranges from " a very abused hurdy @-@ gurdy to heavy electronics " to " Morricone @-@ esque baritone guitars " . Barton emphasized " taking sounds out of their context " to match the game 's lawless futuristic setting . The two opposing Titanfall teams each have their own musical identities . Titanfall 's soundtrack was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London , with some specialty ethnic instrumentation recorded in Los Angeles .
= = Release and marketing = =
Titanfall was released on Xbox One and Windows PC ( via Origin ) in North America on March 11 , 2014 , in Europe and Australia on 13 , and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand on 14 . The game 's South African release was cancelled due to poor connectivity performance during the beta and no nearby Microsoft Azure data center in the region . Australia , in a similar predicament , used Singapore 's servers at the time of launch . The delayed Xbox 360 release developed by Bluepoint Games was released on April 8 , 2014 in North America , and on April 11 , 2014 in Europe . The Xbox 360 version is functionally identical to the other releases , albeit with lower @-@ quality graphics . A downloadable Xbox Live Games on Demand option was not available at launch but was implemented later . The PC version did not include modding tools at launch , though it did support the Xbox 360 controller . Microsoft hosted over 6 @,@ 000 midnight launch events worldwide to prepare for the release .
Respawn produced both free and paid post @-@ release downloadable content and offered a season pass discount for pre @-@ purchasing . Three DLC packs are expected with the season pass . The first Titanfall downloadable content ( DLC ) pack , Expedition , was announced at PAX East 2014 for release in May 2014 . Its story occurs after the campaign in the ancient alien ruins of " Swampland " , water " Runoff " , and training simulator " War Games " maps . Upcoming DLC will likely not change the number of Titan chassis . Electronic Arts designed the game 's digital strategy to coexist with their other shooter , Battlefield 4 , and the game does not use microtransactions . The free updates include features such as private matches that were left out of the original release for time restrictions . The private match feature was added in April 2014 . An additional , free update will bring new burn cards and multiplayer modes , and an upcoming PC patch will add 4K video and Nvidia graphics processing unit support . The company is also planning a companion smartphone app .
Following release , Respawn tracked user cheating habits with FairFight software and began to dole out community bans for PC users who used exploits such as " aimbots " and " wallhacks " on March 21 , 2014 . FairFight checks gameplay against statistical markers and flags players for graduated penalty levels . Flagged players are restricted to games with other cheaters , as " the Wimbledon of aimbot contests " . Respawn rolled out multiplayer matchmaking tweaks around the same time that prioritized fair matches of player skill .
The collector 's edition includes a Titan statue set in a LED @-@ lit diorama , an art book , and a poster . A limited edition Xbox One wireless controller designed after the game 's C @-@ 101 carbine weapon launched alongside the game . It was built to feel like " a piece of military spec hardware transported from the universe of Titanfall ... into players ' hands " . An Xbox One console bundle was released simultaneously with the game , and includes a digital copy of Titanfall and a month of Xbox Live at the price of the standalone console .
K 'Nex announced a toy marketing tie @-@ in for 2014 . Respawn announced other marketing tie @-@ ins in late January including apparel , Jinx clothing , Mad Catz peripherals ( keyboards , mice , mouse pads , headsets ) , posters , Prima strategy guides , a Titan Books art book , Turtle Beach Xbox One headsets , USB flash drives . Before release , Electronic Arts and Respawn unveiled a browser game collection of three Atari games ( Asteroids , Missile Command , and Centipede ) with an added Titanfall theme . Respawn also announced forthcoming Titanfall live action content from a partnership with Canadian post @-@ production studio Playfight . Figurine manufacturer Threezero announced in March 2014 that they will produce 1 / 12 to 1 / 6 scale models of Titanfall Titans and pilots . A worldwide marketing campaign included large statues of Titans across multiple cities , and an advertising campaign that spanned billboards , television commercials , Twitch , the web , and YouTube .
Respawn released a Deluxe Edition for Windows , Xbox One , and Xbox 360 platforms in late 2014 . The expanded game includes all three downloadable content expansions alongside the main game . Around the same time , Respawn announced that over seven million people had played Titanfall across all platforms .
= = Reception = =
Titanfall took over 60 awards at its E3 2013 reveal , including a record @-@ breaking six E3 Critics Awards : Best in Show , Best Original Game , Best Console Game , Best PC Game , Best Action Game , and Best Online Multiplayer . The game also won Best in Show from IGN , Destructoid , Game Informer , and Electronic Gaming Monthly . Reporting for Polygon at E3 , Arthur Gies praised the " dynamism " between the Titan 's brute force and the pilots ' objective @-@ based stealth as the game 's greatest asset . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey declared Titanfall both " Microsoft 's killer app " and multiplayer gaming 's " next big thing " , adding , " You will buy an Xbox One for Titanfall , and you should . " Forbes 's Erik Kain similarly predicted the game to be a " huge selling point " for the Xbox One . The game won Best Next Generation Console Game and Best Xbox Game at Gamescom 2013 . The game was introduced to Japan at the 2013 Tokyo Game Show , where the response was " overwhelmingly positive " and it won a Future Award . Titanfall won " Most Anticipated Game " at VGX 2013 . Many critics considered Titanfall to be the next step for the first @-@ person shooter genre , and the game received abundant " hype " and publicity from video game journalists .
Titanfall received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Critics praised the game 's pilot – Titan balance , its Smart Pistol , fast @-@ paced player mobility , and accessibility for players of all skill sets . Reviewers complained that the AI grunts were too unintelligent , that private match and community support features were lacking , and that the game had shipped with too few multiplayer modes . Multiple reviewers cited the Titan 's feeling of grandiosity in the player experience — specifically , the thrill of watching a summoned Titan fall from the sky , but also the feeling of entering the Titan exoskeleton and of scaling a Titan to take it down .
Arthur Gies of Polygon wrote that the game 's controls felt streamlined and natural . He felt empowered by his awareness of his potential strengths and vulnerabilities behind his choices . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey praised the balance between weapons . He called the Smart Pistol his " favorite sidearm since the Halo 1 pistol " , but noted that its range and several @-@ second lock @-@ on balanced the gun 's fairness . GameSpot 's Chris Watters thought the pistol was a " neat twist on the humble sidearm " . Dan Whitehead , writing for Eurogamer , compared the Smart Pistol to the inventive weapons of the Resistance series and otherwise wasn 't impressed with the weapons . Gies of Polygon wished for more customization options and IGN 's McCaffrey praised the maps , which ranged from " very good to great " — from the fast @-@ action ziplines in the very good desert " Boneyard " to the great tiny village " Colony " with crowded houses to exchange gunfire across varied heights .
VG247 's Dave Cook wrote that simplifying the game as " just Call of Duty with mechs " was unjustified given its freshness and innovation , though The Verge 's Andrew Webster said " just Call of Duty with mechs " is essentially what it is . Cook added that the parkour elements " turn the Call of Duty format on its head " and that Titanfall addressed all issues with Call of Duty 's game balance . Multiple reviewers referred to Titanfall as Call of Duty : Future Warfare or a variant whereof . Edge noted that the parkour elements made them approach at an angle instead of rushing directly at the dots on the mini @-@ map , and GameSpot 's Chris Watters said simple player movement was both a pleasure and a challenge . The Verge 's Vlad Savov wrote that wall running " hasn 't felt this good since ... the Prince of Persia series " . Eurogamer 's Whitehead said other shooters felt " leaden and limited " after playing Titanfall .
Reviewers found the campaign poorly executed . Edge called it " nonsense " , and Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer said it was " as clichéd as it is shallow " . IGN 's McCaffrey wrote that the story became " background noise " in an otherwise chaotic game . Writing for The Verge , Adi Robertson compared the plot to the backstory on 1990s CD @-@ ROM user manuals , and OXM 's Mikel Reparaz felt his actions were unimportant to the narrative . Ars Technica 's Peter Bright called the campaign 's voice acting " some of the worst ... [ he 's ] ever heard — flat and uninspired " . Reviewers noted how the game borrowed from games in other genres , such as DOTA and League of Legends . McCaffrey of IGN considered the AI soldiers both a valuable game mechanic and " worthless fodder " at once . Edge called Titanfall " a game of time management " , spent planning when timers will deplete and activate powers . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the nature of the Titan timers turned every mode into a deathmatch , regardless of objective . IGN 's McCaffrey referred to the experience point " grind " and the Titanfall timer as the game 's " two economies " . He also praised Respawn for not using microtransactions with the game , especially with burn cards . Writing for Edge , Neil Long compared burn cards to FIFA Ultimate Team 's power @-@ ups . Whitehead of Eurogamer wrote that the game begins to drag after level 25 and slows into a grind , though its flow overall is effortlessly cool , like a " first @-@ person Crackdown " .
Edge wrote that Titanfall 's major issue was the Xbox One , which performed less admirably compared to the PC version . GameSpot 's Chris Watters acknowledged that the PC 's higher resolution was expected and that the Xbox 360 version had an even lower resolution , frame rate issues , and texture pop @-@ in , though it still handled the game well . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the game 's visuals were " lacking " , with flat lighting and static environments . OXM 's Mikel Reparaz thought that the title should have been a launch release , where it would have been easier to overlook its sparse content . Minding the processing power behind the battles , the reviewers were not particularly impressed by the graphics . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead compared the game 's aesthetics to Pacific Rim and District 9 .
Reviewers thought Titanfall was a successful evolution of the genre , with GameSpot 's Chris Watters calling it " a great leap forward for shooters " and EGM 's Chris Holzworth declaring the game " unquestionably worthy of all the praises sung about it " , but Eurogamer 's Whitehead concluded that the game 's " more of a step forward ... than a leap " . Polygon 's Arthur Gies said Titanfall was not the " kind sea change Modern Warfare started " . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the game 's multiplayer was " not groundbreaking " and did not surpass Call of Duty 's , and Edge decided that Titanfall " might not be Xbox One 's killer app " . Reflecting on a lack of sales data a month after release , Paul Tassi wrote that the " buzz " surrounding Titanfall 's release " seemed to fade abnormally quickly " and that the game hasn 't " capitalized on the goodwill it had ahead of , and even during , launch " . While EA COO Peter Moore told investors on a May 2014 call that the game had sold 925 @,@ 000 retail copies in the United States during its launch month , that number came from an external NPD Group report that Titanfall was March 's top @-@ selling game . NPD Group reported it was April 's top @-@ selling game as well . As of May 2014 , EA had not released figures on Titanfall 's sales , an uncommon practice that drew skepticism from journalists such as Paul Tassi . IGN reported that Titanfall sold ten million copies as of October 2015 , but other sources could not conclude whether the Vince Zampella source tweet meant ten million units sold or unique players .
= = Sequel = =
Jaz Rignall of USgamer revisited Titanfall in late 2015 and found the game still worthy of its original praise , though he noted that its technical details — namely graphics and framerate — showed some age . He felt that the game 's content issues , apart from the light campaign , were resolved by the free additional maps . Overall , Rignall said that Titanfall had been replaced by newer shooter games .
On March 12 , 2015 , Respawn confirmed that a sequel is in development for Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . Respawn also announced that the company is working with Nexon to develop multiple Titanfall games for iOS and Android on October 29 , 2015 . Unlike its predecessor , Titanfall 2 will have a traditional single @-@ player campaign . On April 11 , 2016 , Respawn released a teaser trailer for Titanfall 2 , stating that more information will be released at E3 2016 .
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= Elmer Stricklett =
Elmer Griffin Stricklett ( August 29 , 1876 – June 7 , 1964 ) was an American professional baseball pitcher . He pitched in Major League Baseball for the Chicago White Sox and Brooklyn Superbas from 1904 through 1907 . Including his time in minor league baseball , Stricklett pitched professionally from 1897 through 1912 .
Stricklett is considered one of the pioneers of the spitball . He learned the pitch while playing in the minor leagues . He later taught the spitball to Ed Walsh and Jack Chesbro , both of whom were elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = Career = =
Stricklett attended Santa Clara University , where he played college baseball for the Santa Clara Broncos baseball team . He began his professional career in minor league baseball with the Topeka Colts of the Kansas State League in 1897 . In 1898 , he pitched for the Salina Blues and Atchison Huskers of the Kansas State League , before joining the Dallas Colts of the Class @-@ C Texas League later that year . He pitched for the Rock Island – Moline Islanders of the Class @-@ B Western Association and Kansas City Blues of the Class @-@ A Western League in 1899 . Despite pitching to a 14 – 1 win – loss record in 1899 , Kansas City released Stricklett to the Wheeling Stogies of the Class @-@ B Interstate League in 1900 .
Stricklett split the 1900 season with Wheeling and the Toledo Mud Hens , also of the Interstate League , pitching to a 13 @-@ 8 record . In 1901 , Stricklett pitched for the Toledo Swamp Angels of the Western Association and Sacramento Senators of the California League , compiling a 27 @-@ 22 record . In 1902 , he pitched for the Newark Sailors of the Class @-@ A Eastern League and the Sacramento Gilt Edges of the California League , finishing the season with a 23 @-@ 22 record . While pitching for Sacramento , Stricklett mastered the spitball . In 1903 , Stricklett pitched for Los Angeles and the Seattle Chinooks of the Pacific National League , going 24 @-@ 8 .
The Chicago White Sox of the American League ( AL ) invited Stricklett to spring training in 1904 , where he roomed with Ed Walsh . Stricklett taught Walsh the spitball . After pitching in one game for the White Sox , allowing eight earned runs in seven IP , he received his release , and pitched for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class @-@ A American Association for the remainder of the season , where he pitched to a 24 @-@ 11 record in 267 innings pitched ( IP ) . The Boston Americans of the AL purchased the rights to Stricklett in August 1904 , but allowed him to remain in Milwaukee .
The Brooklyn Superbas of the National League ( NL ) chose Stricklett from Milwaukee after the 1904 season in the Rule 5 draft . He debuted with the Superbas in the 1905 season , pitching to a 9 – 18 record and a 3 @.@ 34 earned run average ( ERA ) in 237 1 ⁄ 3 IP . His 18 losses were ninth most in the league . Among NL pitchers , only Stricklett and Deacon Phillippe allowed no home runs that season . In 1906 , Stricklett went 14 – 18 with a 2 @.@ 72 ERA in 291 2 ⁄ 3 IP , the ninth most losses and IP in the NL that season . He appeared in 41 games , tied for fifth in the NL with Vic Willis and Jake Weimer , and his 28 complete games and five shutouts were both tied for tenth most in the NL . However , he also allowed 88 earned runs , sixth most in the league .
Stricklett pitched on Opening Day for the Superbas in 1907 , a game the Superbas lost . That year , Stricklett had a 12 – 14 record and a 2 @.@ 27 ERA in 229 2 ⁄ 3 IP . His 25 complete games were eighth best in the NL , while his four shutouts tied for tenth . In four MLB seasons , Stricklett went 35 – 51 with a 2 @.@ 84 ERA and 10 shutouts .
After the 1907 season , Stricklett returned to the California League to pitch for the San Jose Prune Prickers and Sacramento Sacts , and refused to report to Brooklyn in 1908 as his wife wanted him to remain closer to their California home . As the California League was not recognized in organized baseball at this time , Stricklett was banned by MLB for four years . Though he applied for reinstatement , his banishment was upheld . Stricklett continued to pitch for San Jose through 1910 , pitching to a 23 @-@ 12 record in 1909 and a 19 @-@ 14 record in 1910 .
After the 1910 season , Stricklett he retired from baseball . However , he applied for reinstatement in 1912 , which was granted by the National Commission . Stricklett was fined $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 452 in current dollar terms ) for playing outside organized baseball for the previous three years . The Superbas sold his rights to the Binghamton Bingoes of the New York State League , and he pitched for the team . In minor league baseball , Stricklett won 20 games in a season at least five times , compiling a 169 @-@ 99 record across nine seasons .
= = = Spitball = = =
Stricklett denied inventing the spitball , though he claimed to be the first pitcher to master the spitball and to feature it exclusively . To achieve the pitch , he would moisten the ball with a spot the size of two of his fingers . The pitch would act " exactly the same way as reverse English does on a billiard ball " .
Stricklett learned the spitball from minor league teammate George Hildebrand in 1902 , who learned about it from Frank Corridon . Stricklett played an important role in popularizing the spitball . Stricklett taught the spitball to Jack Chesbro , who saw him use the pitch while pitching in minor league baseball . Though Chesbro had experimented with the pitch in the minor leagues , Stricklett showed him how to master it in 1904 . Stricklett taught it to Ed Walsh while they roomed together with the White Sox .
= = Later life = =
Stricklett retired to Mountain View , California , where he grew apricots on a ranch . He died in Santa Cruz , California , at the age of 87 .
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= Battle of Fort Cumberland =
The Battle of Fort Cumberland ( also known as the Eddy Rebellion ) was an attempt by a small number of militia commanded by Jonathan Eddy to bring the American Revolutionary War to Nova Scotia in late 1776 . With minimal logistical support from Massachusetts and four to five hundred volunteer militia and Natives , Eddy attempted to besiege and storm Fort Cumberland in central Nova Scotia ( near the present @-@ day border between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) in November 1776 .
The fort 's defenders , the Royal Fencible American Regiment led by Joseph Goreham , a veteran of the French and Indian War , successfully repelled several attempts by Eddy 's militia to storm the fort , and the siege was ultimately relieved when the RFA plus Royal Marine reinforcements drove off the besiegers on November 29 . In retaliation for the role of locals who supported the siege , numerous homes and farms were destroyed , and Patriot sympathizers were driven out of the area . The successful defense of Fort Cumberland preserved the territorial integrity of the British Maritime possessions , and Nova Scotia remained loyal throughout the war .
= = Background = =
Nova Scotia was generally poorly defended in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War , and unrest in the eastern regions provoked fears of an American @-@ led uprising . Although some reinforcements had reached Halifax by early 1776 , the frontiers of the province were only lightly defended .
Fort Cumberland was located on the Isthmus of Chignecto , which connects modern mainland Nova Scotia with New Brunswick . The area was strategically important in earlier conflicts between the French colony of Acadia and British @-@ controlled Nova Scotia . Originally built by the French in 1750 as Fort Beauséjour , Fort Cumberland was in deplorable condition . Won from the French in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour in 1755 , the fortifications had been minimally garrisoned by the British after the Seven Years ' War and abandoned in 1768 . As early as June 1775 , Colonel Joseph Goreham had been ordered by General Thomas Gage to raise the Royal Fencible American Regiment of Foot and natives in Nova Scotia for the defense of the province against Patriot activity . Arriving at the fort in the summer of 1776 , Colonel Goreham and a garrison of 200 Loyalist troops of the RFA did what they could to restore the premises to a defensible condition . But Goreham had not been adequately provisioned and his men lacked everything from victuals to uniforms . Furthermore , the locals were generally sympathetic to the Patriot cause , and refused to assist in rehabilitating the fort , even trying to induce members of the garrison to defect .
= = Discontent in Nova Scotia = =
Jonathan Eddy was a Massachusetts @-@ born resident of Cumberland County , Nova Scotia , where the fort was located . He and John Allan , both of whom served in the provincial assembly , were the prime movers of Patriot activity in the area , which was one of several hotbeds of agitation in Nova Scotia . The other major areas of Patriot activity were Maugerville in the St. John River valley of Sunbury County ( present @-@ day New Brunswick ) , and Cobequid , and there were also pockets of activity in Pictou and the Passamaquoddy Bay area , which separates present @-@ day Maine and New Brunswick . Patriots in these communities were in contact with each other , and those of Cumberland and Maugerville were active in trying to interest nearby natives ( Passamaquoddy , Maliseet , and Mi 'kmaq ) in their cause .
Eddy believed that with military assistance from the Thirteen Colonies , he might be able to bring down the strongly Loyalist administration of Nova Scotia . Early in 1776 , Eddy went to Massachusetts in an attempt to interest political and military leaders there in supporting action in Nova Scotia , while Allan worked to raise interest in Nova Scotia . Allan 's work was made more difficult by the arrival of Colonel Goreham and his troops to refortify Fort Cumberland , and by the activities of Michael Francklin , a former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and a vocal Loyalist . Eddy returned empty @-@ handed to Nova Scotia in June 1776 , only to learn that Goreham had put a price on his head . The activities of Goreham 's Fencibles in the Cumberland area were successful enough that Patriot activities there were effectively forced underground ; the center of these activities was shifted to Maugerville in part as a consequence of this . Goreham , a veteran of the French and Indian War , was also able to blunt Patriot inroads in the native communities , where the Mi 'kmaq refused to take sides , and the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy , at first supportive of the Patriots , ultimately did not turn out in the numbers Eddy had hoped for or been promised .
Eddy returned to Massachusetts in August . While the Second Continental Congress and George Washington would not authorize , fund , or otherwise support military activities in Nova Scotia , Eddy was able to convince the Massachusetts Provincial Congress to provide some material support ( primarily muskets , ammunition , powder , and other military supplies ) for an attempt on Fort Cumberland . It also allowed Eddy to engage in recruiting in the District of Maine .
= = Raising the militia = =
Eddy left Boston in September and sailed to Machias , where he recruited about 20 men . On October 13 , this party sailed from Machias for Passamaquoddy Bay . Coincidentally , John Allan , who was working on a longer @-@ term plan for military action , sailed from Campobello Island for Machias the same day . The two parties met at sea , where Allan attempted to dissuade Eddy from his plan , informing him that the Mi 'kmaq ( the largest tribe in Nova Scotia ) would not help him . Allan extracted a promise from Eddy to wait at Campobello while he went to Machias to meet with the council there . When the Machias council learned of how little native support there was , they sent a letter to Eddy urging him to give up the effort . Eddy persisted , and left Campobello , having added nine Passamaquoddy recruits to his band .
From Campobello , Eddy sailed up the Saint John River to Maugerville , where 27 men were recruited , and then up to the Maliseet settlement at Aukpaque ( just upriver from present @-@ day Fredericton ) . There he learned the bad news that Pierre Tomah , the main Maliseet chief , was not interested in taking up the hatchet . Eddy was able to convince Ambroise St. Aubin , one of Tomah 's competitors , and 15 men to join the expedition in exchange for an agreement with the Maugerville community to support the families of those men . In another disappointment , none of the local Acadians joined , contrary to assertions St. Aubin had made to Eddy during a previous visit to the area .
= = Prelude = =
With a force now numbering about 72 , Eddy sailed up the Bay of Fundy to Shepody Outpost . The exact location of this outpost , established probably by Joseph Goreham in September , is subject to debate . It may have been present @-@ day Hopewell Cape , New Brunswick on the Bay 's western side , or it may have been Fort Folly Point on its eastern side . In any case , it was there that Eddy captured a patrol of Goreham 's Fencibles on October 25 , killing one and wounding another . The prisoners were shipped back to Machias , and Eddy sent some of his men to Cocagne in a largely fruitless effort to enlist Mi 'kmaqs in the cause . Eddy himself continued on to Memramcook , where about two dozen of the Acadian locals joined him . This enlarged force marched to Sackville , where more settlers joined the force , swelling it ( by Eddy 's account ) to about 180 men . Goreham was finally alerted to Eddy 's actions on November 4 , when a boat sent with supplies for the Shepody patrol was informed of Eddy 's activities by locals . Goreham heightened the guard on the fort , but did not immediately attempt to notify Halifax or Windsor , since he was uncertain what routes away from the fort might have been blocked by Eddy .
On October 31 , the frigate Juno escorted the supply sloop Polly to Fort Cumberland , where she docked below the fort on the Aulac River . The Polly was laden with supplies to last the fort through the winter , and work began immediately to unload those supplies . Juno , easily visible from Sackville , was a concern to Eddy , since her presence added to the fort 's defenses . Fortunately for Eddy , she sailed on November 3 , leaving Polly docked below the fort . On November 6 , Eddy 's patrols began ranging closer to the fort , alerting Goreham to the approaching force . Goreham took no additional steps to protect the Polly , and any attempts to get word of his predicament out were again delayed by his decision to await the return of scouts he had dispatched earlier . ( The fate of the scouts is uncertain ; they did not return before the fort was invested . ) That evening , thirty of Eddy 's men surprised the sleepy guards aboard the Polly , taking thirteen prisoners . They also seized another ship , owned by a Patriot sympathizer , that happened to be anchored nearby .
On the morning of November 7 Goreham decided that it was time to get a message to Windsor . He sent a party of men down to the dock that morning . These men , numbering about 30 , were taken prisoner by Eddy 's men as rapidly as they arrived due to their unawareness that Eddy had control of the ship . The Polly was then sailed to Fort Lawrence , to the east of Fort Cumberland , where the supplies were landed . Sentries in the fort spotted the move , and Goreham , realizing Eddy had taken the ship , fired an ineffectual cannonade against the ship .
= = Siege = =
Goreham took stock of his situation . Nearly one quarter of his garrison ( more than 60 men ) had been captured by Eddy , along with critical fuel and other supplies that had not been unloaded from the Polly before her seizure . His defenses consisted of a hastily constructed palisade that encompassed most of the fort , and six cannons , for which his men had only completed three mounts . The fort 's military complement was 176 men , including officers and artillerymen . Over the next few days , local militia arrived to raise the garrison 's size to about 200 , although this included individuals not effective for combat due to illness . On both November 7 and 8 he again attempted to get messengers out of Eddy 's cordon , without success .
On November 8 Eddy was joined by about 200 men from Cobequid and Pictou , and he finally felt ready to act on November 10 . Eddy sent a letter demanding that Goreham surrender his garrison . Goreham refused , suggesting in retort that Eddy surrender .
The next day authorities outside the area learned of Eddy 's activities . Michael Francklin , patrolling in the Bay of Fundy for privateers , recovered a ferry that had been taken , and learned from its passengers that Eddy was active . When the news reached Halifax through the efforts of Thomas Dixson , Lieutenant Governor Marriot Arbuthnot responded by dispatching orders on the 15th for any available ship based at Annapolis to go to Fort Edward in Windsor , to convoy troops to relieve the siege .
Commodore Sir George Collier had previously dispatched the HMS Vulture into the Bay of Fundy on rumors of privateering activity there , so he ordered the HMS Hope to locate the Vulture so that she could assist . However , the Hope captured a prize and returned to Halifax ; she was then sent out again to accompany a supply ship to Fort Cumberland . In the meantime , the Vulture fortuitously arrived at Windsor , where she took on some marines and Fencibles .
Lacking artillery , the rebels attempted to storm the fort on the night of November 12 , attempting a feint to draw Goreham 's strength away from the weak points of the defenses . The experienced Goreham saw through the feint and repulsed the attack . One of Eddy 's Maliseet warriors sneaked into the fort and very nearly opened a gate but was stopped at the last moment . Following the failed attack , Eddy effectively lost control of the expedition , as a council of leaders formed against him . Night attacks ordered by the council on November 22 and 23 succeeded in capturing and burning several buildings , but Goreham grimly held his ground , and the invaders were again repulsed .
On November 27 , the Vulture arrived . Rather than retreat in the face of arriving relief , the rebels increased their guard ; Goreham , with some intelligence about the size of the force opposing him , planned a sortie . Early on the morning of November 29 , Major Thomas Batt led 150 men from the Vulture 's Royal Marine contingent and the Royal Fencible Americans , and scattered Eddy 's men , killing and wounding several , at the cost of two dead and three wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Batt 's men chased Eddy 's , but bad weather and the lack of adequate footwear eventually caused him to call off the pursuit . Eddy 's forces scattered , with many retreating overland to Maugerville . Some of the Massachusetts men took more than two months to reach Machias . Homes and farms of rebel supporters were burned in reprisal but British authorities took a lenient approach toward captured rebels , including Richard John Uniacke , who went on to become Attorney General of Nova Scotia . Goreham issued an offer of pardon for those who would surrender their arms , which more than 100 locals accepted . This prompted Major Batt to file charges against Goreham for neglect of duty ; Goreham was exonerated .
The victory at Fort Cumberland strengthened the British presence in Nova Scotia , in part by driving Patriot sympathizers like Allan and Eddy out of the province , but also by cowing those that remained , often by requiring people to make pledges to the Crown . Some unrest continued for the remainder of the war ( e.g. , the Battle at Miramichi ) , although no further large scale military threat occurred . The most significant attempt occurred in the summer of 1777 , when John Allan was authorized by Congress to take actions in Nova Scotia ; however , only a small number of forces were raised for this effort at Saint John , and a British show of force put an end to the attempt . Eddy appears to have been involved with Allan 's work , but his movements prior to August 1777 are uncertain . Commodore Collier followed up by attacking Machias , intending to break Allan 's plans . Eddy led the defense of Machias during the battle on August 13 – 15 , 1777 . ( Collier 's action was in fact unnecessary ; the Massachusetts Provisional Congress had in early August voted to disband forces recruited for Allan 's expedition , because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York . )
The Battle of Fort Cumberland was poorly documented in 19th @-@ century histories of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , often receiving only minimal mention . The involvement of local inhabitants ( natives , Acadians , and English @-@ speakers ) in the siege was generally understated or unknown . The site of Fort Cumberland has been preserved as a National Historic Site of Canada , and is administered by Parks Canada .
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= Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver =
Pokémon HeartGold Version and SoulSilver Version ( ポケットモンスター ハートゴールド & ソウルシルバー , Poketto Monsutā Hātogōrudo & Sōrushirubā , " Pocket Monsters : HeartGold & SoulSilver ) are enhanced remakes of the 1999 video games Pokémon Gold and Silver , including the features in Pokémon Crystal . The games are part of the Pokémon series of role @-@ playing video games , and were developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . First released in Japan on September 12 , 2009 , the games were later released to North America , Australia , and Europe during March 2010 .
HeartGold and SoulSilver take place in the Johto region of the franchise 's fictional universe , which features special creatures called Pokémon . The basic goal of the game is to become the best Pokémon trainer in the Johto and Kanto regions , which is done by raising and cataloging Pokémon and defeating other trainers .
Game director Shigeki Morimoto aimed to respect the feelings of those who played the previous games , while also ensuring that it felt like a new game to those that were introduced to the series in more recent years . Reception to the games was highly positive , with the two being amongst the highest rated DS games of all time on Metacritic . As of March 2014 , the games ' combined sales have reached 12 @.@ 72 million , putting the titles amongst the best selling Nintendo DS games .
= = Plot and setting = =
Similar to Pokémon Gold and Silver , HeartGold and SoulSilver take place in the Johto and Kanto regions of the franchise 's fictional universe . The universe centers on the existence of creatures , called Pokémon , with special abilities . The silent protagonist is a young Pokémon trainer who lives in New Bark Town . At the beginning of the games , the player chooses either a Chikorita , Cyndaquil , or Totodile as their starter Pokémon from Professor Elm . After performing a delivery for the professor and obtaining a Pokédex , he decides to let the player keep the Pokémon and start them on a journey .
The goal of the game is to become the best trainer in Johto and Kanto , which is done by raising Pokémon , completing a catalogue of Pokémon called a Pokédex , defeating the eight Gym Leaders in Johto for Gym Badges , challenging the best trainers in the region known as the Elite Four and the Champion , and then defeating the eight Gym Leaders in the Kanto region . Finally , the player may face off against Red atop Mt . Silver , who serves as the game 's final boss .
Throughout the game , the player will battle against members of Team Rocket , a criminal organization originally from Kanto . They were originally defeated by the protagonist of FireRed and LeafGreen , and have attempted to come back as an organization , while awaiting the return of their leader , Giovanni . To attempt to contact him , they take over the radio tower and broadcast a message calling out to him .
While being the remakes of Gold and Silver , the games tie in plot elements of Crystal as well , such as the added emphasis on Suicune over the other legendary beasts , as well as the post @-@ ending Battle Frontier . ( In Crystal , only the Battle Tower was available . ) Additionally , Johto and Kanto were given Generation IV features such as Pal Park .
During certain points in the game , the player 's rival will battle the protagonist in a test of skills . Throughout the game , the player encounters Kimono Girls . After battling all of them in a row , they allow the player to encounter a legendary bird specific to each game ( Ho @-@ Oh in HeartGold , and Lugia in SoulSilver ) . As per the originals , the other Pokémon can be obtained later on .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver are role @-@ playing video games with adventure elements . The basic mechanics of the games are largely the same as their predecessors ' . As with all Pokémon games for hand @-@ held consoles , gameplay is viewed from a third @-@ person overhead perspective , and consists of three basic screens : a field map , in which the player navigates the main character ; a battle screen ; and the menu , in which the player configures his party , items , or gameplay settings . The player begins the game with one Pokémon and can capture more using Poké Balls . The player can also use the Pokémon to battle or deceive others , often forming alliances or trends via the Team Rocket networks .
When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based battle screen where the Pokémon fight . During battle , the player may fight , use an item , switch the active Pokémon , or flee ( the last is not an option in battles against trainers ) . Pokémon have hit points ( HP ) , which is displayed during combat ; when a Pokémon 's HP is reduced to zero , it faints and cannot battle unless taken to a Pokémon Center or healed or revived with a Pokémon skill or item . If the player 's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon ( causes it to faint ) , it receives experience points . After accumulating enough experience points , it will level up ; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon when they reach a certain level , or when certain conditions are met ( commonly , how much a Pokémon statistically ' likes ' its trainer ) .
= = = New features = = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver allow the first Pokémon in the player 's party to follow them , echoing a mechanic in Pokémon Yellow in which Pikachu follows the player . Apart from Yellow , this mechanic was also used in Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , and Platinum in a limited fashion : when the player is in Amity Park with a cute Pokémon . The player may talk to the Pokémon to see or check on how that Pokémon is feeling , and occasionally it may pick up items . A new minigame called the Pokéathlon ( called Pokéthlon in Japan ) uses the Nintendo DS touchscreen and allows Pokémon to compete in events such as hurdling . The Japanese versions retain slot machines found in previous games , while the international releases of the titles replace the slot machines with a new game called " Voltorb Flip " , described as a cross between Minesweeper and Picross . Another new item , the GB Sounds , changes the background music to the original 8 @-@ bit music from Pokémon Gold and Silver .
= = = Connectivity to other devices = = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver can access the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection to trade , battle , and interact with other players of the games , as well as players of Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , and Platinum . After completing a special Wi @-@ Fi mission download on Pokémon Ranger : Guardian Signs , the player can send a Deoxys to HeartGold and SoulSilver .
= = Development = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver were released in 2009 , ten years after Gold and Silver 's release for the Game Boy Color . Shigeki Morimoto , the games ' director , commented on the development of the remakes : " The first thing that I knew I needed to bear in mind was to respect the feelings of those people who 'd played Gold and Silver ten years before . I think that players have very strong memories of the game , so they 'd think things like ' Ah , this trainer is still strong ' and ' If I do this here , this is going to happen ' . I knew I needed to respect these feelings . " However , Morimoto also needed to make sure that the games would feel as new games to players who began playing Pokémon in recent years on the Game Boy Advance or the Nintendo DS . An in @-@ game author surrogate of Game Freak 's President in Celadon City states that the team strove to make a game that would appeal to players with fond memories without " redoing the same thing " . He also states that making the game was a " rewarding challenge " . HeartGold and SoulSilver introduced many new features that were absent in the original Gold and Silver . Several of these features came from the previously released Nintendo DS Pokémon games , such as Diamond ( 2006 ) , Pearl ( 2006 ) , and Platinum ( 2008 ) .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
An initial rumor started in early May 2009 that Nintendo planned to remake Pokémon Gold and Silver after the Japanese television show Pokémon Sunday ended by announcing a " world @-@ exclusive first announcement " that would be made on its next show . Kris Pigna of 1UP.com speculated that this alluded to a possible remake of Gold and Silver for the Nintendo DS , due to gold and silver disco balls hanging in the background . Pigna further reasoned that this would be consistent with the previously released titles Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen which were enhanced remakes of the original Pokémon Red and Blue . Several days later , Nintendo officially confirmed that Gold and Silver were being remade as HeartGold and SoulSilver and released their official logos . It also announced that the games would contain numerous updates , although declined to reveal any specifics . The games were released for the Nintendo DS on September 12 , 2009 in Japan to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the original Gold and Silver release . Junichi Masuda stated on his blog that " we , Game Freak have spent long and firm time developing above two titles [ sic ] " , and that " ' Pokémon Gold & Silver ' will be back with far more excitement . "
At the 2009 Pokémon World Championships , Nintendo stated that HeartGold and SoulSilver would be released in North America between the months of January and March , Europe sometime around May and June , and Australia in April . " Announcing these much @-@ anticipated game launches at The Pokémon World Championships allows us to give the news directly to the legions of fans who represent the true heart and soul of Pokémon , " a spokesperson said . Nintendo updated the official Pokémon English website with information about the new titles , telling readers that the games would feature revamped audiovisual effects , interaction with the DS touch screen , and more " surprises " . From February 27 to March 13 , 2010 , video game retailer GameStop hosted a promotion in which players of Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , or Platinum could use the games ' " Mystery Gift " feature to download a free Jirachi Pokémon to their game . A " Pikachu @-@ colored Pichu " could be downloaded using Wi @-@ Fi that , when taken to the Ilex Forest in @-@ game , unlocked a " Spiky @-@ eared Pichu " .
= = Audio = =
Nintendo DS Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver Music Super Complete ( ニンテンドーDS ポケモン ハートゴールド & ソウルシルバー ミュージック ・ スーパーコンプリート , Nintendō DS Pokemon Hātogōrudo ando Sōrushirubā Myūjikku Sūpā Konpurīto ) , a three @-@ disc soundtrack featuring music scored by Junichi Masuda , Go Ichinose , Hitomi Sato , Shota Kageyama and Takuto Kitsuta , was released in Japan on October 28 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
In response to the news confirming the development of HeartGold and SoulSilver , fans posted their reactions and commentary on the Internet . In particular , IGN editor Jack DeVries reasoned that the primary reason for the updated games was to be compatible with Pokémon Diamond and Pearl , allowing players to collect old Pokémon species that were previously unobtainable in the new games . He also expressed skepticism that the new titles could match the quality of the originals ; stating , " For me , Gold / Silver were amazing because they introduced so many new features that have since become standards for the series . It was the first , and only , time the Pokémon games have made such a significant expansion . These days we 're lucky if we get a new feature that invisibly changes the strategic elements of the game . " He reminisced over the qualities that made Gold and Silver truly unique , including the full color support , internal clock , Pokémon breeding , and PokéGear . Several months later , after DeVries had played through some of the game , he wrote , " so far I like what I see , even if it all feels very familiar and formulaic at this point . "
The games ' reception has been highly positive , having an aggregate score of 87 on Metacritic . The titles are among the Top 20 rated DS games in the site 's database . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu awarded the games a composite score of 37 out of 40 based on four individual reviews , of which the ratings were 9 , 10 , 9 , and 9 . The reviewers praised the games for retaining much of the quality that drew them to the original Gold and Silver . The only drawback mentioned was that the games brought " no major surprises " . Nintendo Power gave the games one of the highest scores , remarking on its replay value though criticizing shortly about no improvement in graphic animation for Pokémon sprites . Official Nintendo Magazine stated that they were the best Pokémon games yet . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez stated " Even though the classic Pokémon formula still works as evidenced by HeartGold . I can ’ t help but hope for a new Pokémon title that breaks some new ground . "
IGN 's Craig Harris said that the titles were " like a gap filler to make the wait for a new Pokémon game just a little more bearable " . Jim Sterling of Destructoid stated , " While it is , at its core , the same game that you 've played many years ago , it still manages to feel new and the updated features bolster the original experience in a manner that never intrudes and only enhances " . 1UP.com 's Justin Haywald stated that " HeartGold / SoulSilver is easily the best Pokémon game yet " . VideoGamer.com reviewer Jamin Smith said , " With HeartGold and SoulSilver the Pokémon series has reached a point where it can 't get any better . " Eurogamer 's Keza MacDonald gave the games a 9 / 10 , stating " They combine everything that was best about the older Pokémon games " , citing the Pokémon designs and improved graphics and battle system . GamePro 's McKinley Noble stated that " it 's clear that this is a perfect experience for both old @-@ school trainers and the newest generation of Pokémon fans . " GameZone 's Cliff Bakehorn III said , " There is not a doubt in my mind : Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver are the pinnacle of the entire series . " Nathan Meunier of GameSpot gave the games one of the lower scores , criticizing them for a lack of innovation . GamesRadar attributed the game 's success to being a remake of classic games .
= = = Sales = = =
In Japan , the games sold over 1 @.@ 48 million units within the first two days of release , topping the Japanese sales chart that week . Within two weeks , the games had sold a combined total of over 2 @.@ 00 million units . By December 18 , 2009 , the games ' Japanese sales totals had surpassed 3 @.@ 22 million . In Australia , over 50 @,@ 000 units sold in one week . In the United States , the games managed collective sales of 1 @.@ 73 million in their first month , with the SoulSilver version selling 1 @.@ 01 million and HeartGold selling 0 @.@ 76 million units . The combined sales of the two games made them the highest @-@ selling games of March 2010 . As of May 6 , 2010 , the games sold 8 @.@ 40 million units worldwide . The games reached 10 million sales worldwide by the end of July 2010 . As of March 2014 , the games ' combined sales have reached 12 @.@ 72 million .
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= Cookie ( video game ) =
Cookie is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game that was released exclusively for the ZX Spectrum in 1983 . In the game , Charlie the Chef has to bake a cake , however his five ingredients are sentient and attempt to escape his pantry , enabling his quest to re @-@ capture them .
The game was written by Chris Stamper , and graphics were designed by Tim Stamper . Cookie was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . A version was also created for the BBC Micro , but was not commercially released . The game received mixed reviews upon release , with critics praising the graphics , but criticising the hard difficulty and its similarities to Pssst .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented from a single , 2D perspective , and the main objective involves Charlie the Chef baking a cake from evil , sentient ingredients . The five ingredients vary from Mixed Peel , Chunky Chocolate , Crafty Cheese , Sneaky Sugar and Colonel Custard , who will all jump out of the pantry and try and avoid the player whenever possible .
The player starts the game with three lives . Several ingredients will fly around the screen simultaneously , and if the player touches an ingredient with their body , a life will be deducted . The player 's objective is to put the ingredients into the cooking bowl before they either fall into the dustbins on either side or knock the player into the bowl . As a defence , Charlie the Cook can shoot flour sacks , which will push the ingredients further in the direction they are moving in . Bombs may also spawn in the game , which will allow the player to push the ingredients further than conventional flour sacks . The player has to push the right variety of ingredients into the bowl , which changes for each level . When the right amount of ingredients has been put in the bowl , a cake is baked and a new level begins .
= = Background = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch , England in 1982 . Under the trading name Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . Prior to founding Ultimate , the Stamper brothers had designed arcade machines , but had no marketing experience in the video game sector . The company was known for its reluctance to reveal details about its operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " : one team would work on development , while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or graphics .
Cookie was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . A version was also created for the BBC Micro and was scheduled for release in 1984 ; however , it was never commercially released . The game was released as Crazy Kitchen in Italian markets and as Chef , Lo in Croatia .
= = Reception = =
Matthew Uffindell of Crash praised the game overall , despite thinking it was overshadowed by Ultimate 's Tranz Am , which was bundled with Cookie during its initial release . Uffindell stated the gameplay was addictive and challenging , despite thinking it was similar to its predecessor , Pssst . Lloyd Mangram of Crash considered the game to be overlooked and underrated , despite him suggesting that it was the most difficult of all games developed by Ultimate . Mangram praised the graphics as detailed , fast and " amusing " , owing to the game 's sentient ingredients . Reviewers of Home Computing Weekly similarly praised the graphics and sound , stating that they " are well up to Ultimate 's standards " .
A reviewer from Sinclair User stated that the graphics were of " arcade and cartoon " quality , and criticised the game 's concept , suggesting that the player would lose interest after completing a few levels . Mangham , however , praised its playability , heralding that it was " great fun " to play and easy to adapt to . Sinclair User opined that first impressions of the game were important to the customer , and stated that the player may feel cheated due to the game 's similarities to Pssst .
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= Forward exchange rate =
The forward exchange rate ( also referred to as forward rate or forward price ) is the exchange rate at which a bank agrees to exchange one currency for another at a future date when it enters into a forward contract with an investor . Multinational corporations , banks , and other financial institutions enter into forward contracts to take advantage of the forward rate for hedging purposes . The forward exchange rate is determined by a parity relationship among the spot exchange rate and differences in interest rates between two countries , which reflects an economic equilibrium in the foreign exchange market under which arbitrage opportunities are eliminated . When in equilibrium , and when interest rates vary across two countries , the parity condition implies that the forward rate includes a premium or discount reflecting the interest rate differential . Forward exchange rates have important theoretical implications for forecasting future spot exchange rates . Financial economists have put forth a hypothesis that the forward rate accurately predicts the future spot rate , for which empirical evidence is mixed .
= = Introduction = =
The forward exchange rate is the rate at which a commercial bank is willing to commit to exchange one currency for another at some specified future date . The forward exchange rate is a type of forward price . It is the exchange rate negotiated today between a bank and a client upon entering into a forward contract agreeing to buy or sell some amount of foreign currency in the future . Multinational corporations and financial institutions often use the forward market to hedge future payables or receivables denominated in a foreign currency against foreign exchange risk by using a forward contract to lock in a forward exchange rate . Hedging with forward contracts is typically used for larger transactions , while futures contracts are used for smaller transactions . This is due to the customization afforded to banks by forward contracts traded over @-@ the @-@ counter , versus the standardization of futures contracts which are traded on an exchange . Banks typically quote forward rates for major currencies in maturities of one , three , six , nine , or twelve months , however in some cases quotations for greater maturities are available up to five or ten years .
= = Relation to covered interest rate parity = =
Covered interest rate parity is a no @-@ arbitrage condition in foreign exchange markets which depends on the availability of the forward market . It can be rearranged to give the forward exchange rate as a function of the other variables . The forward exchange rate depends on three known variables : the spot exchange rate , the domestic interest rate , and the foreign interest rate . This effectively means that the forward rate is the price of a forward contract , which derives its value from the pricing of spot contracts and the addition of information on available interest rates .
The following equation represents covered interest rate parity , a condition under which investors eliminate exposure to foreign exchange risk ( unanticipated changes in exchange rates ) with the use of a forward contract – the exchange rate risk is effectively covered . Under this condition , a domestic investor would earn equal returns from investing in domestic assets or converting currency at the spot exchange rate , investing in foreign currency assets in a country with a different interest rate , and exchanging the foreign currency for domestic currency at the negotiated forward exchange rate . Investors will be indifferent to the interest rates on deposits in these countries due to the equilibrium resulting from the forward exchange rate . The condition allows for no arbitrage opportunities because the return on domestic deposits , 1 + id , is equal to the return on foreign deposits , [ S / F ] ( 1 + if ) . If these two returns weren 't equalized by the use of a forward contract , there would be a potential arbitrage opportunity in which , for example , an investor could borrow currency in the country with the lower interest rate , convert to the foreign currency at today 's spot exchange rate , and invest in the foreign country with the higher interest rate .
<formula>
where
F is the forward exchange rate
S is the current spot exchange rate
id is the interest rate in domestic currency ( base currency )
if is the interest rate in foreign currency ( quoted currency )
This equation can be arranged such that it solves for the forward rate :
<formula>
= = Forward premium or discount = =
The equilibrium that results from the relationship between forward and spot exchange rates within the context of covered interest rate parity is responsible for eliminating or correcting for market inefficiencies that would create potential for arbitrage profits . As such , arbitrage opportunities are fleeting . In order for this equilibrium to hold under differences in interest rates between two countries , the forward exchange rate must generally differ from the spot exchange rate , such that a no @-@ arbitrage condition is sustained . Therefore , the forward rate is said to contain a premium or discount , reflecting the interest rate differential between two countries . The following equations demonstrate how the forward premium or discount is calculated .
The forward exchange rate differs by a premium or discount of the spot exchange rate :
<formula>
where
P is the premium ( if positive ) or discount ( if negative )
The equation can be rearranged as follows to solve for the forward premium / discount :
<formula>
In practice , forward premiums and discounts are quoted as annualized percentage deviations from the spot exchange rate , in which case it is necessary to account for the number of days to delivery as in the following example .
<formula>
where
N represents the maturity of a given forward exchange rate quote
d represents the number of days to delivery
For example , to calculate the 6 @-@ month forward premium or discount for the euro versus the dollar deliverable in 30 days , given a spot rate quote of 1 @.@ 2238 $ / € and a 6 @-@ month forward rate quote of 1 @.@ 2260 $ / € :
<formula>
The resulting 0 @.@ 021572 is positive , so one would say that the euro is trading at a 0 @.@ 021572 or 2 @.@ 16 % premium against the dollar for delivery in 30 days . Conversely , if one were to work this example in euro terms rather than dollar terms , the perspective would be reversed and one would say that the dollar is trading at a discount against the Euro .
= = Forecasting future spot exchange rates = =
= = = Unbiasedness hypothesis = = =
The unbiasedness hypothesis states that given conditions of rational expectations and risk neutrality , the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate . Without introducing a foreign exchange risk premium ( due to the assumption of risk neutrality ) , the following equation illustrates the unbiasedness hypothesis .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the forward exchange rate at time t
<formula> is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
The empirical rejection of the unbiasedness hypothesis is a well @-@ recognized puzzle among finance researchers . Empirical evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and the future spot rate is mixed . Researchers have published papers demonstrating empirical failure of the hypothesis by conducting regression analyses of the realized changes in spot exchange rates on forward premiums and finding negative slope coefficients . These researchers offer numerous rationales for such failure . One rationale centers around the relaxation of risk neutrality , while still assuming rational expectations , such that a foreign exchange risk premium may exist that can account for differences between the forward rate and the future spot rate .
The following equation represents the forward rate as being equal to a future spot rate and a risk premium ( not to be confused with a forward premium ) :
<formula>
The current spot rate can be introduced so that the equation solves for the forward @-@ spot differential ( the difference between the forward rate and the current spot rate ) :
<formula>
Eugene Fama concluded that large positive correlations of the difference between the forward exchange rate and the current spot exchange rate signal variations over time in the premium component of the forward @-@ spot differential <formula> or in the forecast of the expected change in the spot exchange rate . Fama suggested that slope coefficients in the regressions of the difference between the forward rate and the future spot rate <formula> , and the expected change in the spot rate <formula> , on the forward @-@ spot differential <formula> which are different from zero imply variations over time in both components of the forward @-@ spot differential : the premium and the expected change in the spot rate . Fama 's findings were sought to be empirically validated by a significant body of research , ultimately finding that large variance in expected changes in the spot rate could only be accounted for by risk aversion coefficients that were deemed " unacceptably high . " Other researchers have found that the unbiasedness hypothesis has been rejected in both cases where there is evidence of risk premia varying over time and cases where risk premia are constant .
Other rationales for the failure of the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis include considering the conditional bias to be an exogenous variable explained by a policy aimed at smoothing interest rates and stabilizing exchange rates , or considering that an economy allowing for discrete changes could facilitate excess returns in the forward market . Some researchers have contested empirical failures of the hypothesis and have sought to explain conflicting evidence as resulting from contaminated data and even inappropriate selections of the time length of forward contracts . Economists demonstrated that the forward rate could serve as a useful proxy for future spot exchange rates between currencies with liquidity premia that average out to zero during the onset of floating exchange rate regimes in the 1970s . Research examining the introduction of endogenous breaks to test the structural stability of cointegrated spot and forward exchange rate time series have found some evidence to support forward rate unbiasedness in both the short and long term .
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= Turuma =
A turuma ( from the Finnish word " Turunmaa " ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet in the late 18th century . It was specifically developed for warfare in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . The turuma was designed by the prolific naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for use in an area of mostly shallow waters and groups of islands and islets that extend from Stockholm all the way to the Gulf of Finland .
It was designed to replace the galleys that made up the core of the fleets that operated along the coasts and in the archipelagos of the Baltic Sea . The turuma had a bigger draft , was somewhat slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for its crew , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times the number of heavy guns . It could be propelled with either sails or oars and was both smaller and more manoeuvrable than most sailing warships which made it suitable for operations in shallow , confined waters .
Between 1761 and 1790 , 14 @-@ 15 turumas were built , including Amphion , a modified version used by King Gustav III as both a pleasure craft and command ship . The turuma was among the heaviest in the arsenal of the archipelago fleet and a number of them served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . It had three masts , two decks and was equipped with 16 – 22 pairs of oars along with a crew of about 220 – 260 . Its length was 35 – 39 m , width 9 m and the draft 3 @,@ 3 m . The armament consisted of 24 – 28 heavy guns with up to 24 swivel guns for close @-@ quarter combat .
= = Background = =
In the early 18th century , the establishment of Russian naval power in the Baltic challenged the interests of Sweden , at the time one of the major powers in the Baltic . The Swedish Empire at the time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion held together by the Baltic sea routes . Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . During the Great Northern War 1700 – 1721 Sweden lost its Baltic state territories , and experienced destructive Russian raiding in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos that stretched all the way from the Gulf of Finland to the capital of Stockholm . The traumatic experience led to the establishment of inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels . The first of these consisted mainly of smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean warship , the galleys . Most of these more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war against Russia 1741 @-@ 43 and the minor involvement in Prussia in the Pomeranian War 1757 – 62 showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Traditional galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically be armed with only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . However , they were undecked and lacked adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , great numbers of which succumbed to illness in the 1741 – 43 war .
= = = The archipelago fleet = = =
After the defeat against Russia , a commission was assigned to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , it came to the conclusion that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded and that a strong coastal navy should be built . The artillery officer Augustin Ehrensvärd was the driving force behind these changes and many of the conclusions and decisions of the committee were based on his ideas for improvements . In 1756 , a dedicated archipelago fleet was founded and put under the command of Krigskollegium , the army department , with Ehrensvärd as highest commander and the official name arméns flotta ( " the fleet of the army " ) . Over two decades the archipelago fleet went through several changes caused by the competition between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political fractions at the time , and because of rivalries between army and navy . With the parliamentary victory of the Hats in the riksdag of 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'état by Gustav III in 1772 , the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent organization within the army was secured . From 1770 , it was given the Finnish squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based in Sveaborg and in 1777 the galley fleet based in Stockholm was included in the archipelago fleet as the Swedish squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) . The Swedish military invested considerable resources into the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted the social and cultural elite that enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III who had strengthened his authority as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .
The base of the archipelago fleet was initially traditional galleys , but the war of 1741 – 43 and the war in Pomerania 1757 – 62 had revealed some inherent weaknesses : their firepower was inadequate , they were inefficient in terms of manpower , had poor protection for the crew and were not particularly seaworthy . During the Pomeranian War " gun barges " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed broadside vessels with a shallow draft , had been tried to compensate for the lack of firepower in the galleys , but had proven far too slow to be effective .
Ehrensvärd suggested that new archipelago vessels should be developed that combined sufficient firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness and decent crew accommodations . He started a successful collaboration with shipbuilder and naval architect Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) and together they developed five new vessels : a type of gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun , schooner rigging and 7 @-@ 8 pairs of oars , as well four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : turuma udema , pojama , and hemmema . These vessels were specifically designed for use in the archipelago off the south coast of Finland and were named after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) och Hämeenmaa ( Tavastland ) .
All four types have been called " archipelago frigates " in Swedish and English historical literature , though the smaller udema and pojama have also been described as " archipelago corvettes " .
= = Design = =
The first turuma was completed in 1761 . Along with the hemmema , it was the type of " archipelago frigate " that closest fit the description , showing considerable similarities with small ocean @-@ going frigates . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley , which was later replaced with a conventional square frigate rig , but with combined top and topgallant masts . This improved its performance under sail and made it the best sailer in the archipelago fleet , though it was still slower than ordinary sailing vessels .
The first turuma , Norden , was c . 35 m ( 116 ft ) long and 8 m ( 26 @.@ 5 ft ) wide with a draft of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) . By the third ship , the Lodbrok ( 1771 ) , the hull had been expanded to 38 @.@ 5 m ( 126 ft ) by 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft ) and remained roughly the same . The armament was considerably heavier than that of the galleys , or the smaller udemas and pojomas . It had one full gundeck of 22 ( 24 in the ships built before 1790 ) 12 @-@ pounders in a regular broadside arrangement , firing through gunports . On the forecastle deck facing straight forward were two 18 @-@ pounders . For close @-@ range action it carried another up to 24 3 @-@ pound swivel guns along the railings . In addition , there was also two 12 @-@ pound stern chasers .
For additional maneuverability , the turuma carried 19 pairs ( 16 in the first two ships ) of oars with four men per oar . Oarsmen rowed sitting on the weather deck , above the gun deck , with the oarports attached to a rectangular outrigger that was designed to improve the leverage . Despite this , turumas performed poorly under oars and were very difficult to move in any kind of contrary wind . In calm weather the average speed with oars was reported as low as half a knot .
The turuma 's design was very similar to one of the other types of archipelago frigates , the hemmema . The primary difference was that hemmemas were rowed from the gundeck , providing the oarsmen with better leverage by placing them closer to the waterline . The later hemmemas were also considerably larger , more heavily armed and of a more robust construction . Naval historian Jan Glete has gone as describing them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs . The crew varied between 220 and 266 , depending on the model . Between 128 and 152 of these were required to man all the oars .
The concept of hybrid frigates with oar propulsion capabilities was not new . Small " galleasses " had been built for the English Tudor navy as early as the mid @-@ 16th century . The Royal Navy , its successor , later equipped the equivalent of sixth rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck as early as the 1660s . " Shebecks " , Baltic variations on the Mediterranean xebecs , had been introduced in the Russian navy for inshore duties during the 18th century . Both of these have been suggested as possible inspirations for af Chapman 's new designs . Though not identical to the Mediterranean @-@ inspired vessel , the Russian navy considered turumas similar enough in function to their own " shebecks " to use this terminology when referring to Swedish prizes ( captured ships ) .
= = = Special @-@ purpose ships = = =
In 1777 , Chapman designed a special turuma , the royal yacht Amphion . It was 33 @.@ 5 m ( 110 ft ) long and 6 @.@ 8 m ( 22 @.@ 25 ft ) wide and was schooner @-@ rigged with only two masts ( later changed to a brigantine rig ) . Chapman intended for the craft to carry a broadside armament similar to that of the regular turumas , but this was rejected by Gustav who ordered the craft to be built with an armament consisting of only light swivel guns . Amphion was decorated in the more stringent version of Rococo that in Sweden is defined as " Gustavian " , and was fitted with a great cabin with a skylight that was well @-@ suited for royal audiences and conferences . Amphion served as Gustav III 's staff ship in the war of 1788 – 90 , but was such a poor sailer that the king and his retinue abandoned it during the dramatic escape from Vyborg Bay in 1790 .
= = Service = =
Seven turumas were built for the Swedish navy before the Russian war of 1788 @-@ 90 , and another six were complete during the war , with one more built after 1790 . Altogether fourteen turumas were completed , making it the most common of the four archipelago frigate types . At the outbreak of war in 1788 , they formed the core of the archipelago flotilla in Finland . They were used to support amphibious operations and to conduct raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as a sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Turumas fought in both the first and second battles of Svensksund . In the first in August 1789 , six turumas made up the bulk of the firepower of the larger Swedish vessels , while at the second in July 1790 , it was reduced to just one ship .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the turuma had only limited advantages . While it had superior firepower , its sailing qualities were only average and they were slow under oars . It had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested . Like the hemmema , the turuma was effective in defensive formations , but lacked the mobility that was often needed in offensive archipelago warfare . In 1790 , after the war ended , two were converted into hospital ships . The second battle of Svensksund had clearly showed that the smaller and nimble gunboats and gunsloops were far more efficient in coastal warfare and had all but displaced " archipelago frigates " in the inshore squadrons by the Finnish War of 1808 – 09 .
= = Ships = =
Fourteen or fifteen turumas were built for the Swedish archipelago fleet . All vessels except Amphion are listed below along with the basic information to the extent it has been recorded . Specifications that are identical to vessels listed directly abov are marked with a dash . Three " shebecks " were also built for the Russian Baltic fleet in 1788 – 89 that were based directly on the turumas rather than the Mediterranean xebecs .
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= Julia Baird =
Julia Baird ( née Dykins ) ( born 5 March 1947 ) is the younger half @-@ sister of English musician John Lennon and is the eldest daughter of John ' Bobby ' Albert Dykins ( 1918 – December 1965 ) and Julia Lennon ( 12 March 1914 – 15 July 1958 ) . she also had an older half @-@ sister , Ingrid Pedersen . Her younger sister was Jacqueline ' Jackie ' Dykins ( born 26 October 1949 ) .
Lennon started visiting the Dykins ' house in 1951 . After the death of Julia Lennon in 1958 , Harriet and Norman Birch were appointed guardians of Julia and Jackie , ignoring Dykins ' parentage , as he had never legally married their mother . Lennon invited the Dykins sisters to visit after the success of the Beatles , when he was living in Kenwood , Weybridge , with his then @-@ wife , Cynthia Lennon .
Julia Dykins ( Baird ) married Allen Baird in 1968 and moved to Belfast . They had three children together but were divorced in 1981 . Baird worked as a special needs teacher , and after Lennon 's death she wrote John Lennon , My Brother ( with Geoffrey Giuliano ) and gave up working in 2004 to write Imagine This – Growing up with my brother John Lennon . She is now a director of Cavern City Tours in Liverpool .
= = Early years = =
Baird 's mother , Julia Lennon , was the fourth of five children in the Stanley family : Mary , known as ' Mimi ' ( 1906 – 1991 ) , Elizabeth ' Mater ' ( 1908 – 1976 ) , Anne ' Nanny ' ( 1911 – 1988 ) , Julia ' Judy ' ( 1914 – 1958 ) , and Harriet ' Harrie ' ( 1916 – 1972 ) .
John Lennon was Julia 's first child by Alfred Lennon , although she later had a daughter called Victoria ( renamed Ingrid ) after an affair with a Welsh soldier while Alfred was at sea . Julia was forced to give up the child for adoption after intense pressure from her father and her sisters . Although they had known each other previously , Julia started dating Dykins while working in a café near Mosspits , which was Lennon 's primary school . Dykins was said to be a good @-@ looking , well @-@ dressed man who was several years older than Julia and worked at the Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool as a wine steward . Julia later moved into a small flat in Gateacre with Dykins , who had access to rationed goods like alcohol , chocolate , silks and cigarettes . The Stanley sisters called Dykins a " spiv " , because of his pencil @-@ thin moustache , margarine @-@ coated hair , and pork @-@ pie hat , but the young Lennon called him " Twitchy " because of a physical tic and nervous cough Dykins had . Although Julia never divorced Alfred Lennon , she was the common @-@ law wife of Dykins , although Paul McCartney admitted to being sarcastic to Lennon about his mother living in sin while Julia was still married . Julia 's sister , Mimi , called Julia and Dykins ' home — at 1 Blomfield Road , Liverpool — " The House of Sin " and her own house ( where Lennon lived ) " The House of Correction " . When Jackie was born prematurely on 26 October 1949 , Julia went back to the hospital every day to see her , although she was often not allowed ( by Mimi ) to visit Lennon .
Dykins later managed several bars in Liverpool , which allowed Julia to stay at home at Blomfield Road , to look after Baird , Jackie , a cat named " Elvis " , and the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Lennon , who had started to visit and occasionally stayed overnight . Baird would give up her bed to Lennon , and share Jackie 's double bed . Dykins used to give Lennon weekly pocket money ( one shilling ) for doing odd jobs , such as collecting golf balls on the local course , on top of the five shillings that Lennon 's Aunt Mimi gave him . During Lennon 's visits , he would climb trees with Baird and Jackie , test Baird 's spelling , and once gave Baird half @-@ a @-@ crown to leave him alone when he wanted to kiss his first girlfriend . Baird remembered that after Lennon had visited them , her mother would often play a record called , My Son John , To Me You Are So Wonderful , " by some old crooner , and sit and listen to it " . " My Son John " — sung by David Whitfield — was released in 1956 . Although Mimi sent Lennon to his Aunt 's croft in Sango Bay , Durness , Scotland , for his holidays , he later persuaded Mimi to let him take short holidays in North Wales with the Dykins family . Julia took Baird and Jackie to Rosebury Street , Liverpool , to watch Lennon play with The Quarrymen on the back of a flatbed coal truck on 22 June 1957 . Baird was allowed to sit on the back , but as the music was too loud she asked to be taken off . The Quarrymen played twice that day as part of a celebration to mark the 750th anniversary of the granting of Liverpool 's charter by King John . Lennon and McCartney would later rehearse in the bathroom of Blomfield Road because they said the acoustics " sounded like a recording studio " .
= = = Legal guardian = = =
Baird 's mother was struck and killed on 15 July 1958 , just outside Mimi 's home , by a Standard Vanguard car driven by an off @-@ duty constable , PC Eric Clague , who was a learner @-@ driver . Clague later said : " Mrs Lennon just ran straight out in front of me . I just couldn 't avoid her . I was not speeding , I swear it . It was just one of those terrible things that happen . " Baird and Jackie ( aged eleven and eight respectively ) were sent straightway to stay in Edinburgh at their Aunt Mater 's , and were not allowed to attend the funeral . They were told two months later by Norman Birch ( Lennon 's uncle ) that their mother had died . Lennon 's Aunt Harriet and Uncle Norman Birch were made legal guardians of the girls — ignoring Dykins ' parentage , as he had never legally married Julia . Julia was buried in the Allerton Cemetery , in Liverpool . Her grave is unmarked , and over the years its location was forgotten until it was recently identified by Jackie as " CE ( Church of England ) 38 @-@ 805 " .
Baird and Jackie were taken to live with the Birches and their son at The Dairy Cottage , which was owned by Mimi 's husband , George Smith . At the age of 14 Baird was allowed to go into Liverpool city centre by herself , where she drank cappuccino coffee in the Kardomah Coffee House , although Baird and her friends called it " frothy coffee " . At 16 , Baird started to hitch @-@ hike to London , although her Aunt never knew , as she would never have allowed it . Baird talked about the trips to London , and how relatively safe they were : " Hitching was easy then . It was a way of life . Everything was becoming more free . We 'd start chatting to people in the Tube station and get invited to parties . People always gave us a place to stay – we were never harmed . "
Baird and Jackie were asked to visit Lennon at Kenwood which was his home in Weybridge in 1964 . Cynthia Lennon — Lennon 's wife at the time — took them both out shopping in Knightsbridge , buying them expensive clothes . During the same visit , The Beatles played at the Finsbury Park Astoria , and the sisters asked to be allowed to stand near the front , but had to be pulled out of the audience by security guards because of the crush . In December 1965 , Dykins was killed in a car crash at the bottom of Penny Lane . Lennon was not told about his death for months afterwards . Dykins had married again , but Baird acknowledges that she and Jackie had very little contact with his wife , and did not attend their father 's funeral .
In 1968 , Lennon was told The Dairy Cottage was too cramped for them all , so he told Birch to buy a house , and he found a 4 @-@ bedroom house in Gateacre Park Drive , Liverpool . Lennon told Birch to furnish and decorate it , and to send all the bills to him . The Dykinses heard nothing from Lennon for years , until he phoned Baird in 1975 , and asked for mementos of his childhood life , such as his school tie and photographs . He sent £ 3 @,@ 000 to cover the cost of shipping and as a gift , but wrote , " Don 't tell Mimi " . Lennon continued to call Baird until 1976 , when the calls stopped . Jackie worked as a shop assistant during the 1970s , but battled against a heroin addiction . In the 1980s , and fully recovered , Jackie gave birth to her son , John , later working as a hairstylist . After Lennon and Harriet died , Yoko Ono wanted to sell the house — as it was still in Lennon 's name — but later gave it to the Salvation Army on 2 November 1993 , even though Lennon had once written : " I always thought of the house he 's in [ Birch ] as my contribution towards looking after Julia [ Baird ] and Jackie . I would prefer the girls to use it . "
= = Later years = =
Julia married Allen Baird in 1968 , they moved to Belfast and kept her family history a secret . The Bairds had three children : Nicholas ( b . 1971 ) , Sara ( b . 1972 ) and David ( b . 1980 ) , and were divorced in 1981 . Baird went to university and gained an MA in philosophy of education , and during her the course of her degree she spent a year off in France , hitch @-@ hiked around Europe , and protested against the war in Vietnam in Paris alongside Simone de Beauvoir . Baird later taught French and English before working as a special needs teacher with teenagers in deprived areas of Chester , until she retired to write books and become a director of Cavern City Tours .
Baird and Jackie met their half @-@ sister Ingrid Pedersen for the first time when they were present at the ceremony to place a Blue Heritage plaque on Mimi 's house , commemorating the fact that Lennon had lived there . Baird and Jackie had only recently found out who Pedersen was , after being told by journalist Bill Smithies of the Liverpool Echo . Baird was shocked that Pedersen did not look anything like the Stanley or the Lennon family , having pale blue eyes and fair hair .
After releasing the book , John Lennon , My Brother — written with Giuliano , and a foreword by McCartney — Baird travelled to New York during 1989 to appear at a Beatlefest convention , and was asked if she could prove she was really Lennon 's half @-@ sister . Baird declined , saying she was not going to produce her passport , and the audience would just have to take her word for it . In 2000 , Baird was present at the unveiling of six road signs , erected on major routes into Liverpool , saying , " Liverpool welcomes you – to the birthplace of THE BEATLES " , and in October she planted a tree in Liverpool 's Peace Gardens to commemorate Lennon 's birthday .
Baird retired in 2004 , and published a book called Imagine This – Growing up with my brother John Lennon , in February 2007 .
From 28 to 30 September 2007 , Durness held the John Lennon Northern Lights Festival which was attended by Baird ( who read from Lennon 's writings and her own books ) and Stanley Parkes ( Lennon 's Scottish cousin ) . Parkes said , " Me and Julia [ Baird ] are going to be going to the old family croft to tell stories " . Musicians , painters and poets from across the UK performed at the festival . Baird now lives in Chester with her partner , Roger Keys .
Baird claims she was never told that her mother was buried in the Allerton Cemetery , in Liverpool , although the graveyard 's location is approximately 1 @.@ 19 miles east of 1 Blomfield Road . The grave was unmarked , but was recently identified as " CE ( Church of England ) 38 @-@ 805 " . The Stanley family finally put a headstone on her mother 's grave . The headstone reads :
Mummy
John
Victoria
Julie
Jackie .
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= SS Gothenburg =
The SS Gothenburg was a steamship that operated along the British and then later the Australian and New Zealand coastlines . In February 1875 , she left Darwin , Australia en route to Adelaide when she encountered a cyclone @-@ strength storm off the north Queensland coast . The ship was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef north @-@ west of Holbourne Island on 24 February 1875 . Survivors in one of the lifeboats were rescued two days later by the Leichhardt , while the occupants of two other lifeboats that managed to reach Holbourne Island were rescued several days later . Twenty @-@ two men survived , while between 98 and 112 others died , including a number of high @-@ profile civil servants and dignitaries .
= = Description and history = =
The Gothenburg was commissioned in 1855 following her construction at Lungley 's building yards in Millwall , London . She was a 501 @-@ ton , 197 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 60 m ) vessel , with a 120 @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) , coal @-@ burning engine . She was rigged as barquentine , with her funnel set well aft between the main and mizzen masts . She was fitted with four lifeboats , two port and two starboard .
Her first owner , the North of Europe Steam Navigation Company , operated her between Irongate Wharf , near the Tower of London , and Sweden . In 1857 , she was acquired by the Union Castle Line and renamed as RMS Celt . In June 1862 , McMerkan , Blackwood and Co. of Melbourne purchased her for the Australian trade and in that year she made a protracted voyage from England to Australia by sail . She was one of the most modern vessels working around the Australian coastline in the 1860s , and became a popular ship as she was considered reliable . After many years on the Australia @-@ New Zealand run , her owners transferred her to the Australian coastal service .
In 1873 , she was lengthened and refitted in Adelaide to enable longer distances under steam and greater passenger and cargo capacity . Following her modifications , her name reverted once again to Gothenburg .
In November 1874 , several shipowners were contracted for two years from the South Australian government to provide ten round trips between the colonial capital of Adelaide and its furthest outpost , Port Darwin . Port Darwin was feeling the effects of a gold rush at Pine Creek and growing quickly as a trade post with the Dutch East Indies . However , all the local banks sent their money , together with government paperwork and the Royal Mail , around the east coast to Adelaide . On successful completion of each voyage , the South Australian government would pay the owners £ 1000 sterling .
When the Gothenburg left Port Darwin on Wednesday , 17 February 1875 , Captain James Pearce was under orders to make best possible speed . Pearce had been her captain on the Adelaide @-@ Darwin run for some time and had built up a solid reputation . He was a man of the sea , a man of sobriety and kindness and was well respected by his fellow sea captains .
Amongst the approximately 98 passengers and 37 crew ( surviving records vary ) were government officials , circuit court judges , Darwin residents taking their first furlough and miners . Also aboard was the French Vice Consul Eduard Durand and James Millner , the medical officer in George W. Goyder 's 1869 expedition to found the first colony at Port Darwin . There were also several prisoners aboard , bound for the Adelaide jail . Locked in the Captain 's cabin was approximately 93 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 000 ozt ) of gold valued at £ 40 @,@ 000 consigned to the ES & A Bank in Adelaide . ( approx US $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 2008 ) . Durand reportedly also carried a tin box with him containing gold sovereigns and coins worth in excess of £ 3 @,@ 000 .
In three days of fine weather , the Gothenburg travelled 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 900 mi ) from Palmerston ( Darwin ) to Somerset on Cape York . The weather began to worsen so the ship stopped to take on ballast at Somerset . While she was anchored , conditions deteriorated to a point where both anchor chains parted . After the loss of the anchors , the Gothenburg was forced to prematurely steam out 13 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 0 nmi ) because of strong currents ; at that point , she brought up for the night .
Two days later , Tuesday 23 February , the Gothenburg passed Cooktown at about 2 : 00 pm . The wind and rain severely increased and cloud cover became so thick it blocked out the sun . Despite this , she continued the journey south into worsening weather , in a deep water passage between the North Queensland coastline and the Great Barrier Reef , known as the inner route . Although taking this route provided some protection from the open sea , captains had to navigate and thread their way through a number of then uncharted reefs . All passengers and crew expected to be in Newcastle on Sunday evening for a scheduled stopover .
= = Shipwreck = =
On the evening of 24 February 1875 , the ship was still heading south in almost cyclonic conditions with fore , top and mainsails set and the steam engines running at full speed . Flooding rains lashed the entire Queensland coast and Captain Pearce reportedly could not see land or sun . At approximately 7 : 00 pm , and for reasons undetermined , he altered course and shortly afterwards , at full speed ( 11 to 12 knots ) , hit a section of the Great Barrier Reef at low tide 31 miles ( 50 km ) north west of Holbourne Island . The Gothenburg struck with such force that she was left high up on the reef . Immediately , an order came out to lower the sails . At first , there was no panic and many passengers returned to their cabin bunks expecting the Gothenburg would come off the reef at high tide .
In an attempt to refloat her , Captain Pearce ordered the Gothenburg to be lightened forward . Water casks used as ballast and passengers were positioned aft in an endeavour to refloat her as the tide rose , but without success . Finally , a fatal attempt was made to refloat her , by reversing the engine hard . The vessel came half off the reef , but holed herself badly and then slewed broadside to the waves , in a much worse position . However , with the tide rising and some cargo now being dumped overboard , all aboard still expected the Gothenburg to float free . With strong winds changing direction and seas increasing , the boiler fires were extinguished by water rising through the damaged stern . Around midnight , the chief engineer came on deck to report that the engine room was flooded and the engine was of no further use . With heavy seas now rushing down hatchways and into the cabins , the Gothenburg was doomed and Captain Pearce was forced to admit that the situation had become desperate .
The storm made launching the lifeboats almost impossible . At about 3 : 00 am , Captain Pearce ordered the two port lifeboats lowered , each with four crew on board . While being passed astern one of the boats broke the painter and became adrift . Its crew tried hard to pull up to the ship 's side , but it was impossible in the heavy squall . The other was accidentally let go and both boats , in heavy seas , were unable to be retrieved .
At about 3 : 30 am on Thursday , 25 February , the Gothenburg continued to heel over . The deck became so steep that passengers and crew had to climb over the rails to get on her side . At about 4 : 00 am , the two remaining starboard lifeboats were lowered and were rushed by the passengers . One starboard lifeboat , crammed with women and children , capsized when others tried to board it . Some half dozen men righted her in the water , but , damaged and without oars , food or water , it quickly drifted away and was never found . The second starboard lifeboat also capsized when the sea crashed over , washing all the occupants into the sea . One passenger recalled the sea on the downwind side of the ship being covered with human heads bobbing up and down like corks . Five or six men and one woman climbed onto the upturned hull . The boat was still connected to its painter , but it was unable to be recovered from the heavy sea and wind which swept the woman off and drowned her . A passenger , John Cleland , swam to the connected , but upturned lifeboat and further secured it with a rope tied to the Gothenburg . In less than fifteen minutes , nearly 100 people had drowned ; washed away or trapped in their water @-@ filled cabins . By this time , several sharks were circling the wreck .
Those still on board the Gothenburg tried to cling to the rigging , but throughout the early morning of 25 February , several more people were drowned after they were swept overboard by large broadside waves . Many passengers associated with the gold diggings were unwilling to let go of their gold and money belts , as it was probably their life savings , insisted on keeping them tied and once overboard reportedly drowned very quickly .
= = = Survivors = = =
By morning of the 25 February , only the masts were visible protruding from the water , with 14 people clinging to the rigging , where they remained for the next twenty four hours in cyclonic weather . At low tide , the Gothenburg ground and twisted and broke her back between the fore and main masts . However , the remaining starboard lifeboat , which had capsized , was still held by her painter and the rope attached by Cleland . At first light on 26 February the weather eased and the survivors managed to right the boat and bail it out ; they prepared a makeshift sail and paddled for the mainland . About seven hours later they realised they could not make mainland , so they altered course for an island that could be seen in the distance . When they arrived , they were met by four of the crew from one of the port lifeboats . Their lifeboat had been severely damaged on the rocks on the opposite side of the island in an attempt to land there the day before .
The other port lifeboat , with four crew on board , was picked up by the steamer Leichhardt at an island at the entrance to Whitsunday Passage two days after the disaster . The steamer immediately reversed course back towards the wreck , which she reached at approximately 3 @.@ 30 pm on Friday , 26 February . Gothenburg was a complete wreck ; the funnel was gone and she had sunk to the eyes of the lower rigging . The Leichhardt 's Chief Officer and four hands went alongside , but nothing other than her masts could be seen above the water except for the body of a naked man floating nearby . They assumed the other victims had been taken by sharks . The Leichhardt searched for survivors until last light and then made way for Bowen where the alarm was raised .
At Holbourne Island , the other 18 survivors were living off raw bird 's eggs and rain water that had pooled in the island rocks . Because rescue was uncertain , they engraved ship details and their names on the concave side of a large turtle shell , in the hope that it would be found in the future . On Sunday , 28 February 15 of them set off in the starboard lifeboat for an island about 20 miles away to the south , which appeared to be closer to the main shipping lane . A rescue ship , sent looking for survivors , picked up the group and took them safely to Bowen . Another rescue ship called the Bunyip from Townsville subsequently returned to Holbourne Island and rescued the three remaining survivors .
= = Aftermath = =
Although reports vary , records show that between 98 and 112 people drowned . Most records state the death toll at 102 . Only 22 people survived ( 12 crew and 10 passengers ) . All 25 women and children aboard and all the officers died .
Edward W. Price , Magistrate and Commissioner Circuit Court of the Northern Territory , who remained behind in Darwin , lost his wife and six children . Devastated by the news , he was given six months leave on full pay by the government . The retired fifth Premier of South Australia , Thomas Reynolds and his wife , Anne , both drowned as did Eduard Durand , the French Vice Consul .
Other notable passengers who died were Dr James Millner and his family , Justice William A. Wearing QC , Circuit Court Judge ; Joseph Whitby , acting South Australian Crown Solicitor ; Richard Wells , NT Times & Gazette editor ; Lionel Pelham , a senior public servant ; Commander Andrew Ross of the Royal Navy ; C. J. Lyons , Justice Wearing 's senior assistant ; William Shoobridge , Secretary to several mining companies ; A. L. McKay , Government Surveyor ; and several Overland Telegraph employees .
Never before in Australian history had so many high @-@ profile public servants , dignitaries and diplomats died in a single tragedy . Many passengers who died were Darwin residents and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community , reportedly taking several years to recover . Most of Gothenburg 's crew were from Melbourne and as a result of the shipwreck , 11 widows and 34 children were left destitute in Victoria .
At Bowen , twelve survivors left with Captain Lake on the ship Victoria headed for Sydney . They all got free passage from McMerkan , Blackwood and Co , the owners of Gothenburg . The four survivors from the second port lifeboat that were picked up by the steamer Leichhardt , remained with that ship and subsequently made way for Brisbane .
Two weeks later a hard @-@ hat diver , sent down to recover the gold and other valuables , found the bodies of two women at the foot of the saloon staircase , one with her arm around the other . The diver tried to reach them to take a lock of hair or some other personal item that could be identified by their loved ones , but the restriction of the air line made it impossible . The gold in the Captain 's cabin was recovered after much difficulty . While recovering the gold , several sharks that were caught near the wreck were found to contain human bones , remains and jewellery .
There were three heroes identified that tragic night , all attested to by all the other survivors , for their attempts to save other passengers . In recognition of their bravery , on 26 July 1875 , the Governor of South Australia , Sir Anthony Musgrave , presented passengers James Fitzgerald and John Cleland and crewman Robert Brazil with gold medals and a gold watch . The Gothenburg Relief Fund Committee also presented each of them with a gold chain .
= = = Report = = =
The report of the Marine Board of Queensland determined that :
= = = Lifeboats = = =
There was also much speculation at the time in the Adelaide and Melbourne press on why the lifeboats had not been launched earlier . Survivor James Fitzgerald pointed out in his recollection that , had the lifeboats been filled to capacity , no one would have survived the severe weather conditions experienced . He also commented that passenger vessels were not required to carry enough lifeboats , concluding that there were insufficient places for all Gothenburg 's passengers and crew . It was not until RMS Titanic sank some 37 years later in 1912 , that it was made compulsory for all British registered ships to carry sufficient lifeboats for everyone on board .
= = Present day = =
Today , only parts of the deteriorated iron hull and the coal fired square boilers of the SS Gothenburg remain . The wreck lies between 9 and approximately 16 metres ( 52 ft ) of water on the western side of Old Reef , 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) southeast of Townsville . The Gothenburg shipwreck is registered on the Queensland National Estate ( place ID # 8923 ) as a Heritage site , and is protected under Section 7 of the ( Commonwealth ) Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 , which requires that divers have a permit to enter the 200m protected zone that has been declared around the wreck . Its official location is : Old Reef , Great Barrier Reef , 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) north @-@ east of Ayr , at 19 ° 22 ′ 06 ″ S 148 ° 03 ′ 21 ″ E. The reef around the wreck provides good diving with an extensive coral garden . A strict non @-@ disturbance policy applies to marine flora and fauna as well as to the fabric of the wreck . Pelagic fish and reef sharks are common .
= = = Legacy = = =
The northern Darwin suburb of Millner was named after Dr James Millner who , together with his family , lost their lives on the Gothenburg . Most streets in the northern Darwin suburb of Coconut Grove and some in the adjacent suburb of Millner , were named after local Darwin residents , interstate visitors and crew who lost their lives during the shipwreck . Gothenburg Crescent , in the inner Darwin suburb of Stuart Park , was named after the ship .
The large turtle shell , which was engraved by the 18 survivors at Holbourne Island , is displayed at the South Australian Museum , on North Terrace in Adelaide .
= = Survivors = =
In 1875 , a detailed list of all passengers and crew was published by J.H. Lewis , Printer & Publisher , albeit with several errors and spelling mistakes . That document was used as the main source of the following survivors ' table .
The survivors ' surnames have been reconciled against rescue ships ' log books , other records and a photo of the engraved turtle shell . Known discrepancies have been clarified , where possible , in the comments section .
= = = Full known passenger list = = =
= = = Full known crew list = = =
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= 17th Airborne Division ( United States ) =
The 17th Airborne Division was an airborne infantry division of the United States Army during World War II , and was commanded by Major General William M. Miley .
It was officially activated as an airborne division in April 1943 but was not immediately sent to a combat theater , remaining in the United States to complete its training . During this training process , the division took part in several training exercises , including the Knollwood Maneuver , in which it played a vital part in ensuring that the airborne division remained as a military formation in the U.S. Army after the poor performance of American airborne forces in the invasion of Sicily . As such it did not take part in the first two large @-@ scale airborne operations conducted by the Allies , Operation Husky and Operation Neptune , only transferring to Britain after the end of Operation Overlord .
When the division arrived in Britain , it came under the command of XVIII Airborne Corps , part of the First Allied Airborne Army , but was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden , the airborne landings in the Netherlands , as Allied planners believed it had arrived too late and could not be " trained up " in time for the operation . However , after the end of Operation Market Garden the division was shipped to France and then Belgium to fight in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge . The 17th gained its first Medal of Honor during its time fighting in the Ardennes , and was then withdrawn to Luxembourg to prepare for an assault over the River Rhine . In March 1945 , the division participated in its first , and only , airborne operation , dropping alongside the British 6th Airborne Division as a part of Operation Varsity , where it gained three more Medals of Honor . The division then advanced through Northern Germany until the end of World War II , when it briefly undertook occupation duties in Germany before shipping back to the United States . There , it was officially inactivated in September 1945 , although it was briefly reactivated as a training division between 1948 and 1949 .
= = Formation = =
The German Armed Forces pioneered the use of large @-@ scale airborne formations , first during the invasion of Norway and Denmark and later that year during the assaults on the Netherlands and Belgium in 1940 and later in the Battle of Crete in 1941 . The Allied governments were aware of the success of these operations ( but not of the heavy German casualties incurred , particularly during the assault on the Netherlands and the invasion of Crete ) and decided to form their own airborne formations . This decision would eventually lead to the creation of five American and two British airborne divisions , as well as many smaller units . The 17th Airborne Division was activated on 15 April 1943 at Camp Mackall in North Carolina , under the command of the newly promoted Major General William Miley . The division was originally composed of the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment , activated on 11 January 1943 at Fort Benning , the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment , and the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment . The official dedication ceremony for the unit took place on 1 May 1943 , with thousands of civilian and military spectators , including Major General Eldridge G. Chapman , overall commander of Airborne Command and of all American airborne forces during World War II .
Once activated , the division remained in the United States for training and exercises . As the division , like all airborne units , was intended to be an elite formation , the training regime was extremely arduous . There were 250 feet ( 76 m ) and 34 feet ( 10 m ) towers built from which prospective airborne troops would jump off of to simulate landing by parachute , lengthy forced marches and practice jumps from transport aircraft ; to pause in the doorway of an aircraft during a practice jump resulted in an automatic failure for the candidate . The resultant failure rate was accordingly high , but there was never a shortage of candidates , especially for the American divisions , as the rate of pay was much higher than that of an ordinary infantryman . As the division trained , a debate developed in the U.S. Army over whether the best use of airborne forces was en masse or as small compact units . On 9 July 1943 , the first large @-@ scale Allied airborne operation – the Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) – was carried out by elements of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the British 1st Airborne Division . The commanding general of the U.S. 11th Airborne Division , Major General Joseph May Swing , had been temporarily assigned to act as airborne advisor to General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean , for the invasion of Sicily , and had observed the airborne assault , which went badly . The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division had been deployed by both parachute and glider and had suffered high casualties , leading to a perception that it had failed to achieve many of its objectives .
= = = Swing Board = = =
General Eisenhower had reviewed the airborne role in Operation Husky , and had concluded that large @-@ scale formations were too difficult to control in combat to be practical . Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair , commander of Army Ground Forces , had similar misgivings : once an airborne supporter , he had been greatly disappointed by their performance in North Africa and , more recently , Sicily . However , other high @-@ ranking officers believed otherwise , notably the U.S. Army Chief of Staff , George Marshall . He persuaded Eisenhower to set up a review board and to withhold judgement on the effectiveness of divisional @-@ sized airborne forces until a large @-@ scale maneuver could be tried in December . When Swing returned to the United States to resume command of the 11th Airborne Division in mid @-@ September 1943 , he had an additional role . McNair ordered him to form a committee – the Swing Board – composed of U.S. Army Air Forces , parachute and glider infantry , and artillery officers to arrange a large @-@ scale maneuver that would effectively decide the fate of the divisional @-@ sized airborne force . As the 11th Airborne Division was in reserve in the United States , and had not yet been earmarked for overseas shipment , the Swing Board chose it as the test formation ; it would be opposed by a composite combat team from the 17th Airborne Division with a battalion from the 541st Parachute Infantry Regiment temporarily attached . The maneuver would also provide both divisions with further airborne training , as had occurred several months previously in a large @-@ scale maneuver undertaken by the 82nd and the 101st Airborne Divisions .
= = = Knollwood Maneuver = = =
The objective for the 11th as the attacking force was to capture Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield near Fort Bragg in North Carolina , after which the maneuver was named . The defending forces were to try to defend the airport and the surrounding area and repel the airborne assault . The entire operation would be observed by Lieutenant General McNair . His observations and reports to the U.S. War Department , and ultimately General Eisenhower , would do much to decide the success or failure of the exercise . The Knollwood Maneuver took place on the night of 7 December , with the troops of the 11th Airborne Division being delivered to thirteen separate objectives by 200 C @-@ 47 Dakota transport aircraft and 234 Waco CG @-@ 4A gliders , with eighty @-@ five percent of the airborne troops being delivered to their target without navigational error . The transport aircraft were divided into four groups , each taking off from a different airfield in the Carolinas , with two groups dropping paratroopers and two towing gliders , and between them deployed 4 @,@ 800 airborne troops in the first wave . These airborne troops then seized the Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield from the defending troops and secured the area in which the rest of the division landed , all before daylight . Having secured their initial objectives , the 11th Airborne Division then conducted a coordinated ground attack against a reinforced infantry regiment , as well as several aerial resupply and casualty evacuation missions in coordination with transport aircraft . The exercise was judged to be a great success by those who observed it . McNair reported that the success of the maneuver pleased him , and highlighted the great improvements in airborne training that had occurred in the months between the end of Operation Husky and the Knollwood Maneuver . Due to the success of the units of the 17th Airborne Division during the exercise , the divisional @-@ sized airborne force was deemed to be effective and was allowed by Eisenhower to remain .
= = World War II = =
The division also participated in the Second Army maneuvers in the Tennessee Maneuver Area from 6 February 1944 . It finished its training on 27 March 1944 , and transferred to Camp Forrest on 24 March 1944 . The division staged at Camp Myles Standish on 12 August 1944 before departing Boston Port of Embarkation on 20 August 1944 . It arrived in the United Kingdom on 26 August .
Once in Britain the division was attached to U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , under Major General Matthew Ridgway , which commanded all American airborne formations , and which in turn became part of the First Allied Airborne Army when it was formed on 21 August , under the command of Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton . Although attached to XVIII Airborne Corps , the division was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden , a large @-@ scale airborne operation intended to seize several bridges through the Netherlands to allow the Allied armies to bypass the Rhine river and enter Germany . The 17th was passed over in favour of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions because it had only recently arrived in the European Theater and was considered to be unprepared logistically as it was still collecting its combat equipment . The division , now with the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment – which had fought in Normandy under command of the 82nd – remained in England as a theater reserve during Market Garden and its aftermath , as the Allied armies continued their advance towards Germany .
= = = Battle of the Bulge = = =
On 16 December 1944 the Wehrmacht launched an offensive in the Ardennes region of Belgium , breaking through Allied lines and rapidly advancing towards Antwerp . On the afternoon of 17 December , General Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander , decided to commit his theater reserve to the Ardennes in an attempt to halt the German advance ; this consisted of the 17th , 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions under the control of XVIII Airborne Corps . The three divisions were to be attached to Courtney Hodges 's U.S. First Army and were ordered to concentrate around the town of St Vith . However , while the other two airborne divisions were able to immediately make their way to the Ardennes as they were already stationed in France , bad weather prevented the 17th from flying in from where the division was stationed in Britain for several days . On 23 December the weather cleared and the division was finally flown to France by emergency night flights . It moved to an assembly area near Rheims . On Christmas Day , the division was attached to George Patton 's U.S. Third Army and ordered to assume a thirty @-@ mile long defensive position that ran along the Meuse River near Charleville .
By 1 January 1945 the threat to Charleville had eased sufficiently for the division to be transferred to another area of the Ardennes , being transported to an area south @-@ west of Bastogne near the village of Morhet on 3 January ; there it relieved the 11th Armored Division which had occupied the village prior to its arrival . On 4 January the division entered combat for the first time when it was ordered alongside the 87th Infantry Division to seize a number of key towns to the west of Bastogne , in order to prevent German forces from encircling the town a second time ; it had been relieved by the Third Army on 26 December . With the 87th Infantry Division on its left flank , the division advanced towards German positions with the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment and 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment forming the division 's assault element ; the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment and the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment moved behind these two regiments to deal with expected German armoured counter @-@ attacks against them . During its initial advance the division engaged German forces , including infantry and armour , in an attempt to secure a narrow , high @-@ rimmed road to the north @-@ west of Bastogne ; during a battle that lasted three days the division suffered nearly 1 @,@ 000 casualties attempting to hold what the division 's official historian labeled ' Dead Man 's Ridge ' . It was during the opening stages of this battle that the division earned its first Medal of Honor . Staff Sergeant Isadore S. Jachman of the 513th Parachute Infantry engaged and destroyed two German tanks with a bazooka that formed part of an armoured column attacking American positions , forcing the column to retreat but simultaneously being killed by machine gun fire . Between 19 and 26 January , the division broke through German lines and captured several towns before linking up with elements of the British 51st Infantry Division . After it had captured the town of Espeler on 26 January the entire division was withdrawn from the front and transported by truck to Luxembourg , effectively ending its participation in the Ardennes campaign .
= = = Operation Varsity = = =
= = = = Preparation = = = =
After participating in the Battle of the Bulge , the division was moved behind the front @-@ lines as a reserve formation and theater reserve , whilst the Allies continued their advance towards the German interior . However , even as the division received replacements and trained , it had already been selected to take part in a highly ambitious airborne operation code @-@ named Operation Eclipse . This operation , which got to such an advanced stage that plans had been created and divisional commanders briefed , called for the 17th and 82nd Airborne divisions , along with a brigade from the British 6th Airborne Division , to be dropped in daylight in and around Berlin to capture the city . The operation received the support of General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of the United States Army Air Corps , but planning ended on 28 March , when General Eisenhower sent a message to Joseph Stalin indicating that the Allied armies would not attempt to capture Berlin , thereby making Eclipse obsolete . Eclipse and several other similarly ambitious airborne operations came to nothing , but in February the division finally received word that it would be involved in an Allied airborne operation to cross the River Rhine in support of the Anglo @-@ Canadian 21st Army Group that would take place during March .
By March 1945 , the Allies had advanced into Germany and had reached the River Rhine . The Rhine was a formidable natural obstacle to the Allied advance , but if breached would allow the Allies to access the North German Plain and ultimately advance on Berlin and other major cities in Northern Germany . Following the ' Broad Front Approach ' laid out by General Eisenhower , it was decided to attempt to breach the Rhine in several areas . British Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery , commanding the 21st Army Group , devised a plan to allow the forces under his command to breach the Rhine , which he entitled Operation Plunder , and which was subsequently authorized by Eisenhower . Plunder envisioned the British Second Army , under Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey and the U.S. Ninth Army under Lieutenant General William Simpson crossing the Rhine at Rees , Wesel , and an area south of the Lippe Canal . To ensure that the operation was a success , Montgomery insisted that an airborne component was inserted into the plans for the operation to support the amphibious assaults that would take place , which was code @-@ named Operation Varsity . Three airborne divisions were initially chosen to take part in Varsity , these being the British 6th Airborne Division , the U.S. 13th Airborne Division and the 17th Airborne Division , all of which were assigned to the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps .
However , as planning for Operation Varsity began , it soon became obvious that there was a lack of suitable transport aircraft to transport all three airborne divisions . As such the 13th Airborne Division was dropped from the operational plan , primarily because it had no combat experience , whereas the 6th Airborne Division had participated in Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings during Operation Neptune , and the 17th had seen combat in the Ardennes . The plan for the operation was therefore altered to accommodate the two remaining airborne divisions . This would be the first airborne operation the 17th would take part in , and indeed would be its only before it was disbanded . The two airborne divisions would be dropped behind German lines , with their objective to land around Wesel and disrupt enemy defences in order to aid the advance of the British Second Army . To achieve this , both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln , and were tasked with a number of objectives ; they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald , a forest that overlooked the Rhine and had a road linking several towns together ; several bridges over a smaller waterway , the Issel , were to be seized to facilitate the advance ; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured . Once these objectives were taken , the airborne troops would consolidate their positions and await the arrival of Allied ground forces , defending the territory captured against the German forces known to be in the area .
The 17th Airborne was to land its units in the southern portion of the area chosen for the operation , engaging the German forces that were defending the area , securing the Diersfordterwald Forest which dominated the surrounding area and capturing three bridges that spanned the River Issel . It would then hold the territory it had captured until it linked up units from the British 6th Airborne Division , which would land in the northern section of the operational area , and finally advance alongside 21st Army Group once the Allied ground forces had made contact with the airborne forces . To avoid the heavy casualties incurred by the British 1st Airborne Division that had occurred during Operation Market Garden , both Allied airborne divisions would only be dropped after Allied ground units had crossed the Rhine and secured crossings ; the two divisions would also be dropped only a relatively short distance behind German lines , to ensure that reinforcements would be able to link up with them after only a few hours and they would not be isolated .
= = = = Battle = = = =
Operation Plunder began at 21 : 00 on 23 March after a week @-@ long aerial bombardment of Luftwaffe airfields and the German transport system , involving more than ten thousand Allied aircraft . By the early hours of 24 March units of 21st Army Group had crossed the Rhine against heavy German opposition and secured several crossings on the eastern bank of the river . In the first few hours of 24 March , the transport aircraft carrying the two airborne divisions that formed Operation Varsity took off from airbases in England and France and rendezvoused over Brussels , before turning north @-@ east for the Rhine dropping zones . The airlift consisted of 541 transport aircraft containing airborne troops , and a further 1 @,@ 050 troop @-@ carriers towing 1 @,@ 350 gliders . The 17th Airborne Division consisted of 9 @,@ 387 personnel , who were transported in 836 C @-@ 47 Dakota transports , 72 C @-@ 46 Commando transports , and more than 900 Waco CG @-@ 4A gliders . At 10 : 00 on the morning of the 24th , the first Allied airborne units began to land on German soil on the eastern bank of the Rhine , some thirteen hours after the Allied assault had begun .
The 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Edson Raff , was the lead assault formation for the 17th Airborne Division , and was consequently the first U.S. airborne unit to land as part of Operation Varsity . The entire regiment was meant to be dropped in drop zone W , a clearing two miles north of Wesel ; however , excessive ground haze confused the pilots of the transport aircraft carrying the 507th , and as such when the regiment dropped it split into two halves . Colonel Raff and approximately 690 of his paratroopers landed north @-@ west of the drop zone near the town of Diersfordt , with the rest of the regiment successfully landing in drop zone W. The colonel rallied his separated paratroopers and led them to the drop zone , engaging a battery of German artillery en route , killing or capturing the artillery crews before reuniting with the rest of the regiment . By 14 : 00 the 507th PIR had secured all of its objectives and cleared the area around Diersfordt , having engaged numerous German troops and destroying a German tank . The actions of the regiment during the initial landing also gained the division its second Medal of Honor , when Private George J. Peters posthumously received the award after charging a German machine gun nest and eliminating it with rifle fire and grenades , allowing his fellow paratroopers to gather their equipment and capture the regiments first objective .
The 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment was the second divisional unit to land , and was under the command of Colonel James W. Coutts . En route to the drop zone , the transport aircraft containing the regiment had the misfortune to pass through a belt of German anti @-@ aircraft weapons , losing twenty @-@ two of the C @-@ 46 transport aircraft and damaging a further thirty @-@ eight . Just as the 507th had , the 513th also suffered from pilot error due to the ground haze , and as such the regiment actually missed their designated drop zone , and were dropped on one of the landing zones designated for the British 6th Airlanding Brigade . However , despite this inaccuracy the paratroopers swiftly rallied and aided the British glider @-@ borne troops who were landing simultaneously , eliminating several German artillery batteries which were covering the area . Once the German troops in the area had been eliminated , a combined force of American and British airborne troops stormed Hamminkeln and secured that town . By 14 : 00 , Colonel Coutts reported to the Divisional Headquarters that the 513th had secured all of its objectives , having knocked out two tanks and destroyed two complete regiments of artillery during its assault . During its attempts to secure its objectives , the regiment also gained a third Medal of Honor for the division when Private First Class Stuart S. Stryker posthumously received the award after leading a charge against a German machine gun nest , creating a distraction to allow the rest of his platoon to capture the fortified position the machine gun was situated in .
The third component of the 17th Airborne Division to take part in the operation was the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel James Pierce . The regiment landed accurately in landing zone S , but their gliders and the aircraft that towed them took heavy casualties ; twelve C @-@ 47 transports were lost due to anti @-@ aircraft fire , and a further one hundred and forty were damaged by the same fire . The regiment landed in the midst of a number of German artillery batteries that were engaging Allied ground forces crossing the Rhine , and as such many of the gliders were engaged by German artillery pieces which had their barrels lowered for direct @-@ fire . However , these artillery batteries and their crews were defeated by the glider @-@ borne troops , and the regiment was soon able to report that its objectives had been secured , having destroyed forty @-@ two artillery pieces , ten tanks , two mobile @-@ flak wagons and five self @-@ propelled guns .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
Operation Varsity was a successful large @-@ scale airborne operation . All of the objectives that the airborne troops of the 17th had been tasked with had been captured and held , usually within only a few hours of the operation beginning . The bridges over the Issel had been successfully captured , although one later had to be destroyed to prevent its capture by counter @-@ attacking German forces . The Diersfordter Forest had been cleared of enemy troops , and the roads through which the Germans might have routed reinforcements against the advance had been cut by airborne troops . By nightfall of the 24th , the British 15th Infantry Division had joined up with elements of 6th Airborne , and by midnight the first light bridge was across the Rhine . By the 27th , twelve bridges suitable for heavy armour had been installed over the Rhine and the Allies had fourteen divisions on the east bank of the river which had penetrated up to ten miles . The division also gained its fourth Medal of Honor in the days following Operation Varsity , when Technical Sergeant Clinton M. Hedrick of the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment received the award posthumously after aiding in the capture of Lembeck Castle , which had been turned into a fortified position by the Germans . In terms of casualties , the 17th suffered a total of 1 @,@ 346 casualties between 24 and 29 March , when Operation Plunder came to an end .
= = = Inactivation = = =
After it had participated in Operation Varsity , the 17th Airborne Division continued to advance through Germany as a part of XVIII Airborne Corps , engaging German forces around Wesel , Essen and Münster . The division had only served in combat for five months and seen only one combat drop , but in that short period of time it had seen 1 @,@ 314 men killed in action and 4 @,@ 904 men wounded or otherwise injured in action . When Germany unconditionally surrendered on 7 May 1945 , the division was conducting occupation duties in northern Germany , which it continued to do until it was relieved by British troops on 14 June . From that date , the division was split up and its component units attached to other airborne divisions , either to the 82nd Airborne Division in Berlin or to the 13th Airborne Division which was preparing to participate in the invasion of Japan . When Japan surrendered , all of the division 's units returned to their parent formation and the division moved to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton , Massachusetts , being officially inactivated on 16 September 1945 . The formation was reactivated at Camp Pickett , VA , on 6 July 1948 as a training division , but on 19 June 1949 it was permanently inactivated .
= = Order of battle = =
Units of the 17th Airborne Division during World War II included :
Division Headquarters
193rd Glider Infantry Regiment ( disbanded 1 March 1945 )
194th Glider Infantry Regiment
507th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( attached 27 August 1944 to 1 March 1945 , thereafter assigned )
513th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( replaced 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment on 10 March 1944 )
517th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( relieved 10 March 1944 , replaced by the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment )
Division Artillery
464th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm ) ( assigned 4 June 1945 )
466th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
680th Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
681st Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
139th Airborne Engineer Battalion
155th Airborne Antiaircraft Battalion
224th Airborne Medical Company
17th Parachute Maintenance Company
Headquarters Special Troops
Headquarters Company , 17th Airborne Division
Military Police Platoon
717th Airborne Ordnance Maintenance Company
517th Airborne Signal Company
411th Airborne Quartermaster Company
17th Counter Intelligence Corps Detachment
Band ( assigned 1 March 1945 )
Reconnaissance Platoon ( assigned 1 March 1945 )
550th Airborne Infantry Battalion ( not assigned ; under division operational control during the Ardennes Offensive )
761st Tank Battalion ( attached 15 – 27 January 1945 )
811th Tank Destroyer Battalion ( attached 17 – 27 January 1945 )
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= M @-@ 28 Business ( Ishpeming – Negaunee , Michigan ) =
Business M @-@ 28 ( Bus . M @-@ 28 ) is a state trunkline highway serving as a business route that runs for 4 @.@ 841 miles ( 7 @.@ 791 km ) through the downtown districts of Ishpeming and Negaunee in the US state of Michigan . The trunkline provides a marked route for traffic diverting from U.S. Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 through the two historic iron @-@ mining communities . It is one of three business loops for M @-@ numbered highways in the state of Michigan . There have previously been two other Bus . M @-@ 28 designations for highways in Newberry and Marquette .
The trunkline was originally a section of US 41 / M @-@ 28 and M @-@ 35 . Before the 1930s , the main highways ran through the two downtown areas when US 41 / M @-@ 28 was relocated to run near Teal Lake . The former routing had various names over the years . It was designated as an alternate route of the main highways , using both the US 41A / M @-@ 28A and Alt . US 41 / ALT M @-@ 28 designations before it was designated as Bus . M @-@ 28 in 1958 . M @-@ 35 continued to run through downtown Negaunee along a section of the highway until the 1960s . A rerouting in 1999 moved the trunkline designation along Lakeshore Drive in Ishpeming , and a streetscape project rebuilt the road in Negaunee in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
There are currently three business routes in the state of Michigan derived from M @-@ numbered highways . The other two are in Hillman and Niles for M @-@ 32 and M @-@ 60 respectively . In the past , two other business routes for M @-@ 28 existed in Newberry and Marquette , but they have since been retired . The extant Bus . M @-@ 28 designation remains for the loop through Ishpeming and Negaunee .
= = = Ishpeming = = =
Bus . M @-@ 28 begins at a signalized intersection on US 41 / M @-@ 28 with Lakeshore Drive in the city of Ishpeming . The trunkline runs south along Lakeshore Drive under the tracks of the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad ( LS & I ) and southeasterly towards Lake Bancroft . South of the lake , Bus . M @-@ 28 turns east on Division Street . Traffic along the highway here can view the towers of the Cliffs Shaft Mine Museum ; the museum is dedicated to telling the story of underground iron ore mining in the region .
Division Street carries the Bus . M @-@ 28 designation into the central business district of Ishpeming , where it runs past local businesses , Ishpeming High School and the original Ishpeming City Hall . On the east side of downtown , both the central machine shops and the research labs for Cleveland @-@ Cliffs Iron Company are located on Division Street . Continuing east , the trunkline follows Ready Street over hills and through a residential area to the Ishpeming – Negaunee city line .
= = = Negaunee = = =
In Negaunee , the routing uses a street named County Road east from the city line . County Road passes Jackson Park , location of the first iron ore discovery in the area . The iron mined from the region supplied half of the nation 's supply between 1850 and 1900 . South of downtown Negaunee , Bus . M @-@ 28 turns north along the west fork of Silver Street . The street runs north under an overpass that carries Rail Street , so named because it was once a rail line into downtown Negaunee . The trunkline turns east on Jackson Street , running next to the Negaunee City Hall , which was built in 1914 – 15 at a time when the city 's population was increasing and iron production was peaking . The building still houses the city 's offices , police station and library .
The business loop follows Jackson Street east to Division Street , where the street curves slightly and becomes Main Street . Bus . M @-@ 28 follows Main Street one block to the intersection with Teal Lake Avenue . Turning north , the trunkline follows Teal Lake Avenue through residential areas of town past the Negaunee Middle School and up over a hill . On the opposite side of the hill next to Teal Lake Bluff , the business loop intersects Arch Street , which carries traffic to Negaunee High School to the west or the football field complex to the east . Negaunee High School was the site of the former Mather B Mine Complex . The administration building for the mine was converted to its present educational use in 1986 . Bus . M @-@ 28 continues along Teal Lake Avenue past the football field and under the LS & I tracks where it ends at another signalized intersection with US 41 / M @-@ 28 by Teal Lake . The total length of Bus . M @-@ 28 is 4 @.@ 873 miles ( 7 @.@ 842 km ) .
= = = Traffic counts = = =
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) publishes traffic data for the highways it maintains . On Lakeshore Drive in Ishpeming , MDOT stated that 5 @,@ 857 vehicles on average used the roadway daily in 2014 . Along Division Street , traffic drops to 4 @,@ 044 vehicles before dropping further to 1 @,@ 617 vehicles along the section on Silver Street in Negaunee . Traffic increases along Jackson and Main streets to 4 @,@ 340 vehicles on an average day . Traffic is heaviest along Teal Lake Avenue , at 7 @,@ 521 vehicles .
= = History = =
The state highway system was created on May 13 , 1913 , with the passage of the State Reward Trunk Line Highway Act . The state originally signposted these highways by July 1 , 1919 , and the roadways that make up Bus . M @-@ 28 were originally a portion of M @-@ 15 . Later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the highway was redesignated as a part of US 41 and part of M @-@ 28 . The main highway was moved with the construction of a northerly bypass of Ishpeming and Negaunee in 1937 . The business loop was not designated Bus . M @-@ 28 permanently and marked on state maps until 1958 . It was designated US 41A / M @-@ 28A before being redesignated ALT US 41 / ALT M @-@ 28 @.@ or Bus . US 41 / Bus . M @-@ 28 . This dual designation later was mirrored by the other Marquette County business route , Bus . US 41 . Occasionally , more recent maps use this older numbering to label the highway .
When M @-@ 35 was routed through downtown Negaunee , it joined Bus . M @-@ 28 northward from the east fork of Silver Street on to US 41 / M @-@ 28 . This routing was moved to bypass the city in 1964 when iron ore mining activity destabilized a portion of the M @-@ 35 routing southeast of town . From this point on , Bus . M @-@ 28 has not shared its routing with any other state trunklines .
In 1969 , the Michigan Department of State Highways petitioned the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) to approve a Bus . US 41 designation for the trunkline . Action on the request was deferred by AASHTO 's U.S. Route Numbering Subcommittee , and then denied the following year . The western end of Bus . M @-@ 28 was rerouted on June 4 , 1999 , when the City of Ishpeming petitioned MDOT to reroute the highway along Lakeshore Drive to US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Previously , it ran along Greenwood Street and North Lake Road and met US 41 / M @-@ 28 in the West Ishpeming neighborhood of Ishpeming Township .
MDOT in a partnership with the City of Negaunee upgraded Teal Lake Avenue between Arch and Rock streets in a streetscaping project to provide a " pedestrian refuge area " . This work entailed reconstruction of the retaining wall , curbing and gutters in 2005 . Arch Street is the access to Negaunee High School , and this section of Bus . M @-@ 28 is near the athletic field complex in Negaunee . The project budgeted $ 120 @,@ 200 with $ 24 @,@ 200 from the City of Negaunee ( equivalent to $ 151 @,@ 500 and $ 30 @,@ 500 respectively in 2015 ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists Bus . M @-@ 28 's major intersections with the primary Marquette County Roads . The entire highway is in Marquette County .
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= Bounce ( Iggy Azalea song ) =
" Bounce " is a song recorded by Australian rapper Iggy Azalea for her debut album , The New Classic ( 2014 ) . It was released as the album 's second single internationally on 27 May 2013 , with the exception of the United States where " Change Your Life " was released instead . " Bounce " was written by Azalea , its producers Reeva & Black , Speedy Jay , Talay Riley , Oladayo Olatunji and Natalie Sims . Developed as a festival anthem about celebration , Azalea wanted the track to showcase a fun side to her artistry and offset the seriousness of her previous single " Work " . Distinctly more pop @-@ indebted than her previous material , the EDM , hip hop and trap song contains a prominent build @-@ drop production formula and elements of Eastern music with tabla and sarangi instruments .
The track received generally positive reviews from music critics who complimented its catchy tune and tempo . Commercially , " Bounce " became Azalea 's second top 20 hit on the UK Singles Chart where it peaked at number 13 . It also reached the top 40 in Ireland . An accompanying music video was released on 6 May 2013 . It was filmed in Mumbai , India , and inspired by the Bollywood disco era . The video features Azalea donning saris and bindis , performing belly dancing and traditional Indian dance sequences in Hindu wedding and Holi celebration settings . Most critics praised the video 's concept and fashion , although public reaction saw it being accused of cultural appropriation by some . Azalea promoted " Bounce " with a series of live festival performances and on the premiere of Channel 4 's Smells Like Friday Night . It was also included in the setlist for her 2014 The New Classic Tour . " Bounce " is featured on the soundtracks for the 2014 film Vampire Academy and the 2015 film Spy .
= = Background = =
" Bounce " was written by Iggy Azalea , Speedy Jay , Talay Riley , Oladayo Olatunji , Natalie Sims , and its producers Reeva & Black for Azalea 's debut album , The New Classic . With the song , Azalea wanted to showcase a fun side to herself and her artistry , and to offset the seriousness of her previous single , " Work " . " Bounce " was written as " something light and fun for the summer " and a " festival anthem " about celebration . Azalea also wanted " to see how the pop @-@ rap thing would go " . She recorded the track in early 2013 , when she was on tour with Nas in London . Olatunji recorded background vocals for the track with Azalea at Grove Studios in London . The song was mixed by Anthony Kilhoffer at The Mix Spot in Los Angeles , with assistance from Kyle Ross .
Azalea found " Bounce " to be different from her previous releases and the most commercial song on The New Classic . She initially felt that it was a risky choice for a single , and consulted Nas regarding the decision ; " With ' Bounce , ' I was like , ' It 's a pop record . I don 't know . ' [ Nas ] was like , ' Just fucking do it . It 's something different . It 's one song , what 's the big deal ? ' I couldn 't believe Nas was telling me to do a hip @-@ pop record . " Azalea also did not intend to include the song on The New Classic , believing that it strayed too far from the album 's musical and lyrical themes , but her record label convinced her otherwise and it was included as one of the album 's three bonus tracks . The song was later included in the main track listing of the album 's reissue , Reclassified .
= = Composition = =
" Bounce " is an EDM , hip hop and trap song . It incorporates elements of house and Eastern music . Charley Rogulewski of Vibe writes that the song adds a pop element to Azalea 's " trademark trap sound " . The track combines busy production with Azalea 's energetic rapping — a combination viewed as " relentless " and " overwhelming " by some critics . The production consists of an uptempo , " club @-@ friendly " beat and " squiggle " sound effects . Its instrumentation comprises winding synths , deep bass , and tabla and sarangi melodies .
In contrast with the song 's tempo , Azalea 's rapping is fast @-@ paced and in Southern American English pronunciation throughout . A timed build @-@ drop production formula is used to vary her delivery in which she puts emphasis on certain lyrics and lifts off on others . During the verses , Azalea 's delivery is expletively riddled and contains trill consonants , particularly during the bridge , " All about money , the nice never ending / We party till morning , tomorrow we kick it " . According to Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner , the chorus causes the listener to " adhere to the song 's title " . In it , Azalea repeatedly raps , " Make it bounce / Make it bounce / Make it bounce / Shake it , break it , make it bounce " . Lyrically , " Bounce " is about being carefree , partying , dancing , and celebrating life . Sam Lansky of Idolator describes the lyrics as " party @-@ happy uncomplicated fun " . Several critics compared the song to 2 Unlimited 's " No Limit " ( 1993 ) .
= = Release = =
" Bounce " served as the second single from The New Classic internationally , with the exception of Canada and the United States where " Change Your Life " was released instead . The song 's title was first revealed in an announcement about its accompanying music video on 15 April 2013 . Azalea posted the single 's cover art on Twitter on 24 April 2013 . " Bounce " premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 26 April 2013 , with Azalea uploading the song to her SoundCloud and YouTube channels the same day .
" Bounce " was first released as a digital extended play ( EP ) — which included a remix by DJ Green Lantern — on 27 May 2013 in selected countries such as France , while the release in several other countries were postponed to a later date . The delays prompted Azalea 's fans to campaign an earlier release of the single ; in a press release , Azalea explained : " The problem with kids – and I was one of these people too – is that they think they work in the industry and know how it all works . They 're like , ' put ' Bounce ' out now or it 's gonna flop ! ' . I 'm like , ' I need to promote it first or it 's gonna flop ! ' . It 's coming out on July 8 and I need fans to trust their fave on this one because it 's for the best . I need to hashtag that – # trustyourfaves . " The EP was later released on 5 July 2013 in Germany , 7 July 2013 in the United Kingdom , and 8 July 2013 in Italy and Spain .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Bounce " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Eric Diep of XXL praised Azalea 's " rapid @-@ fire rhymes " and said the track " will certainly burn up the dance floor " . Lucy O 'Brien of The Quietus called the song " irrepressible " . AllMusic 's David Jeffries opined that " Bounce " was " simple and infectious " , and " does just what it says on the tin " . Jeffries ' view was shared by Mark Beaumont of NME who also deemed the song " infectious " , and Matt Jost of RapReviews.com who called it " simply fun " . Rory Cashin of Entertainment.ie described its production as " overwhelmingly busy in a good way " . In a State publication , Cashin deemed it a " warped earworm " and a " belter " . Rap @-@ Up hailed it as Azalea 's " new anthem " , and felt it was timed for the summer to " [ shake ] up the dancefloor " . Similarly , Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly opined that the song was " thumping " and " a thoroughbred entry in the song @-@ of @-@ summer race " , while Juliana June Rasul of The Straits Times said it was " a perfect summer pop song " . In a publication for The Atlantic , Nolan Feeney highlighted it as a " colorful butt @-@ shaker " . Idolator 's Sam Lansky called the track a " twerk anthem " and considered it to be Azalea 's most impressive and most commercial single .
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner gave the song a four ( out of five ) -star rating , and wrote that its production was of a " summer anthem level " . Corner said the track felt " slightly lighter " than Azalea 's previous releases , adding : " ... but if it means she crosses over into superstardom territory , it 's a job well done " . While Robert Copsey of the same website believed that it " felt like a somewhat needless moment of pop frivolity " . Complex reviewers were also divided ; Brian Josephs considered the track a " [ clear ] club banger " , but David Drake criticized Azalea 's " nimble rapping and forced accent " . According to Drake , " [ ' Bounce ' ] is the kind of thing that might work in the UK , where a digitally @-@ animated frog once had a No. 1 hit with a cover of the theme to Beverly Hills Cop , but this will probably be a long shot at getting stateside club play " . John Robinson of The Guardian felt it was " second @-@ division " and " sheeeeeit " . Karen Lawler of Blues & Soul opined that it recalled " a lost track " from Miley Cyrus ' 2013 album , Bangerz , and dismissed its " nod " to 2 Unlimited as " cringe worthy " . While Clash called " Bounce " an inferior version of " No Limit " and " criminal in every way " , and opined that it lacked tune ; " No Auto @-@ Tune , though , because you need a tune to Auto " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Bounce " first charted on the Irish Singles Chart issued for 11 July 2013 , where it debuted and peaked at number 34 . It marked Azalea 's first top 40 hit in Ireland . In the United Kingdom , Music Week reported that " Bounce " placed at number eight in the mid @-@ week UK Singles Chart . However , the single 's sales declined through the rest of the week and it entered the chart at number 13 with first @-@ week sales of 22 @,@ 401 copies . It became Azalea 's second top 20 hit in the country and spent a total of five weeks on the chart . Although not released as a single in the United States , " Bounce " reached number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart issued for 21 June 2014 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The accompanying music video for " Bounce " was directed by BRTHR . It was filmed in Mumbai , India over a 10- to 12 @-@ day period with 16- to 18 @-@ hour working days . BRTHR previously applied to direct Azalea 's music video for " Work " , but Jonas & François were hired instead ; BRTHR 's strong interest in working with Azalea encouraged them to try again with " Bounce " . Azalea 's label wanted BRTHR to work with executive producer Eli Born for the music video because they felt confident in him after his involvement in the " Work " music video . BRTHR were guided by their producer Brendan Lynch and executive producer Geoff McLean . Equipment by the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company and Carl Zeiss AG were used for filming . In an interview for MTV UK , Azalea detailed the inspiration behind the video :
" My mother growing up was really , really close friends with an Indian woman . She ended up having an arranged marriage oddly enough and I remember going to her wedding and it was one of the only weddings that I 've EVER been to , besides my own mother 's , and it was the biggest party , the most fun ever . So when I was doing ' Bounce ' , you know I don 't actually drink or smoke so I thought I don 't wanna do a video in a club like poppin ' bottles and all this stuff , although the song 's about partying . I [ wanted to ] do a celebration ... and it made me think of that experience with my mother 's friend going to an Indian wedding and having the most crazy and amazing time and I though I wanna do an Indian wedding ! And I wanna do it in India ! And I wanna do it properly ... and I put an elephant in there for good luck . "
Azalea also envisioned an Eastern theme for the music video because of the song 's Eastern music influences and her interest in Bollywood films . BRTHR wrote a Hindu wedding scenario for the video , with Azalea as the bride . At Azalea 's request , the video was filmed in Mumbai 's streets and slums , and on Bollywood sets . Because of the increased cost of filming on location , Azalea decided to personally contribute to the video 's budget . T.I. was scheduled to appear in the music video , but was unable due to visa delays . Azalea 's stylist , Alejandra Hernandez , coordinated the rapper 's wardrobe , inspired by Bollywood disco era and Indian actress Parveen Babi . Hernandez used bold @-@ coloured saris in the video ; she prepared Azalea 's wardrobe in Los Angeles , and her creations were made in London and Mumbai . Azalea 's jewelry was also purchased in Mumbai .
The team hired an Indian film crew , and spent the entire budget in India . Stratum Films in Mumbai helped find locations and cast extras . Choreographer Devang Desai assembled Indian dancers , and worked with Azalea on a Bollywood dance routine unique to " Bounce " and Azalea 's style . With the exception of the video 's celebration scenes , BRTHR filmed in guerilla " run and gun " style , and occasionally paid local police to facilitate a setup . According to Azalea , the Indian elephant in the clip took a month to find , and " the Indian mafia " were needed to shut down a street in Mumbai for the filming of her scene with it . Avinash Shankar was later hired to consult to the filming 's cultural and visual issues . BRTHR stated that " Bounce " was the most difficult music video they had ever directed because of the persistent difficulties they encountered with its on @-@ location production and final version @-@ editing . A narrative with a speech introducing Azalea at the wedding was cut from the final version . In an interview for Rap @-@ Up , Azalea stated , " It 's just so crazy to dream something so big and actually see it happen " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with a bird 's @-@ eye view of Mumbai , with Azalea 's name and " Bounce " in large yellow text . Scenes with local residents include a young Indian boy and children playing cricket . Azalea , in a gold bodysuit and Indian inspired clothing , slouches atop an Indian elephant . The song begins with Azalea and a troupe of female Indian dancers entering a darkened Bollywood set for a traditional Indian wedding . Azalea and the dancers , in traditional red saris with bindis , begin belly dancing and modernised Indian dance routines . The scene is intercut with snippets of Azalea walking and dancing in Mumbai 's slums . On the Bollywood set , a large Indian family are seen celebrating , drinking and dancing . Azalea ( in a green sari ) dances in a garden , rides an elephant along city streets and travels in an auto rickshaw , wearing a printed silk blouse , with the wind blowing through her hair . Now in a blue sari , she lies on the elephant , gesturing with her hands and dancing next to Indian children on a cluttered platform .
The video returns to the Bollywood set , where Azalea dances at the wedding and before a moving backdrop with occasional slow @-@ motion sequences . In a white sari with a golden crown , she performs ( surrounded by children ) at a Holi celebration . After a series of jump cuts , the video ends with Azalea driving off on a motorcycle under a shower of flower petals .
= = = Release and reception = = =
A teaser of the video was first unveiled by Azalea for Digital Spy on 1 May 2013 . Prior to the video 's release , Azalea also posted images of her wardrobe on Instagram . The video premiered on Vevo on 6 May 2013 . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes segment was released on 10 June 2013 . The music video received positive reviews from critics and was nominated for Best Video at the 2014 MtvU Woodie Awards , but lost to Chance the Rapper 's " Everybody 's Something " . Some critics compared the video to Selena Gomez 's " Come & Get It " ( 2013 ) .
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner wrote , " We knew [ Azalea ] had the tunes , but now we know she has the moves " . Jean Trinh of The Daily Beast said that Azalea never disappoints with her music videos , and described the " Bounce " video as " breathtaking " and " entertaining " . Liza Darwin of MTV News praised the video 's fashion , and quipped , " Now that the clip 's finally premiered , everyone can bask in its glimmering , glittering glory " . Jessie Peterson of the same website likened Azalea 's bodysuit to Babi in the 1982 film Namak Halaal , and zentai . Natalie Wall of Cosmopolitan complimented the Bollywood theme and called Azalea her " new style crush " . Stephen Kearse of Respect. wrote that the artistic texture of the visual was " so rich that the song and music video became inextricable , each always invoking each other " . Kearse said it brought the song to life , and added , " It is unclear whether or not the song was produced with such an affinity for Indian images , but the match up genuinely works " . Brian Josephs of Complex commended the avoidance of a clichéd club setting , and called the video " fun to watch " . Idolator 's Sam Lansky said the video " does the trick " and was " fun , in a super @-@ culturally appropriate way " . The video 's global theme was compared to that of Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ' " Can 't Hold Us " by a writer for MuchMusic who opined that Azalea provided a good representation of Indian style and culture , and complimented her appreciation of it . Conversely , Ingrid Kesa of Oyster felt it followed the trend of filming a high @-@ budget video in a developing country . While John Robinson of The Guardian was critical of the video 's " rather tired Bollywood concept " .
A report by The Northern Star highlighted that public reaction to the music video saw some accusing it of cultural appropriation . According to Nico Lang of the Los Angeles Times , Azalea 's sari and bindi attire " drew ire " . Similar blog reaction led to Bruce Sterling of Wired invoking Kareena Kapoor 's " Hai Re Hai Re " from the 2003 Hindi film , Khushi : " Bring in some class analysis , too , ' cause our Kareena 's a born starchild who is worth millions while Iggy is a high @-@ school dropout who used to clean hotels . " The Sunshine Coast Daily hosted an online poll asking if the music video was offensive ; 63 % of its readers voted " no " and 36 % voted " yes " . BRTHR later addressed the accusations , and stated that they specifically hired an Indian producer for the filming to avoid the video from offending Indian culture . According to BRTHR , the producer 's requests were to remove profanity from the dialogue and to ensure Azalea 's wardrobe was " not too offensive " . The music video has received over 50 million views on YouTube as of September 2015 .
= = Live performances = =
Azalea first performed " Bounce " during her sets at The Great Escape Festival on 21 May 2013 , and Radio 1 's Big Weekend later that month . She also performed the song during her setlists for Gucci 's Chime for Change Concert , The Parklife Weekender and the Glastonbury Festival in June 2013 . Azalea gave her first live , televised performance of the track on the premiere of Channel 4 's Smells Like Friday Night on 21 June 2013 . The song was then performed during her sets at the Wireless Festival , and London nightclubs G @-@ A @-@ Y and Fabric in July 2013 . " Bounce " was later included in Azalea 's setlist at the 2013 iTunes Festival , where she was a supporting act for Katy Perry . In October 2013 , Azalea performed the track as part of her sets during Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
In 2014 , " Bounce " featured in the setlist for Azalea 's first headlining tour , The New Classic Tour . She also performed the song during her sets for the 2014 MtvU Woodie Awards at South by Southwest in April , and the Jingle Ball Tour 2014 in December . Azalea performed " Bounce " in her setlist for the Redfest in February 2015 . She reprised the song for her set at South by Southwest in March 2015 ; the rendition incorporated elements of Silentó 's " Watch Me " . Azalea also performed " Bounce " during her gigs at the Ottawa Bluesfest and Quebec City Summer Festival in July 2015 .
= = Usage in media = =
In 2013 , " Bounce " was used in the commercials for the tenth series of Big Brother Australia , and ABC 's Super Fun Night . The track was featured in an episode of the television show EastEnders which aired on 13 August 2013 . It was also included in an episode of the television show Love & Hip Hop on 4 November 2013 . Contestants of the fifteenth series of Big Brother UK performed a dance to " Bounce " in a task which aired on 27 July 2014 . The song was used for the 2014 films Vampire Academy and Step Up : All In ; appearing on the soundtrack for the former and in the trailer for the latter . It also featured on the soundtrack for the 2015 film Spy and was used for its accompanying trailer .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download ( EP )
" Bounce " – 2 : 47
" Bounce " ( DJ Green Lantern Remix ) – 4 : 24
" Bounce " ( Instrumental ) – 2 : 46
" Bounce " ( Acappella ) – 2 : 46
= = Credits and personnel = =
Iggy Azalea – writer , vocals
Reeva & Black – writers , producers , vocal engineering
Speedy Jay – writer
Talay Riley – writer
Oladayo Olatunji – writer , background vocals
Natalie Sims – writer
Anthony Kilhoffer – mixing
Kyle Ross – mixing assistant
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Themes in Maya Angelou 's autobiographies =
The themes encompassing African @-@ American writer Maya Angelou 's seven autobiographies include racism , identity , family , and travel . Angelou ( 1928 – 2014 ) is best known for her first autobiography , the critically acclaimed I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . The rest of the books in her series are Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) .
Beginning with Caged Bird and ending with her final autobiography , Angelou used the metaphor of a bird , which represented Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and depression , struggling to escape its cage , as described in the Paul Laurence Dunbar poem " Sympathy " . Angelou 's autobiographies can be placed in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest . Their unity underscored one of Angelou 's central themes : the injustice of racism and how to eat it . According to scholar Pierre A. Walker , all of Angelou 's books described " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . In the course of her autobiographies , her views about Black @-@ white relationships changed and she learned to accept different points of view . Angelou 's theme of identity was established from the beginning of her autobiographies , with the opening lines in Caged Bird , and like other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s , she used the autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Her original goal was to write about the lives of Black women in America , but it evolved in her later volumes to document the ups and downs of her life .
The theme of family and family relationships — from the character @-@ defining experience of Angelou 's parents ' abandonment in Caged Bird to her relationships with her son , husbands , friends , and lovers — are important in all of her books . As in American autobiography generally and in African @-@ American autobiography specifically , which has its roots in the slave narrative , travel is another important theme in Angelou 's autobiographies . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora called the travel motif in Angelou 's autobiographies , beginning in Caged Bird , " a central metaphor for a psychic mobility " . Angelou 's autobiographies take place all over the world , from Arkansas to Africa and back to the US , and span almost forty years , beginning from the start of World War II to the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr .
= = Overview = =
The themes encompassing Angelou 's seven autobiographies include racism , identity , family , and travel . She is best known for her first autobiography , the critically acclaimed I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , which was nominated for a National Book Award . Angelou did not write Caged Bird with the intention of writing a series of autobiographies ; critics have " judged the subsequent autobiographies in light of the first " . Her series also includes Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman , ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) . Angelou 's autobiographies have a distinct style , and " stretch over time and place " , from Arkansas to Africa and back to the US . They take place from the beginnings of World War II to the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr .
According to scholar Mary Jane Lupton , Angelou 's autobiographies have been characterized as autobiographical fiction , but Lupton disagrees , stating that they conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . Angelou 's use of themes , especially that of racism , connects all seven autobiographies . One of her goals , beginning with Caged Bird , was to incorporate " organic unity " into them , and the events she described were episodic , crafted like a series of short stories , and were placed to emphasize the themes of her books .
= = Racism = =
Angelou used the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage described in the Paul Laurence Dunbar poem " Sympathy " throughout all of her autobiographies ; she used the metaphor in the titles of both I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and her sixth autobiography A Song Flung Up to Heaven . Like elements within a prison narrative , the caged bird represented Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and oppression . This metaphor also invoked the " supposed contradiction of the bird singing in the midst of its struggle " . Reviewer Hilton Als observed that Angelou 's witness of the evil in her society , as directed towards Black women , shaped Angelou 's young life and informed her views into adulthood . Despite this , scholar Lynn Z. Bloom asserted that Angelou 's autobiographies and lectures , which he called " ranging in tone from warmly humorous to bitterly satiric " , have gained a respectful and enthusiastic response from the general public and critics .
I know why the caged bird sings , ah me ,
When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore ,
When he beats his bars and would be free ;
It is not a carol of joy or glee ,
But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core ,
But a plea , that upward to Heaven he flings –
I know why the caged bird sings .
1st stanza of Paul Lawrence Dunbar 's poem " Sympathy " .
Reviewer Daisy Aldan of World Literature Today criticized Angelou for harboring " a fanatic hostility expressed toward all white people " , but writer Lyman B. Hagen disagreed , stating that like Angelou 's friend and mentor Langston Hughes , Angelou explained and illuminated the condition of African Americans , but without alienating her readers . Angelou promoted the importance of hard work , a common theme in slave narratives , throughout all her autobiographies , in order to break the African @-@ American stereotype of laziness . Her description of the strong and cohesive Black community of Stamps demonstrated how African Americans have subverted repressive institutions to withstand racism . Angelou evolved from wishing that she could become white in Caged Bird to later shedding her self @-@ loathing and embracing a strong racial identity .
Critic Pierre A. Walker placed Angelou 's autobiographies in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest written in the years following the American Civil Rights Movement . He emphasized that the unity of Angelou 's autobiographies underscored one of her central themes : the injustice of racism and how to fight it . Angelou 's biographies , beginning with Caged Bird , consisted of " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . This sequence led Angelou , as the protagonist , from " helpless rage and indignation to forms of subtle resistance , and finally to outright and active protest " throughout all seven of her autobiographies . Angelou changed her views in the course of her autobiographies about Black @-@ white relationships and learned to accept different points of view . It was changes in how she regarded race , and her views of white people , that provided Angelou with freedom . According to Hagen , one of Angelou 's themes was that humans tend to be more alike than different .
" Human beings are more alike than unalike " .
Maya Angelou , 1994 ( Scholar Mary Jane Lupton has called this one of Angelou 's most well @-@ known sayings . )
In Angelou 's third autobiography Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , in which she married a white man , she came into intimate contact with whites for the first time — whites very different from the racist people she encountered in her childhood . She discovered that her stereotypes of whites were developed to protect herself from their cruelty and indifference . As critic Dolly A. McPherson indicated , " Conditioned by earlier experiences , Angelou distrusts everyone , especially whites . Nevertheless , she is repeatedly surprised by the kindness and goodwill of many whites she meets , and , thus , her suspicions begin to soften into understanding . " Selwyn Cudjoe wrote that in Singin ' and Swingin ' , Angelou effectively demonstrated " the inviolability of the African American personhood " , as well as her own closely guarded defense of it . In order for her to have any positive relationships with whites and people of other races , however , McPherson insisted that Angelou " must examine and discard her stereotypical views about Whites " . Scholar Lyman B. Hagen agreed and pointed out that Angelou had to re @-@ examine her lingering prejudices when faced with the broader world full of whites , but it was a complex process because most of Angelou 's experiences with whites were positive during this time . Angelou moved between the white and Black worlds , both defining herself as a member of her community and encountering whites in " a much fuller , more sensuous manner " . Angelou 's experiences with the Porgy and Bess tour , as described in Singin ' and Swingin ' , expanded her understanding of other races and race relations as she met people of different nationalities during her travels . All these experiences were instrumental in Angelou 's maturity and growth , and served as a basis for her later acceptance and tolerance of other races .
Angelou 's fourth autobiography The Heart of a Woman opened with Angelou and her son Guy living in an experimental commune with whites , in an attempt to participate in the new openness between Blacks and whites . She was not completely comfortable with the arrangement , however ; as Lupton pointed out , Angelou never named her roommates . For the most part , Angelou was able to freely interact with whites in this book , but she occasionally encountered prejudice similar to earlier episodes , like when she required the assistance of white friends to rent a home in a segregated neighborhood . Lupton stated that compared to her other books , Angelou had come " a long way " from her interactions with whites and people of other races . Hagen called the descriptions of whites and the hopes for eventual equality in this book " optimistic " . Angelou continued , however , her indictment of white power structure and her protests against racial injustice that had been a theme throughout all her books . Instead of offering solutions , however , she simply reported on , reacted to , and dramatized events .
Angelou became more " politicized " in The Heart of Woman , and developed a new sense of Black identity . McPherson argued that even Angelou 's decision to leave show business was political , and regarded this book as " a social and cultural history of Black Americans " during the late 1950s and early 1960s . Angelou saw herself as a historian of both the Civil Rights movement and the Black literary movement of the time . She became more attracted to the causes of Black militants , both in the U.S. and in Africa , to the point of entering into a relationship with South African freedom fighter Vusumzi Make , and became more committed to activism . She became an active political protestor during this period , but she did not think of herself in that way . Instead , the focus was on herself , and she used the autobiographical form to demonstrate how the Civil Rights movement influenced one person involved in it . According to Hagen , her contributions to civil rights as a fundraiser and SCLC organizer were successful and effective .
According to Lupton , " Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities " was an important theme in her fifth autobiography All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . The alliances and relationships with those she met in Ghana contributed to Angelou 's identity and growth . Her experiences as an expatriate helped her come to terms with her personal and historical past , and by the end of the book she was ready to return to America with a deeper understanding of both the African and American parts of her character . McPherson called Angelou 's parallels and connections between Africa and America her " double @-@ consciousness " , which contribute to her understanding of herself .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou was able to recognize similarities between African and African @-@ American culture ; as Lupton put it , the " blue songs , shouts , and gospels " she has grown up with in America " echo the rhythms of West Africa " . Marcia Ann Gillespie and her colleagues , writing in A Glorious Celebration , the book published in 2008 for Angelou 's 80th birthday , agreed , stating that Angelou recognized the connections between African and American Black cultures , including the children 's games , the folklore , the spoken and non @-@ verbal languages , the food , sensibilities , and behavior . She connected the behavior of many African mother figures , especially their generosity , with her grandmother 's actions . In one of the most significant sections of Traveling Shoes , Angelou recounted an encounter with a West African woman who recognized her , on the basis of her appearance , as a member of the Bambara group of West Africa . These and other experiences in Ghana demonstrated Angelou 's maturity , as a mother able to let go of her adult son , as a woman no longer dependent upon a man , and as an American able to " perceive the roots of her identity " and how they affected her personality .
Also in Traveling Shoes , Angelou came to terms with her difficult past , both as a descendent of Africans taken forcibly to America as slaves and as an African America who had experienced racism . As she told an interviewer , she brought her son to Ghana to protect him from the negative effects of racism because she did not think he had the tools to withstand them . For the first time in Angelou 's life , she did not " feel threatened by racial hate " in Ghana . The theme of racism was still an important theme in Traveling Shoes , but she has matured in the way she dealt with it . As Hagen stated , Angelou was " not yet ready to toss off the stings of prejudice , but tolerance and even a certain understanding can be glimpsed " . This was demonstrated in Angelou 's treatment of the " genocidal involvement of Africans in slave @-@ trading " , something that has often been overlooked or misrepresented by other Black writers . Angelou was taught an important lesson about combating racism by Malcolm X , who compared it to a mountain in which everyone 's efforts was needed to overcome it .
Angelou learned about herself and about racism throughout Traveling Shoes , even during her brief tour of Venice and Berlin for the revival of The Blacks , the play by Jean Genet that Angelou had originally performed in 1961 . She revived her passion for African @-@ American culture while associating with other African Americans for the first time since moving to Ghana . She compared her experiences of American racism with Germany 's history of racial prejudice and military aggression . The verbal violence of the folk tales shared during her luncheon with her German hosts and Israeli friend was as significant to Angelou as physical violence , to the point that she became ill . Angelou 's first @-@ hand experience with fascism , as well as the racist sensibilities of the German family she visited , " help [ ed ] shape and broaden her constantly changing vision " regarding racial prejudice .
= = Identity = =
The theme of identity was established from the beginning of Angelou 's series of autobiographies , with the opening lines in Caged Bird , which " foretell Angelou ’ s autobiographical project : to write the story of the developing black female subject by sharing the tale of one Southern Black girl ’ s becoming " . Angelou and other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s used the autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Feminist scholar Maria Lauret has made a connection between Angelou 's autobiographies , which Lauret called " fictions of subjectivity " and " feminist first @-@ person narratives " , with fictional first @-@ person narratives ( such as The Women 's Room by Marilyn French and The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing ) written during the same period . Both genres employed the narrator as protagonist and used " the illusion of presence in their mode of signification " . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora agreed , stating that Angelou broke stereotypes of African @-@ American women by describing these images and stereotypes , and then disproving them , which set the stage for Angelou 's identity development in her later autobiographies .
When I try to describe myself to God I say , " Lord , remember me ? Black ? Female ? Six @-@ foot tall ? The writer ? " And I almost always get God 's attention .
Maya Angelou , 2008 .
Angelou , as a woman , demonstrated the formation of her own cultural identity throughout her narratives . Angelou presented herself as a role model for African @-@ American women by reconstructing the Black woman 's image throughout her autobiographies , and has used her many roles , incarnations , and identities to connect the layers of oppression with her personal history . Angelou 's themes of the individual 's strength and ability to overcome appeared throughout Angelou 's autobiographies as well . The women Angelou presented in her autobiographies , especially Caged Bird , influenced the woman Angelou became . According to Manora , three characters in Caged Bird , Angelou 's mother Vivian , her grandmother Annie Henderson , and Mrs. Flowers ( who helps Angelou find her voice again after her rape ) , collaborated to " form a triad which serves as the critical matrix in which the child is nurtured and sustained during her journey through Southern Black girlhood " .
Angelou 's original goal was to write about the lives of Black women in America , but her goal evolved in her later volumes to document the ups and downs of her own life . Angelou 's autobiographies had the same structure : a historical overview of the places she was living in at the time and how she coped within the context of a larger white society , as well as the ways that her story played out within that context . Angelou , especially in her third autobiography , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , successfully demonstrated the integrity of the African @-@ American character as she experienced more positive interactions with whites . In Angelou 's second volume , Gather Together in My Name , Angelou was concerned with what it meant to be a Black female in the U.S. , but she focused upon herself at a certain point in history . Writer Selwyn Cudjoe said regarding her second autobiography : " It is almost as though the incidents in the text were simply ' gathered together ' under the name of Maya Angelou . "
= = Family = =
The theme of family and family relationships ( which scholar Mary Jane Lupton called " kinship concerns " ) , from the character @-@ defining experience of Angelou 's parents ' abandonment to her relationships with her son , husbands , friends , and lovers are important in all of her books . Angelou 's description of close familial relationships , such as her relationships with her parents and son ( which Lupton called " the mother @-@ child pattern " ) was the only unifying theme that connected all of her autobiographies . Angelou 's concept of family was affected by Maya and Bailey 's displacement at the beginning of Caged Bird . Motherhood was a theme that connected all of Angelou 's autobiographies , specifically her experiences as a single mother , a daughter , and a granddaughter . Lupton believed that Angelou 's plot construction and character development were influenced by this mother / child motif found in the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Jessie Fauset .
Scholar Yolanda M. Manora insisted that three women in Caged Bird — the " hybridized mother " of Angelou 's grandmother , her mother , and her friend Mrs. Flowers — taught her how to be a mother to her son Guy . Although Angelou 's grandmother died early in the series , in her third autobiography Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , Angelou quoted her many times throughout the series . Angelou 's desire for security for Guy drove her to marry Tosh Angelos in Singin ' and Swingin ' , and drove many of her decisions , job choices , and romantic relationships . Scholar Siphokazi Koyana stated that due to Angelou 's race and economic background , her " experience of motherhood is inseparably intertwined with work " . According to Koyana , " ... Black motherhood always encompassed work " . Angelou 's long list of occupations attested to the challenges , especially in her second autobiography Gather Together in My Name , she faced as a working teenager mother , which often led Angelou to questionable decisions . Koyana stated that it was not until Angelou was able to take advantage of opportunities , such as her role in Porgy and Bess , when she was able to fully support her and Guy , and the quality of her life and her contribution to society improved . It was impossible , however , for Angelou to become successful without her extended family to provide childcare for her ; i.e. , when she left Guy in the care of his grandmother in spite of the conflict and guilt she experienced as a result ( something Koyana insisted was imposed on her by the larger society ) , a pattern established in Caged Bird by her own mother when she left Angelou and her brother in the care of Angelou 's grandmother .
The woman who survives intact and happy must be at once tender and tough .
Maya Angelou , Wouldn 't Take Nothing For My Journey Now ( 1993 )
Black women autobiographers like Angelou have debunked the stereotypes of African @-@ American mothers of " breeder and matriarch " and have presented them as having more creative and satisfying roles . According to scholar Sondra O 'Neale , Angelou 's autobiographies presented Black women differently from their literary portrayals up to that time . O 'Neale maintained that " no Black woman in the world of Angelou 's books are losers " , and that Angelou was the third generation of intelligent and resourceful women who overcame the obstacles of racism and oppression . Koyana recognized that Angelou depicted women , which Koyana called her " womanist theories " , in an era of cultural transition , and that her books described one Black woman 's attempts to create and maintain a healthy self @-@ esteem . Angelou 's experiences as a working @-@ class single mother challenged traditional and Western viewpoints of women and family life , including the nuclear family structure . Angelou described societal forces that eventually expanded to the white family , and that Angelou 's strategies of economic survival and experiences of family structure enabled Black families to survive economically .
= = Travel = =
Travel is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; as McPherson stated , it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This was also the case for African @-@ American autobiography , which was rooted in and developed out of the slave narrative . Like those narratives that focused on the writers ' search for freedom from bondage , modern African @-@ American autobiographers like Angelou sought to develop " an authentic self " and the freedom to find it in their community . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora called the travel motif in Angelou 's autobiographies " fluidity " . This fluidity began in Caged Bird and was a metaphor for her psychological movements and growth caused by her displacement and trauma throughout the book , something Manora stated Angelou had to escape in order to transcend it . As Hagen stated , Angelou structured Caged Bird into three parts : arrival , sojourn , and departure , with both geographic and psychological aspects .
As McPherson stated , " The journey to a distant goal , the return home , and the quest which involves the voyage out , achievement , and return are typical patterns in Black autobiography . " For Angelou , this quest took her from her childhood and adolescence , as described in her first two books , into the adult world . The setting in Angelou 's first two autobiographies was limited to three places ( Arkansas , Missouri , and California ) , but the " setting breaks open " in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas to include Europe as she traveled with her Porgy and Bess company . McPherson saw Angelou 's third autobiography as " a sunny tour of Angelou 's twenties " , from early years marked by disappointments and humiliation , into the broader world — to the white world and to the international community . This period described " years of joy " , as well as the start of Angelou 's great success and fulfillment as an entertainer . Lupton stated that Angelou 's travel narrative in Singin ' and Swingin ' , which took up approximately 40 percent of the book , gave the book its organized structure . Angelou 's observations about race , gender , and class made the book more than a simple travel narrative . As a Black American , her travels around the world put her in contact with many nationalities and classes , expanded her experiences beyond her familiar circle of community and family , and complicated her understandings of race relations .
Angelou continued to expand the settings of her autobiographies in her subsequent volumes . The Heart of a Woman had three primary settings — the San Francisco Bay Area , New York , and Egypt — and two secondary ones — London and Accra . Lupton stated that like all of Angelou 's books , the structure of The Heart of a Woman was based upon a journey . Angelou emphasized the theme of movement by opening the book with a spiritual ( " The ole ark 's a moverin ' " ) , stating , " That ancient spiritual could have been the theme song of the United States in 1957 " . This spiritual , which contained a reference to Noah 's ark , presented Angelou as a type of Noah and demonstrated her spirituality . Angelou also mentioned Alan Ginsberg and On the Road , the 1951 novel by Jack Kerouac , thus connecting her own journey and uncertainty about the future with the journeys of literary figures . Even though the reason Angelou traveled to Africa is an eventual failed relationship , she made a connection with the continent , both in this book and in the one that follows it , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . As Lupton stated , " Africa is the site of her growth " . Angelou 's time in Africa made her more aware of her African roots . Lupton insisted , however , that although Angelou journeys to many places in the book , the most important journey she described is " a voyage into the self " .
The travel motif is a recurring theme in Traveling Shoes , as evidenced in the book 's title , but Angelou 's primary motivation in living in Africa , as she told interviewer George Plimpton , was " trying to get home " . Angelou not only related her own journey of an African @-@ American woman searching for a home , but the journeys of other Black expatriates at the time , whom McPherson compared to the descriptions of white expatriates in Europe in the 1920s by Ernest Hemingway and Henry James . Angelou 's issues were resolved at the end of Traveling Shoes when she decided to return to America . She called her departure a " second leave @-@ taking " , and compared it to the last time she left her son with his grandmother in Singin ' and Swingin ' when he was a child , and to the forced departure from Africa by her ancestors . As Lupton states , " Angelou 's journey from Africa back to America is in certain ways a restatement of the historical phase known as mid @-@ passage , when slaves were brutally transported in ships from West Africa to the so @-@ called New World " . Even though Angelou 's final autobiography A Song Flung Up to Heaven took place in her home country , the travel motif continued . Reviewer Patricia Elam described Song as a " journey through an authentic and artistic life " .
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= Solange Knowles =
Solange Piaget Knowles ( born June 24 , 1986 ) is an American singer , songwriter , model , and actress . Knowles was born in Houston , Texas to Mathew and Tina Knowles , both of whom left their careers to support her older sister Beyoncé 's recording interests . Expressing an interest in music from an early age , Knowles had several temporary stints in Destiny 's Child , before signing with her father 's Music World Entertainment label . Aged sixteen , Knowles released her first studio album Solo Star ( 2002 ) to moderate commercial and critical success . In 2004 , Knowles married Daniel Smith , eventually giving birth to their son Daniel Julez J. Smith Jr . , which prompted a move to Idaho . Between 2005 and 2007 , Knowles had several minor acting roles , including the direct @-@ to @-@ video Bring It On : All or Nothing ( 2006 ) and continued writing music for Beyoncé and ex @-@ Destiny 's Child band members Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams . In 2007 , Knowles divorced Smith and moved to Los Angeles , California , beginning to write and record music again . Her second studio album Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 ) deviated from the pop @-@ oriented music of her debut to the Motown Sound of the 1960s and 1970s . It peaked at number 9 on US Billboard 200 and received positive reviews from critics . She followed this up with the 1980s pop / R & B – inspired extended play True ( 2012 ) and intends to release her third studio album in the future on her own label Saint Records .
Knowles is heavily influenced by Motown girl groups and says that her first passion is songwriting . She has been recognised as a fashion icon and has received frequent comparisons to sister Beyoncé from the media , although insists they have different aspirations and are musically different . Her other ventures include an endorsement deal with Rimmel London and a line of hip @-@ hop @-@ oriented merchandise for young children , which was inspired by her son . On November 16 , 2014 , Knowles married music video director Alan Ferguson in New Orleans , Louisiana .
= = Early life = =
Knowles was born in Houston , Texas , to Mathew Knowles and Tina Knowles . Solange 's older sister is singer Beyoncé . Her father , originally from Alabama , is African American , and her mother , originally from south Louisiana , is Creole ( with African , Native American , French , and 1 / 32nd Irish ancestry ) . Her maternal grandparents are Lumis Beyincé and Agnéz Deréon , ( a seamstress ) . She is also a descendant of Acadian leader Joseph Broussard . As a child , Knowles studied dance and theater . At the age of five , she made her singing debut at an amusement park . She began writing songs at the age of nine . At 13 , she decided to pursue recording , but her parents initially advised her to wait . At the age of 15 Knowles replaced a departed dancer and performed with her sister 's group Destiny 's Child on tour . During the group 's opening stint for American pop singer Christina Aguilera 's tour , Knowles temporarily replaced Destiny 's Child member Kelly Rowland after Kelly broke her toes backstage during a costume change . When Knowles was 16 , her father , who was then also her manager , signed her to his recording company , Music World Entertainment along with Columbia .
= = Career = =
= = = 2001 – 03 : Early career and Solo Star = = =
Managed by her father Mathew , Knowles ' first time into the music business was in 2001 as the lead singer , backed with Destiny 's Child , on the title theme song for the animated television series The Proud Family . She also was a featured performer on " Hey Goldmember " for the soundtrack to the 2002 film Austin Powers in Goldmember , as well as a backup singer on the track " Little Drummer Boy " on her sister 's group 's 2001 holiday album 8 Days of Christmas . In 2002 , she was featured on Lil Romeo 's second studio album Game Time , singing portions of Luther Vandross @-@ penned " So Amazing " on the single " True Love " , and on Rowland 's debut solo album Simply Deep , for which she also wrote the title track and " Alone " . In 2001 she also appeared as Lil ' Bow Wow 's date in the music video for his single " Puppy Love " . She also made an appearance on The Master of Disguise soundtrack and made cameos in Play 's video for " M.A.S.T.E.R. ( Part II ) " featuring Lil ' Fizz .
In 2002 , she lent her voice for the character Chanel , the cousin of the protagonist Penny Proud , in the episode " Behind Family Lines " to the animated television series The Proud Family . In June 2003 , Mathew Knowles excitedly announced that he was considering adding Solange to Destiny 's Child when the group reunited in 2004 , thus turning them into a quartet for the first time since short @-@ lived member Farrah Franklin left in 2000 . Mathew Knowles said he was testing the reactions , and , judging by what he had heard , " it seems like a good idea " . Later in August , however , Beyoncé said it was only a rumor and Destiny 's Child would remain a trio . Rowland added , " She 's a solo star , " name @-@ dropping Knowles ' debut album .
At the age of 14 , Solange Knowles started working on her debut album Solo Star , which involved American producers such as Jermaine Dupri , The Neptunes , Linda Perry and Timbaland among others . The album is primarily uptempo R & B , although Knowles said there are pop , rock , reggae and hip hop influences . Knowles co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced some of the 15 tracks in the album , including its lead single , " Feelin ' You ( Part II ) " . The song failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number three on both the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales and Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . Solo Star was released on January 21 , 2003 in the United States , where it debuted at number 49 on the Billboard 200 and reached number 23 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Solo Star had a mixed critical reception : William Ruhlmann of AllMusic called it a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art contemporary R & B album " , but deemed Knowles " lost somewhere in the mix " . By mid @-@ 2008 , the album had sold 112 @,@ 000 copies domestically according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = = 2004 – 08 : Films and Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams = = =
In 2004 , she guest starred in the episode " The Catch " of the sitcom One on One . Knowles appeared as a nubile teenager in the 2004 comedy film Johnson Family Vacation , starring alongside American actors Cedric the Entertainer , Vanessa Williams and Bow Wow . She provided a song for its soundtrack — " Freedom " , a collaboration with the Houston @-@ based funk @-@ jazz band Drop Trio . Although the reviews were generally negative , Knowles earned praise from Variety magazine : " Solange Knowles is nearly as dazzling as big sister Beyoncé and does little more than smile winningly in her first bigscreen outing . " In 2006 , she starred as a cheerleading captain in the film Bring It On : All or Nothing , the third installment of the Bring It On series , alongside American actress and singer Hayden Panettiere . What little critical reaction the low @-@ budget , direct @-@ to @-@ DVD movie got was negative , and Knowles was described as an " affordable young starlet " . Knowles uses her full name for her acting , rather than just the first name she uses when singing ; for Bring It On : All or Nothing , she was billed as Solange Knowles @-@ Smith , reflecting her married state at the time .
After the release of her debut album , Knowles started acting in films followed by a career break . While she was married , her family moved to Idaho , and , while staying there , resumed writing songs including the singles " Get Me Bodied " and " Upgrade U " from her sister 's second solo album , B 'Day . Knowles earned the R & B and Hip @-@ Hop Song accolade for " Get Me Bodied " at the 2008 ASCAP Awards . She had also written songs for Destiny 's Child , and members Rowland and Michelle Williams . In 2004 , while pregnant with son Daniel , she made a cameo appearance in Destiny 's Child 's music video for " Soldier " .
After the divorce , Knowles returned to Houston to begin working on her second album . Knowles renewed her management , signing a record deal with Geffen and a publishing deal with EMI . Knowles finished working on her second studio album in 2008 and titled the project Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . It includes production by CeeLo Green , Soulshock & Karlin and Mark Ronson as well as an appearance by Bilal . A collection of 1960s- and 1970s @-@ influenced songs , it is seen as a departure from her pop @-@ oriented debut , with what Billboard magazine called " more of a modern twist on hip @-@ hop and R & B flecked with tinges of blues and jazz " . The album was released on August 26 , 2008 in the United States . By December 2008 , the album had sold over 114 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was positively received by critics , some of whom considered it far better than her debut . The album 's lead single , " I Decided " , was released in April 2008 , and reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart ; Rolling Stone magazine labelled it her breakthrough single . In support of the album , Knowles began the Solange Presents Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams Tour in Britain in November 2008 .
Knowles announced , via her blog HadleyStreetJournal.com , that she would be releasing a series of mixtapes to coincide with the album . The first mixtape , I Can 't Get Clearance ... , includes the leaked track " Fuck the Industry ( Signed Sincerely ) " . On this record , Knowles expressed her views on the current state of the music industry . The lyrics to the song name check some major artists such as Mary J. Blige , Ashanti , Keyshia Cole , and Beyoncé , although she made a point of stating that it does not have " a negative light to any of [ them ] " . The mixtape was never released , but Solange released " Fuck the Industry ( Signed Sincerely ) " as a single in 2010 .
= = = 2009 – 14 : True EP and Saint Records = = =
In an interview with MTV in 2009 , Knowles revealed that she was determining the type of sound for the follow @-@ up to Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . Knowles also parted ways with the Interscope @-@ Geffen @-@ A & M record label group . She would now release her third studio album independently . Early in 2010 , Knowles traveled to Australia to work with Australian rock band , Midnight Juggernauts on her third studio album . Knowles had planned to release the album in summer as revealed on her official Twitter account in 2009 . She also revealed on her Twitter account that she rented a house in Santa Barbara , California to get into a certain state of mind while writing and making music . On May 7 , 2010 , Knowles made a guest appearance on the popular children show , Yo Gabba Gabba ! for a " Mothers Day Special " where she performed an original song called " Momma Loves Baby " .
In an interview with Vibe on July 7 , 2010 , Knowles said she suffered " a little bit of a breakdown " while recording her new album : " I literally gave up my sanity for a while to do this record . [ ... ] We literally were waking up in the morning and just making music all day and all night . [ ... ] It just started to wear on me in so many different ways . I started having these crazy panic attacks . " Knowles explained how she made sacrifices " mentally , emotionally and financially " , and continued , " It 's more than an album to me . It 's a transitional time in my life . " Regarding the musical direction of the album , she said the inspiration came from new wave and stated , " This is a dance record , but the lyrics can get pretty dark at times . " The singer has also worked on songs with Chromeo and long @-@ time collaborator Pharrell Williams .
In September 2012 , Solange released a teaser video for " Losing You " , which was announced as the lead single from her third studio album . This release marked Solange 's first release as a signee of the independent label Terrible Records . The video was shot in Cape Town , South Africa in early September 2012 . Knowles revealed in an interview that her mother Tina Knowles had paid for Solange and her friends to fly out and record the video as her birthday gift . On October 24 , 2012 , Knowles held a listening party in New York City for her EP True , released for digital download on iTunes November 27 , 2012 . The CD and vinyl was made available January 8 , 2013 . Following the EP 's release , Solange appeared on the cover of The FADER magazine 's 84th issue .
On May 14 , 2013 , Knowles announced that she had launched her own record label named Saint Records , which she will be using to release her third full @-@ length album and future music projects distributed through Sony . Solange also collaborated with The Lonely Island on the song " Semicolon " which was featured as part of YouTube 's Comedy Week and is featured on The Lonely Island 's album , The Wack Album . On November 11 , 2013 , Knowles ' record label released its first compilation album , Saint Heron .
= = = 2015 : Upcoming third studio album = = =
On May 15 , 2015 Knowles performed a new song at an HBO @-@ sponsored event . The song , entitled " Rise " , is inspired by police killings in Ferguson and Baltimore and the subsequent protests . The song is expected to feature on her upcoming album and is a funk song that utilizes synth . The following day Knowles revealed she has written twenty @-@ four songs for her third studio album ; the songs were written to piano , with Knowles structuring them on her own before finding the producers to finish them . In July 2015 , Knowles announced that her third studio album was nearly complete , and that she was laying low on the performance side until her new music was complete , however she made an exception performing at the FYF festival . On her thirtieth birthday , she stated that she completed her third studio album ( fourth overall ) three days before her birthday , on 21 June 2016 .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Music and influences = = =
Knowles cites as her influences Motown girl groups such as The Supremes and The Marvelettes , and Martha Reeves , lead singer of Martha and the Vandellas . She also listened to the music of English pop singer Dusty Springfield , and according to Knowles , her " greatest music influence " is her mother , Tina Knowles , who was a one @-@ time member of the 1960s harmony group The Veltones . Knowles says her first passion is writing songs . Her early writings were vastly inspired by the writing style of French poet Paul Verlaine . She has been doing this since she was nine years old , and has collaborated with a number of songwriters and producers .
On her debut album , Knowles had no control over which kinds of music to produce , because " when you 're 14 , everyone else is older and more seasoned and you trust their decisions " . Knowles was more concerned with pleasing her record label by submitting to their desires . Her musical influences were better expressed on Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams , when she considered herself mature and was able to write and produce songs as she wished , without worrying about the expectations of others . Knowles ' lyrics tackle relationships , world issues , and deceased friends , with her second album focusing on events in her life , such as marriage , divorce , and parenthood . The album touched upon a variety of genres including pop @-@ soul , psychedelic soul , electronica , and R & B. Knowles ' debut extended play True is a new wave album with Knowles stating , " This is a dance record , but the lyrics can get pretty dark at times . " Knowles described the EP as " eclectic with ' 80s references and African percussion influences . " Sonically the extended play is influenced by the keyboard sounds and beats of early 1980s pop and R & B music . The extended play was recorded in five cities including Santa Barbara , Los Angeles , Houston , New York , and on the German autobahn .
Aside from recording , Knowles occasionally paints as her hobby : " I think that painting , for me , is such an affirmative expression in that sometimes you don 't know what the outcome is gonna be and each stroke and each brush for me is an emotion and , in the end , it comes out as a piece which is the most amazing thing . ... It definitely provides a different outlet . "
= = = Public image = = =
Knowles has always been compared by the media to her sister , Beyoncé , whom she considers one of her role models . She has expressed her opinion of the comparison in the lyrics to " God Given Name " : " I 'm not her and never will be " — which was purposely set as the album 's opening track to show their differences . In his review for the album , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine referred to the lyrics as a declaration of independence . In an interview with the Daily Mail , Knowles commented : " People think there should be this great rivalry between us , but there 's never been any competition . There 's a big age gap and we are two very different characters . " In another interview , Knowles said that she would not live by her sister 's level of stardom , stressing that she and Beyoncé are artistically different , even stating that blogger Teddy Birmingham was " disrespectful " for saying she was living in her sister 's shadow on his website " Teddytalks " in June 2009 . Beyoncé was unwilling to bring her sister into the recording industry , reasoning that it " involves a lot of pressure " . Knowles countered by saying , " It 's good to have her advice , but we really have different goals " .
In recent years , Solange has also garnered considerable attention as a fashion icon . Her knack for bold colors , mixed prints and retro styles as well as her knack for glamorous , fashion forward looks in her music videography and public appearances has become integral to her current image . She has been photographed wearing Alexander Wang , Alexander McQueen and Chanel . The music video for her 2012 single " Losing You " featured a heavy demonstration of the contemporary sartorial movement throughout Africa , La Sape . Similarly , her decision to grow her natural hair initially generated strong reactions from the public . Since trimming off her straightened hair , her nostalgic and modern afro hairstyles have captured the attention of the media and the public alike .
= = Other ventures = =
Knowles has been promoting Baby Jamz , a hip hop @-@ styled toy line for pre @-@ schoolers . It was inspired by her son , Julez , who is fond of hip hop music . She is the executive producer of the CD , composed of updated hip hop inspired nursery rhymes , which is featured in all of the toys .
Also , Knowles has been known for her work in the award @-@ winning children 's television show , Yo Gabba Gabba ! . She performed " Momma Loves Baby " during the live performance when it toured the Dallas – Fort Worth area . She also performed " Mama Loves Baby " during a 2010 episode called " Baby " .
In 2011 , Knowles along with Alejandra Ramos Munoz and Zooey Deschanel , was announced as the new face of Rimmel London . In February 2012 , Solange became VOGUE.COM 's Today I 'm Wearing guest blogger sharing a photograph of her outfits daily for one month .
= = = House of Deréon = = =
Knowles and sister Beyoncé model for their family 's clothing line , House of Deréon , named after their grandmother , Agnéz Deréon . She also helped launch Deréon , a junior apparel collection and a sister line to House of Deréon . Both sisters model for Deréon , and are featured in most of Deréon 's marketing campaigns . Together they were featured in a " Got Milk ? " campaign ad , while still wearing House of Deréon . In 2008 , Knowles was named as ambassador for Giorgio Armani 's younger diffusion line , Armani Jeans . Armani said Knowles epitomizes the style , which is a " vision of a young , independent , casual lifestyle with a strong and cool , fashion sensibility " .
= = Personal life = =
Knowles married Daniel Smith in February 2004 when she was 17 and he was 19 . On October 18 , 2004 , Knowles gave birth to their son , Daniel Julez Judo Smith , Jr . Knowles has partly expressed regret that she bore a child at an early age , but calls her son the greatest unplanned blessing . A song she wrote for her baby , " 6 O 'Clock Blues " , was included on Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . After Daniel Julez 's birth , the family moved to Moscow , Idaho , where Knowles ' husband continued studying in college . In October 2007 , Solange confirmed in an interview with Essence magazine that she and Smith had divorced . They co @-@ parent the child . After the divorce , Knowles and her child moved to Los Angeles , California , where they established their new home . In August 2013 , Knowles announced that she and her son were moving to New Orleans , Louisiana .
On May 12 , 2014 , TMZ released security video footage of Solange physically assaulting brother @-@ in @-@ law Jay @-@ Z and being restrained by a security guard in an elevator at The Standard , High Line in Manhattan , following the 2014 Met Gala . Jay @-@ Z remained passive and did not retaliate while Solange 's sister Beyoncé , who was also present , did not react to either party throughout the altercation . The footage and story went viral , however the reason for the altercation remains unknown .
On November 16 , 2014 , Knowles married music video director Alan Ferguson in New Orleans , Louisiana .
= = Discography = =
Solo Star ( 2003 )
Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 )
True ( 2012 )
TBA ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Solo Star Tour ( 2003 )
The Art of Love Tour ( 2008 )
Solange Presents Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams Tour ( 2008 )
True Promo Tour ( 2012 )
Supporting
Simply Deeper Tour ( 2003 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Lift Off ( song ) =
" Lift Off " is a song by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West featuring American recording artist Beyoncé . It was written by Kanye West , Jay @-@ Z , Jeff Bhasker , Mike Dean , Bruno Mars and Seal , while production was handled by West , Bhasker , Mike Dean , Q @-@ Tip , and Don Jazzy for Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's collaboration album , Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . The song was rumored to be released as the lead single from the album containing additional vocals by Bruno Mars . However , Mars never appeared on the song and it was sent to urban contemporary radio on August 23 , 2011 .
Musically , " Lift Off " is a pop song which uses baroque strings . It contains a chorus sung by Beyoncé , while other verses are sung by West and Jay @-@ Z in a rap style . Instrumentally , the song is completed with synthesizers , martial drums and horns . " Lift Off " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics who highlighted the song and praised its hook as well as Beyoncé 's vocals . The song peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and number twenty one on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " Lift Off " was performed live by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West during their tour in promotion of Watch the Throne titled Watch the Throne Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Lift Off " was written by Kanye West , Jay @-@ Z , Jeff Bhasker , Mike Dean , Bruno Mars and Seal , while production was handled by West , Bhasker , Mike Dean , Q @-@ Tip and Don Jazzy . The song was recorded in Sydney , Australia . In early May 2011 , it was rumored that Bruno Mars recorded vocals for the song along with Beyoncé and it was reported that the song would be released as the lead single from the album . However , Mars never appeared on the song and Beyoncé sang several lines during the chorus instead . In February , 2011 , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z held a party at the AMNH ’ s Hayden Planetarium . During the party , " Lift Off " was one of the previewed songs . It was described as a " standout track " on the album by a writer for Vulture .
" Lift Off " is a pop song mainly in 6 / 8 time , which features baroque strings and a chorus sung by Beyoncé , accompanied with synthesizers . The song contains horns and martial drums as Beyoncé sings , " We gon ' take it to the moon / Take it to the stars . " Throughout the song West 's vocals are enhanced by Auto @-@ Tune in some places . Seal provides backing vocals in the song , which according to Jon Caramanica of The New York Times were " impossible @-@ to @-@ notice " . In the song , Beyoncé sings about having " so many scars " and " taking this whole thing to the stars . " Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter found an " old NASA movie sample and Kanye showing off his tattoos and inflexible singing voice . " Simon Price of The Independent found neurofunk influences on " Lift Off " . A writer of The Guardian compared the synthesizers in the song with the song " The Final Countdown " ( 1986 ) by Swedish rock band Europe .
" Lift Off " was sent to urban contemporary radio in the United States on August 23 , 2011 . According to several media , the song was very popular on Twitter and across the Internet , becoming a trending topic . According to Billboard magazine , Jay @-@ Z suggested that a music video for the song could appear .
= = Critical reception = =
" Lift Off " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Before the song was released , MTV News ' Alvin Blanco heard a preview of the song and described it as " resounding ... sounds like it was tailor @-@ made to be performed in large stadiums . " Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " is rescued by Beyoncé , who whips the chorus with a belt so powerful you 'd think it insulted her mother . " Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole also praised the song writing , " ' Lift Off ' is a study in stylized blockbuster excess , with West 's best fanfare since Encore eventually being drowned out by a simulated rocket launch that will sound awesome in your car stereo provided it doesn 't cause your subwoofers to bust your windows . " Rob Harvilla of Spin found a " hook so ridiculous ( ' We gon take it to the moon / Take it to the stars ! ' ) that only Beyoncé could sell it . " Michaelangelo Matos of The Guardian praised the song calling it " bombastic " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey put " Lift Off " on his list of " Tracks to download " from the album . Evening Standard 's John Aizlewood called the song " rocket @-@ propelled " . Rolling Stone 's Matthew Perpetua commented : " Beyoncé joins the boys for a synth @-@ heavy banger that takes off like a rocket and eventually arrives at a spacey , blissful resolution . It all but demands a sci @-@ fi music video featuring Beyoncé as a sexy astronaut . "
David Amidon of PopMatters praised the hook of the song but said that it contained Jay @-@ Z 's " most disturbingly maudlin delivery " since the song " Pray " from American Gangster ( 2006 ) . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praised the song , calling it an " uptempo Watch the Throne highlight " . Another writer for Billboard , Erika Ramírez , wrote : " Although it feels misplaced in between tracks 1 and 3 , the ' stadium status ' track is one to look forward to in seeing performed on the WTT tour . " Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the song isn 't " as Glee @-@ ready as ' Empire State of Mind ' . " Andy Hutchins writing for The Village Voice said that " ' Lift Off ' isn 't a hit " by concluding " Beyonce dominates ; Kanye sounds half @-@ invested at best ; and Jay 's presence is limited to four bars , one a Dale Earnhardt reference . " Dan Aquilante of New York Post commented that the song was " slightly vapid but destined for radio ... an optimistic piece in which Beyoncé ... hits the booster rockets repeatedly " . IGN 's Chad Grischow wrote " the song is actually the least compelling of the album , sounding far more interesting when the heavy bass thump finally strips away late for a great piano melody and bongo fuelled beat . " Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle said that Beyoncé 's vocals were " confident " throughout the " grand , athletic and anthemic " song .
The song also received some negative reviews . In his review of Watch the Throne , Andy Kellman of Allmusic wrote , " The lowest point is ' Lift Off ' , a bombastic mess ; West ’ s stillborn , sung vocal clashes against a triumphant hook from Beyoncé , while the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes cast ... overcook a regal and rugged , yet ultimately muddled , production " . Jayson Rodriguez of XXL said that " ' Lift Off ' feels too airy on a project this heavy " . Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot described Beyoncé 's vocals as " disengaged " . Calling the song a " letdown " , Tyrone S. Reid of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote that " even with Beyoncé supplying the hook , ' Lift Off ' is dismal " .
= = Live performances = =
" Lift Off " was included in the set list of the Watch the Throne Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West . David Peisner of Spin magazine noted that the rappers didn 't sing their lines during the performance , but ad @-@ libbed over the backing track . The Orange County Register 's Ben Wener noted that the song was " annoyingly abbreviated : [ it ] barely registered a blip toward the end " . " Lift Off " was also part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) where it was performed as the last song .
= = Chart performance = =
Before its release as a single , the song charted at number eighty one on the Australian Singles Chart for the week of August 15 , 2011 , and peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart . " Lift Off " became the forty third best @-@ selling single in South Korea in 2011 . On the chart issue dated August 20 , 2011 " Lift Off " debuted at number forty eight on the UK Singles Chart . It did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100 , but peaked at number twenty on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which acts as a twenty five @-@ song extension to the Hot 100 .
= = Usage in media = =
In July 2012 , American rapper J. Cole sampled " Lift Off " on his song " The Cure " .
= = Charts = =
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= Francis Marrash =
Francis bin Fathallah bin Nasrallah Marrash ( Arabic : فرنسيس بن فتح الله بن نصرالله مرّاش / ALA @-@ LC : Fransīs bin Fatḥ Allāh bin Naṣrallāh Marrāsh ; June 1836 – 1873 ) , also known as Francis al @-@ Marrash or Francis Marrash al @-@ Halabi , was a Syrian writer and poet of the Nahda movement — the Arabic renaissance — and a physician . Most of his works revolve around science , history and religion , analysed under an epistemological light . He travelled through the Middle East and France in his youth , and after some medical training and a year of practice in his native Aleppo , during which he wrote several works , he enrolled in a medical school in Paris ; yet , declining health and growing blindness forced him to return to Aleppo , where he produced more literary works until his early death .
Middle Eastern historian Matti Moosa considered Marrash to be the first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times . Marrash adhered to the principles of the French Revolution and defended them in his own works , implicitly criticising Ottoman rule in the Middle East . He was also influential in introducing French romanticism in the Arab world , especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry , of which his writings were the first examples in modern Arabic literature , according to Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Shmuel Moreh . His modes of thinking and feeling , and ways of expressing them , have had a lasting influence on contemporary Arab thought and on the Mahjari poets .
= = Life = =
= = = Background and education = = =
Francis Marrash was born in Aleppo , a city of Ottoman Syria ( present @-@ day Syria ) , to an old Melkite family of merchants known for their literary interests . Having earned wealth and standing in the 18th century , the family was well established in Aleppo , although they had gone through troubles : a relative of Francis , Butrus Marrash , was martyred by Greek Orthodox fundamentalists in April 1818 . Other Melkite Catholics were exiled from Aleppo during the persecutions , among them the priest Jibrail Marrash . Francis ' father , Fathallah , tried to defuse the Sectarian conflict by writing a treatise in 1849 , in which he rejected the Filioque . He had built up a large private library to give his three children Francis , Abdallah and Maryana a thorough education , particularly in the field of Arabic language and literature .
Aleppo was then a major intellectual center of the Ottoman Empire , featuring many thinkers and writers concerned with the future of the Arabs . It was in the French missionary schools that the Marrash family learnt Arabic with French and other foreign languages ( Italian and English ) . But Francis at first studied the Arabic language and its literature privately . At the age of four years , Marrash had contracted measles , and had ever since suffered from eye problems that had kept worsening over time . Hoping to find a treatment , his father had therefore taken him to Paris in 1850 ; Francis stayed there for about a year , after which he was sent back to Aleppo while his father remained in Paris . In 1853 , Francis accompanied his father once again , on a business trip of several months to Beirut , where there was a noticeable presence and cultural influence of Europeans . Francis experienced similar cultural contact later on , when he received private tutoring in medicine for four years under a British physician , in Aleppo — he had by then developed a keen interest in science , and in medicine in particular . At the same time , he wrote and published several works . Marrash practiced medicine for about a year ; however , deeming it safer for his trade to become a state @-@ licensed physician , he went to Paris in 1866 so as to continue his medical education at a school . But his fragile health and his growing blindness forced him to interrupt his studies within a year after his arrival . He returned to Aleppo completely blind , but still managed to dictate his works .
= = = Literary career and thought = = =
= = = = Ghabat al @-@ haqq = = = =
Around 1865 , Marrash published Ghabat al @-@ haqq ( " The Forest of Truth " or " The Forest of Justice " ) , an allegory about the conditions required to establish and maintain civilization and freedom . This allegory relates the apocalyptic vision of a war between a Kingdom of Liberty and a Kingdom of Slavery , resolved by the capture of the latter 's king and a subsequent trial before the King of Liberty , the Queen of Wisdom , the Vizier of Peace and Fraternal Love , the Commander of the Army of Civilization , with the Philosopher from the City of Light — who represents the author — as counsel . In this work , Marrash expressed ideas of political and social reforms , highlighting the need of the Arabs for two things above all : modern schools and patriotism " free from religious considerations " . In 1870 , when distinguishing the notion of fatherland from that of nation and applying the latter to Greater Syria , Marrash would point to the role played by language , among other factors , in counterbalancing religious and sectarian differences , and thus , in defining national identity .
Although Marrash 's poetical expression lacked the legal meticulousness found in works from Enlightened Europe , orientalist Shmuel Moreh has stated that Marrash became , with Ghabat al @-@ haqq , " the first Arab writer to reflect the optimism and humanistic view of 18th @-@ century Europe . This view stemmed from the hope that education , science and technology would resolve such problems of humanity as slavery , religious discrimination , illiteracy , disease , poverty , war , and other scourges of mankind , and it gave utterance to his hope for brotherhood and equality among peoples . " Yet , his views on freedom differed from those of the French revolutionists and of his Middle Eastern contemporaries ; indeed , he considered pleading for freedom on the basis of natural analogy to be superficial , for even nature responds to its own set of rules , according to Marrash . As a consequence , nothing in the universe may yearn for liberty without satisfying essential rules and needs that guarantee its existence . Being one of these , the need for progress may therefore justify the abolition of any restriction that does not serve as a regulator for a good system . In light of this reasoning , and in reference to the ongoing American Civil War , he thus in Ghabat al @-@ haqq supported the abolition of slavery .
But the significance of this work also lay in Marrash 's attempt to blend European thought with his own reading of the Christian belief in universal love . Indeed , he had tried to reconcile his philosophical understanding of the concept of liberty with his belief in the benevolence of the Catholic Church 's authority . As stated by Nazik Saba Yared :
He argued that only the spiritual kingdom [ i.e. the kingdom centered on religion ] could curb evil [ ... ] and consequently guarantee the freedom of man . Love is one of the pillars of Christianity , and Marrash , like some Sufis and Romantics , considered it to be the basis of civilization , indeed of the entire universe [ ... ] . Since love , for Marrash , was the general law , and freedom meant participation in that law , it followed that freedom would be inseparable from love and religion .
= = = = Later writings = = = =
In 1867 , Marrash published Rihlat Baris , an account of his second journey to Paris . The book begins with a description of his progress from Aleppo to İskenderun , Latakia , Tripoli , Beirut , Jaffa , Alexandria , Cairo , and then back to Alexandria from which he had boarded a ship to Marseille , where he arrived in October 1866 . The Arab cities had inspired in him revulsion and indifference , except Alexandria and Cairo , where Ismail Pasha had already begun modernization projects . He had then travelled through France , with a stopover in Lyon before ending up in Paris . Marrash was fascinated by France , and by Paris the most ; everything he described in his account , from the Paris Exhibition of 1867 to gas lighting in the streets , served to praise the accomplishments of Western civilization . In Mashhad al @-@ ahwal ( " The Witnessing of the Stages of Human Life " ) , published in 1870 , Marrash would again compare the East and the West , writing that " while the East sank deeper into darkness , the West embraced light " . The optimism he had formerly expressed about the first reform currents under the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz in the Ottoman Empire gave way to pessimism in Mashhad al @-@ ahwal , as he realized these reforms were superficial and that those he had hoped for would not soon come into being . Yet , in Durr al @-@ sadaf fi ghara 'ib al @-@ sudaf ( Pearl Shells in Relating Strange Coincidences ) , which he published two years later , he depicted the Lebanese social life of his day and criticised the blind imitation of Western customs and the use of the French language in everyday life .
Throughout his life , Marrash composed many essays about science ( especially mathematics ) , and about education , a subject which mattered a lot to him ; indeed , he wrote in Ghabat al @-@ haqq that " without the education of the mind , man is a mindless beast " . He also wrote many articles in the popular press ; in those published in Butrus al @-@ Bustani 's journal al @-@ Jinan , he showed himself favourable to women 's education , which he restricted however to reading , writing , and a little bit of arithmetic , geography and grammar . In an 1872 issue of al @-@ Jinan , he wrote that it is not necessary for a woman " to act like a man , neglect her domestic and family duties , or that she should consider herself superior to the man " ; he nonetheless closely followed his sister 's studies . Marrash also condemned Arab men 's severe treatment of their wives and daughters . In his later works , he tried to demonstrate the existence of God and of the divine law ; the Sharia , as he conceived it , was not restricted to the sphere of the Islamic law alone .
= = Legacy = =
Marrash often included poems in his works , written in muwashshah and zajal forms according to the occasion . Shmuel Moreh has stated that Marrash tried to introduce " a revolution in diction , themes , metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry " , sometimes even mocking conventional poetic themes . In the introduction to his poetry book Mir 'at al @-@ Hasna ' ( The Mirror of the Beautiful One ) , which was first published in 1872 , Marrash rejected even the traditional genres of Arabic poetry , particularly panegyrics and lampoons . His use of conventional diction for new ideas marked the rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the Mahjaris . Shmuel Moreh has also considered some passages from Ghabat al @-@ haqq and Rihlat Baris to be prose poetry , while Salma Khadra Jayyusi has described his prosaic writing as " often Romantic in tone , rising sometimes to poetic heights , declamatory , vivid , colourful and musical " , calling it the first example of poetic prose in modern Arabic literature .
Khalil Gibran was a great admirer of Marrash , whose works he had read at al @-@ Hikma school in Beirut . According to Shmuel Moreh , Gibran 's own works echo Marrash 's style and " many of [ his ] ideas on enslavement , education , women 's liberation , truth , the natural goodness of man , and the corrupted morals of society " . Khalil Hawi has referred to Marrash 's aforementioned philosophy of universal love as having left a deep impression on Gibran . Moreover , Khalil Hawi has stated that many of Marrash 's recurring expressions became stock images for Arab writers of the 20th century : he has mentioned , for example , " the valleys of mental contemplation " , " the wings of thoughts " , " solicitudes and dreams " , " the veils of history " , " the Kingdom of the Spirit " , " the nymphs of the forest , the spring and the dawn " , " golden diadems " , " the jewels of light " , " the storms of days and nights " , and " the smoke of revenge and the mist of anger " . Poet and journalist Khalil Mutran dedicated poems to Marrash and others of his contemporaries .
= = Works = =
Dalīl al @-@ ḥuriyah al @-@ insāniyah ( Guide to Human Liberty ) , 1861 .
Al @-@ mir ’ āt al @-@ ṣafiyah fī al @-@ mābādi ’ al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah ( The Clear Mirror of Natural Principles ) , 1861 .
Ta ‘ ziyat al @-@ makrūb wa @-@ rāḥat al @-@ mat ‘ ūb ( Consolation of the Anxious and Respose of the Weary One ) , 1864 — pessimistic discourse on nations of the past .
Ghābat al @-@ ḥaqq fī tafṣīl al @-@ akhlāq al @-@ fāḍilah ( The Forest of Truth in Detailing Cultured Manners ) , c . 1865 .
Riḥlat Bārīs ( Journey to Paris ) , 1867 .
Kitāb dalīl al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah ( Guide to Nature ) , c . 1867 .
Al @-@ kunūz al @-@ faniyah fī al @-@ rumūz al @-@ Maymūniyah ( Artistic Treasures Concerning the Symbolic Visions of Maymun ) , 1870 — poem of almost 500 verses .
Mashhad al @-@ aḥwāl ( The Witnessing of the Stages of Human Life ) , 1870 — collection of poems and short works in rhymed prose .
Durr al @-@ ṣadaf fī gharā 'ib al @-@ ṣudaf ( Pearl Shells in Relating Strange Coincidences ) , 1872 — a romance with songs for which he supplied the tunes .
Mir ’ āt al @-@ ḥasnā ' ( The Mirror of the Beautiful One ) , 1872 .
Shahādat al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah fī wujūd Allāh wa @-@ al @-@ sharī ‘ ah ( Nature 's Proofs for the Existence of God and the Divine Law ) , 1892 ( posthumous ) .
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= Boosey & Hawkes =
Boosey & Hawkes is a British music publisher purported to be the largest specialist classical music publisher in the world . Until 2003 , it was also a major manufacturer of brass , string and woodwind musical instruments .
Formed in 1930 through the merger of two well @-@ established British music businesses , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major , 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , including Steve Reich , John Adams , James MacMillan , Elliott Carter , Harrison Birtwistle , Osvaldo Golijov , Anna Clyne , and Louis Andriessen .
With subsidiaries in Germany , the UK and the US , the company also sells sheet music ; provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use ; commissions and produces music for radio , television and advertising ; and administers copyrights owned by media companies .
= = History = =
= = = Before the merger of the Boosey and Hawkes companies = = =
Boosey & Hawkes was founded in 1930 through the merger of two respected music companies , Boosey & Company and Hawkes & Son .
The Boosey family was of Franco – Flemish origin . Boosey & Company traces its roots back to John Boosey , a bookseller in London in the 1760s – 1770s . His son Thomas continued the business at 4 Old Bond Street , and from 1819 the bookshop was called Boosey & Sons or T. & T. Boosey .
Thomas Boosey 's son , also named Thomas ( 1794 / 1795 – 1871 ) , set up a separate musical branch of the company known as T. Boosey & Co. and , in the latter part of the 19th century , Boosey & Company . This branch initially imported foreign music but soon began publishing in England the works of composers such as Johann Nepomuk Hummel , Saverio Mercadante and Gioachino Rossini , and subsequently important operas by Bellini , Donizetti and Verdi . Elgar and Vaughan Williams were among its later signings . The company also produced books : among its first publications was an English translation of Johann Nikolaus Forkel 's book Life of J.S. Bach ( 1820 ) . The company was seriously affected by the House of Lords ' decision in Boosey v. Jeffreys ( 1854 ) which deprived English publishers of many of their foreign copyrights .
Boosey & Company diversified into manufacturing woodwind instruments in 1851 , collaborating in 1856 with flautist R.S. Pratten ( 1846 – 1936 ) to develop new designs for flutes . The firm bought over the business of Henry Distin in 1868 , allowing it to begin making brass instruments . Among its achievements was the widely acclaimed design for compensating valves developed by David James Blaikley in 1874 . The company also commenced production of string instruments .
The company capitalised on the increasing popularity of the ballad by focusing its publishing activities on them . To promote sales , John Boosey ( c.1832 – 1893 ) , son of Thomas Jr . , established the London Ballad Concerts in 1867 at St. James 's Hall and later at Queen 's Hall when it opened in 1893 . Clara Butt , John Sims Reeves and Charles W. Clark performed at these concerts , and its successes included Arthur Sullivan 's " The Lost Chord " ( 1877 ) and Stephen Adams ' " The Holy City " . The company began emphasising educational music from about the end of the 19th century .
In 1874 Boosey & Company moved into offices at 295 Regent Street , where the business was to stay for the next 131 years . In 1892 , Boosey & Company opened an office in New York which still exists today . The business eventually owned half of Regent Street , and at the time of the merger was managed by Leslie Boosey ( 1887 – 1979 ) .
Hawkes & Son ( later Rivière & Hawkes ) , a rival to Boosey & Company , was founded in 1865 by William Henry Hawkes selling orchestral sheet music . The company also made musical instruments and spare parts such as clarinet reeds , and by 1925 Hawkes had set up an instrument factory in Edgware , North London . The business , which was particularly known for brass and military band music , was eventually inherited by Ralph Hawkes ( 1898 – 1950 ) .
= = = After the merger = = =
Leslie Boosey and Ralph Hawkes met in the 1920s when they were on the Board of the Performing Right Society , and saw an opportunity to go into business together . They formed Boosey & Hawkes in October 1930 through a merger of their respective businesses . Hawkes & Son moved from its office in Denman Street to join the Boosey staff at 295 Regent Street .
The 1938 Anschluss — the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime — led to the Nazification of Viennese publishing house Universal Edition . Boosey & Hawkes seized the opportunity to sign up composers Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály , and also rescued Universal 's Jewish staff , who later played an important role in developing the company . One such employee in particular , Ernst Roth , facilitated the signing of Richard Strauss and Igor Stravinsky , and was instrumental in the production of Strauss 's Vier letzte Lieder ( Four Last Songs ) ( 1948 ; premièred 1950 ) and Stravinsky 's The Rake 's Progress ( premièred 1951 ) . Another significant figure from Vienna who occupied an editorial role was composer Arnold Schoenberg 's pupil Erwin Stein , and after the war the composer Leopold Spinner , a pupil of Anton Webern , was also on the editorial staff . Stein was instrumental in founding the modern @-@ music journal Tempo in 1939 , which began as Boosey & Hawkes ' own newsletter but later became a more independent publication .
By the time World War II broke out in 1939 , Boosey & Hawkes had also signed Benjamin Britten and Aaron Copland . It was Ralph Hawkes who championed Britten when he was still relatively unknown , often against the rest of the board of directors , until the première on 7 June 1945 of Peter Grimes , which was a critical and popular success . Sheet music sales soared during the War , enabling Boosey & Hawkes to buy Editions Russes which held the rights to the most valuable works of Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff and Stravinsky . The company also purchased the lease of the Royal Opera House in London in 1944 , rescuing it from becoming a permanent dance hall and providing a venue for world @-@ class ballet and opera in the capital .
By 1950 , Boosey & Hawkes was a leading international music company with an extensive catalogue of serious composers and offices in Bonn , Johannesburg , New York , Paris , Toronto and Sydney . However , from the late 1940s , strains had begun to appear in the relationship between Leslie Boosey and Ralph Hawkes , and this led to factions supporting each man forming in the company . It was discovered that Hawkes had borrowed capital of £ 100 @,@ 000 during the war without the permission of the exchange control authorities , and Boosey was forced to clear up the situation at great personal cost . Hawkes secretly wanted to buy out the music publishing side of the business and manage it from New York , leaving Boosey in London with the musical instrument business which Hawkes found dull . However , he died suddenly on 8 September 1950 , and representation of his faction was taken over by his flamboyant but unreliable brother Geoffrey who spent much of the company 's money on ventures such as the manufacture of mouth organs and ovens , which failed . Geoffrey Hawkes also sold shares in the company to fund his philandering , to the point that the company was forced to go public to raise cash . Leslie Boosey allowed Geoffrey his turn as chairman , but within two years the profitable company was on the brink of insolvency and Geoffrey Hawkes died of leukaemia in 1961 .
During these difficult years , Boosey was supported by his trusted managing director , Ernst Roth . However , Roth later regarded the Boosey family as ineffectual and parochial . In the early 1960s , Roth forced Boosey 's sons Anthony and Simon out of the company , and prevented his youngest son , Nigel , from even joining , allegedly at the behest of Benjamin Britten . Roth and Boosey also had differences over Britten 's influence over the company . Roth regarded Britten as a gifted local musician , rather than a true genius like Roth 's friends Strauss and Stravinsky . Boosey realised how valuable Britten was to the company , and agreed to Britten 's request to divide the company into instruments and publishing . However , Britten humiliated Boosey by preventing him from chairing the music publishing board Boosey had established at Britten 's request . In 1963 , Britten also managed to get Boosey & Hawkes to employ Donald Mitchell to find new , young composers for the company . Angered by the sway Britten had over Boosey , Roth fired Mitchell within a year . Mitchell later set up Faber Music for book publisher Faber and Faber with the assistance of Britten and the blessing of T. S. Eliot .
Boosey retired from the company in 1964 , and died without an obituary in 1979 . Although he had been awarded with the Légion d 'honneur by France , his achievements were mostly unrecognised in the UK . However , a large number of composers and their estates continue to benefit from his pioneering work in rights and royalty collection . In addition , every two years the Royal Philharmonic Society and the Performing Right Society honour individuals who have made an outstanding contribution to the furtherance of contemporary music in Britain with the Leslie Boosey Award . The award is given to those who work " backstage " , such as administrators , broadcasters , educationalists , programmers , publishers and representatives from the recording industry .
Some time during the late 1960s or early 1970s Boosey & Hawkes bought out The Salvation Army Brass Instrument Factory in North London . They continued for some years to manufacture instruments with The Salvation Army name and crest on them such as The Bandmaster cornets .
Boosey & Hawkes ' musical instruments division was gradually scaled down from the mid @-@ 1970s as it became less viable to have such an extensive range of products . Various lines were outsourced and sold off . By the time of the closure of the Edgware factory in 2001 , brass instruments were the only thriving part of the instrument range . Production was moved to Watford , Hertfordshire , and the instruments rebranded Besson .
It took nearly 20 years for Boosey & Hawkes to regain the leading position in the international music scene that it has today . It claims to be the largest specialist classical music publisher in the world .
= = The company today = =
In 2001 , Boosey & Hawkes was put up for sale after accounting irregularities were discovered in its Chicago instrument @-@ distribution business , leading to £ 13m worth of sales being written off , a plummeting share price , and the company 's near @-@ bankruptcy . It was eventually bought by venture capitalists HgCapital in 2003 for £ 40 million .
On 11 February 2003 , Boosey & Hawkes sold its musical instrument division , which included clarinet maker Buffet Crampon and guitar manufacturer Höfner , to The Music Group , a company formed by rescue buyout specialists Rutland Fund Management , for £ 33 @.@ 2 million . An archive of musical instruments manufactured or collected by the company throughout its history was passed to the Horniman Museum in Forest Hill , South London .
In September 2005 the company was again offered for sale by HgCapital which announced that it was seeking between £ 60 and £ 80 million . One of the interested buyers was Elevation Partners , a private equity firm which counts U2 lead singer Bono as a partner and managing director . Despite offers of about £ 115 million from a number of parties , the sale was later cancelled in November 2005 . In April 2008 , Boosey & Hawkes was bought by the Imagem Music Group .
Today , partly due to the foresight or business acumen of Ralph Hawkes , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten ( notably all his output between 1938 and 1963 ) , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , such as John Adams , Louis Andriessen , Sir Harrison Birtwistle , Unsuk Chin , Michael Daugherty , Peter Maxwell Davies , Henryk Górecki , Heinz Karl Gruber , Robin Holloway , Magnus Lindberg , James MacMillan , Olga Neuwirth , Kurt Schwertsik and Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage . The company 's New York branch has developed its own catalogue emphasising the works of American composers , including Elliott Carter , David Del Tredici , Walter Piston , Ned Rorem and Steve Reich .
295 Regent Street , which was the home of Boosey & Company since 1874 and of Boosey & Hawkes ' publishing business and music shop from 1930 , was finally given up by the company in 2005 which then relocated to Aldwych House . Boosey & Hawkes Music Shop claims to have the UK 's largest selection of printed music from all publishers , and operates a worldwide mail order service .
The company had a major division , BooseyMedia , that commissioned and produced music for radio , television and advertising jingles , and the administration of copyrights owned by media companies . This has now been split into commercial synchronisation and production music departments , both under the Imagem name . Its Cavendish Production Music Library provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use .
The Boosey & Hawkes group has branches in five countries on four continents , including companies in Germany ( Bote & Bock GmbH & Co . KG and Anton J. Benjamin GmbH ) , the UK ( Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ) and the USA ( Boosey & Hawkes , Inc . ) . In North America , Boosey & Hawkes ' print sales catalogue is distributed by the Hal Leonard Corporation .
Boosey & Hawkes launched its Online Scores service in 2011 , allowing customers to view full scores of works in its catalogue .
= = Parodies = =
The company was lampooned by The Goon Show as " Goosy and Borks " in their episode , " Lurgy Strikes Britain " , as well as by musical parodist Peter Schickele who named one of the friends of fictional composer P.D.Q. Bach Jonathan " Boozey " Hawkes . Somewhat more recondite was the punning reference delivered in one of Gerard Hoffnung 's parody concerts : " If Boosey 's will Hawk it , Schott 's will Tippett " ( from Punkt Contrapunkt at Hoffnung Interplanetary Music Festival with John Amis , Royal Festival Hall , 21 and 22 November 1958 )
= = = Articles = = =
Mortimer , C.G. ( 1938 – 1939 ) . " Leading Music Publishers : Boosey & Hawkes Ltd . " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 62 : 181 – 190 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" The Music Publisher of Tradition : The Booseys : Thomas and John ; The Hawkes : William Henry and Oliver " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 65 : 68 . 1941 – 1942 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" Boosey & Hawkes Settle with Disney " . The Daily Telegraph . 21 March 2001 .
Aldrick , Philip ( 1 May 2001 ) . " Boosey in Talks with Lenders after Account Irregularities " . The Daily Telegraph .
Fagan , Mary ( 7 October 2001 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes Faces £ 50m Bid " . The Daily Telegraph .
Aldrick , Philip ( 13 February 2002 ) . " Steinway Quits Boosey Auction " . The Daily Telegraph .
Parkinson , Gary ( 25 February 2002 ) . " Equity Groups Make a Play for Boosey " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 30 April 2002 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes in Sale Talks " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 27 May 2003 ) . " Boosey Stands Firm on EMI Deal " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 11 September 2003 ) . " Final Notes Sound in Boosey Sale Opera " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Fresh Bidder Chimes in on Boosey Sale " . The Daily Telegraph .
Lawson , Annie ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Trumpets £ 40m Buyout " . The Guardian .
Osborne , Alistair ( 17 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Prepared for Trio of Suitors " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 4 October 2003 ) . " Hg Offer Tops Boosey Buyout " . The Daily Telegraph .
Milmo , Dan ( 23 November 2004 ) . " La Donna e mobile ? Key in a Classic Ringtone " . The Guardian .
Hopkins , Nic ( 20 September 2005 ) . " Clamour of Interest in £ 130m Sale of Boosey " . The Times ( London ) .
= = = Books = = =
Boosey , William ( 1931 ) . Fifty Years of Music . London : Ernest Benn . OCLC 1150185 .
Wallace , Helen ( 2007 ) . Boosey & Hawkes : The Publishing Story . London : Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85162 @-@ 514 @-@ 0 .
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= Lose Yourself ( Entourage ) =
" Lose Yourself " is the seventh season finale of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Entourage . It originally aired on HBO in the United States on September 12 , 2010 . The episode mainly centers on Vincent Chase ( Adrian Grenier ) , whose issues begin to intensify between his ex @-@ girlfriend and his current girlfriend , Sasha Grey . Although riddled with similar issues , Ari Gold ( Jeremy Piven ) , Eric Murphy ( Kevin Connolly ) , and Turtle ( Jerry Ferrara ) collaborate with each other in an attempt to orchestrate an intervention for Vince , only for things to get worse .
" Lose Yourself " was written by Doug Ellin , and directed by David Nutter . The episode features guest and cameo appearances from notable music artists , including Christina Aguilera and Eminem . It marked the conclusion of the plot arc between Grey and Chase . The episode was well received by television critics . Upon its initial airing , it attained 2 @.@ 72 million viewers and garnered a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
After Sasha informs Vince that she will participate in a pornographic film , he expresses his disapproval . While on the set of production , the couple engage in an intense argument and simultaneously break up . Vincent storms off in anger . Meanwhile , Johnny and his friends orchestrate an intervention , much to Vincent 's dismay . Enraged , he leaves the premises .
Eric begins to worry that his relationship with his fiancée may be crumbling . He has dinner with Sloan ’ s father , Terrence , but is shocked when Terrence asks him to sign a prenuptial agreement . Eric gets upset and confronts Sloan about it . She tells him they will talk about it when he gets home and he agrees . However , upon discovering that Murray has been reporting to Terrence , Eric changes his mind and instantly contacts Scott Lavin , telling him he 'll side with Lavin who 's planning on taking over the company which in turn will result in Murray losing his business .
Similarly , Ari suffers further setbacks in his personal life when despite his best efforts , his wife decides to leave him .
Overwhelmed with depression , Vincent consumes alcohol and cocaine in his hotel room . He then decides to attend Eminem 's private party at the hotel lobby . He walks around being rude and offending guests and when asked to leave he refuses . Johnny attempts to bring him home , but Vincent refuses to go with him . After being greeted , Vince begins to insult Eminem . Angry , Eminem punches Vincent , initiating a brawl in the process . Vincent is rushed to the hospital shortly thereafter . A bloodied and bruised Vincent attempts to leave the hospital , despite the orders of the medical staff . As he nears the entrance , he is confronted by a police officer .
Confused , Vince hesitantly comes to the police officer , where the officer informs him that he has taken a bag of cocaine from his clothes which leaves everyone including Vince stunned .
= = Production = =
" Lose Yourself " was written by series creator Doug Ellin and directed by David Nutter . In June 2010 , it was announced that Eminem and Christina Aguilera would make guest appearances in the episode . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Ellin explained that " [ Eminem ] has a little conflict [ ... ] with Vince [ Adrian Grenier ] . " Similarly , Ellin revealed that Aguilera would perform a song in the episode , adding that " she [ does ] Ari a favor and [ performs ] at a party for him . " Principal photography for the episode commenced shortly thereafter , and concluded two weeks later . In an interview with PopEater , Greiner revealed that he had offered Eminem a guest role in the series . He stated , " I actually met Eminem several months ago , interviewing him for a documentary we 're making . He mentioned that he loved the show . " Upon his approval , Greiner contacted creator Ellin , who agreed to cast Eminem for a future appearance . The episode was used to promote Recovery , the seventh studio album of Eminem .
" Lose Yourself " marks the conclusion of the plot arc between Sasha Grey and Vincent Chase ( Adrian Grenier ) . Grey was cast for the seventh season in May 2010 , where she played a fictionalized version of herself , in a relationship with Chase .
The episode features appearances from several recurring actors and actresses for the series . " Lose Yourself " marked the introduction of Marci , who is portrayed by Illeana Douglas . Janet Montgomery reprised her role as Jenni , the assistant of Eric Murphy . This would be Montgomery 's first recurring appearance in the series since " Sniff Sniff Gang Bang " . Rhys Coiro guest starred as Billy Walsh , having last appeared in the season seven episode " Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant " . Other appearances include Bob Odenkirk , Jami Gertz , Dania Ramirez , and Malcolm McDowell . Cameo appearances were made by Mark Cuban , Drew Brees , John Cleese , Jordan Farmar , Ryan Howard , Minka Kelly , The Alchemist , Paul Rosenberg , Royce da 5 ' 9 " , and Kon Artis .
= = Reception = =
" Lose Yourself " was initially broadcast on September 12 , 2010 , in the United States on HBO . It received 2 @.@ 72 million viewers upon airing , and garnered a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Total viewership was up 8 % from the previous season finale ; however , total viewership and ratings for the episode were slightly down from the previous episode , " Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant " , which was viewed by 2 @.@ 86 million households and achieved a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings .
" Lose Yourself " was well received by most television critics . James Poniewozik of Time has mixed reactions to the episode . He was critical of the plot arc between Grey and Chase , harshly criticizing Grey 's acting and expressing that " [ he ] didn 't think that Adrian Grenier had completely sold Vince ’ s downward spiral . " He continued : " There ’ s something half @-@ jokey about his manner that makes me think he ’ s about to break up laughing , as in a blooper reel . " In contrast , Poniewozik felt that " for the first time in a while , I ’ m really interested to see what happens on Entourage next . " Dan Philips of IGN gave the episode a nine out of ten , signifying an " amazing " rating . Philips praised " Lose Yourself " , opining that it was an " excellent , extremely entertaining climax to this season 's two main plot lines . " He added , " Even though the episode never got around to providing any resolution , the overall journey was engaging enough to make its cliffhanger feel less like a cheap trick to get us to tune in for season eight . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Josh Wagler of MTV , who praised Grenier 's performance , opining that it was his best performance to date . The A.V. Club writer Kyle Ryan gave the episode a ' B- ' grade . Ryan wrote , " The last episode teed up tonight ’ s many confrontations [ ... ] . For a show that has specialized in spinning its wheels , these were surprisingly high stakes . " He was critical with the development of Vincent Chase , as well as his storyline with Sasha Grey , commenting that " Vincent and his coterie just aren ’ t that interesting . "
Blair Marnell of CraveOnline gave the episode an eight out of ten rating , noting that the episode " hit its dramatic points . " Marnell commended Grenier 's acting , as he opined , " I 've never hated Vince before this season , but that 's the reaction that he was meant to elicit . Vince has always been a little bit shallow , but never to this extent . Vince never told his friends that they needed him more than he needed them before . And while it 's definitely true to a certain extent , part of Vince 's charm was that he never threw that back in their faces . " In concurrence , TV Fanatic 's Eric Hochberger expressed that " Lose Yourself " was a " stellar season finale with plenty of unanswered cliffhangers for next season . " Concluding his review , Hochberger gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
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= Survivor Series ( 2004 ) =
Survivor Series ( 2004 ) was the 18th annual Survivor Series professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Microsoft 's Xbox and took place on November 14 , 2004 , at the Gund Arena in Cleveland , Ohio and starred talent from both the Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
The main match on the Raw brand was a 4 on 4 Survivor Series match , a type of elimination match , between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho , and Maven ) and Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista , and Snitsky ) , which Team Orton won after Orton last eliminated Triple H. The predominant match on the SmackDown ! brand was John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) versus Booker T for the WWE Championship , which JBL won by pinfall after hitting Booker with the title belt . The primary match on the undercard was a 4 on 4 Survivor Series match between Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam , and John Cena ) and Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Carlito , Luther Reigns and Mark Jindrak ) , which Team Guerrero won after Big Show last eliminated Angle .
Several of the existing feuds carried on following the event . Triple H continued feuding with Randy Orton , and at New Year 's Revolution in January , Triple H last eliminated Orton in an Elimination Chamber match to win the vacant World Heavyweight Championship . John " Bradshaw " Layfield also continued his feud with Booker T , defeating him , Eddie Guerrero , and The Undertaker at Armageddon . Following the event , Carlito sustained a legitimate injury and lost the WWE United States Championship to John Cena , with whom he was in a storyline .
= = Background = =
The event featured seven professional wrestling matches with outcomes predetermined by WWE script writers . The matches featured wrestlers portraying their characters in planned storylines that took place before , during and after the event . All wrestlers were from one of the WWE 's brands – SmackDown and Raw – the two storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees .
The main feud on the Raw brand was between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho and Maven ) and Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista and Snitsky ) . On the October 25 , 2004 episode of Raw , Evolution ( Triple H , Ric Flair and Batista ) were put in charge of Raw , after General Manager Eric Bischoff took the night off . Triple H granted Flair the match of his choice ; Flair wanted a rematch with Orton , as he lost a Steel Cage match to Orton at Taboo Tuesday . Orton accepted Flair 's challenge , with a stipulation that if he defeated Flair he would get an opportunity to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at Survivor Series . Orton , however , lost the match after interference by Triple H , giving the win to Flair , so Orton did not receive an opportunity for the World Heavyweight title . On the November 1 episode of Raw , General Manager Eric Bischoff scheduled a traditional 8 @-@ man elimination tag team match between Orton , Jericho , Maven and Benoit and Triple H , Batista , Edge and Snistky at Survivor Series . The winning team at Survivor Series would be granted absolute control of running Raw for a month . The following week , Bischoff concluded with adding that the winning members at Survivor Series would all get a week to be in charge of Raw . That same night , Edge and Chris Benoit were scheduled in a match , where Triple H , Batista , Orton , Jericho and Maven came out to ringside to watch the match . At ringside , a fight broke out between Triple H and Orton 's team , which caused the match to end in a No Contest .
The predominant feud on the SmackDown ! brand was between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) versus Booker T , with the two battling over JBL 's WWE Championship . On the October 21 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long booked a six @-@ man tag team match involving Booker T , Rob Van Dam , and Rey Mysterio taking on JBL , Kenzo Suzuki , and René Duprée . At the time , Booker T was a heel and congratulated JBL 's success with the company in a segment backstage . The tag team match got underway , and JBL was led to believe that Booker T was going to betray Van Dam and Mysterio , as Booker T warned both Van Dam and Mysterio not to interfere with him during the match . The match concluded with Booker T pinning JBL after an axe kick , thus turning Booker face . The following week on SmackDown ! , Booker T defeated Orlando Jordan to earn the right to face JBL for the WWE Championship at Survivor Series . On the November 4 episode of SmackDown ! , JBL interfered in a match between Booker T and Orlando Jordan , which ended in a disqualification , giving Booker T the win . After the disqualification by JBL , Theodore Long scheduled a tag team match between Booker T and Josh Mathews versus JBL and Orlando Jordan . The tag team victory was given to Booker T and Matthews , as Booker pinned Jordan for the win .
One of the primary matches on the SmackDown ! brand was between Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam and John Cena ) versus Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Carlito , Luther Reigns and Mark Jindrak ) . On the October 28 , 2004 episode of SmackDown , Theodore Long booked a 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 Survivor Series elimination match between Team Guerrero , Big Show , Van Dam , and Rey Mysterio against Team Angle , Carlito , Reigns and Jindrak . The following week , however , Mysterio was removed from the elimination match , as Long booked Mysterio in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . Guerrero was given a week to choose a member for his team at Survivor Series . On the November 11 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero announced that John Cena , who was recovering from a storyline injury , would be joining his team at Survivor Series .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , World Tag Team Champions La Résistance ( Sylvan Grenier and Robért Conway ) defeated The Hurricane and Rosey in a non @-@ title match shown live on Sunday Night Heat .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship between Spike Dudley , Billy Kidman , Chavo Guerrero , and Rey Mysterio . After back and forth action , Spike pinned Chavo , after Billy Kidman performed a springboard leg drop on Chavo , to retain the WWE Cruiserweight Championship .
Next was a match between Shelton Benjamin and Christian for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . During the match , Benjamin got up on the ring apron and tried to take out Tyson Tomko , who accompanied Christian to the match , but Christian ran and launched Benjamin him off , sending Benjamin to the outside . Control of the match went back and forth , but the bout came to an end when Benjamin pinned Christian after a T @-@ Bone Suplex .
The third match of the night was the SmackDown ! Survivor Series match with Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam , and John Cena ) versus Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Mark Jindrak , Luther Reigns , and Carlito ) . Carlito was the first competitor eliminated , as he was chased from the arena by John Cena before the match began . Rob Van Dam was then eliminated by Kurt Angle after a pinfall with a roll @-@ up using the ropes for leverage . Mark Jindrak was then eliminated by Eddie Guerrero , as Guerrero gained a pinfall similar to Angle eliminating Van Dam . Luther Reigns was eliminated from the match , after a Big Show performed a chokeslam . Angle was the final member eliminated from his team , after an FU by Cena and a frog splash by Guerrero , which led to Big Show covering Angle for the pinfall victory for Team Guerrero .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fourth match was the bout between The Undertaker and Heidenreich . Both the Undertaker and Heidenreich managed to get the upper hand in the match . During the match , Paul Heyman interfered on behalf of Heidenreich . As Undertaker connected with a chokeslam on Heidenreich , he proceeded to perform a Tombstone Piledriver and pinned Heidenreich for the pinfall victory .
The fifth match was the encounter between Trish Stratus and Lita for the WWE Women 's Championship . The match saw Stratus smash Lita 's head on the Raw announcers ' table . Lita , however , responded by hitting Stratus with a steel chair . As a result , Lita was disqualified , and Stratus retained the Women 's Championship .
The sixth match was for the WWE Championship between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Booker T. The match saw both men take the advantage over one another . Orlando Jordan interfered several times by attacking Booker T. During the match , the referee was knocked out by JBL . Booker T managed to perform the scissors kick on JBL , as a new referee came down to the ring to officiate the match . Jordan , however , removed JBL from the ring and tried to hit Booker T with the WWE Championship title belt . Booker T countered by performing the Book End on Jordan . JBL then grabbed the belt , hit Booker T with it , and pinned him to retain the WWE Championship .
The final match was the Survivor Series match between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho , and Maven ) versus Team Triple H ( Triple H , Batista , Edge , and Snitsky ) . Maven , however , was attacked backstage by Snitsky and removed from the elimination match . Chris Benoit was the first man to be eliminated , as he was pinned by Edge , after Triple H performed the Pedigree . Batista was then eliminated by Chris Jericho , after Randy Orton hit Batista with the World Heavyweight title belt and a running enziguri by Jericho . Snitsky was disqualified and eliminated from the match for hitting Maven , who had returned to the ring for the match . Maven was the second eliminated member of Team Orton , as he was pinned by Triple H. Jericho was the next member eliminated , after a spear from Edge . Orton eliminated Edge , after he performed an RKO for the elimination . Triple H was the final member eliminated from his team , after an RKO by Orton for the pinfall victory for Team Orton .
= = Aftermath = =
As Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho and Maven ) defeated Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista and Snitsky ) at Survivor Series , they were given the opportunity to be in charge of Raw for a month ; On the November 29 episode of Raw , Randy Orton was in charge and scheduled a World Heavyweight title Battle Royal . WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , however , overruled the Battle Royal match and instead booked Triple H to face the winner of the Battle Royal . The battle royal match saw Chris Benoit and Edge , as the final two participants , going over the top rope at the same time , ostensibly ending the match . Orton , acting as General Manager , booked a Triple Threat match between Benoit , Edge , and Triple H for the World Heavyweight title . The match resulted in Benoit applying the Crossface on Edge , only for Edge to manage to roll Benoit over , while the Crossface was still locked in , causing Benoit ’ s shoulders to touch the mat . The referee began counting , which moments later led to Edge to submit to the maneuver . The following week , with Chris Jericho in charge , Vince McMahon vacated the World Heavyweight title , concluding the match ended in a tie . On the December 13 episode of Raw , Eric Bischoff , who had resumed his position as General Manager , scheduled an Elimination Chamber match between Triple H , Edge , Benoit , Chris Jericho , Orton and Batista at New Year 's Revolution for the vacant World Heavyweight title . The following week , Bischoff concluded with adding a Special Guest Referee for the Elimination Chamber : Shawn Michaels . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H won the Elimination Chamber to begin his tenth world title reign .
After retaining the WWE Championship against Booker T , John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) was inserted into previous feuds with Eddie Guerrero , Booker T , and The Undertaker . The feud led to SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long to book a Fatal Four @-@ Way match at Armageddon in December . The match was won by JBL , as he pinned Booker T after a Clothesline from Hell and successfully retained the title .
In October , John Cena lost the WWE United States Championship to Carlito Caribbean Cool , who debuted on SmackDown ! . As part of the storyline , Carlito 's bodyguard , Jesús , stabbed Cena in the kidney while at a nightclub . On the November 18 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena regained the United States Championship by defeating Carlito . Cena also debuted a " custom made " spinner @-@ style title belt .
= = Results = =
= = = Survivor Series elimination matches = = =
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= Atmosphere of Jupiter =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System . It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions ; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and water . Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere , its directly measured concentration is very low . The nitrogen , sulfur , and noble gas abundances in Jupiter 's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three .
The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet . From lowest to highest , the atmospheric layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients . The lowest layer , the troposphere , has a complicated system of clouds and hazes , comprising layers of ammonia , ammonium hydrosulfide and water . The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter 's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) known as jets . The bands alternate in color : the dark bands are called belts , while light ones are called zones . Zones , which are colder than belts , correspond to upwellings , while belts mark descending air . The zones ' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice ; what gives the belts their darker colors is not known with certainty . The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood , though two models exist . The shallow model holds that they are surface phenomena overlaying a stable interior . In the deep model , the bands and jets are just surface manifestations of deep circulation in Jupiter 's mantle of molecular hydrogen , which is organized into cylinders .
The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena , including band instabilities , vortices ( cyclones and anticyclones ) , storms and lightning . The vortices reveal themselves as large red , white or brown spots ( ovals ) . The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and Oval BA , which is also red . These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic . Smaller anticyclones tend to be white . Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers . Located in the southern hemisphere , the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System . It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years . Oval BA , south of GRS , is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals .
Jupiter has powerful storms , often accompanied by lightning strikes . The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water . They are sites of strong upward motion of the air , which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds . The storms form mainly in belt regions . The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth . However , there are so few , that the amount of lightning activity is comparable to Earth .
= = Vertical structure = =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers , by increasing altitude : the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Unlike the Earth 's atmosphere , Jupiter 's lacks a mesosphere . Jupiter does not have a solid surface , and the lowest atmospheric layer , the troposphere , smoothly transitions into the planet 's fluid interior . This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium , meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases . Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar .
Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill @-@ defined , the pressure level of 10 bars , at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K , is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere . In scientific literature , the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes — a " surface " of Jupiter . As with Earth , the top atmospheric layer , the exosphere , does not have a well defined upper boundary . The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5 @,@ 000 km above the " surface " .
The vertical temperature variations in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth . The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause , which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere . On Jupiter , the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds ( or 1 bar level ) , where the pressure and temperature are about 0 @.@ 1 bar and 110 K. In the stratosphere , the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere , at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar . In the thermosphere , temperatures continue to rise , eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km , where pressure is about 1 nbar .
Jupiter 's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure . The upper clouds , located in the pressure range 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 9 bar , are made of ammonia ice . Below these ammonia ice clouds , denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide or ammonium sulfide ( between 1 – 2 bar ) and water ( 3 – 7 bar ) are thought to exist . There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense . The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere . This is a result of the higher condensation heat of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide ( oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur ) . Various tropospheric ( at 200 – 500 mbar ) and stratospheric ( at 10 – 100 mbar ) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers . The latter are made from condensed heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or hydrazine , which are generated in the upper stratosphere ( 1 – 100 μbar ) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) . The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about 10 − 4 , while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons , like ethane and acetylene , to molecular hydrogen is about 10 − 6 .
Jupiter 's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow , polar aurorae and X @-@ ray emissions . Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere . The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere ( 800 – 1000 K ) have not been fully explained yet ; existing models predict a temperature no higher than about 400 K. They may be caused by absorption of high @-@ energy solar radiation ( UV or X @-@ ray ) , by heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere , or by dissipation of upward @-@ propagating gravity waves . The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X @-@ rays , which were first observed by the Einstein Observatory in 1983 . The energetic particles coming from Jupiter 's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals , which encircle the poles . Unlike their terrestrial analogs , which appear only during magnetic storms , aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter 's atmosphere . The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation ( H +
3 ) was discovered . This ion emits strongly in the mid @-@ infrared part of the spectrum , at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm ; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere .
= = Chemical composition = =
The composition of Jupiter 's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole . Jupiter 's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the Galileo atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7 , 1995 . Other sources of information about Jupiter 's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory ( ISO ) , the Galileo and Cassini orbiters , and Earth @-@ based observations .
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen ( H
2 ) and helium . The helium abundance is 0 @.@ 157 ± 0 @.@ 0036 relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules , and its mass fraction is 0 @.@ 234 ± 0 @.@ 005 , which is slightly lower than the Solar System 's primordial value . The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood , but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter . This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain : as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than 10 @,@ 000 km , helium separates from it forming droplets which , being denser than the metallic hydrogen , descend towards the core . This can also explain the severe depletion of neon ( see Table ) , an element that easily dissolves in helium droplets and would be transported in them towards the core as well .
The atmosphere contains various simple compounds such as water , methane ( CH4 ) , hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , ammonia ( NH3 ) and phosphine ( PH3 ) . Their abundances in the deep ( below 10 bar ) troposphere imply that the atmosphere of Jupiter is enriched in the elements carbon , nitrogen , sulfur and possibly oxygen by factor of 2 – 4 relative to the Sun . The noble gases argon , krypton and xenon also appear in abundance relative to solar levels ( see table ) , while neon is scarcer . Other chemical compounds such as arsine ( AsH3 ) and germane ( GeH4 ) are present only in trace amounts . The upper atmosphere of Jupiter contains small amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as ethane , acetylene , and diacetylene , which form from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles coming from Jupiter 's magnetosphere . The carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and water present in the upper atmosphere are thought to originate from impacting comets , such as Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 . The water cannot come from the troposphere because the cold tropopause acts like a cold trap , effectively preventing water from rising to the stratosphere ( see Vertical structure above ) .
Earth- and spacecraft @-@ based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the isotopic ratios in Jupiter 's atmosphere . As of July 2003 , the accepted value for the deuterium abundance is 2 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 35 × 10 − 5 , which probably represents the primordial value in the protosolar nebula that gave birth to the Solar System . The ratio of nitrogen isotopes in the Jovian atmosphere , 15N to 14N , is 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 3 , a third lower than that in the Earth 's atmosphere ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 3 ) . The latter discovery is especially significant since the previous theories of Solar System formation considered the terrestrial value for the ratio of nitrogen isotopes to be primordial .
= = Zones , belts and jets = =
The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator . There are two types of bands : lightly colored zones and relatively dark belts . The wider Equatorial Zone ( EZ ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7 ° S to 7 ° N. Above and below the EZ , the North and South Equatorial belts ( NEB and SEB ) extend to 18 ° N and 18 ° S , respectively . Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones ( NtrZ and STrZ ) . The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude , where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted . The basic belt @-@ zone structure probably extends well towards the poles , reaching at least to 80 ° North or South .
The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds . Ammonia concentration is higher in zones , which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes , which in turn leads to their lighter color . On the other hand , in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes . The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts . The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known , but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur , phosphorus and carbon .
The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) , called jets . The eastward ( prograde ) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts ( going away from the equator ) , whereas westward ( retrograde ) jets mark the transition from belts to zones . Such flow velocity patterns mean that the zonal winds decrease in belts and increase in zones from the equator to the pole . Therefore , wind shear in belts is cyclonic , while in zones it is anticyclonic . The EZ is an exception to this rule , showing a strong eastward ( prograde ) jet and has a local minimum of the wind speed exactly at the equator . The jet speeds are high on Jupiter , reaching more than 100 m / s . These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range 0 @.@ 7 – 1 bar . The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets . The vertical extent of jets is not known . They decay over two to three scale heights above the clouds , while below the cloud level , winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar — the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe .
The origin of Jupiter 's banded structure is not completely clear , though it may be similar to that driving the Earth 's Hadley cells . The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling , whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling . When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones , it expands and cools , forming high and dense clouds . In belts , however , the air descends , warming adiabatically , and white ammonia clouds evaporate , revealing lower , darker clouds . The location and width of bands , speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable , having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000 . One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23 ° N. However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time ( see below ) . These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century .
= = = Specific bands = = =
The belts and zones that divide Jupiter 's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics . They begin below the North and South Polar Regions , which extend from the poles to roughly 40 – 48 ° N / S. These bluish @-@ gray regions are usually featureless .
The North North Temperate Region rarely shows more detail than the polar regions , due to limb darkening , foreshortening , and the general diffuseness of features . However , the North @-@ North Temperate Belt ( NNTB ) is the northernmost distinct belt , though it occasionally disappears . Disturbances tend to be minor and short @-@ lived . The North @-@ North Temperate Zone ( NNTZ ) is perhaps more prominent , but also generally quiet . Other minor belts and zones in the region are occasionally observed .
The North Temperate Region is part of a latitudinal region easily observable from Earth , and thus has a superb record of observation . It also features the strongest prograde jet stream on the planet — a westerly current that forms the southern boundary of the North Temperate Belt ( NTB ) . The NTB fades roughly once a decade ( this was the case during the Voyager encounters ) , making the North Temperate Zone ( NTZ ) apparently merge into the North Tropical Zone ( NTropZ ) . Other times , the NTZ is divided by a narrow belt into northern and southern components .
The North Tropical Region is composed of the NTropZ and the North Equatorial Belt ( NEB ) . The NTropZ is generally stable in coloration , changing in tint only in tandem with activity on the NTB 's southern jet stream . Like the NTZ , it too is sometimes divided by a narrow band , the NTropB . On rare occasions , the southern NTropZ plays host to " Little Red Spots " . As the name suggests , these are northern equivalents of the Great Red Spot . Unlike the GRS , they tend to occur in pairs and are always short @-@ lived , lasting a year on average ; one was present during the Pioneer 10 encounter .
The NEB is one of the most active belts on the planet . It is characterized by anticyclonic white ovals and cyclonic " barges " ( also known as " brown ovals " ) , with the former usually forming farther north than the latter ; as in the NTropZ , most of these features are relatively short @-@ lived . Like the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) , the NEB has sometimes dramatically faded and " revived " . The timescale of these changes is about 25 years .
The Equatorial Region ( EZ ) is one of the more stable regions of the planet , in latitude and in activity . The northern edge of the EZ hosts spectacular plumes that trail southwest from the NEB , which are bounded by dark , warm ( in infrared ) features known as festoons ( hot spots ) . Though the southern boundary of the EZ is usually quiescent , observations from the late 19th into the early 20th century show that this pattern was then reversed relative to today . The EZ varies considerably in coloration , from pale to an ochre , or even coppery hue ; it is occasionally divided by an Equatorial Band ( EB ) . Features in the EZ move roughly 390 km / h relative to the other latitudes .
The South Tropical Region includes the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) and the South Tropical Zone . It is by far the most active region the planet , as it is home to its strongest retrograde jet stream . The SEB is usually the broadest , darkest belt on Jupiter ; it is sometimes split by a zone ( the SEBZ ) , and can fade entirely every 3 to 15 years before reappearing in what is known as an SEB Revival cycle . A period of weeks or months following the belt 's disappearance , a white spot forms and erupts dark brownish material which is stretched into a new belt by Jupiter 's winds . The belt most recently disappeared in May 2010 . Another characteristic of the SEB is a long train of cyclonic disturbances following the Great Red Spot . Like the NTropZ , the STropZ is one of the most prominent zones on the planet ; not only does it contain the GRS , but it is occasionally rent by a South Tropical Disturbance ( STropD ) , a division of the zone that can be very long @-@ lived ; the most famous one lasted from 1901 to 1939 .
The South Temperate Region , or South Temperate Belt ( STB ) , is yet another dark , prominent belt , more so than the NTB ; until March 2000 , its most famous features were the long @-@ lived white ovals BC , DE , and FA , which have since merged to form Oval BA ( " Red Jr . " ) . The ovals were part of South Temperate Zone , but they extended into STB partially blocking it . The STB has occasionally faded , apparently due to complex interactions between the white ovals and the GRS . The appearance of the South Temperate Zone ( STZ ) — the zone in which the white ovals originated — is highly variable .
There are other features on Jupiter that are either temporary or difficult to observe from Earth . The South South Temperate Region is harder to discern even than the NNTR ; its detail is subtle and can only be studied well by large telescopes or spacecraft . Many zones and belts are more transient in nature and are not always visible . These include the Equatorial band ( EB ) , North Equatorial belt zone ( NEBZ , a white zone within the belt ) and South Equatorial belt zone ( SEBZ ) . Belts are also occasionally split by a sudden disturbance . When a disturbance divides a normally singular belt or zone , an N or an S is added to indicate whether the component is the northern or southern one ; e.g. , NEB ( N ) and NEB ( S ) .
= = Dynamics = =
Circulation in Jupiter 's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth . The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface . Therefore , convection may occur throughout the planet 's outer molecular envelope . As of 2008 , a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed . Any such theory needs to explain the following facts : the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter 's equator , the strong prograde jet observed at the equator , the difference between zones and belts , and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot .
The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes : shallow and deep . The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer ( weather ) layer of the planet , which overlays the stable interior . The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter . As both theories have their own successes and failures , many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models .
= = = Shallow models = = =
The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s . They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology , which had become well developed by that time . Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence , which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere ( above the water clouds ) . The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather . The production of the jets in this model is related to a well @-@ known property of two dimensional turbulence — the so @-@ called inverse cascade , in which small turbulent structures ( vortices ) merge to form larger ones . The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale , which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale . Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves . This process works as follows : when the largest turbulent structures reach a certain size , the energy begins to flow into Rossby waves instead of larger structures , and the inverse cascade stops . Since on the spherical rapidly rotating planet the dispersion relation of the Rossby waves is anisotropic , the Rhines scale in the direction parallel to the equator is larger than in the direction orthogonal to it . The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures , which are parallel to the equator . The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets . Therefore , in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them .
While these weather – layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets , they have serious problems . A glaring failure of the model is the prograde ( super @-@ rotating ) equatorial jet : with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde ( subrotating ) jet , contrary to observations . In addition , the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time . Shallow models cannot explain how the observed atmospheric flows on Jupiter violate stability criteria . More elaborated multilayer versions of weather – layer models produce more stable circulation , but many problems persist . Meanwhile , the Galileo Probe found that the winds on Jupiter extend well below the water clouds at 5 – 7 bar and do not show any evidence of decay down to 22 bar pressure level , which implies that circulation in the Jovian atmosphere may in fact be deep .
= = = Deep models = = =
The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976 . His model was based on another well @-@ known feature of fluid mechanics , the Taylor – Proudman theorem . It holds that in any fast @-@ rotating barotropic ideal liquid , the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis . The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior . Therefore , the planet 's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders , each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others . Those latitudes where the cylinders ' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets ; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts .
The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter ; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion . However it has major difficulties ; it produces a very small number of broad jets , and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008 , meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter . One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band @-@ jet structure . It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models ; occupying only the outer 10 % of Jupiter 's radius . In standard models of the Jovian interior , the mantle comprises the outer 20 – 30 % . The driving of deep circulation is another problem . The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces ( moist convection , for instance ) or by deep planet @-@ wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior . Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet .
= = = Internal heat = = =
As has been known since 1966 , Jupiter radiates much more heat than it receives from the Sun . It is estimated that the ratio between the power emitted by the planet and that absorbed from the Sun is 1 @.@ 67 ± 0 @.@ 09 . The internal heat flux from Jupiter is 5 @.@ 44 ± 0 @.@ 43 W / m2 , whereas the total emitted power is 335 ± 26 petawatts . The latter value is approximately equal to one billionth of the total power radiated by the Sun . This excess heat is mainly the primordial heat from the early phases of Jupiter 's formation , but may result in part from the precipitation of helium into the core .
The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere . While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3 ° , and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator , the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles . One explanation is that Jupiter 's convective interior acts like a thermostat , releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region . This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere . While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth , on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat . The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat .
= = Discrete features = =
= = = Vortices = = =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices — circular rotating structures that , as in the Earth 's atmosphere , can be divided into two classes : cyclones and anticyclones . Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet ( counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern ) ; the anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction . However a major difference from the terrestrial atmosphere is that , in the Jovian atmosphere , anticyclones dominate over cyclones , as more than 90 % of vortices larger than 2000 km in diameter are anticyclones . The lifetime of vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years depending on their size . For instance , the average lifetime of anticyclones with diameters from 1000 to 6000 km is 1 – 3 years . Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter ( within 10 ° of latitude ) , where they are unstable . As on any rapidly rotating planet , Jupiter 's anticyclones are high pressure centers , while cyclones are low pressure .
The anticyclones in Jupiter 's atmosphere are always confined within zones , where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles . They are usually bright and appear as white ovals . They can move in longitude , but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone . The wind speeds at their periphery are about 100 m / s . Different anticyclones located in one zone tend to merge , when they approach each other . However Jupiter has two anticyclones that are somewhat different from all others . They are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and the Oval BA ; the latter formed only in 2000 . In contrast to white ovals , these structures are red , arguably due to dredging up of red material from the planet 's depths . On Jupiter the anticyclones usually form through merges of smaller structures including convective storms ( see below ) , although large ovals can result from the instability of jets . The latter was observed in 1938 – 1940 , when a few white ovals appeared as a result of instability of the southern temperate zone ; they later merged to form Oval BA .
In contrast to anticyclones , the Jovian cyclones tend to be small , dark and irregular structures . Some of the darker and more regular features are known as brown ovals ( or badges ) . However the existence of a few long – lived large cyclones has been suggested . In addition to compact cyclones , Jupiter has several large irregular filamentary patches , which demonstrate cyclonic rotation . One of them is located to the west of the GRS ( in its wake region ) in the southern equatorial belt . These patches are called cyclonic regions ( CR ) . The cyclones are always located in the belts and tend to merge when they encounter each other , much like anticyclones .
The deep structure of vortices is not completely clear . They are thought to be relatively thin , as any thickness greater than about 500 km will lead to instability . The large anticyclones are known to extend only a few tens of kilometers above the visible clouds . The early hypothesis that the vortices are deep convective plumes ( or convective columns ) as of 2008 is not shared by the majority of planetary scientists .
= = = = Great Red Spot = = = =
The Great Red Spot ( GRS ) is a persistent anticyclonic storm , 22 ° south of Jupiter 's equator ; observations from Earth establish a minimum storm lifetime of 350 years . A storm was described as a " permanent spot " by Gian Domenico Cassini after observing the feature in July 1665 with his instrument @-@ maker Eustachio Divini . According to a report by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1635 , Leander Bandtius , whom Riccioli identified as the Abbot of Dunisburgh who possessed an " extraordinary telescope " , observed a large spot that he described as " oval , equaling one seventh of Jupiter 's diameter at its longest . " According to Riccioli , " these features are seldom able to be seen , and then only by a telescope of exceptional quality and magnification . " The Great Spot has been nearly continually observed since the 1870s , however .
The GRS rotates counter @-@ clockwise , with a period of about six Earth days or 14 Jovian days . Its dimensions are 24 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 km east @-@ to @-@ west and 12 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 km north @-@ to @-@ south . The spot is large enough to contain two or three planets the size of Earth . At the start of 2004 , the Great Red Spot had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago , when it was 40 @,@ 000 km in diameter . At the present rate of reduction , it could potentially become circular by 2040 , although this is unlikely because of the distortion effect of the neighboring jet streams . It is not known how long the spot will last , or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations .
According to a study by scientists at the University of California , Berkeley , between 1996 and 2006 the spot lost 15 percent of its diameter along its major axis . Xylar Asay @-@ Davis , who was on the team that conducted the study , noted that the spot is not disappearing because " velocity is a more robust measurement because the clouds associated with the Red Spot are also strongly influenced by numerous other phenomena in the surrounding atmosphere . "
Infrared data have long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder ( and thus , higher in altitude ) than most of the other clouds on the planet ; the cloudtops of the GRS are about 8 km above the surrounding clouds . Furthermore , careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the spot 's counterclockwise circulation as far back as 1966 – observations dramatically confirmed by the first time @-@ lapse movies from the Voyager flybys . The spot is spatially confined by a modest eastward jet stream ( prograde ) to its south and a very strong westward ( retrograde ) one to its north . Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about 120 m / s ( 432 km / h ) , currents inside it seem stagnant , with little inflow or outflow . The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time , perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size . In 2010 , astronomers imaged the GRS in the far infrared ( from 8 @.@ 5 to 24 μm ) with a spatial resolution higher than ever before and found that its central , reddest region is warmer than its surroundings by between 3 – 4 K. The warm airmass is located in the upper troposphere in the pressure range of 200 – 500 mbar . This warm central spot slowly counter @-@ rotates and may be caused by a weak subsidence of air in the center of GRS .
The Great Red Spot 's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records , typically varying by about a degree . Its longitude , however , is subject to constant variation . Because Jupiter 's visible features do not rotate uniformly at all latitudes , astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude . System II is used for latitudes of more than 10 ° , and was originally based on the average rotation rate of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s . Despite this , the spot has ' lapped ' the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early 19th century . Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt , and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance .
It is not known exactly what causes the Great Red Spot 's reddish color . Theories supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by complex organic molecules , red phosphorus , or yet another sulfur compound . The GRS varies greatly in hue , from almost brick @-@ red to pale salmon , or even white . The higher temperature of the reddest central region is the first evidence that the Spot 's color is affected by environmental factors . The spot occasionally disappears from the visible spectrum , becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow , which is its niche in the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) . The visibility of GRS is apparently coupled to the appearance of the SEB ; when the belt is bright white , the spot tends to be dark , and when it is dark , the spot is usually light . The periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals ; in the 50 years from 1947 to 1997 , the spot was darkest in the periods 1961 – 1966 , 1968 – 1975 , 1989 – 1990 , and 1992 – 1993 . In November 2014 , an analysis of data from NASA 's Cassini mission revealed that the red color is likely a product of simple chemicals being broken apart by sunlight in the planet 's upper atmosphere
The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot , a feature observed near Jupiter 's north pole in 2000 by the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft . A feature in the atmosphere of Neptune was also called the Great Dark Spot . The latter feature , imaged by Voyager 2 in 1989 , may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm . It was no longer present in 1994 , although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north .
= = = = Oval BA = = = =
Oval BA is a red storm in Jupiter 's southern hemisphere similar in form to , though smaller than , the Great Red Spot ( it is often affectionately referred to as " Red Spot Jr . " , " Red Jr . " or " The Little Red Spot " ) . A feature in the South Temperate Belt , Oval BA was first seen in 2000 after the collision of three small white storms , and has intensified since then .
The formation of the three white oval storms that later merged into Oval BA can be traced to 1939 , when the South Temperate Zone was torn by dark features that effectively split the zone into three long sections . Jovian observer Elmer J. Reese labeled the dark sections AB , CD , and EF . The rifts expanded , shrinking the remaining segments of the STZ into the white ovals FA , BC , and DE . Ovals BC and DE merged in 1998 , forming Oval BE . Then , in March 2000 , BE and FA joined together , forming Oval BA . ( see White ovals , below )
Oval BA slowly began to turn red in August 2005 . On February 24 , 2006 , Filipino amateur astronomer Christopher Go discovered the color change , noting that it had reached the same shade as the GRS . As a result , NASA writer Dr. Tony Phillips suggested it be called " Red Spot Jr . " or " Red Jr . "
In April 2006 , a team of astronomers , believing that Oval BA might converge with the GRS that year , observed the storms through the Hubble Space Telescope . The storms pass each other about every two years , but the passings of 2002 and 2004 did not produce anything exciting . Dr. Amy Simon @-@ Miller , of the Goddard Space Flight Center , predicted the storms would have their closest passing on July 4 , 2006 . On July 20 , the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging .
Why Oval BA turned red is not understood . According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez @-@ Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country , the most likely mechanism is " an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA . " Some believe that small storms ( and their corresponding white spots ) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight .
Oval BA is getting stronger according to observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007 . The wind speeds have reached 618 km / h ; about the same as in the Great Red Spot and far stronger than any of the progenitor storms . As of July 2008 , its size is about the diameter of Earth — approximately half the size of the Great Red Spot .
Oval BA should not be confused with another major storm on Jupiter , the South Tropical Little Red Spot ( LRS ) ( nicknamed " the Baby Red Spot " by NASA ) , which was destroyed by the GRS . The new storm , previously a white spot in Hubble images , turned red in May 2008 . The observations were led by Imke de Pater of the University of California , at Berkeley , US . The Baby Red Spot encountered the GRS in late June to early July 2008 , and in the course of a collision , the smaller red spot was shredded into pieces . The remnants of the Baby Red Spot first orbited , then were later consumed by the GRS . The last of the remnants with a reddish color to have been identified by astronomers had disappeared by mid @-@ July , and the remaining pieces again collided with the GRS , then finally merged with the bigger storm . The remaining pieces of the Baby Red Spot had completely disappeared by August 2008 . During this encounter Oval BA was present nearby , but played no apparent role in destruction of the Baby Red Spot .
= = = Storms and lightning = = =
The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth . They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size , which appear from time to time in the belts ' cyclonic regions , especially within the strong westward ( retrograde ) jets . In contrast to vortices , storms are short @-@ lived phenomena ; the strongest of them may exist for several months , while the average lifetime is only 3 – 4 days . They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter 's troposphere . Storms are actually tall convective columns ( plumes ) , which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere , where it condenses in clouds . A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km ; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5 – 7 bar , where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located , to as high as 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 bar .
Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning . The imaging of the night – side hemisphere of Jupiter by Galileo and Cassini spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets , particularly at 51 ° N , 56 ° S and 14 ° S latitudes . On Jupiter lighting strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth . However , they are less frequent ; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth . A few flashes have been detected in polar regions , making Jupiter the second known planet after Earth to exhibit polar lightning .
Every 15 – 17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms . They appear at 23 ° N latitude , where the strongest eastward jet , that can reach 150 m / s , is located . The last time such an event was observed was in March – June 2007 . Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55 ° apart in longitude . They significantly disturbed the belt . The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt 's color . The storms moved with a speed as high as 170 m / s , slightly faster than the jet itself , hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere .
= = = Disturbances = = =
The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time . One particular class of disruption are long @-@ lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone , normally referred to as " South Tropical Disturbances " ( STD ) . The longest lived STD in recorded history was followed from 1901 until 1939 , having been first seen by Percy B. Molesworth on February 28 , 1901 . It took the form of darkening over part of the normally bright South Tropical zone . Several similar disturbances in the South Tropical Zone have been recorded since then .
= = = Hot spots = = =
One of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots . In them the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption . The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm . They are preferentially located in the belts , although there is a train of prominent hot spots at the northern edge of the Equatorial Zone . The Galileo Probe descended into one of those equatorial spots . Each equatorial spot is associated with a bright cloudy plume located to the west of it and reaching up to 10 @,@ 000 km in size . Hot spots generally have round shapes , although they do not resemble vortexes .
The origin of hot spots is not clear . They can be either downdrafts , where the descending air is adiabatically heated and dried or , alternatively , they can be a manifestation of planetary scale waves . The latter hypotheses explains the periodical pattern of the equatorial spots .
= = Observational history = =
Early astronomers , using small telescopes , recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter 's atmosphere . Their descriptive terms — belts and zones , brown spots and red spots , plumes , barges , festoons , and streamers — are still used . Other terms such as vorticity , vertical motion , cloud heights have entered in use later , in the 20th century .
The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth @-@ based telescopes were taken by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft . The first truly detailed images of Jupiter 's atmosphere were provided by the Voyagers . The two spacecraft were able to image details at a resolution as low as 5 km in size in various spectra , and also able to create " approach movies " of the atmosphere in motion . The Galileo Probe , which suffered an antenna problem , saw less of Jupiter 's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth .
Today , astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter 's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope . These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances , but that , overall , it is remarkably stable . The vertical motion of Jupiter 's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground @-@ based telescopes . Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 gave a glimpse of the Jupiter 's composition beneath the cloud tops . The presence of diatomic sulfur ( S2 ) and carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) was recorded — the first detection of either in Jupiter , and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object — together with other molecules such as ammonia ( NH3 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , while oxygen @-@ bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected , to the surprise of astronomers .
The Galileo atmospheric probe , as it plunged into Jupiter , measured the wind , temperature , composition , clouds , and radiation levels down to 22 bar . However , below 1 bar elsewhere on Jupiter there is uncertainty in the quantities .
= = = Great Red Spot studies = = =
The first sighting of the GRS is often credited to Robert Hooke , who described a spot on the planet in May 1664 ; however , it is likely that Hooke 's spot was in the wrong belt altogether ( the North Equatorial Belt , versus the current location in the South Equatorial Belt ) . Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini 's description of a " permanent spot " in the following year . With fluctuations in visibility , Cassini 's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713 .
A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti , which is exhibited in the Vatican . It is a part of a series of panels in which different ( magnified ) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes , the creation of all of them overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy . Creti 's painting is the first known to depict the GRS as red . No Jovian feature was officially described as red before the late 19th century .
The present GRS was first seen only after 1830 and well @-@ studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879 . A 118 @-@ year gap separates the observations made after 1830 from its 17th @-@ century discovery ; whether the original spot dissipated and re @-@ formed , whether it faded , or even if the observational record was simply poor are unknown . The older spots had a short observational history and slower motion than that of the modern spot , which make their identity unlikely .
On February 25 , 1979 , when the Voyager 1 spacecraft was 9 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Jupiter it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot back to Earth . Cloud details as small as 160 km across were visible . The colorful , wavy cloud pattern seen to the west ( left ) of the GRS is the spot 's wake region , where extraordinarily complex and variable cloud motions are observed .
= = = White ovals = = =
The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939 . They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation , but contracted rapidly during their first decade ; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965 . Although they originated as segments of the STZ , they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt , suggesting that they moved north , " digging " a niche into the STB . Indeed , much like the GRS , their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries , with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south .
The longitudinal movement of the ovals seemed to be influenced by two factors : Jupiter 's position in its orbit ( they became faster at aphelion ) , and their proximity to the GRS ( they accelerated when within 50 degrees of the Spot ) . The overall trend of the white oval drift rate was deceleration , with a decrease by half between 1940 and 1990 .
During the Voyager fly @-@ bys , the ovals extended roughly 9000 km from east to west , 5000 km from north to south , and rotated every five days ( compared to six for the GRS at the time ) .
= = Cited sources = =
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= December 2000 nor 'easter =
The December 2000 nor 'easter was a significant winter storm that impacted the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England regions of the United States around the end of the month . It began as an Alberta clipper that moved southeastward through the central United States and weakened over the Ohio Valley . However , it redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina and moved northward as it intensified . It moved into central Long Island and eventually tracked northward into New England . The storm dropped heavy precipitation throughout the Northeast , especially in northern New Jersey and eastern New York , where snowfall often exceeded 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) . Even so , as it struck on a weekend , its effects were generally minor and mostly limited to travel delays , traffic accidents , and business closures .
= = Synoptic history = =
The storm developed as an Alberta clipper @-@ type low pressure area that moved southeastward across the Great Plains and Midwest . Throughout North Dakota , Minnesota and Iowa , moderate snowfall accompanied the system . After weakening over the Ohio Valley , the storm redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina . In the days preceding the event , a cyclone over eastern Canada circulated cold air southward . Computer models indicated the potential for a major storm up to seven days in advance ; however , initially , certain forecasts suggested that a separate storm over the southern U.S. would merge with the clipper . Instead , this feature moved out to sea .
As the secondary storm began to intensify offshore , precipitation rapidly expanded and tracked northward towards southern Virginia , eastern Maryland and Delaware , largely in the form of freezing rain , ice , and snow . From 0200 UTC on December 30 to 1200 UTC , the cyclone intensified by 13 mbar , and continued to deepen for several more hours . Snowfall reached southern New Jersey between 0600 and 0800 UTC , and New York City at around 1000 UTC . Thundersnow developed within heavy bands in some areas . The significant snow was characterized by a sharp western cutoff ; for example , in Chester County , accumulations ranged from around 6 inches in the far eastern parts of the county to only an inch along its western border with Lancaster County .
While located off the New Jersey coast , the storm stopped strengthening and slowly moved northward . The center was situated near central Long Island at 2100 UTC . Across eastern Long Island and parts of eastern New England , snow mixed with and , in some cases , changed over to rain . The surface low had moved into eastern Connecticut by early on December 31 . As it continued to head northeastward , a new center of low pressure developed near Boston and moved towards coastal Maine . The storm system had abated by January 1 .
= = Impact = =
The storm produced moderate to heavy snowfall from eastern Pennsylvania through New Jersey , New York , and New England , extending as far north as Maine . As much as 30 in ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) fell west of the New York City metropolitan region , which generally reported 10 to 16 in ( 0 @.@ 25 to 0 @.@ 41 m ) of snow , making it the biggest snowstorm at the time since the North American blizzard of 1996 . Washington , D.C. and Baltimore recorded little or no snowfall , while 10 in ( 25 cm ) impacted Philadelphia . Eastern New York , especially the Hudson Valley and Catskill Mountains , western Connecticut , western and central Massachusetts , Vermont , New Hampshire and Maine also picked up heavy snowfall . Eastern New England received up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) before dry air from the south reduced the duration of the snow .
About 30 flights were canceled at the Philadelphia International Airport , and the city declared a snow emergency . Amtrak canceled Metroliner service along the northeast corridor from Washington , D.C. to New York City . Numerous businesses throughout eastern Pennsylvania closed on December 30 , although because the storm struck on a weekend , the number of traffic accidents was fairly low .
In New Jersey , increasing winds caused blowing and drifting of the snow and led to near @-@ blizzard conditions . Behind the storm , very cold and gusty weather lingered . New Jersey Transit shut down bus service in northern portions of the state , and rail lines had 20 @-@ minute delays . Most injuries in the state were related to physical strain while shoveling , snow blower accidents or slips and falls . As the snowfall was of a light nature , few trees limbs and electrical wires were downed by the storm . GPU Energy reported only around 5 @,@ 500 power outages . A countywide state of emergency was declared in Sussex County , as vehicles were sliding off roadways . Several other traffic accidents and delays were reported throughout the state , and in Somerset County , a few roads were closed due to the snow . A Red Cross shelter was opened for residents of a Spotswood trailer park .
In New York State , the heaviest snow peaked at 29 in ( 0 @.@ 74 m ) in Platte Cove , Greene County . Despite 50 flight cancellations at the Albany International Airport and several traffic accidents , no major damage or injuries were reported . Although heavy snow fell in the state , no major damage was reported in Connecticut . In Massachusetts and Rhode Island , high winds , gusting to as high as 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) buffeted the coast .
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= Ned Flanders =
Nedward " Ned " Flanders , Jr. is a recurring fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . He is voiced by Harry Shearer , and first appeared in the series premiere episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . He is the good @-@ natured , cheery next @-@ door neighbor to the Simpson family and is generally loathed by Homer Simpson . A devout Evangelical Christian with an annoyingly perfect family , he is among the friendliest and most compassionate of Springfield 's citizens and is generally considered a pillar of the Springfield community .
He was one of the first characters outside of the immediate Simpson family to appear on the show , and has since been central to several episodes , the first being season two 's " Dead Putting Society " . His last name comes from Flanders St. in Portland , Oregon , the hometown of Simpsons creator Matt Groening . When he was created , he was intended to just be a neighbor who was very nice , but whom Homer loathed .
In May 2015 , Harry Shearer announced that he had quit the role and that the role would be recast . However , on July 7 , it was announced Fox signed all of its main cast members , including Shearer .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Ned is a genuinely well @-@ meaning good @-@ natured person and is one of the few in Springfield to whom that description applies . Firmly religious , he can be timid and something of a pushover . He is a Republican and a devout Evangelical Christian who strictly follows the Bible literally and is easily shocked when challenged on any point of dogma . This has led to his frequent calls to Reverend Lovejoy , who has become increasingly frustrated with and uninterested in Flanders .
Ned grew up in New York and was the son of " freaky beatniks " who did not discipline Ned and let him run wild . Eventually they took him to Dr. Foster , a psychiatrist , who put the young Ned through the University of Minnesota Spankalogical Protocol , which involved eight months of continuous spanking . The treatment worked so well that it rendered Flanders unable to express any anger at all and resulted in his trademark nonsensical jabbering at moments when he was particularly close to losing his temper , causing Ned to unknowingly repress his anger .
Ned got his diploma from Oral Roberts University in an unspecified field and worked as a salesman in the pharmaceuticals industry for the bulk of his adult life . Having saved much of his earnings , Flanders decided to quit his job and invested his family 's life savings into a store in the Springfield mall called " The Leftorium " specializing in products for left @-@ handed people . Despite a meek outward appearance , Ned hides an exceptionally well @-@ toned physique . In the episode " Hurricane Neddy " a flashback to 30 years earlier shows Ned as a young child despite the fact that he is later said to be 60 years old , attributing his youthful appearance to his conformity to the " three Cs " — " clean living , chewing thoroughly , and a daily dose of vitamin church " .
Ned is very honest and sincere in carrying out the Christian doctrines of charity , kindness , and compassion . He is frequently shown doing volunteer work , and is rigorously honest and upright , even going so far as to spend an entire day tracking down a Leftorium customer in order to give him the extra change that he had forgotten to hand over . In " Homer 's Triple Bypass " , he donates a kidney and a lung out of the goodness of his heart to whoever needs them first . He also is a good neighbor to the Simpsons , regularly offering his assistance . Ned ’ s dogged friendship inspires the loyalty of others ; when his Leftorium appeared on the verge of bankruptcy shortly after it opened , Homer arranged a George Bailey @-@ esque bailout with the help of many people in Springfield .
Ned is a widower , having been married to the equally religious Maude . They had two children together ; the sheltered and naive Rod and Todd Flanders . In the eleventh season , Maude dies an untimely death in a freak accident involving a T @-@ shirt cannon ( caused and aggravated by Homer ) , leaving Flanders alone and grieving . While still married to Maude , Ned married Ginger , while on a drunken bender in Las Vegas . Ginger came to live with Ned and his sons for a brief period following Maude 's death in a later episode , but she quickly grew tired of the Flanders ' sickly @-@ sweet personalities and fled . Despite his outward nerdishness , Flanders has also been connected romantically with a beautiful Christian @-@ rock singer , Rachel Jordan , movie star Sara Sloane and eventually marrying local teacher Edna Krabappel .
In the early years of The Simpsons , Homer Simpson generally loathed Ned , because Ned 's family , job , health and self @-@ discipline are of higher quality than he could ever hope to attain himself . Homer is often shown borrowing ( or stealing ) items from Flanders , such as a weather vane , a camcorder , a diploma , a toothbrush and an air conditioning unit . Even the Simpsons ' couch came from " the curb outside Flanders ' house " . Homer has since come to have a love @-@ hate relationship with Ned , sometimes being his best friend , partly due to Ned 's selfless tolerance of him , and other times treating Ned with complete disregard . Homer seems to genuinely care for Ned , despite still expressing and often acting on feelings of loathing . Nowadays Homer seems to regard Ned as more of a nuisance . An early running joke was that Marge considers Flanders to be a perfect neighbor and usually sides with him instead of her husband , which always enrages Homer . Flanders is normally oblivious to Homer 's disdain for him , although on occasions he has snapped at Homer after being pushed too far .
Flanders has been shown to call Reverend Lovejoy for advice often , even over minuscule things , to the point that Lovejoy has stopped caring and has even suggested that Flanders try a different religion . This was a running joke in the early seasons , but has been used less in the later episodes . In the eighth season , the episode " In Marge We Trust " would examine the relationship between Lovejoy and Flanders , and shows the history of their relationship and how Lovejoy became increasingly uninterested in Flanders ' problems . Flanders is shown to have a room in his house filled with memorabilia of The Beatles . He claims that this is because they were " bigger than Jesus " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Ned Flanders , who was designed by Rich Moore , first appeared in the season one episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . The episode was the series premiere , but not the first episode produced . The first episode in which Flanders and his family were prominent is season two 's " Dead Putting Society " , which also contained the first appearance of Maude and Rod Flanders . Flanders was named after Flanders St. in Portland , Oregon , the hometown of Simpsons creator Matt Groening . Groening described the inspiration for Flanders as " just a guy who was truly nice , that Homer had no justifiable reason to loathe , but then did " . It was not until after the first few episodes that it was decided Flanders would be a faithful Christian . Mike Scully noted that Flanders is " everything Homer would love to be , although he 'll never admit it " . Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor that Homer was jealous of , but Harry Shearer used " such a sweet voice " and Flanders was broadened to become a Christian and a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer . Flanders is known for his nonsensical jabbering . His first use of the word " diddly " was in " The Call of the Simpsons " .
= = = Development = = =
Ned Flanders was not religious in his first few appearances and in the first few seasons he was only mildly religious and his primary role was to be so " cloyingly perfect as to annoy and shame the Simpsons " , whereas Homer Simpson has always hated Ned Flanders and always tries to undermine him . There has been a consistent effort among the show 's writers to make him not just " goody good and an unsympathetic person " . In the later seasons , Flanders has become more of a caricature of the Christian right , and his role as an irritating " perfect neighbor " has been lessened . For example , some recent episodes Flanders has appeared to show rather prejudice attitudes against gays and people of religions other than Christianity .
Ned 's store " The Leftorium " first appeared in " When Flanders Failed " . It was suggested by George Meyer , who had had a friend who had owned a left @-@ handed specialty store which failed . The episode " Hurricane Neddy " shows Ned 's faith being tested and the writers also used the episode as a chance to examine what makes him tick .
There have been two occasions where Flanders was not voiced by Harry Shearer . In " Bart of Darkness " , Flanders 's high pitched scream was performed by Tress MacNeille and in " Homer to the Max " , Flanders comments about cartoons being easily able to change voice actors and on that occasion he was voiced by Karl Wiedergott .
= = = " The Adventures of Ned Flanders " = = =
The Adventures of Ned Flanders is a short film that appears at the end of the fourth season Simpsons episode " The Front " . The only one to ever exist and titled Love that God , it highlights Flanders ' dedication to religion and perfect family niceness by showing Ned nearly scolding Rod and Todd after they refuse to get ready for church – only to have them inform him that it is , in fact , Saturday . Ned laughs at his mistake with a trademark " okely dokely do ! " The segment was added when " The Front " was too short and the producers had already tried " every trick in the book " to lengthen it . Although the episode was scripted by Adam I. Lapidus , " Love That God " was written by Mike Reiss , Al Jean and Sam Simon .
Generally , fans reacted with confusion as to why the short existed . Bill Oakley and several other writers loved the short so much that they wanted to do more , but time limitations prevented them . As a result , Oakley and Josh Weinstein decided to produce an entire episode that was nothing but loosely associated shorts , which became the season seven episode " 22 Short Films about Springfield " . The Flanders / Lovejoy segment of that episode was written by David X. Cohen . " 22 Short Films about Springfield " in turn inspired the Futurama episode " Three Hundred Big Boys " .
= = Reception = =
Although in more recent seasons Flanders has become a caricature of the Christian right , he is still a favorite of many Christian viewers . Dr. Rowan Williams , a former Archbishop of Canterbury , is a confessed Simpsons fan , and likes Flanders . Ned 's " unbearable piousness " has been described as " The Simpsons ' sharpest critique of organized religion . The show 's implicit argument seems to be that humorless obsessives like Ned have hijacked religious institutions , removing them from the center of society to a place where only those who know their brides of Beth Chedruharazzeb from their wells of Zohassadar can seek solace . " Steve Goddard of the website Ship of Fools said , " Ned is an innocent abroad in a world of cynicism and compromise . We love him because we know what it 's like to be classed as a nerd — and to come out smiling at the end of it . "
= = Cultural influence = =
Ned Flanders has been described as " The United States ' most well @-@ known evangelical " . According to Christianity Today , " today on American college and high school campuses , the name most associated with the word Christian — other than Jesus — is not the Pope or Mother Teresa or even Billy Graham . Instead , it 's a goofy @-@ looking guy named Ned Flanders on the animated sitcom known as The Simpsons . The mustache , thick glasses , green sweater , and irrepressibly cheerful demeanor of Ned Flanders , Homer Simpson 's next @-@ door neighbor , have made him an indelible figure , the evangelical known most intimately to nonevangelicals . " Former Montreal Canadiens goaltender Peter Budaj had an image of Ned Flanders painted on the back of his helmet .
In 2001 and 2002 , the Greenbelt festival , a British Christian music and arts fest , held a special " Ned Flanders Night " . The 2001 event featured a look @-@ alike contest , as well as the tribute band " Ned Zeppelin " . It was held in a 500 @-@ seat venue that was filled to capacity , and an extra 1500 people were turned away at the door . A second event was held in 2002 , with Ned Zeppelin reappearing .
Another tribute band , Okilly Dokilly , plays heavy metal music .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Flanders has been included in The Simpsons merchandise . In 2008 , the Flanders ' Book of Faith , part of the Simpsons Library of Wisdom was released by HarperCollins . The book takes a look at Flanders ' life and his ever enduring faith .
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= Gene Wilder =
Jerome Silberman ( born June 11 , 1933 ) , known professionally as Gene Wilder , is an American stage and screen comic actor , screenwriter , and author .
Wilder began his career on stage , and made his screen debut in the TV @-@ series Armstrong Circle Theatre in 1962 . Although his first film role was portraying a hostage in the 1967 motion picture Bonnie and Clyde , Wilder 's first major role was as Leopold Bloom in the 1968 film The Producers for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . This was the first in a series of collaborations with writer / director Mel Brooks , including 1974 's Blazing Saddles and Young Frankenstein , which Wilder co @-@ wrote , garnering the pair an Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay . Wilder is known for his portrayal of Willy Wonka in Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory ( 1971 ) and for his four films with Richard Pryor : Silver Streak ( 1976 ) , Stir Crazy ( 1980 ) , See No Evil , Hear No Evil ( 1989 ) , and Another You ( 1991 ) . Wilder has directed and written several of his films , including The Woman in Red ( 1984 ) .
His third wife was actress Gilda Radner , with whom he starred in three films . Her death from ovarian cancer led to his active involvement in promoting cancer awareness and treatment , helping found the Gilda Radner Ovarian Cancer Detection Center in Los Angeles and co @-@ founding Gilda 's Club .
Since his most recent contribution to acting in 2003 , Wilder has turned his attention to writing . He has produced a memoir in 2005 , Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art ; a collection of stories , What Is This Thing Called Love ? ( 2010 ) ; and the novels My French Whore ( 2007 ) , The Woman Who Wouldn 't ( 2008 ) and Something to Remember You By ( 2013 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Born Jerome Silberman in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on June 11 , 1933 , Wilder is the son of William J. and Jeanne ( Baer ) Silberman . He adopted " Gene Wilder " for his professional name at the age of 26 , later explaining , " I had always liked Gene because of Thomas Wolfe 's character Eugene Gant in Look Homeward , Angel and Of Time and the River . And I was always a great admirer of Thornton Wilder . " Wilder first became interested in acting at age 8 , when his mother was diagnosed with rheumatic fever and the doctor told him to " try and make her laugh . "
At the age of 11 , he saw his sister , who was studying acting , performing onstage , and was enthralled by the experience . He asked her teacher if he could become his student , and the teacher said that if he were still interested at age 13 , he would take Wilder on as a student . The day after Wilder turned 13 , he called the teacher , who accepted him ; Wilder studied with him for two years .
When Jeanne Silberman felt that her son 's potential was not being fully realized in Wisconsin , she sent him to Black @-@ Foxe , a military institute in Hollywood , where he wrote that he was bullied and sexually assaulted , primarily because he was the only Jewish boy in the school . After an unsuccessful short stay at Black @-@ Foxe , Wilder returned home and became increasingly involved with the local theatre community . At age 15 , he performed for the first time in front of a paying audience , as Balthasar ( Romeo 's manservant ) in a production of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet . Gene Wilder graduated from Washington High School in Milwaukee in 1951 .
Wilder was raised Jewish , but holds only the Golden Rule as his philosophy . He described himself as a " Jewish @-@ Buddhist @-@ Atheist " in an interview published in 2005 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early starts : Old Vic and Army = = =
Wilder studied Communication and Theatre Arts at the University of Iowa , where he was a member of the Alpha Epsilon Pi Fraternity . Following his 1955 graduation from Iowa , he was accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in Bristol , England . After six months of studying fencing , Wilder became the first freshman to win the All @-@ School Fencing Championship . Desiring to study Stanislavski 's system , he returned to the U.S. , living with his sister and her family in Queens . Wilder enrolled at the HB Studio .
Wilder was drafted into the Army on September 10 , 1956 . At the end of recruit training , he was assigned to the medical corps and sent to Fort Sam Houston for training . He was then given the opportunity to choose any post that was open , and wanting to stay near New York City to attend acting classes at the HB Studio , he chose to serve as paramedic in the Department of Psychiatry and Neurology at Valley Forge Army Hospital , in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania . In November 1957 , his mother died from ovarian cancer . He was discharged from the army a year later and returned to New York . A scholarship to the HB Studio allowed him to become a full @-@ time student . At first living on unemployment insurance and some savings , he later supported himself with odd jobs such as a limousine driver and fencing instructor . Wilder 's first professional acting job was in Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he played the Second Officer in Herbert Berghof 's production of Twelfth Night . He also served as a fencing choreographer .
After three years of study with Berghof and Uta Hagen at the HB Studio , Charles Grodin told Wilder about Lee Strasberg 's method acting . Grodin persuaded him to leave the studio and begin studying with Strasberg in his private class . Several months later , Wilder was accepted into the Actors Studio . Feeling that " Jerry Silberman in Macbeth " did not have the right ring to it , he adopted a stage name . He chose " Wilder " because it reminded him of Our Town author Thornton Wilder , while " Gene " came from Thomas Wolfe 's first novel , Look Homeward , Angel . He also liked " Gene " because as a boy , he was impressed by a distant relative , a World War II bomber navigator who was " handsome and looked great in his leather flight jacket . " He later said that he could not see Gene Wilder playing Macbeth , either . After joining the Actors Studio , he slowly began to be noticed in the off @-@ Broadway scene , thanks to performances in Sir Arnold Wesker 's Roots and in Graham Greene 's The Complaisant Lover , for which Wilder received the Clarence Derwent Award for " Best Performance by an Actor in a Nonfeatured Role . "
= = = Mel Brooks = = =
In 1963 , Wilder was cast in a leading role in Mother Courage and Her Children , a production starring Anne Bancroft , who introduced Wilder to her boyfriend Mel Brooks . A few months later , Brooks mentioned that he was working on a screenplay called Springtime for Hitler , for which he thought Wilder would be perfect in the role of Leo Bloom . Brooks elicited a promise from Wilder that he would check with him before making any long @-@ term commitments . Months went by , and Wilder toured the country with different theatre productions , participated in a televised CBS presentation of Death of a Salesman , and was cast for his first role in a film — a minor role in Arthur Penn 's 1967 Bonnie and Clyde . After three years of not hearing from Brooks , Wilder was called for a reading with Zero Mostel , who was to be the star of Springtime for Hitler and had approval of his co @-@ star . Mostel approved , and Wilder was cast for his first leading role in a feature film , 1968 's The Producers .
The Producers eventually became a cult comedy classic , with Mel Brooks winning an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and Wilder being nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Nevertheless , Brooks ' first directorial effort did not do well at the box office and was not well received by all critics ; New York Times critic Renata Adler reviewed the film and described it as " black college humor " .
In 1969 , Wilder relocated to Paris , accepting a leading role in Bud Yorkin 's Start the Revolution Without Me , a comedy that took place during the French Revolution . After shooting ended , Wilder returned to New York , where he read the script for Quackser Fortune Has a Cousin in the Bronx and immediately called Sidney Glazier , who produced The Producers . Both men began searching for the perfect director for the film . Jean Renoir was the first candidate , but he would not be able to do the film for at least a year , so British @-@ Indian director Waris Hussein was hired .
= = = Willy Wonka , Young Frankenstein , and Richard Pryor = = =
In 1971 , Wilder auditioned to play Willy Wonka in Mel Stuart 's film adaptation of Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory . After reciting some lines , Wilder prepared to leave the auditioning station , but Mel Stuart ( who was a Gene Wilder fan ) ran after him , offering the role to Wilder immediately . Wilder was initially hesitant when he learned more on the role , but finally accepted the role under one condition :
When I make my first entrance , I 'd like to come out of the door carrying a cane and then walk toward the crowd with a limp . After the crowd sees Willy Wonka is a cripple , they all whisper to themselves and then become deathly quiet . As I walk toward them , my cane sinks into one of the cobblestones I 'm walking on and stands straight up , by itself ... but I keep on walking , until I realize that I no longer have my cane . I start to fall forward , and just before I hit the ground , I do a beautiful forward somersault and bounce back up , to great applause .
When Stuart asked why , Wilder replied , " Because from that time on , no one will know if I 'm lying or telling the truth . "
All three films Wilder did after The Producers were box office failures : Start the Revolution and Quackser seemed to audiences poor copies of Mel Brooks films , while Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory was not a commercial success , seeming , to some parents , a moral story " too cruel " for children to understand , thus failing to attract family audiences . Willy Wonka did gain a cult following and an Oscar nomination for Best Score , as well as a Golden Globe award nomination for Wilder . When Woody Allen offered him a role in one segment of Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) , Wilder accepted , hoping this would be the hit to put an end to his series of flops . Everything ... was a hit , grossing over $ 18 million in the United States alone against a $ 2 @-@ million budget .
After Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) , Wilder began working on a script he called Young Frankenstein . After he wrote a two @-@ page scenario , and called Mel Brooks , who told him that it seemed like a " cute " idea , but showed little interest . A few months later , Wilder received a call from his agent , Mike Medavoy , who asked if he had anything where he could include Peter Boyle and Marty Feldman , his two new clients . Having just seen Feldman on television , Wilder was inspired to write a scene that takes place at Transylvania Station , where Igor and Frederick meet for the first time . The scene was later included in the film almost verbatim . Medavoy liked the idea and called Brooks , asking him to direct . Brooks was not convinced , but having spent four years working on two box @-@ office failures , he decided to accept . While working on the Young Frankenstein script , Wilder was offered the part of the Fox in the musical film adaptation of Saint Exupéry 's classic book , The Little Prince . When filming was about to begin in London , Wilder received an urgent call from Brooks , who was filming Blazing Saddles , offering Wilder the role of the " Waco Kid " after Dan Dailey dropped out at the last minute , while Gig Young became too ill to continue . Wilder shot his scenes for Blazing Saddles and immediately afterwards filmed The Little Prince .
After Young Frankenstein was written , the rights were to be sold to Columbia Pictures , but after having trouble agreeing on the budget , Wilder , Brooks , and producer Michael Gruskoff went with 20th Century Fox , where both Brooks and Wilder had to sign five @-@ year contracts . Young Frankenstein was a commercial success , with Wilder and Brooks receiving Best Adapted Screenplay nominations at the 1975 Oscars , losing to Francis Coppola and Mario Puzo for their adaptation of The Godfather Part II . While filming Young Frankenstein , Wilder had an idea for a romantic musical comedy about a brother of Sherlock Holmes . Marty Feldman and Madeline Kahn agreed to participate in the project , and Wilder began writing what became his directorial début , 1975 's The Adventure of Sherlock Holmes ' Smarter Brother .
In 1975 , Wilder 's agent sent him a script for a film called Super Chief . Wilder accepted , but told the film 's producers that he thought the only person who could keep the film from being offensive was Richard Pryor . Pryor accepted the role in the film , which had been renamed Silver Streak , the first film to team Wilder and Pryor . While filming Silver Streak , Wilder began working on a script for The World 's Greatest Lover , inspired by Fellini 's The White Sheik . Wilder wrote , produced , and directed The World 's Greatest Lover , which premièred in 1977 , but was a critical failure . The Frisco Kid ( 1979 ) was Wilder 's next project . The film was to star John Wayne , but he dropped out when the Warner Brothers executives tried to dissuade him from charging the studio his usual $ 1 @-@ million fee . Wayne also was ill for many years and died in June 1979 . Harrison Ford , then an up @-@ and @-@ coming actor , was hired for the role .
= = = Sidney Poitier and Gilda Radner = = =
In 1980 , Sidney Poitier and producer Hannah Weinstein persuaded Wilder and Richard Pryor to do another film together . Bruce Jay Friedman wrote the script for Stir Crazy , with Poitier directing , for Columbia Pictures . Pryor was struggling with a severe cocaine addiction , and filming became difficult , but once the film premiered , it became an international success . New York magazine listed " Skip Donahue " ( Wilder ) and " Harry Monroe " ( Pryor ) as number nine on their 2007 list of " The Fifteen Most Dynamic Duos in Pop Culture History " , and the film has often appeared in " best comedy " lists and rankings .
Poitier and Wilder became friends , with the pair working together on a script called Traces — which became 1982 's Hanky Panky , the film where Wilder met comedian Gilda Radner . Through the remainder of the decade , Wilder and Radner worked in several projects together . After Hanky Panky , Wilder directed his third film , 1984 's The Woman in Red , which starred Wilder , Radner , and Kelly Le Brock . The Woman in Red was not well received by the critics , nor was their next project , 1986 's Haunted Honeymoon , which failed to attract audiences . The Woman in Red did win an Academy Award for Best Original Song for Stevie Wonder 's song " I Just Called to Say I Love You " .
TriStar Pictures wanted to produce another film starring Wilder and Pryor , and Wilder agreed to do See No Evil , Hear No Evil only if he were allowed to rewrite the script . The studio agreed , and See No Evil , Hear No Evil premiered on May 1989 to mostly negative reviews . Many critics praised Wilder and Pryor , as well as Kevin Spacey 's performance , but they mostly agreed that the script was terrible . Roger Ebert called it " a real dud " ; the Deseret Morning News described the film as " stupid " , with an " idiotic script " that had a " contrived story " and too many " juvenile gags " , while Vincent Canby called it " by far the most successful co @-@ starring vehicle for Mr. Pryor and Mr. Wilder " , also acknowledging that " this is not elegant movie making , and not all of the gags are equally clever " .
= = = 1990s – 2000s = = =
After starring as a political cartoonist who falls in love in the 1990 film Funny About Love , Wilder did one final movie with Pryor , the 1991 feature Another You , in which Pryor 's physical deterioration from multiple sclerosis was clearly noticeable . It was Pryor 's last starring role in a film ( he appeared in a few cameos before his death in 2005 ) and also marked Wilder 's last appearance to date in a feature film . Neither of his last two movies was financially successful . His remaining work has consisted of television movies and guest appearances in TV shows .
In 1994 , Wilder starred in the NBC sitcom Something Wilder . The show received poor reviews and lasted only one season . He went back to the small screen in 1999 , appearing in three television movies , one of which was the NBC adaptation of Alice in Wonderland . The other two , Murder in a Small Town and The Lady in Question , were mystery movies for A & E TV that were cowritten by Wilder , in which he played a theatre director turned amateur detective . Three years later , Wilder guest @-@ starred on two episodes of NBC 's Will & Grace , winning a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor on a Comedy Series for his role as Mr. Stein , Will Truman 's boss .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
Wilder met his first wife , Mary Mercier , while studying at the HB Studio in New York . Although the couple had not been together long , they married on July 22 , 1960 . They spent long periods of time apart , eventually divorcing in 1965 . A few months later , Wilder began dating Mary Joan Schutz , a friend of his sister . Schutz had a daughter , Katharine , from a previous marriage . When Katharine started calling Wilder " Dad , " he decided to do what he felt was " the right thing to do , " marrying Schutz on October 27 , 1967 , and adopting Katharine that same year . Schutz and Wilder separated after seven years of marriage , with Katharine thinking that Wilder was having an affair with his Young Frankenstein co @-@ star , Madeline Kahn . After the divorce , he briefly dated his other Frankenstein co @-@ star , Teri Garr . Wilder eventually became estranged from Katharine .
Wilder met Saturday Night Live actress Gilda Radner on August 13 , 1981 , while filming Sidney Poitier 's Hanky Panky . Radner was married to guitarist G. E. Smith at the time , but Wilder and she became inseparable friends . When the filming of Hanky Panky ended , Wilder found himself missing Radner , so he called her . The relationship grew , and Radner eventually divorced Smith in 1982 . She moved in with Wilder , and the couple married on September 14 , 1984 , in the south of France . The couple wanted to have children , but Radner suffered miscarriages , and doctors could not determine the problem . After experiencing severe fatigue and suffering from pain in her upper legs on the set of Haunted Honeymoon , Radner sought medical treatment . Following a number of false diagnoses , she was found to have ovarian cancer in October 1986 . Over the next year and a half , Radner battled the disease , receiving chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments . The disease finally went into remission , giving the pair a respite , during which time Wilder filmed See No Evil , Hear No Evil . By May 1989 , the cancer returned and had metastasized . Radner died on May 20 , 1989 . Wilder later stated , " I always thought she 'd pull through . "
Following Radner 's death , Wilder became active in promoting cancer awareness and treatment , helping found the Gilda Radner Ovarian Cancer Detection Center in Los Angeles and co @-@ founding Gilda 's Club , a support group to raise awareness of cancer that began in New York City and now has branches throughout the country .
While preparing for his role as a deaf man in See No Evil , Hear No Evil , Wilder met Karen Webb ( née Boyer ) , who was a clinical supervisor for the New York League for the Hard of Hearing . Webb coached him in lip reading . Following Gilda Radner 's death , Wilder and Webb reconnected , and on September 8 , 1991 , they married . The two live in Stamford , Connecticut , in the 1734 Colonial home that he shared with Radner .
= = = Political views = = =
Wilder is a supporter of the Democratic Party , and has staunchly opposed U.S. actions in the Vietnam War and the Iraq War . He supported Eugene McCarthy in the 1968 presidential election . In terms of being politically active himself , Wilder stated , " I 'm quietly political . I don 't like advertising . Giving money to someone or support , but not getting on a bandstand . I don 't want to run for president in 2008 . I will write another book instead . "
= = = Semiretirement and authorship = = =
The Wilders spend most of their time painting watercolors , writing , and participating in charitable efforts .
In 1998 , Wilder collaborated on the book Gilda 's Disease with oncologist Steven Piver , sharing personal experiences of Radner 's struggle with ovarian cancer . Wilder himself was hospitalized with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma in 1999 , but confirmed in March 2005 that the cancer was in complete remission following chemotherapy and a stem cell transplant .
In October 2001 , he read from Charlie and the Chocolate Factory as part of a special benefit performance held at the Westport Country Playhouse to aid families affected by the September 11 attacks . Also in 2001 , Wilder donated a collection of scripts , correspondences , documents , photographs , and clipped images to the University of Iowa Libraries .
On March 1 , 2005 , Wilder released his highly personal memoir , Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art , an account of his life covering everything from his childhood up to Radner 's death . Two years later , in March 2007 , Wilder released his first novel , My French Whore , which is set during World War I. His second novel , The Woman Who Wouldn 't , was released in March 2008 .
In a 2008 Turner Classic Movies special , Role Model : Gene Wilder , where Alec Baldwin interviewed Wilder about his career , Wilder said that he was basically retired from acting for good . " I don 't like show business , I realized , " he explained . " I like show , but I don 't like the business . "
In 2010 , Wilder released a collection of stories called What Is This Thing Called Love ? . His third novel , Something to Remember You By : A Perilous Romance , was released in April 2013 .
When asked in a 2013 Time Out New York magazine interview whether he would act again if a suitable film project came his way , Wilder responded , " I ’ m tired of watching the bombing , shooting , killing , swearing and 3 @-@ D. I get 52 movies a year sent to me , and maybe there are three good [ ones ] . That ’ s why I went into writing . It ’ s not that I wouldn ’ t act again . I ’ d say , ' Give me the script . If it ’ s something wonderful , I ’ ll do it . ' But I don ’ t get anything like that . "
= = Work = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
Voice for The Electric Company 's segment The Adventures of Letterman ( 60 episodes , 1972 – 1977 )
Something Wilder ( 1994 – 1995 )
Will & Grace Episodes " Boardroom and a Parked Place " ( 2002 ) and " Sex , Losers & Videotape " ( 2003 ) ; ( Guest Star – Mr. Stein )
= = = Stage = = =
The Complaisant Lover ( Broadway , 1962 )
Mother Courage and Her Children ( Broadway , 1963 )
One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ( Broadway , 1963 )
The White House ( Broadway , 1964 )
Luv ( Broadway , 1966 )
Laughter on the 23rd Floor ( London , 1996 )
= = = Documentaries = = =
" Expo : Magic of the White City " ( 2005 )
= = = Publications = = =
Piver , M. Steven and Gene Wilder . Gilda 's Disease : Sharing Personal Experiences and a Medical Perspective on Ovarian Cancer . Broadway Books , 1998 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7679 @-@ 0138 @-@ X
Wilder , Gene . Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art . St. Martin 's Press , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 33706 @-@ X
Wilder , Gene . My French Whore . St. Martin 's Press , 2007 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 36057 @-@ 6
Wilder , Gene . The Woman Who Wouldn 't . St. Martin 's Press , 2008 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 37578 @-@ 6
Wilder , Gene . What Is This Thing Called Love ? . St. Martin 's Press , 2010 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 59890 @-@ 7
Wilder , Gene . Something to Remember You By . St. Martin 's Press , 2013 . ISBN 9780312598914
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= White Dog =
White Dog is a 1982 American drama film directed by Samuel Fuller using a screenplay written by Fuller and Curtis Hanson loosely based on Romain Gary 's 1970 novel of the same title . The film depicts the struggle of a dog trainer named Keys ( Paul Winfield ) , who is black , trying to retrain a stray dog found by a young actress ( Kristy McNichol ) , that is a " white dog " — a dog trained to viciously attack any black person . Fuller uses the film as a platform to deliver an anti @-@ racist message as it examines the question of whether racism is a treatable problem or an incurable condition .
The film 's theatrical release was suppressed in the United States by Paramount Pictures out of concern of negative press after rumors began circulating that the film was racist . It was released internationally in France and the United Kingdom in 1982 , and broadcast on various American cable television channels . Its first official American release came in December 2008 when The Criterion Collection released the original uncut film to DVD .
Critics praised the film 's hard line look at racism and Fuller 's use of melodrama and metaphors to present his argument , and its somewhat disheartening ending that leaves the impression that while racism is learned , it cannot be cured . Reviewers consistently questioned the film 's lack of wide release in the United States when it was completed and applauded its belated release by Criterion .
= = Plot = =
Young actress Julie Sawyer ( Kristy McNichol ) accidentally runs over a stray White German Shepherd Dog one night . After the dog is treated by a vet , Julie takes him home while trying to find his owners . A rapist breaks into her house and tries to attack her , but the dog protects her so she decides to adopt him , against the wishes of her boyfriend ( Jameson Parker ) . Unbeknown to her , the dog was trained by a white racist to attack any and all black people on sight . It sneaks out of the house one night and kills a black truck driver in an attack . Later , when Julie takes the dog to work with her , it attacks a black actress on the set .
Realizing something is not right with the dog , Julie takes him to a dog trainer , Carruthers ( Burl Ives ) , who tells her to kill the dog . Another dog trainer named Keys ( Paul Winfield ) , who is black himself , undertakes re @-@ educating the dog as a personal challenge . He dons protective gear and keeps the dog in a large enclosure , taking him out on a chain and exposing himself to the dog each day and making sure he is the only one to feed or care for the dog .
The dog manages to escape , and kills an elderly black man in a church , after which Keys manages to recover him , and opts not to turn the dog in to the authorities , but to continue the training , over Julie 's protests . He warns her that the training has reached a critical point , where the dog might be cured or go insane . He believes that curing the dog will discourage white racists from training dogs like this , though there is no indication in the story that this is any kind of national problem ( the film is set well after the civil rights era , the setting of the original novel ) .
After a lengthy time , it seems as if the dog is cured , in that he is now friendly towards Keys . Julie confronts the dog 's original owner , who has come to claim him , and who presumably trained him to attack black people . She angrily tells him in front of his grandchildren , who only know the dog as a loving family pet , that the dog has been cured by a black man .
Just as Julie and Keys celebrate their victory , the dog , without warning , turns its attention to Carruthers and brutally attacks him . The dog had not previously shown any aggression towards him — no explanation for this is given , but the implication is that the dog 's programming has somehow been reversed , though that was never Keys ' intention . To save his employer 's life , Keys is forced to shoot the dog , and the film ends with the image of the dog 's body lying in the center of the training enclosure .
= = Themes = =
White Dog is a " blunt , highly cinematic parable about race relations " that questions whether racism is a curable mental illness or learned behavior , or if it is an untreatable disease . The unnamed white German Shepherd is the metaphor of racism , with his radically contrasting moments of innocent , typical dog behavior when not around black persons , and his snarling viciousness when he sees a target . Paul Winfield 's character Keys , who believes he can help the dog unlearn this behavior , represents the view that racism can be unlearned . Keys ' attempts to reprogram the dog become a " bold literalization of the race war " , and as the film progresses Keys becomes obsessed with the idea that he can cure the dog . Much like Captain Ahab , he declares that if he fails with this dog , he will find another and another until he succeeds . Keys ' counterpart , Carruthers , a white trainer , believes the dog is irredeemable and should be killed , representing the view that racism cannot be cured .
The snarling dog , its white fur stained with bright red stage blood , becomes a typically imposing , outscale Fuller image - the embodiment of snarling , irrational and implacable hatred . Typical , too , is the way Fuller emphasizes the radical contrast between the dog in its innocent , unaroused state – big brown eyes staring up at McNichol – and its plunging , salivating attack mode .
Scenes showing Kristy McNichol innocently burying her hands in the dog 's fur and his normal loving behavior when alone with her provides a stark image of " how hatred can be familiar , reassuringly close " . J. Hoberman argues that the film " naturalizes racism in an unnatural way " in the contrasting depictions of white characters horrified by the dog 's behavior , and black characters who grimly accept it as a fact of life . The film 's ending has been argued to emphasize Fuller 's own view that racism is something that is learned , but that once learned is a " poison " that can never truly " be banished from those it infects " . But on the other hand , the dog is actually cured of attacking blacks , but not cured of his own hatred since the last thing he does is to , unprovoked , attack a white man . The ending implies therefore that it is hatred ( and not racism ) that cannot be banished from those it infects .
In the original Romain Gary novel , this was not the story that was told — the dog started to attack white people because a black man embittered by white racism deliberately retrained him to do so .
= = Production = =
White Dog 's roots lie with a 1970 autobiographical novel written by Romain Gary of the same name . The story was purchased for use by Paramount in 1975 , with Curtis Hanson selected to write the screenplay and Roman Polanski hired to direct . Before shooting commenced , Polanski was charged with statutory rape and fled the country , leaving the production in limbo . Over a span of six years , the project was given to various writers and producers , who all focused on the stray dog story from Gary 's original work . Gary 's activist wife was replaced in the script with a young , unmarried actress because Paramount wanted to contrast the dog 's random attacks with a loving relationship between the protagonist and the dog . Paramount executives noted that they wanted a " Jaws with paws " and indicated that they wanted any racial elements to be downplayed . In one memo , the company noted : " Given the organic elements of this story , it is imperative that we never overtly address through attitude or statement the issue of racism per se " .
By 1981 , Gary 's wife and then Gary himself had committed suicide . At the same time , Hollywood was under threat of strikes by both the writer and director guilds . Needing enough films to carry the studio through in case the strikes happened , White Dog was one of thirteen films considered to be far enough along to be completable in a short time frame . With a push from Michael Eisner , White Dog was one of seven that Paramount put on a fast track for production . Eisner pushed for the film to be one of the selected ones because of its social message that hate was learned . Producer Jon Davison was less certain and questioned the film 's marketing early on . Hanson , back on board as the film 's screenwriter , suggested Samuel Fuller be named the film 's director as he felt Fuller was the only one available with the experience needed to complete the film on such a short schedule and with a low budget , while still doing so responsibly with regard to the sensitive material . Davison agreed after visiting Fuller and seeing Fuller act out how he would shoot the film .
Fuller readily agreed , having focused much of his career on racial issues . Already familiar with the novel and with the concept of " white dogs " , he was tasked with " reconceptualizing " the film to have the conflict depicted in the book occur within the dog rather than the people . In an earlier Variety magazine interview , Fuller stated that viewers would " see a dog slowly go insane and then come back to sanity " . Before filming began , the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , the Black Anti @-@ Defamation Coalition ( BADC ) , and other civil @-@ rights leaders began voicing concerns that the film would spur racial violence . In an editorial in the Los Angeles Times , Robert Price , executive director of the BADC , criticized the studio for producing the film based on a book by a white man and using a primarily white cast and crew , rather than producing the film with African Americans in key positions . He also considered Gary 's work to be a " second @-@ rate novel " and questioned its use when " book shelves are laden with quality novels by black writers who explore the same social and psychological areas with far more subtlety ? "
Fuller was confident in his work and the idea that the film would be strongly antiracist , particularly with the changes he had made to the original work . The novel 's hate @-@ filled Muslim black trainer , who deliberately retrained the dog to attack white people , was converted into the character of Keys , who genuinely wished to cure the animal . Fuller also changed the novel 's original ending into a more pessimistic film ending . The film was shot in only forty @-@ five days at a cost of $ 7 million . Five white German Shepherd Dogs played the unnamed central character .
After filming commenced Paramount Pictures brought in two African @-@ American consultants to review and approve the depiction of the black characters : Willis Edwards , vice president of the local NAACP chapter and David L. Crippens , the vice president and stage manager of the local PBS affiliate . In the end , they walked away with different views of the film . Crippens did not find the film to have any racist connotations , while Edwards found it inflammatory and felt it should not have been made , particularly during that year when a series of murders of black children was occurring in Atlanta . The two men provided a write @-@ up of their views for the studio executives , which were passed to Davison along with warnings that the studio feared a film boycott . Fuller was not told of these discussions nor given the notes until two weeks before filming was slated to conclude . Known for being a staunch integrationist and for his regularly giving black actors non @-@ stereotypical roles , Fuller was furious , finding the studio 's actions insulting . He reportedly had both representatives banned from the set afterwards , though he did integrate some of the suggested changes into the film .
The film was completed in 1981 , but Paramount was hesitant to release the film out of continuing concerns that the film would be misconstrued . Though no one from the organization had viewed the completed film , the NAACP threatened boycotts . In early 1982 , the studio finally held preview screenings in Seattle , Washington and Denver , Colorado , with mixed responses . That fall , another test run was held in Detroit , Michigan , which resulted in praise from critics but little public interest . The film was finally left unreleased , with Paramount feeling it did not have enough earnings potential to go against the threatened boycotts and possible bad publicity . Dumbfounded and hurt by the film 's shelving , Fuller moved to France , and never directed another American film .
= = Distribution = =
Paramount felt the film was too controversial for release , giving it only a few limited preview runs before shelving it . The film 's first theatrical release occurred in France on July 7 , 1982 . In the United Kingdom , it was part of the 37th Edinburgh International Film Festival and the 27th London Film Festival in 1983 , and was released late that year by United International Pictures . It received positive reviews in both countries . Lisa Dombrowski of Film Comment notes , " In the end , Sam Fuller 's White Dog was muzzled by a collision of historically specific economic and political interests , as support for freedom of expression took a backseat to Paramount 's bottom line and the NAACP 's ongoing battles with Hollywood over representation and employment . A Sam Fuller thriller was simply not the kind of antiracist picture that a major studio knew how to market in 1981 or that African @-@ American organizations wanted Hollywood to make at the time " .
In 1983 , White Dog was edited for a direct @-@ to @-@ television broadcast and made available purchase by cable channels . The following year , NBC bought broadcast rights for $ 2 @.@ 5 million and slated the film to air during the February sweeps , then canceled the broadcast two days later due to pressure from the continuing NAACP campaign and concerns of a negative reaction by both viewers and advertisers . The film was eventually aired on other cable channels sporadically and without fanfare . It was also infrequently screened at independent film houses and film festivals .
Its first official American release came on December 2 , 2008 , when The Criterion Collection released the film to DVD . The DVD has the uncut version of the film , video interviews from the original producer and writer , an interview with the trainer of the dog used in the film , and a booklet of critical essays . The National Society of Film Critics bestowed the distributor with a special film heritage award for releasing the film .
= = Reception = =
Due to its limited release , it only grossed $ 46 @,@ 509 . While today the film is generally seen as a B @-@ movie , it was initially praised by critics upon its release , particularly for its treatment of racism and Fuller 's directorial talents . Dave Kehr , of the Chicago Tribune , praised Fuller for " pulling no punches " in the film and for his use of metaphors to present racism " as a mental disease , for which there may or may not be a cure " . Kehr considered the film less melodramatic or bizarre than Fuller 's earlier works , which was also positive since it left the film " clean and uncluttered with a single , concentrated line of development mounting toward a single , crushingly pessimistic moral insight " . Entertainment Weekly 's Kim Moran called it a " uncompromising , poignant examination of racism " and felt it was one of Fuller 's most inspired films and a " gripping , meditative , and ultimately beautiful achievement " . Video Business reviewer Cyril Pearl called it " bombastic , odd and quite chilling " and felt the film was an antiracist work that " deserve [ d ] an audience " .
Charles Taylor , writing for The New York Times , lambasted the film 's original suppression due to " the stupidity of pressure groups " that wrongly labeled the film as racist when it is , in his words , " a profoundly antiracist film , though a despairing one " . He praised Winfield 's tense performance and Fuller 's use of melodrama to create one of his " most potent " films . Lisa Dombrowski , the author The Films of Samuel Fuller : If You Die , I 'll Kill You ! and an associate professor of film studies at Wesleyan University , referred to the film as " an impassioned attack on racial hatred " . Another New York Times reviewer , Janet Maslin , praised Fuller 's " command of stark , spooky imagery " , " B @-@ style bluntness " , and the way the cinematography , scene setting , and soundtrack combine to give the film " the blunt , unnerving power of a horror story " . She also commended Paul Winfield 's performance as Keys , feeling the actor turned what might have been a boring character into one audiences would find interesting . Slant Magazine 's Fernando F. Croce felt the film was " part marauding @-@ animal horror movie , part Afterschool Special , [ and ] part tragic @-@ sardonic agitprop " B @-@ movie that is " searing confrontation of the irrationality of prejudice " .
In The Magic Hour : Film at Fin de Siècle , J. Hoberman referred to the film as an " unusually blunt and suggestive metaphoric account of American racism " . Though he felt the film was a " sad waste " of Fuller 's talent , he praised the director 's treatment of the work , including the changes made to the source material , noting that " filmed in headlines , framed as allegory , White Dog combines hard @-@ boiled sentimentality and hysterical violence . " He praised the musical score used in the film for lending dignity to the " iconic visuals and cartoon dialogue . "
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= The Seven Crystal Balls =
The Seven Crystal Balls ( French : Les Sept Boules de Cristal ) is the thirteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from December 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . The story was cancelled abruptly following the Allied liberation in September 1944 , when Hergé was accused of collaborating with the occupying Germans and banned from working . After he was cleared two years later , the story was then serialised weekly in the new Tintin magazine from September 1946 to April 1948 . The story revolves around the investigations of a young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock into the abduction of their friend Professor Calculus and its connection to a mysterious illness which has afflicted the members of an archaeological expedition to Peru .
The Seven Crystal Balls was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion . Hergé concluded the arc begun in this story with Prisoners of the Sun , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Critics have ranked The Seven Crystal Balls as one of the best Adventures of Tintin , describing it as the most frightening instalment in the series . The story was adapted for the 1969 Belvision film , Tintin and the Temple of the Sun and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
Young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock spend an evening at the music hall . There , they witness the performance of a clairvoyant , Madame Yamilah , who predicts the illness of one of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition members , who recently returned from an archaeological expedition to the Andes mountains . They also view the act of a knife thrower whom Tintin recognises as General Alcazar , former President of San Theodoros . Meeting him backstage , Alcazar introduces them to his Indio assistant , Chiquito , and learn that he was deposed ( once again ) by his rival General Tapioca .
The next day , they learn that the members of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition are falling into comas , with fragments of a shattered crystal ball found near each victim . Concerned , Tintin , Haddock , and their friend Professor Calculus visit Calculus 's old friend Professor Hercules Tarragon , the only expedition member yet to be affected . Professor Tarragon is under police guard , and he shows his visitors the mummified body of Inca king Rascar Capac , which the expedition brought back with them from Peru . A lightning storm strikes the house and sends ball lightning down the chimney and onto the mummy — which evaporates . Worried , Tarragon states that this reflects the culmination of Capac 's prophecy , which declares that punishment will descend upon those who desecrate his tomb . Spending the stormy night at Tarragon 's house , Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus are each awoken by a dream involving Capac 's mummy . They find Tarragon comatose in his bed , with the accompanying crystal shards nearby ; the attacker had bypassed the guards by climbing in via the chimney . The next day , Calculus is walking on the grounds of Tarragon 's house when he discovers one of the mummy 's bracelets , which he places on himself .
Tintin and Haddock later realise that Calculus has gone missing , and surmise that he has been kidnapped by the same individual who placed Tarragon in a coma . The police set up road blocks , but the kidnappers switch cars and are able to evade them . Tintin visits a hospital where the seven stricken members of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition are housed ; he is astonished that at a precise time of day , all awaken and scream about figures attacking them before slipping back into their comas . Haddock is dejected by Calculus ' abduction , but upon learning that police have spotted the kidnapper 's car at a port , he and Tintin race there , believing that the abductors seek to board a boat with Calculus and take him abroad . At the docks , they spot Alcazar boarding a ship to South America ; he reveals that Chiquito has disappeared and that he was one of the last descendants of the Inca , with Tintin surmising that Chiquito must be one of Calculus ' captors .
Having lost Calculus ' trail , Tintin and Haddock decide to pay a visit to Haddock 's old friend Chester , who has docked at another nearby port . They miss Chester , but instead discover Calculus ' hat on the docks , indicating that he was taken to sea from here . Investigating , they realise that Calculus must be aboard the Pachacamac , a ship headed to Peru , and board a flight , intent on intercepting its arrival .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . Joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé was aided by old friend Paul Jamin and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
Following the culmination of his previous Tintin adventure , Red Rackham 's Treasure , Hergé had agreed to a proposal that the newspaper could include a detective story revolving around his characters , Thomson and Thompson . Titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( " Thomson and Thompson , Detectives " ) , Hergé provided the illustrations while the story was authored by the Le Soir crime writer Paul Kinnet . While this was being serialised , Hergé began contemplating ideas for his new Tintin adventure , toying with the idea of a story surrounding a dangerous invention that Calculus had developed . The story was probably inspired by an article authored by Le Soir 's science correspondent , Bernard Heuvelmans , and while Hergé did not use it at the time , he revived it a decade later as the basis for The Calculus Affair .
As with Hergé 's two previous stories , The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure , The Seven Crystal Balls was designed as part of a twofold story arc , to be concluded with the then yet unnamed Prisoners of the Sun . Hergé planned for the former story to outline a mystery , while the latter would see his characters undertake an expedition to solve it . His use of an ancient mummy 's curse around which the narrative revolved was inspired by tales of a curse of the pharaohs which had been unearthed during the archaeologist Howard Carter 's 1922 discovery of Pharaoh Tutankhamun 's tomb . This was not the first time that Hergé had been inspired by this tabloid story , having previously done so when authoring Cigars of the Pharaoh .
In autumn 1943 , Hergé decided that he wanted Edgar P. Jacobs , a fellow cartoonist , to collaborate with him on The Adventures of Tintin . Although initially hesitant , Jacobs eventually agreed , adopting the paid position in January 1944 . The two became close friends and artistic collaborators , with Jacobs aiding him in developing various aspects of the plot , for instance developing the idea of the crystal balls and the story 's title . Although stylistically they were different both in forms of illustration and narrative , they influenced each other greatly . He used Jacobs as a life model from whom he drew various poses that characters adopt in the story . He also used Jacobs as a researcher , sending him to the Cinquantenaire Museum to study its collections of Incan material , and it was the mummified Incan corpse in their collection that was used as the basis for the mummy of Rascar Capac .
The museum 's director , Professor Capart , exhibited similarities with Professor Tarragon , a new character that Hergé had developed for the story . He also included a number of characters who had previously appeared in earlier adventures , among them Professor Cantonneau from The Shooting Star , General Alcazar from The Broken Ear , and Bianca Castafiore from King Ottokar 's Sceptre .
The scenery and background of the story was meticulously copied from existing sources ; car model types like the Opel Olympia 38 in which Calculus ' abductors escaped the police were drawn from real examples , while Hergé closely adhered to the reality of the port and docks at Saint @-@ Nazaire . Professor Tarragon 's house was drawn from a real house in Avenue Delleur , Boitsfort , which Jacobs had identified for Hergé 's purposes . Hergé and Jacobs stationed themselves outside the house and completed a sketch of the building . Immediately after , two grey cars containing German soldiers pulled up ; the house had been requisitioned by the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) . Hergé realised that , had he and Jacobs been discovered sketching , they would have been interrogated .
= = = Publication = = =
The story began serialisation in Le Soir under the title of Les Sept Boules de Cristal on 16 December 1943 . However , Hergé 's health declined , as he was afflicted with flu , sinusitis , and ear ache . This was accompanied by general exhaustion , depression , and fear that upon the imminent collapse of German administration , he would face retribution as a collaborator ; many accused of being collaborators had already been killed by the Belgian Resistance . Experiencing a breakdown , he took a hiatus from producing The Seven Crystal Balls between 6 May and 6 July 1944 , during which a message was posted in Le Soir stating :
They 're coming ! Who ? Why , Tintin and Snowy , of course ! Perhaps , since you have not heard anything about them lately , you have been afraid , dear readers , that something bad had happened to them ? Nothing of the sort ! Tintin and Snowy were simply waiting for our excellent associate and friend Hergé to return to better health , as he was sick for a few weeks .
The story returned to its serialisation in Le Soir on 7 July , starting with a summary of the story so far . However , it would be interrupted again on 2 September 1944 . Brussels was liberated from German occupation by the Allied forces on 3 September , upon which Le Soir immediately ceased publication . Hergé had been forced to abandon the story after 152 strips , equivalent to fifty pages of the later published book volume . The story had been left hanging after the scene in which Tintin leaves the hospital after seeing the seven members of the expedition having a simultaneous fit . Three days later the entire staff were fired and a new editorial team introduced .
Hergé was arrested on 3 September , having been named as a collaborator in a Resistance document known as the " Gallery of Traitors " . This would be the first of four incidents in which Hergé was arrested and freed : by the State Security , the Judiciary Police , the Belgian National Movement , and the Front for Independence , during which he spent one night in jail . On 8 September the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force issued a proclamation announcing that " any journalist who had helped produce a newspaper during the occupation was for the time being barred from practising his profession . " Blacklisted , Hergé was now unemployed . A newspaper closely associated with the Belgian Resistance , La Patrie , issued a strip titled The Adventures of Tintin in the Land of the Nazis , in which Hergé was lampooned as a collaborator .
The period witnessed widespread allegations against accused collaborators , with military courts condemning 30 @,@ 000 on minor charges and 25 @,@ 000 on more serious charges ; of those , 5 @,@ 500 were sentenced to life imprisonment or capital punishment . A judiciary inquiry into Hergé 's case was launched by the deputy public prosecutor , Mr Vinçotte , although in his report he urged lenience , stating that " I am inclined to close the case . I believe it would bring ridicule on the judicial system to go after an inoffensive children 's book author and illustrator . On the other hand , Hergé worked for Le Soir during the war , and his illustrations are what made people buy the newspaper . " Unable to work for the press , Hergé worked from home re @-@ drawing , and Jacobs colouring , the older Adventures of Tintin for publication by his book publisher Casterman , completing the second version of Tintin in the Congo and starting on King Ottokar 's Sceptre . Casterman supported Hergé throughout his ordeal , for which he always remained grateful . He and Jacobs produced a comic strip under the pseudonym of " Olav " , although no publishers accepted it . Although this period allowed him an escape from the pressure of daily production which had affected most of his working life , he also had family problems to deal with ; his brother Paul returned to Brussels from a German prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp and their mother had become highly delusional and was moved to a psychiatric hospital .
In October 1945 , Hergé was approached by Raymond Leblanc , a former member of a conservative Resistance group , the National Royalist Movement ( MNR ) , and his associates André Sinave and Albert Debaty . The trio were planning on launching a weekly magazine for children . Leblanc , who had fond childhood memories of Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , thought Hergé would be ideal for it . Hergé agreed , and Leblanc obtained clearance papers for him , allowing him to work . Concerned about the judicial investigation into Hergé 's wartime affiliations , Leblanc convinced William Ugeux , a leader of the Belgian Resistance who was now in charge of censorship and certificates of good citizenship , to look into the comic creator 's file . Ugeux concluded that Hergé had been " a blunderer rather than a traitor " for his work at Le Soir . The decision whether Hergé would stand trial belonged to the general auditor of the Military Tribunal , Walter Ganshof van der Meersch . He closed the case on 22 December 1945 , declaring that " in regard to the particularly inoffensive character of the drawings published by Remi , bringing him before a war tribunal would be inappropriate and risky " .
Now free from threat of prosecution , he continued to support his colleagues at Le Soir who were being charged as collaborators ; six of them were sentenced to death , and others to lengthy prison sentences . Among those sentenced to death was Hergé 's friend , Paul Jamin , although his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment . In May 1946 , Hergé was issued a certificate of good citizenship , which became largely necessary to obtain employment in post @-@ war Belgium . Celebrations were marred by his mother 's death at age 60 in April 1946 . Harry Thompson has described this post @-@ war period as the " greatest upheaval " of Hergé 's life . Hergé later described it as " an experience of absolute intolerance . It was horrible , horrible ! " He considered the post @-@ war trials of collaborators a great injustice inflicted upon many innocent people , and never forgave Belgian society for the way that he had been treated , although he hid this from his public persona .
Leblanc 's new magazine was titled Tintin at the advice of Sinave , who believed that this would help attract a wide audience . Adopting the slogan of " The Newspaper for the Young Aged 7 to 77 " , the magazine 's logo featured the Tintin character himself . Inspired by the example set by Le Petit Vingtième , Tintin magazine was to be a weekly , centred on the eponymous hero . The Adventures of Tintin would be serialised two pages per week , accompanied by other Franco @-@ Belgian comics . For the first time , the Adventures would be in colour from the outset . Hergé assembled a team of artists for the purpose , including Edgar P. Jacobs and Jacques Van Melkebeke , who became the magazine 's first editor . Hergé continued at the point where he had left The Seven Crystal Balls , prior to embarking on Prisoners of the Sun , although both were published under the title of Le Temple du Soleil ( The Temple of the Sun ) . Rather than re @-@ serialising the story from its beginning , he began the new magazine with a summary of the story so far , presented as a press clipping . The magazine was an instant success , soon gaining a weekly circulation of 100 @,@ 000 in Belgium and the Netherlands . The Seven Crystal Balls serialisation finally concluded on 22 April 1948 , four and a half years after it had begun .
= = = Republication = = =
As with previous adventures , it then began serialisation in the French Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants , from 19 May 1946 . After the story had finished serialisation , the publishing company Casterman divided it into two volumes , Les Sept Boules de Cristal and Le Temple du Soleil , which they released in 1948 and 1949 respectively . One of the scenes that had been found in Le Soir , in which Haddock is humiliated by the clairvoyant at the theatre , was removed from the story when it was being reformatted in book form . The book contained additional backgrounds not found in the original serialised story which had been drawn by Jacobs .
When translated into English for a publication by Methuen in 1963 , a number of Francophone place @-@ names were changed ; for instance , the port of Saint @-@ Nazaire was renamed Westermouth , which , according to author Michael Farr , was probably inspired by the real English coastal town of Weymouth . As the English @-@ language translation was published after the English translation of other Tintin adventures , which had actually been authored later than The Seven Crystal Balls , in the English version , references are made to events that would occur in The Calculus Affair and The Red Sea Sharks .
= = Critical analysis = =
Biographer Benoît Peeters described The Seven Crystal Balls as " the most terrifying of The Adventures of Tintin " . He believed that in this story , Hergé had come under the clear influence of Jacobs , in that the " décor grows more lush ; the details clearer . No more streets suggested by a few lines , monochromatic posters , or characters walking on the edge of the frame . " Elsewhere , he noted that in this story , Hergé " produced a gripping tale that went further than any other in the direction of the supernatural . " Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline believed that The Seven Crystal Balls achieved " a more complete integration of narrative and illustrations " than previous adventures , and that from that point on , his books " begin to form a coherent body of work , an oeuvre . "
Harry Thompson stated that the " overriding theme " of The Seven Crystal Balls was " fear of the unknown " , adding that while it did blend humour with menace , it remained " Hergé 's most frightening book " . He noted that the story marks the complete transition of Captain Haddock from the " pitiable drunk " which he was introduced as in The Crab with the Golden Claws to the position of " chief sidekick and comic attraction " , with Snowy being relegated to the position of " normal dog " .
Michael Farr described both The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun as " classic middle @-@ period Tintin " , commenting on their " surprisingly well @-@ balanced narrative " and noting that they exhibited scant evidence of Hergé 's turbulent personal life . He felt that The Seven Crystal Balls encapsulated the " air of doom " which pervaded the mood of Europe at the time to an even greater extent than Hergé had done in his earlier work , The Shooting Star . At the same time , Farr thought it to be " a simple detective story " , comparing Tintin 's hunt for clues regarding Calculus ' disappearance to Arthur Conan Doyle 's stories of fictional detective Sherlock Holmes . He thought that the story was " truly Hitchcockian in its suspense and quite cinematic in its presentation " , comparing the use of the music hall in the story with its use in Hitchcock 's film , The 39 Steps ( 1935 ) . Farr suggested that in the scene in which Haddock dejectedly sits around Marlinspike awaiting news of Calculus , " Hergé had allowed himself to step for a moment into Haddock 's shoes and to be autobiographical " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two @-@ story arc represents " one more leap forward in Hergé 's graphic and narrative skills " as a result of the transition to full colour double pages as the initial means of publication . They noted that The Seven Crystal Balls is " bathed in the surreal atmosphere that Hergé knew how to create so well " , with Tintin confronting " a dark and oppressive force " that was " worthy of a Hammer film . " They asserted that the character of Professor Tarragon was " to archaeology what Haddock is to the sea " , adding that Mark Falconer ( Marc Chalet ) resembled an older Tintin with darker hair . Ultimately , they awarded both halves of the story arc five out of five .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy praised the character of Tarragon , stating that he exudes a presence " far beyond what we might expect from a novelist , let alone a cartoonist " . He then compared the scenario in which Tarragon was trapped within his home to that in The Calculus Affair in which Professor Topolino was tied up in his house . He also identified elements within the story that he believed reflected recurring themes within The Adventures of Tintin . He argued that the way in which Alcazar was presented as Tintin 's friend in this story was a manifestation of the recurring theme of friendship . He thought that the appearance of Rascar Capac 's jewels reflected Hergé 's use of jewels as a theme throughout the series , while the mummy 's removal from its tomb was a manifestation of the recurring concept of the tomb .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès believed that The Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun arc reflects a confrontation between civilisations , and between the sacred and the secular . He also discussed Haddock 's position in the story , noting that the scene at the theatre in which a bull 's head mask falls onto Haddock 's head reflects " one of Hergé 's most constant themes : the union of human and animal " . He further added the opinion that Haddock 's transformation from seaman to country gentleman was not believable . He suggested that the appearance of Yamila and Castafiore at the start of the story injected " a feminine element " into the story , which represented an attempt to " round out Haddock 's family " , which was dominated by the male figures of Tintin , Calculus , and Snowy . He further argued that Calculus ' kidnapping represented a " rite of passage " that would allow him to join Tintin and Haddock 's family .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1969 , the animation company Belvision Studios , which had produced the 1956 – 57 television series Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , released its first feature @-@ length animated film , Tintin and the Temple of the Sun , adapted from the Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun story arc . Produced by Raymond Leblanc and directed by Eddie Lateste , it was written by Lateste , the cartoonist Greg , Jos Marissen , and Laszló Molnár . Music was by François Rauber and Zorrino 's song was composed by Jacques Brel . Lofficier and Lofficier commented that the part of the film based on The Seven Crystal Balls " suffers from being overly condensed for timing reasons . "
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . The Seven Crystal Balls was the eleventh story to be adapted and was divided into two thirty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
The video game Prisoners of the Sun was developed and published by the French company Infogrames in 1997 , based on The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun .
At the turn of the new century , Tintin remained popular . In 2001 , The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun were adapted into a theatrical musical , Kuifje – De Zonnetempel ( Tintin – The Temple of the Sun ) , which premiered at the Stadsschouwburg in Antwerp in the Dutch language on 15 September . The production , directed by Dirk de Caluwé , adapted by Seth Gaaikema and Frank Van Laecke with music by Dirk Brossé , featured Tom Van Landuyt as Tintin . The musical was adapted by Didier Van Cauwelaert into French and premiered a year later in Charleroi as Tintin – Le Temple du Soleil . From there , the production was scheduled for Paris in 2003 but was cancelled . It returned for a brief run in Antwerp on 18 October 2007 .
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= Unlocked ( Alexandra Stan album ) =
Unlocked is the second studio album recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan . It was made available for digital download on 27 August 2014 through Victor Entertainment as a follow @-@ up to her 2011 album , Saxobeats , and its reissue , Cliché ( Hush Hush ) ( 2013 ) . Stan collaborated with several record producers on this album , including Andreas Schuller , Sebastian Jacome , Chrishan Prince , Erik Lidbom and Gabriel Huiban . She also took part at the FonoCamp 2013 , the first international songwriting camp held in Romania , where she further worked on material featured on this album . Unlocked premiered following an alleged physical altercation with her former manager , Marcel Prodan , over compensation , which caused Stan 's short career hiatus in 2013 .
The music of Unlocked draws from the EDM and dance @-@ pop styles of her previous material , while also incorporating different forms of instrumentation from her previous releases , such as Bhangra and Caucasian music in the songs " Kiss Me Goodbye " and " Give Me Your Everything " , respectively . Lyrically , the album approaches themes that delve on issuance , retrieval and a new beginning , while also speaking on Stan 's volatile relationship with her unidentified boyfriend . The record received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praising its material for being " catchy " and " infectious " . Unlocked also drew comparisons to the works of American singer Britney Spears , Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and Australian performer Sia .
Upon its release , Unlocked debuted and peaked at number 21 on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart , selling 3 @,@ 859 copies in its first week of release . As of September 2014 , the album has sold more than 17 @,@ 000 units , according to the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Six tracks from the album were released as singles , of which three ( " Cherry Pop " , " Dance " and " We Wanna " ) charted on the Japan Hot 100 . " Dance " reached the top 10 in Turkey , while " We Wanna " reached the top thirty in Argentina , Poland and Turkey , and the top sixty in Italy , Romania and Slovakia . To promote Unlocked , Stan embarked on two tours throughout 2014 , Cherry Pop Summer Tour and Unlocked Tour , in Russia , Mexico , Japan and Turkey .
= = Background and development = =
Shortly after releasing her debut album Saxobeats ( 2011 ) which featured her worldwide breakthrough single , " Mr. Saxobeat " , Stan started to work on new material for a new record with Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , her long @-@ time composers and managers . " Lemonade " , " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " and " All My People " were subsequently released worldwide as singles through 2012 and 2013 , and were intended for her then @-@ untitled second studio album . The album was intended for a September 2013 release , but following an alleged physical altercation with her former manager Prodan over compensation , the recording was delayed . Following this , Stan accused him of physically attacking and blackmailing her . After her recovery , Stan was sued by Prodan for using his songs in her live performances without his permission . Stan won the copyright battle in June 2014 . Cliché ( Hush Hush ) , Stan 's last album under Prodan 's label , Maan Records , was released in October 2013 . It was a re @-@ issue of Saxobeats with the addition of the three songs intended for Stan 's second studio album . Cliché ( Hush Hush ) was only released in Japan ; it failed to gain much success , although it did enter the top sixty on the Oricon Albums Chart . In late 2013 , Stan continued the work on her second studio album with a new team , including record producers and songwriters Alex Cotoi and Erik Lidbom . She also switched from Prodan 's label and signed a new deal with Fonogram Records . " Thanks for Leaving " , the first single from Unlocked , was released on 28 April 2014 . In the following four months , Stan released three more singles , " Cherry Pop " , " Dance " and " Give Me Your Everything " , under Roton and Fonogram Records . Stan took part at the FonoCamp 2013 , the first international songwriting camp in Romania , held in Azuga , where she further worked on Unlocked with fellow Romanian singers and producers .
= = Recordings and artwork = =
Stan was involved in the writing process of all the songs featured on Unlocked , with the exception of " Thanks for Leaving " , " Set Me Free " and " Trumpet Blows " . During interviews , she expressed that the lyrical content of " Thanks for Leaving " refers to her recovery following her violent incident with Prodan , making the song very personal to her . The music of Unlocked drew influences by several geners and subgeners , including dance , techno , pop , rhythm and blues , EDM , Bhangra , Caucasian @-@ flavoured music and German club music . Lyrically , the album revolves around Stan 's relationship with her love interest and approaches themes such as issuance , retrieval and a new beginning . " Vanilla Chocolat " and " We Wanna " feature lyrics written in French and Spanish , respectively . The official cover sleeve for Unlocked was a photograph by Dimitri Caceaune and shows Stan sporting a multicoloured jacket and standing in front of a neon light . An alternative artwork for the Japanese edition of the album portrayed her in sepia , with only one of her eyes being visible , as the left one is covered by her hair . During an interview , Stan expressed that " [ Japanese people ] are very obsessed with big eyes , so the photo sessions that [ she had ] prepared for the Japanese version of Unlocked feature [ her ] eyes being enlarged by make @-@ up . "
= = Reception = =
Unlocked opened the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart at number 21 , selling 3 @,@ 859 copies in its debut charting week . It fell to number 39 after two weeks , bringing sales to 4 @,@ 550 copies . The album continued to fall down the Japanese Albums Chart over the following weeks , falling from number 39 to number 83 . However , it climbed five positions higher to number 78 on the week ending on 7 October 2014 , selling 1 @,@ 030 copies . The record exited the Japanese Albums Chart after spending 17 non @-@ consecutive weeks , bringing total sales to 17 @,@ 045 copies . Music website Pop Shock described Unlocked as a " good old @-@ fashioned Europop " record . They praised its " infectious production , catchy absurd hooks and glossy vocals " , and called the album 's package and visuals " stunning " . " Vanilla Chocolat " and " Holding Aces " were described as the best tracks of Unlocked ; Pop Shock wrote that the latter one was good enough to be an X Factor , a reality television music competition , winner 's single . Robin Catling of website Everything Express wrote a mixed review for Unlocked , stating that it was clearly influenced by the works of American singer Britney Spears , Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and Australian singer Sia . " Dance " and " Little Lies " were compared to French disc jockey David Guetta and Spears ' Britney Jean ( 2013 ) album , respectively . Everything Express suggested that " Thanks for Leaving " could score highly at a Eurovision Song Contest , an annual musical competition . The review concluded , " Unlocked has some highlights amongst the derivative , magpie @-@ collected sparkle of pilfered pop , you might just find it difficult to remember by the end . "
= = Promotion = =
" Thanks For Leaving " was released on 28 April 2014 as the first single from Unlocked simultaneously with its accompanying music video . The track peaked at number 42 on the Romanian Radio Airplay Chart , and at number one on the Ukraine Pop 100 . On 28 May 2014 , " Cherry Pop " was announced as the sophomore single from the record . In order to promote it , an official music video shot by Khaled Mokhtar in Buftea , Romania was launched . The video shows Stan playing tennis against herself in a futuristic setting . The track was successful in Japan , where it charted at number 64 on the Japan Hot 100 . The most successful track of the record on the Japan Hot 100 , " Dance " , premiered as the third release on 18 July 2014 . The music video for the song was again shot by Khaled Moktar . The recording peaked at number 25 in Japan . It also reached number seventy on the Austrian Singles Chart . The album 's fourth single , " Give Me Your Everything " , was launched on 27 August 2014 . The accompanying controversial music video directed by Khaled Mokhtar portrays Stan chasing a man in a dark landscape . Upon its release , the video aroused controversy for a scene in which Stan is wearing a white robe with masonic symbols inscribed on its back . Particularly , website Urban.ro named the clip " her most bizarre video ever " . " Vanilla Chocolat " was released on 24 December 2014 as the fifth song from Unlocked and it includes vocal collaboration from Connect @-@ R , a Romanian rapper . The accompanying selfie video sees Stan singing and performing in various live shows , as well as shots of her and Connect @-@ R at Roton Music . A bonus single only made available for purchase on the German version of the record , " We Wanna " , featured fellow Romanian recording artist , Inna , and American reggaeton performer Daddy Yankee . The track reached the top thirty in Argentina , Poland and Turkey , and the top sixty in Italy , Romania and Slovakia .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked .
Sample credits
" Little Lies " contains elements from the Fleetwood Mac recording of the same name , written by Christine McVie and Eddy Quintela , and produced by Lindsey Buckingham and Richard Dashut .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked .
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= History of Pittsburgh =
The history of Pittsburgh began with centuries of Native American civilization in the modern Pittsburgh region . Eventually French and British explorers encountered the strategic confluence where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet to form the Ohio , which leads to the Mississippi River . The area became a battleground when France and Britain fought for control in the 1750s . When the British were victorious , the French ceded control of territories east of the Mississippi .
Following American independence in 1783 , the village around Fort Pitt continued to grow . The region saw the short @-@ lived Whiskey Rebellion , when farmers rebelled against federal taxes on whiskey . The War of 1812 cut off the supply of British goods , stimulating American manufacture . By 1815 , Pittsburgh was producing large quantities of iron , brass , tin , and glass products . By the 1840s , Pittsburgh had grown to one of the largest cities west of the Allegheny Mountains . Production of steel began in 1875 . During the 1877 railway riots it was the site of the most violence and damage in any city affected by the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . Workers protested cuts in wages , burning down buildings at the railyards , including 100 train engines and more than 1 @,@ 000 cars . Forty men were killed , most of them strikers . By 1911 , Pittsburgh was producing half the nation 's steel . Pittsburgh was a Republican party stronghold until 1932 . The soaring unemployment of the Great Depression , the New Deal relief programs and the rise of powerful labor unions in the 1930s turned the city into a liberal stronghold of the New Deal Coalition under powerful Democratic mayors . In World War II , it was the center of the " Arsenal of Democracy " , producing munitions for the Allied war effort as prosperity returned .
Following World War II , Pittsburgh launched a clean air and civic revitalization project known as the " Renaissance . " The industrial base continued to expand through the 1960s , but after 1970 foreign competition led to the collapse of the steel industry , with massive layoffs and mill closures . Top corporate headquarters moved out in the 1980s . In 2007 the city lost its status as a major transportation hub . The population of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area is holding steady at 2 @.@ 4 million ; it is 65 % white and 35 % minority .
= = Native American era = =
For thousands of years , Native Americans inhabited the region where the Allegheny and the Monongahela join to form the Ohio . Paleo @-@ Indians conducted a hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle in the region perhaps as early as 19 @,@ 000 years ago . Meadowcroft Rockshelter , an archaeological site west of Pittsburgh , provides evidence that these first Americans lived in the region from that date . During the Adena culture that followed , Mound Builders erected a large Indian Mound at the future site of McKees Rocks , about three miles ( 5 km ) from the head of the Ohio . The Indian Mound , a burial site , was augmented in later years by members of the Hopewell culture .
By 1700 the Iroquois Confederacy , the Five Nations @-@ based south of the Great Lakes in present @-@ day New York , held dominion over the upper Ohio valley , reserving it for hunting grounds . Other tribes included the Lenape ( known by the English as Delaware ) , who had been displaced from eastern Pennsylvania by European settlement , and the Shawnee , who had migrated up from the south . With the arrival of European explorers , these tribes and others had been devastated by European infectious diseases , such as smallpox , measles , influenza , and malaria , to which they had no immunity .
In 1748 , when Conrad Weiser visited Logstown , 18 miles ( 29 km ) downriver from Pittsburgh , he counted 789 warriors gathered : the Iroquois included 163 Seneca , 74 Mohawk , 35 Onondaga , 20 Cayuga , and 15 Oneida . Other tribes were 165 Lenape , 162 Shawnee , 100 Wyandot , 40 Tisagechroami , and 15 Mohican .
Shannopin 's Town , a Seneca tribe village on the east bank of the Allegheny , was the home village of Queen Aliquippa . It was deserted after 1749 . Sawcunk , on the mouth of the Beaver River , was a Lenape ( Delaware ) settlement and the principal residence of Shingas , a chief of theirs . Chartier 's Town was a Shawnee town established in 1734 by Peter Chartier . Kittanning was a Lenape and Shawnee village on the Allegheny , with an estimated 300 – 400 residents .
= = Early colonization ( 1747 – 1763 ) = =
The first Europeans arrived in the 1710s as traders . Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a manuscript in 1717 , and later that year European traders established posts and settlements in the area . Europeans first began to settle in the region in 1748 , when the first Ohio Company , an English land speculation company , won a grant of 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 800 km ² ) in the upper Ohio Valley . From a post at present @-@ day Cumberland , Maryland , the company began to construct an 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) wagon road to the Monongahela River employing a Delaware Indian chief named Nemacolin and a party of settlers headed by Capt. Michael Cresap to begin widening the track into a road . It mostly followed the same route as an ancient Amerindian trail which is now known as Nemacolin 's Trail . The river crossing and flats at Redstone creek , was the earliest point and shortest distance for the descent of a wagon road . Later in the war , the site fortified as Fort Burd ( now Brownsville ) was one of several possible destinations . Another alternative was the divergent route that became Braddock 's Road a few years later through present @-@ day New Stanton . In the event , the colonists did not succeed in improving the Amerindian path to a wagon road much beyond the Cumberland Narrows pass before they were confronted by hostile Native Americans . The colonists later mounted a series of expeditions in order to accomplish piecemeal improvements to the track .
The French had built nearby Logstown as a trade and council center for the Native Americans to increase their influence in the Ohio Valley . Between June 15 and November 10 , 1749 , an expedition headed by Celeron de Bienville , a French officer , traveled down the Allegheny and Ohio to bolster the French claim to the region . De Bienville warned away English traders and posted markers claiming the territory .
In 1753 , Marquis Duquesne , the Governor of New France , sent another , larger expedition . At present @-@ day Erie , Pennsylvania , an advance party built Fort Presque Isle . They also cut a road through the woods and built Fort Le Boeuf on French Creek , from which it was possible at high water to float to the Allegheny . By summer , an expedition of 1 @,@ 500 French and Native American men descended the Allegheny . Some wintered at the confluence of French Creek and the Allegheny . The following year , they built Fort Machault at that site .
Alarmed at these French incursions in the Ohio Valley , Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent Major George Washington to warn the French to withdraw . Accompanied by Christopher Gist , Washington arrived at the Forks of the Ohio on November 25 , 1753 .
Proceeding up the Allegheny , Washington presented Dinwiddie 's letter to the French commanders first at Venango , and then Fort Le Boeuf . The French officers received Washington with wine and courtesy , but did not withdraw .
Governor Dinwiddie sent Captain William Trent to build a fort at the Forks of the Ohio . On February 17 , 1754 , Trent began construction of the fort , the first European habitation at the site of present @-@ day Pittsburgh . The fort , named Fort Prince George , was only half @-@ built by April 1754 , when over 500 French forces arrived and ordered the 40 @-@ some colonials back to Virginia . The French tore down the British fortification and built Fort Duquesne .
Governor Dinwiddie launched another expedition . Colonel Joshua Fry commanded the regiment with his second @-@ in @-@ command , George Washington , leading an advance column . On May 28 , 1754 , Washington 's unit clashed with the French in the Battle of Jumonville Glen , during which 13 French soldiers were killed and 21 were taken prisoner . After the battle , Washington 's ally , Seneca chief Tanaghrisson , unexpectedly executed the French commanding officer , Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville . The French pursued Washington and on July 3 , 1754 , George Washington surrendered following the Battle of Fort Necessity . These frontier actions contributed to the start of the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) , or , the Seven Years ' War , an imperial confrontation between England and France fought in both hemispheres .
In 1755 , George Washington accompanied British General Braddock 's expedition . Two regiments marched from Fort Cumberland across the Allegheny Mountains and into western Pennsylvania . Following a path Washington surveyed , over 3 @,@ 000 men built a wagon road 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , that when complete , was the first road to cross the Appalachian Mountains . Braddock 's Road , as it was known , blazed the way for the future National Road ( US40 ) . The expedition crossed the Monongahela River on July 9 , 1755 . French troops from Fort Duquesne ambushed Braddock 's expedition at Braddock 's Field , nine miles ( 14 km ) from Fort Duquesne . In the Battle of the Monongahela , the French inflicted heavy losses on the British , and Braddock was mortally wounded . The surviving British and colonial forces retreated . This left the French and their Native American allies with dominion over the upper Ohio valley .
On September 8 , 1756 , an expedition of 300 militiamen destroyed the Shawnee and Lenape village of Kittanning , and in the summer of 1758 , British General John Forbes began a campaign to capture Fort Duquesne . At the head of 7 @,@ 000 regular and colonial troops , Forbes built Fort Ligonier and Fort Bedford , from where he cut a wagon road over the Allegheny Mountains , later known as Forbes ' Road . On the night of September 13 – 14 , 1758 , an advance column under Major James Grant was massacred in the Battle of Fort Duquesne . The battleground , the high hill east of the Point , was named Grant 's Hill in his memory . With this defeat , Forbes decided to wait until spring . But when he heard that the French had lost Fort Frontenac and largely evacuated Fort Duquesne , he planned an immediate attack . Hopelessly outnumbered , the French abandoned and razed Fort Duquesne . Forbes occupied the burned fort on November 25 , 1758 and ordered the construction of Fort Pitt , named after British Secretary of State William Pitt the Elder . He also named the settlement between the rivers , " Pittsborough " ( see Etymology of Pittsburgh ) . The British garrison at Fort Pitt made substantial improvements to its fortification . The French never attacked Fort Pitt and the war soon ended with the Treaty of Paris and French defeat . They ceded their territories east of the Mississippi River .
= = Gateway to the West ( 1763 – 1799 ) = =
In 1760 , the first considerable European settlement around Fort Pitt began to grow . Traders and settlers built two groups of houses and cabins , the " lower town , " near the fort 's ramparts , and the " upper town , " along the Monongahela as far as present @-@ day Market Street . In April 1761 , a census ordered by Colonel Henry Bouquet counted 332 people and 104 houses .
In a final Native American attempt to drive out the British west of the Appalachians , Pontiac 's Rebellion began with an assault on British forts in May 1763 . Ohio Valley and Great Lakes tribes overran many forts ; one of their most important targets was Fort Pitt . Receiving warning of the coming attack , Captain Simeon Ecuyer , the Swiss officer in command of the garrison , prepared for a siege . He leveled the houses outside the ramparts and ordered all settlers into the fort : 330 men , 104 women , and 196 children sought refuge inside its ramparts . Captain Ecuyer also gathered stores , which included hundreds of barrels of pork and beef . Pontiac 's forces attacked the fort on June 22 , 1763 . The siege of Fort Pitt lasted for two months . Pontiac 's warriors kept up a continuous , though ineffective , fire on it from July 27 through August 1 , 1763 . They drew off to confront the relieving party under Colonel Bouquet , which defeated them in the Battle of Bushy Run . This victory sealed British dominion over the forks of the Ohio , if not the entire Ohio valley . In 1764 Colonel Bouquet added a redoubt , the Fort Pitt Blockhouse , which still stands , the sole remaining structure from Fort Pitt and the oldest authenticated building west of the Allegheny Mountains .
The Iroquois signed the Fort Stanwix Treaty of 1768 , ceding the lands south of the Ohio to the British . European expansion into the upper Ohio valley increased . An estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 families settled in western Pennsylvania between 1768 and 1770 . Of these settlers , about a third were English , a third were Scotch @-@ Irish , and the rest were Welsh , German and others . These groups tended to settle together in small farming communities , but often their households were not within hailing distance . The life of a settler family was one of relentless hard work : clearing the forest , stumping the fields , building cabins and barns , planting , weeding , and harvesting . In addition , almost everything was manufactured by hand , including furniture , tools , candles , buttons , and needles . Settlers had to deal with harsh winters , and with snakes , black bears , mountain lions , and timber wolves . Because of the fear of raids by Native Americans , the settlers often built their cabins near , or even on top of , springs , to ensure access to water . They also built blockhouses , where neighbors would rally during conflicts .
Increasing violence , especially by the Shawnee , Miami , and Wyandot tribes , led to Dunmore 's War in 1774 . Conflict with Native Americans continued throughout the American Revolution , as some hoped that the war would end with expulsion of the settlers from their territory . In 1777 , Fort Pitt became a United States fort , when Brigadier General Edward Hand took command . In 1779 , Colonel Daniel Brodhead led 600 men from Fort Pitt to destroy Seneca villages along the upper Allegheny .
With the war still ongoing , in 1780 Virginia and Pennsylvania came to an agreement on their mutual borders , creating the state lines known today and determining finally that the jurisdiction of Pittsburgh region was Pennsylvanian . In 1783 , the Revolutionary War ended , which also brought at least a temporary cessation of border warfare . In the 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix , the Iroquois ceded the land north of the Purchase Line to Pennsylvania .
After the Revolution , the village of Pittsburgh continued to grow . One of its earliest industries was boat building . Flatboats could used to carry large numbers of pioneers and goods downriver , while keelboats were capable of traveling upriver .
The village began to develop vital institutions . Hugh Henry Brackenridge , a Pittsburgh resident and state legislator , introduced a bill that resulted in a gift deed of land and a charter for the Pittsburgh Academy on February 28 , 1787 . The Academy later developed as the University of Western Pennsylvania ( 1819 ) and since 1908 has been known as the University of Pittsburgh .
Many farmers distilled their corn harvest into whiskey , increasing its value while lowering its transportation costs . At that time , whiskey was used as a form of currency on the frontier . When the federal government imposed an excise tax on whiskey , Western Pennsylvania farmers felt victimized , leading to the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 . Farmers from the region rallied at Braddock 's Field and marched on Pittsburgh . The short @-@ lived rebellion was put down , however , when President George Washington sent in militias from several states .
The town continued to grow in manufacturing capability . In 1792 , the boatyards in Pittsburgh built a sloop , Western Experiment . During the next decades , the yards produced other large boats . By the 19th century , they were building ocean @-@ going vessels that shipped goods as far as Europe . In 1794 , the town 's first courthouse was built ; it was a wooden structure on Market Square . In 1797 , the manufacture of glass began .
= = Iron City ( 1800 – 1859 ) = =
Commerce continued to be an essential part of the economy of early Pittsburgh , but increasingly , manufacture began to grow in importance . Pittsburgh was located in the middle of one of the most productive coalfields in the country ; the region was also rich in petroleum , natural gas , lumber , and farm goods . Blacksmiths forged iron implements , from horse shoes to nails . By 1800 , the town , with a population of 1 @,@ 565 persons , had over 60 shops , including general stores , bakeries , and hat and shoe shops .
The 1810s were a critical decade in Pittsburgh 's growth . In 1811 , the first steamboat was built in Pittsburgh . Increasingly , commerce would also flow upriver . The War of 1812 catalyzed growth of the Iron City . The war with Britain , the manufacturing center of the world , cut off the supply of British goods , stimulating American manufacture . Also , the British blockade of the American coast increased inland trade , so that goods flowed through Pittsburgh from all four directions . By 1815 , Pittsburgh was producing $ 764K in iron ; $ 249K in brass and tin , and $ 235K in glass products . When , on March 18 , 1816 , Pittsburgh was incorporated as a city , it had already taken on some of its defining characteristics : commerce , manufacture , and a constant cloud of coal dust .
Other emerging towns challenged Pittsburgh . In 1818 , the first segment of the National Road was completed , from Baltimore to Wheeling , bypassing Pittsburgh . This threatened to render the town less essential in east @-@ west commerce . In the coming decade , however , many improvements were made to the transportation infrastructure . In 1818 , the region 's first river bridge , the Smithfield Street Bridge , opened , the first step in developing the " City of bridges " over its two rivers . On October 1 , 1840 , the original Pennsylvania Turnpike was completed , connecting Pittsburgh and the eastern port city of Philadelphia . In 1834 , the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal was completed , making Pittsburgh part of a transportation system that included rivers , roads , and canals .
Manufacture continued to grow . In 1835 , McClurg , Wade and Co. built the first locomotive west of the Alleghenies . Already , Pittsburgh was capable of manufacturing the most essential machines of its age . By the 1840s , Pittsburgh was one of the largest cities west of the mountains . In 1841 , the Second Court House , on Grant 's Hill , was completed . Made from polished gray sandstone , the court house had a rotunda 60 feet ( 18 m ) in diameter and 80 feet ( 24 m ) high .
Like many burgeoning cities of its day , Pittsburgh 's growth outstripped some of its necessary infrastructure , such as a water supply with dependable pressure . Because of this , on April 10 , 1845 , a great fire burned out of control , destroying over a thousand buildings and causing $ 9M in damages . As the city rebuilt , the age of rails arrived . In 1851 , the Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroad began service between Cleveland and Allegheny City ( present @-@ day North Side ) . In 1854 , the Pennsylvania Railroad began service between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia .
Despite many challenges , Pittsburgh had grown into an industrial powerhouse . An 1857 article provided a snapshot of the Iron City :
939 factories in Pittsburgh and Allegheny City
employing more than 10K workers
producing almost $ 12M in goods
using 400 steam engines
Total coal consumed — 22M bushels
Total iron consumed — 127K tons
In steam tonnage , third busiest port in the nation , surpassed only by New York City and New Orleans .
= = Steel City ( 1859 – 1946 ) = =
The iron and steel industry developed rapidly after 1830 and became one of the dominant factors in industrial America by the 1860s .
= = = Scotch Irish leadership = = =
Ingham ( 1978 ) examined the leadership of the industry in its most important center , Pittsburgh , as well as smaller cities . He concludes that the leadership of the iron and steel industry nationwide was " largely Scotch Irish " . Ingham finds that the Scotch Irish held together cohesively throughout the 19th century and " developed their own sense of uniqueness . "
Indeed , new immigrants after 1800 made Pittsburgh a major Scotch Irish stronghold . For example , Thomas Mellon ( b . Ulster 1813 – 1908 ) left Ireland in 1823 and became the founder of the famous Mellon family , which played a central role in banking and industries such as aluminum and oil . As Barnhisel ( 2005 ) finds , industrialists like James H. Laughlin ( b . Ulster 1806 – 1882 ) of Jones and Laughlin Steel Company comprised the " Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterian ruling stratum of Pittsburgh society . "
= = = Technology = = =
In 1859 , the Clinton and Soho iron furnaces introduced coke @-@ fire smelting to the region . The American Civil War boosted the city 's economy with increased production of iron and armaments , especially at the Allegheny Arsenal and the Fort Pitt Foundry . Arms manufacture included iron @-@ clad warships and the world 's first 21 " gun . By war 's end , over one @-@ half of the steel and more than one @-@ third of all U.S. glass was produced in Pittsburgh . A milestone in steel production was achieved in 1875 , when the Edgar Thomson Works in Braddock began to make steel rail using the new Bessemer process .
Industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie , Henry Clay Frick , Andrew W. Mellon , and Charles M. Schwab built their fortunes in Pittsburgh . Also based in Pittsburgh was George Westinghouse , credited with such advancements as the air brake and founder of over 60 companies , including Westinghouse Air and Brake Company ( 1869 ) , Union Switch & Signal ( 1881 ) , and Westinghouse Electric Company ( 1886 ) . Banks played a key role in Pittsburgh 's development as these industrialists sought massive loans to upgrade plants , integrate industries and fund technological advances . For example , T. Mellon & Sons Bank , founded in 1869 , helped to finance an aluminum reduction company that became Alcoa .
Ingham ( 1991 ) shows how small , independent iron and steel manufacturers survived and prospered from the 1870s through the 1950s , despite competition from much larger , standardized production firms . These smaller firms were built on a culture that valued local markets and the beneficial role of business in the local community . Small firms concentrated on specialized products , particularly structural steel , where the economies of scale of larger firms were no advantage . They embraced technological change more cautiously than larger firms . They also had less antagonistic relations with workers and employed a higher percentage of highly skilled workers than their mass @-@ production counterparts .
= = = Geography of industrialization = = =
Beginning in the 1870s , entrepreneurs transformed the economy from small , craft @-@ organized factories located inside the city limits to a large integrated industrial region stretching 50 miles across Allegheny County . The new industrial Pittsburgh was based on integrated mills , mass production , and modern management organization in steel and other industries . Many manufacturers searched for large sites with railroad and river accessibility . They purchased land , designed modern plants , and sometimes built towns for workers . Other firms bought into new communities that began as speculative industrial real estate ventures . Some owners removed their plants from the central city 's labor unions to exert greater control over workers . The region 's rugged topography and dispersed natural resources of coal and gas accentuated this dispersal . The rapid growth of steel , glass , railroad equipment , and coke industries resulted in both large mass @-@ production plants and numerous smaller firms . As capital deepened and interdependence grew , participants multiplied , economies accrued , the division of labor increased , and localized production systems formed around these industries . Transportation , capital , labor markets , and the division of labor in production bound the scattered industrial plants and communities into a sprawling metropolitan district . By 1910 the Pittsburgh district was a complex urban landscape with a dominant central city , surrounded by proximate residential communities , mill towns , satellite cities , and hundreds of mining towns .
Representative of the new industrial suburbs was the model town of Vandergrift , according to Mosher ( 1995 ) . Caught up in a dramatic round of industrial restructuring and labor tension , Pittsburgh steelmaker George McMurtry hired Frederick Law Olmsted 's landscape architectural firm in 1895 to design Vandergrift as a model town . McMurtry believed in what was later known as welfare capitalism , with the company going beyond paychecks to provide for the social needs of the workers ; he believed that a benign physical environment made for happier and more productive workers . A strike and lockout at McMurtry 's steelworks in Apollo , Pennsylvania , prompted him to build the new town . Wanting a loyal workforce , he developed a town agenda that drew upon environmentalism as well as popular attitudes toward capital 's treatment of labor . The Olmsted firm translated this agenda into an urban design that included a unique combination of social reform , comprehensive infrastructure planning , and private homeownership principles . The rates of homeownership and cordial relationships between the steel company and Vandergrift residents fostered loyalty among McMurtry 's skilled workers and led to McMurtry 's greatest success . In 1901 he used Vandergrift 's worker @-@ residents to break the first major strike against the United States Steel Corporation .
= = = Germans = = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Pittsburgh witnessed a dramatic influx of German immigrants , including a brick mason whose son , Henry J. Heinz , founded the H.J. Heinz Company in 1872 . Heinz was at the forefront of reform efforts to improve food purity , working conditions , hours , and wages , but the company bitterly opposed the formation of an independent labor union .
= = = Labor unions = = =
As a manufacturing center , Pittsburgh also became an arena for intense labor strife . During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , Pittsburgh workers protested and had massive demonstrations that erupted into widespread violence , known as the Pittsburgh Railway Riots . Militia and federal troops were called to the city to suppress the strike . Forty men died , most of them workers , and more than 40 buildings were burned down , including the Union Depot of the Pennsylvania Railroad . Strikers also burned and destroyed rolling stock : more than 100 train engines and 1000 railcars were destroyed . It was the city with the most violence of any affected by the strikes .
In 1892 , a confrontation in the steel industry resulted in 10 deaths ( 3 detectives , 7 workers ) when Carnegie Steel Company 's manager Henry Clay Frick sent in Pinkertons to break the Homestead Strike . Labor strife continued into the years of the Great Depression , as workers sought to protect their jobs and improve working conditions . Unions organized H.J. Heinz workers , with the assistance of the Catholic Radical Alliance .
= = = Carnegie = = =
Andrew Carnegie , an immigrant from Scotland , a former Pennsylvania Railroad executive turned steel magnate , founded the Carnegie Steel Company . He proceeded to play a key role in the development of the U.S. steel industry . He became a philanthropist : in 1890 , he established the first Carnegie Library , in a program to establish libraries in numerous cities and towns by the incentive of matching funds . In 1895 , he founded the Carnegie Institute . In 1901 , as the U.S. Steel Corporation formed , he sold his mills to J.P. Morgan for $ 250 million , making him one of the world 's richest men . Carnegie once wrote that a man who dies rich , dies disgraced . He devoted the rest of his life to public service , establishing libraries , trusts , and foundations . In Pittsburgh , he founded the Carnegie Institute of Technology ( now Carnegie Mellon University ) and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh .
The third ( and present ) Allegheny County Courthouse and Jail was completed in 1886 . In 1890 , trolleys began operations . In 1907 , Pittsburgh annexed Allegheny City , which is now known as the North Shore .
= = Early 20th century = =
By 1911 , Pittsburgh had grown into an industrial and commercial powerhouse :
Nexus of a vast railway system , with freight yards capable of handling 60K cars
27 @.@ 2 miles ( 43 @.@ 8 km ) of harbor
Yearly river traffic in excess of 9M tons
Value of factory products more than $ 211M ( with Allegheny City )
Allegheny county produced , as percentage of national output , about :
24 % of the pig iron
34 % of the Bessemer steel
44 % of the open hearth steel
53 % of the crucible steel
24 % of the steel rails
59 % of the structural shapes
= = = Prohibition = = =
During the Prohibition era , 1920 to 1933 , Pittsburgh was a hotbed of bootlegging and illicit alcohol consumption . Several factors fed into resistance to Prohibition , including a large immigrant population , anti @-@ establishment animosity dating to the Whiskey Rebellion , fragmented local government , and pervasive corruption . The Pittsburgh crime family controlled significant portions of the illegal alcohol trade .
During that time , Prohibition Administrator John Pennington and his federal agents engaged in 15 @,@ 000 raids , arrested over 18 @,@ 000 people and closed down over 3 @,@ 000 distilleries , 16 regular breweries , and 400 ' wildcat ' breweries . Even the term " Speakeasy , " meaning an illegal drinking establishment , is said to have been coined at the Blind Pig in nearby McKeesport , Pennsylvania .
The last distillery in Pittsburgh , Joseph S. Finch 's distillery , located at South Second and McKean streets , closed in the 1920s . In 2012 , Wigle Whiskey opened , becoming the first since the closure of Finch 's distillery .
The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette produced a large web feature on this period in the city 's history .
= = = Environment = = =
During the late 19th century , city leaders debated the responsibility and expense of creating a waterworks system and disposal of sewage . Downstream users complained about Pittsburgh 's dumping of sewage into the Ohio River . Allegheny County cities did not stop discharging raw sewage into rivers until 1939 . Pittsburgh 's smoke pollution , seen in the 1890s as a sign of prosperity , was recognized as a problem in the Progressive Era and was cleared up in the 1930s – 1940s . With little regard for beauty , steel plants deposited mountains of slag until 1972 , especially in Nine Mile Run Valley .
In November 1927 , 28 people were killed and hundreds were wounded in an explosion of a gas tank .
To escape the soot of the city , many of the wealthy lived in the Shadyside and East End neighborhoods , a few miles east of downtown . Fifth Avenue was dubbed " Millionaire 's Row " because of the many mansions lining the street .
On March 17 and 18 , 1936 , Pittsburgh witnessed the worst flood in its history , with flood levels peaking at 46 feet . This catastrophe killed 69 victims , destroyed thousands of buildings , caused $ 3B ( 2006 dollars ) in damages , and put over 60 @,@ 000 steelworkers out of work .
= = = High culture = = =
Oakland became the city 's predominant cultural and educational center , including three universities , multiple museums , a library , a music hall , and a botanical conservatory . Oakland 's University of Pittsburgh erected what today is still the world 's second @-@ tallest educational building , the 42 @-@ story Cathedral of Learning . It towered over Forbes Field , where the Pittsburgh Pirates played from 1909 – 1970 .
= = = New immigrants = = =
Between 1870 and 1920 , the population of Pittsburgh grew almost sevenfold . Many of the new residents were immigrants who sought employment in the factories and mills and introduced new traditions , languages , and cultures to the city . Ethnic neighborhoods emerged on densely populated hillsides and valleys , such as South Side , Polish Hill , Bloomfield , and Squirrel Hill , home to 28 % of the city 's almost 21 @,@ 000 Jewish households . The Strip District , the city 's produce distribution center , still boasts many restaurants and clubs that showcase these multicultural traditions of Pittsburghers .
The years 1916 – 1930 marked the largest migration of African @-@ Americans to Pittsburgh . Known as the cultural nucleus of Black Pittsburgh , Wylie Avenue in the Hill District was an important jazz mecca . Jazz greats such as Duke Ellington and Pittsburgh natives Billy Strayhorn and Earl Hines played there . Two of the Negro League 's greatest rivals , the Pittsburgh Crawfords and the Homestead Grays , often competed in the Hill District . The teams dominated the Negro National League in the 1930s and 1940s .
= = = 1930s = = =
Pittsburgh was a Republican stronghold starting in the 1880s , and the Republican governments provided jobs and assistance for the new immigrants in return for their votes . But the Great Depression starting in 1929 ruined the GOP in the city . The Democratic victory of 1932 meant an end to Republican patronage jobs and assistance . As the Depression worsened , Pittsburgh ethnics voted heavily for the Democrats , especially in 1934 , making the city a stronghold of the New Deal Coalition . By 1936 , Democratic programs for relief and jobs , especially the WPA , were so popular with the ethnics that a large majority voted for the Democrats .
Joseph Guffey , statewide leader of the Democrats , and his local lieutenant David Lawrence gained control of all federal patronage in Pittsburgh after Roosevelt 's landslide in 1932 and the election of a Democratic mayor in 1933 . Guffey and Lawrence used the New Deal programs to increase their political power and build up a Democratic machine that superseded the decaying Republican machine . Guffey himself acknowledged that a high rate of people on relief was not only " a challenge " but also " an opportunity . " He regarded each relief job as Democratic patronage .
= = = 1940s = = =
Pittsburgh was at the center of the " Arsenal of Democracy " that provided steel , aluminum , munitions and machinery for the U.S. and the Allies during World War II . Pittsburgh 's mills contributed 95 million tons of steel to the war effort .
= = = Postwar = = =
David Lawrence , a Democrat , served as mayor of Pittsburgh from 1946 to 1959 and as Pennsylvania 's governor from 1959 to 1963 . Lawrence used his political power to transform Pittsburgh 's political machine into a modern governmental unit that could run the city well and honestly . In 1946 Lawrence decided to enforce the Smoke Control Ordinance of 1941 because he believed smoke abatement was crucial for the city 's future economic development . However , enforcement placed a substantial burden on the city 's working @-@ class because smoky bituminous coal was much less expensive than smokeless fuels . One round of protests came from Italian @-@ American organizations , which called for delay in enforcing it . Enforcement raised their cost of living and threatened the jobs of their relatives in nearby bituminous coal mines . Despite dislike of the smoke abatement program , Italian Americans strongly supported the reelection of Lawrence in 1949 , in part because many of them were on the city payroll .
= = Renaissance I ( 1946 – 1973 ) = =
Rich and productive , Pittsburgh was also the " Smoky City , " with smog sometimes so thick that streetlights burned during the day as well as rivers that resembled open sewers . Civic leaders , notably Mayor David L. Lawrence , elected in 1945 , Richard K. Mellon , chairman of Mellon Bank and John P. Robin began smoke control and urban revitalization , also known as Urban Renewal projects that transformed the city in unforeseen ways .
" Renaissance I " began in 1946 . Title One of the Housing Act of 1949 provided the means in which to begin . By 1950 , vast swaths of buildings and land near the Point were demolished for Gateway Center . 1953 saw the opening of the ( since demolished ) Greater Pittsburgh Municipal Airport terminal .
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the lower Hill District , an area inhabited predominantly by people of African descent , was completely destroyed . Ninety @-@ five acres of the lower Hill District were cleared using eminent domain , forcibly displacing hundreds of small businesses and more than 8 @,@ 000 people ( 1 @,@ 239 black families , 312 white ) , to make room for a cultural center that included the Civic Arena , which opened in 1961 . Other than one apartment building , none of the other buildings planned for the cultural center were ever built .
In the early 1960s , the neighborhood of East Liberty was also included in Renaissance I Urban Renewal plans , with over 125 acres ( 0 @.@ 51 km2 ) of the neighborhood being demolished and replaced with garden apartments , three 20 @-@ story public housing apartments , and a convoluted road @-@ way system that circled a pedestrianized shopping district . In the span of just a few years during the mid @-@ 1960s , East Liberty became a blighted neighborhood . There were some 575 businesses in East Liberty in 1959 , but only 292 in 1970 , and just 98 in 1979 .
Preservation efforts by the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation , along with community neighborhood groups , resisted the demolition plans . The neighborhoods containing rich architectural heritage , including the Mexican War Streets , Allegheny West , and Manchester , were spared . The center of Allegheny City , with its culturally and socially important buildings , was not as lucky . All of the buildings , with the exception of the Old U.S. Post Office , the Carnegie Library , and Buhl Planetarium were destroyed and replaced with the " pedestrianized " Allegheny Center Mall and apartments .
The city 's industrial base continued to grow in the post @-@ war era partly assisted by the area 's first agency entirely devoted to industrial development , the RIDC . Jones and Laughlin Steel Company expanded its plant on the Southside . H.J. Heinz , Pittsburgh Plate Glass , Alcoa , Westinghouse , U.S. Steel and its new division , the Pittsburgh Chemical Company and many other companies also continued robust operations through the 1960s . 1970 marked the completion of the final building projects of Renaissance I : the U.S. Steel Tower and Three Rivers Stadium . In 1974 , with the addition of the fountain at the tip of the Golden Triangle , Point State Park was completed . Although air quality was dramatically improved , and Pittsburgh 's manufacturing base seemed solid , questions abound about the negative effects Urban Renewal continues to have on the social fabric of Pittsburgh . Pittsburgh , however , was about to undergo one of its most dramatic transformations .
Like most major cities , Pittsburgh experienced several days of rioting following the assassination of Martin Luther King in April 1968 . There were no further major riots , although tension remained high in the inner @-@ city black neighborhoods .
= = Reinvention ( 1973 – present ) = =
During the 1970s and 1980s , the U.S. steel industry came under increasing pressure from foreign competition and from American mini @-@ mills that had much lower overhead by using salvaged steel . Manufacture in Germany and Japan was booming . Foreign mills and factories , built with the latest technology , benefited from lower labor costs and powerful government @-@ corporate partnerships , allowing them to capture increasing market shares of steel and steel products . Separately , demand for steel softened due to recessions , the 1973 oil crisis , and increasing use of other materials . The era began with the RIDC 's " Building on Basics " report in 1974 .
= = = Collapse of steel = = =
Free market pressures exposed the U.S. steel industry 's own internal problems , which included a now @-@ outdated manufacturing base that had been over @-@ expanded in the 1950s and 1960s , hostile management and labor relationships , the inflexibility of United Steelworkers regarding wage cuts and work @-@ rule reforms , oligarchic management styles , and poor strategic planning by both unions and management . In particular , Pittsburgh faced its own challenges . Local coke and iron ore deposits were depleted , raising material costs . The large mills in the Pittsburgh region also faced competition from newer , more profitable " mini @-@ mills " and non @-@ union mills with lower labor costs .
Beginning in the late 1970s and early 1980s , the steel industry in Pittsburgh began to implode along with the deindustrialization of the U.S. Following the 1981 – 1982 recession , for example , the mills laid off 153 @,@ 000 workers . The steel mills began to shut down . These closures caused a ripple effect , as railroads , mines , and other factories across the region lost business and closed . The local economy suffered a depression , marked by high unemployment and underemployment , as laid @-@ off workers took lower @-@ paying , non @-@ union jobs . Pittsburgh suffered as elsewhere in the Rust Belt with a declining population , and like many other U.S. cities , it also saw white flight to the suburbs .
In 1984 the Homestead Works was demolished , replaced in 1999 by The Waterfront shopping mall . As a direct result of the loss of mill employment , the number of people living in Homestead dwindled . By the time of the 2000 census , the borough population was 3 @,@ 569 . The borough began financially recovering in 2002 , with the enlarging retail tax base .
= = = Corporations = = =
Top corporate headquarters such as Gulf Oil ( 1985 ) , Koppers ( 1987 ) , Westinghouse ( 1996 ) and Rockwell International ( 1989 ) were bought out by larger firms , with the loss of high paying , white collar headquarters and research personnel ( the " brain drain " ) as well as massive charitable contributions by the " home based " companies to local cultural and educational institutions . At the time of the Gulf Oil merger in 1985 it was the largest buyout in world history involving the company that was No. 7 on the Fortune 500 just six years earlier . Over 1 @,@ 000 high paying white collar corporate and PhD research jobs were lost in one day .
Today , there are no steel mills within the city limits of Pittsburgh , although manufacture continues at regional mills , such as the Edgar Thomson Works in nearby Braddock .
= = = Higher education = = =
Pittsburgh is home to three universities that are included in most under @-@ graduate and graduate school national rankings , The University of Pittsburgh , Carnegie Mellon University and Duquesne University . Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh had evolved in the mid @-@ 20th century along lines that followed the needs of the heavy industries that financed and directed their development . The collapse of steel put pressure on those two universities to reinvent themselves as research centers in science and technology which acted to pull the regional economy toward high @-@ technology fields . Other regional collegiate institutions include Robert Morris University , Chatham University , Carlow University , Point Park University , La Roche College , Pittsburgh Theological Seminary , and the Community College of Allegheny County .
Beginning in the 1980s , Pittsburgh 's economy shifted from heavy industry to services , medicine , higher education , tourism , banking , corporate headquarters , and high technology . Today , the top two private employers in the city are the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center ( 26 @,@ 000 employees ) and the West Penn Allegheny Health System ( 13 @,@ 000 employees ) .
= = = Civic improvements = = =
Despite the economic turmoil , civic improvements continued . In the mid @-@ 1970s , Arthur P. Ziegler , Jr. and the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation ( Landmarks ) wanted to demonstrate that historic preservation could be used to drive economic development without the use of eminent domain or public subsidies . Landmarks acquired the former terminal buildings and yards of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad , a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long property at the base of Mt . Washington facing the City of Pittsburgh . In 1976 , Landmarks developed the site as a mixed @-@ use historic adaptive reuse development that gave the foundation the opportunity to put its urban planning principles into practice . Aided by an initial generous gift from the Allegheny Foundation in 1976 , Landmarks adapted five historic Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad buildings for new uses and added a hotel , a dock for the Gateway Clipper fleet , and parking areas . Now shops , offices , restaurants , and entertainment anchor the historic riverfront site on the south shore of the Monongahela River , opposite the Golden Triangle ( Pittsburgh ) . Station Square is Pittsburgh 's premiere attraction generating over 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 visitors a year . It reflects a $ 100 million investment from all sources , with the lowest public cost and highest taxpayer return of any major renewal project in the Pittsburgh region since the 1950s . In 1994 , Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation sold Station Square in to Forest City Enterprises which created an endowment to help support its restoration efforts and educational programs . Each year the staff and docents of Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation introduce more than 10 @,@ 000 people – teachers , students , adults , and visitors – to the architectural heritage of the Pittsburgh region and to the value of historic preservation .
During this period , Pittsburgh also became a national model for community development , through the work of activists such as Dorothy Mae Richardson , who founded Neighborhood Housing Services in 1968 , an organization that became the model for the nationwide NeighborWorks America . Activists such a Richardson shared the aim of Landmarks to rehabilitate Pittsburgh 's existing built landscape rather than to demolish and redevelop .
In 1985 , the J & L Steel site on the north side of the Monongahela river was cleared and a publicly subsidized High Technology Center was built . The Pittsburgh Technology Center , home to many major technology companies , is planning major expansion in the area soon . In the 1980s , the " Renaissance II " urban revitalization created numerous new structures , such as PPG Place . In the 1990s , the former sites of the Homestead , Duquesne and South Side J & L mills were cleared . In 1992 , the new terminal at Pittsburgh International Airport opened . In 2001 , the aging Three Rivers Stadium was replaced by Heinz Field and PNC Park , despite being rejected by voter referendum .
Also in 1985 , Al Michaels revealed to a national TV audience how Pittsburgh had transformed itself from an industrial rust belt city .
= = = Pittsburgh today = = =
Present @-@ day Pittsburgh , with a diversified economy , a low cost of living , and a rich infrastructure for education and culture , has been ranked as one of the World 's Most Livable Cities . Tourism has recently boomed in Pittsburgh with nearly 3 @,@ 000 new hotel rooms opening since 2004 and holding a consistently higher occupancy than in comparable cities . Meanwhile , Apple , Google , Uber , and Intel have joined the 1 @,@ 600 technology firms choosing to operate out of Pittsburgh . The region has also become a leader in green environmental design , a movement exemplified by the city 's convention center . In the last twenty years the region has seen a small but influential group of Asian immigrants , including from the Indian sub @-@ continent .
= = Jurisdiction Timeline = =
1669 Claimed for the French Empire by René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle .
1681 King Charles claims the forks for Pennsylvania with 5 degrees west of the Delaware .
1694 Arnout Viele a Dutch trader explores the area .
1717 Settled by English traders , primarily Pennsylvanians some dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania .
1727 Joncaire visits with a small French force .
1748 Both Pennsylvanian Conrad Weiser visits and the King approves the Ohio Company for Virginia .
1749 Frenchman Louis Blainville deCeleron sails by on the Allegheny and Ohio burying lead plates claiming the area for France .
1750 Cumberland County Pennsylvania founded , though its jurisdiction is not governable .
1753 George Washington visits en route to Fort LeBeouf .
1754 French Forces occupy the area and construct Fort Duquesne .
1757 Jesuit Father Claude Francis Virot founded Catholic Mission at Beaver .
1758 British Forces regain the area and establish Fort Pitt though some dispute over claims between the colonies of Pennsylvania ( Cumberland County ) and Virginia ( Augusta County ) .
1761 Ayr Township , Cumberland County , Pennsylvania .
1763 The Proclamation of 1763 grants Quebec rights to all lands west of the Alleghenies and North of the Ohio River .
1767 Bedford Township , Cumberland County , Pennsylvania .
1770 George Washington visits for Virginia .
1771 ( March 9 ) Bedford County , Pennsylvania .
1771 ( April 16 ) Pitt Township founded .
1773 ( February 26 ) part of Westmoreland County , Pennsylvania .
1778 ( December 16 ) part of Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1792 ( June ) Petition for a Pittsburgh Township at the forks .
1792 ( September 6 ) Pittsburgh Township , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1794 ( April 22 ) Pittsburgh borough , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1816 ( March 18 ) City of Pittsburgh , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
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= Bluntnose stingray =
The bluntnose stingray or Say 's stingray ( Dasyatis say , often misspelled sayi ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , native to the coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Venezuela . It is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that prefers sandy or muddy habitats 1 – 10 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) deep , and is migratory in the northern portion of its range . Typically growing to 78 cm ( 31 in ) across , the bluntnose stingray is characterized by a rhomboid pectoral fin disc with broadly rounded outer corners and an obtuse @-@ angled snout . It has a whip @-@ like tail with both an upper keel and a lower fin fold , and a line of small tubercles along the middle of its back .
More active at night than during the day when it is usually buried in sediment , the bluntnose stingray is a predator of small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . This species is aplacental viviparous , in which the unborn young are nourished initially by yolk , and later histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by their mother . Females give birth to 1 – 6 pups every May after a gestation period of 11 – 12 months , most of which consists of a period of arrested embryonic development . The venomous tail spine of the bluntnose stingray is potentially dangerous to unwary beachgoers . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as it is widely distributed , common , and minimally threatened by commercial fisheries .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur originally described the bluntnose stingray from specimens collected in Little Egg Harbor off the U.S. State of New Jersey . He published his account in an 1817 volume of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia , and named the new species Raja say in honor of Thomas Say , one of the founding members of the Academy . The species was moved to the genus Dasyatis by subsequent authors . In 1841 , German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle erroneously gave the specific epithet as sayi in their Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , which thereafter became the typical spelling used in literature . Recently , there has been a push to use the correct original spelling again , though it has also been proposed that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) officially emend the spelling to sayi , for consistency with previous usage .
Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphological characters , found that the bluntnose stingray is one of the more basal members of its genus , and that it is a sister species to the diamond stingray ( D. dipterura ) of the western Pacific Ocean . The two species likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama , some three million years ago .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The bluntnose stingray is found in the western Atlantic Ocean , from Chesapeake Bay southward through the Florida Keys , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Greater and Lesser Antilles ; on rare occasions it is found as far north as New Jersey and Massachusetts , as far south as Venezuela , and as far west as Mexico . It is absent from the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coast of Central America . Reports of this species from off Brazil and Argentina likely represent misidentifications of the groovebelly stingray ( D. hypostigma ) .
Common in coastal habitats such as bays , lagoons , and estuaries , the bluntnose stingray is a bottom @-@ dwelling species usually found at a depth of 1 – 10 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) , though it has been recorded from as deep as 20 m ( 66 ft ) . It frequents sandy or muddy flats , preferring water with a salinity of 25 – 43 ppt and a temperature of 12 – 33 ° C ( 54 – 91 ° F ) . Adult bluntnose stingrays are seldom found in seagrass meadows or shoals , though the latter serves as a habitat for young rays . Along the U.S. East Coast , schools of bluntnose stingrays migrate long distances northward into bays and estuaries to spend the summer , and move back to southern offshore waters for winter .
= = Description = =
The bluntnose stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc about a sixth wider than long , with broadly rounded outer corners . The leading margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at the tip of the snout at up to a 130 ° angle ; the anterior disc shape distinguishes this species from the similar Atlantic stingray ( D. sabina ) , which has a longer , more acute snout . The mouth is curved , with a central projection on the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw . There is a row of five papillae across the floor of the mouth , with the outermost pair smaller and set apart from the others . There are 36 – 50 upper tooth rows ; the teeth have quadrangular bases and are arranged with a quincunx pattern into flattened surfaces . The tooth crowns are rounded in females and juveniles , while those of males in breeding condition are triangular and pointed . The pelvic fins are triangular with rounded tips .
The whip @-@ like tail measures over one and a half times as long as the disc and bears one or two long , serrated stinging spines on top , about a quarter of the tail length back from the base . The second spine , if present , is a replacement that periodically grows in front of the existing spine . Behind the spine , there are well @-@ developed upper and lower fin folds , with the lower fold longer and wider than the upper . Small thorns or tubercles are found in a midline row from behind the eyes to the base of the tail spine , increasing in number with age . Adults also have prickles before and behind the eyes and on the outer parts of the disc . The dorsal coloration is grayish , reddish , or greenish brown ; some individuals also possess bluish spots , are darker towards the sides and rear , or have a thin white disc margin . The ventral surface is whitish , sometimes with a dark disc margin or dark blotches . A record off French Guyana gives the maximum disc width of this species as 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , but that specimen may have been misidentified and other sources give a maximum disc width of no more than 0 @.@ 78 m ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) . Females grow larger than males .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The bluntnose stingray has generally nocturnal habits and spends much of the day buried in the substrate . It has been known to follow the rising tide to forage in water barely deep enough to cover its body . This species preys upon small invertebrates , including crustaceans , annelid worms , and bivalve and gastropod molluscs , and bony fishes . It mainly targets benthic and burrowing organisms , but also opportunistically takes free @-@ swimming prey . In Delaware Bay , this species feeds predominantly on the shrimp Cragon septemspinosa and the blood worm Glycera dibranchiata , and its overall dietary composition is virtually identical to that of the roughtail stingray ( D. centroura ) , with which it shares the bay . The bluntnose stingray is preyed upon by larger fishes such as the bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ) . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium brevissime and Kotorella pronosoma , the monogenean Listrocephalos corona , and the trematodes Monocotyle pricei and Multicalyx cristata .
Like other stingrays , the bluntnose stingray is aplacental viviparous. with the embryos initially sustained by yolk . Later in development , finger @-@ like extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " surround the embryo and deliver protein and lipid @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Only the left ovary and uterus in adult females are functional . Mating occurs during a well @-@ defined period from April to June , peaking in May , with the males presumably using their pointed teeth to grasp the females for copulation . However , embryonic development halts at the blastoderm stage , shortly after the formation of the zygote , and does not resume for approximately ten months . In the spring of the following year , the embryos rapidly mature over a period of 10 – 12 weeks . This period of embryonic diapause may reflect the greater availability of food in the spring .
Including the extended period of diapause , the gestation period lasts around 11 – 12 months , with 1 – 6 young being born in mid to late May . In 1941 , in a shallow channel between Chincoteague Island and Cape Charles , Virginia , several large bluntnose stingrays were observed repeatedly breaking the surface and swimming rapidly in straight lines , some with their tails thrashing in the air ; others were seen rising slowly to the surface and " hanging " for several minutes . One of the rays was hooked and the shock of capture caused it to release five near @-@ term fetuses , suggesting that this activity may have been related to parturition . The aborted young were pale with small yolk sacs , and a swelling in the place of their tail spines . Females begin ovulating a new batch of eggs immediately after giving birth , indicating that they have an annual reproductive cycle . Newborn rays measure 15 – 17 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) across and weigh 170 – 250 g ( 6 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 8 oz ) . Males mature sexually at disc width of 30 – 36 cm ( 12 – 14 in ) and a weight of 3 – 6 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 2 lb ) , while females mature at a disc width of 50 – 54 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) and a weight of 7 – 15 kg ( 15 – 33 lb ) .
= = Human interactions = =
The bluntnose stingray is not aggressive , though it will defend itself if stepped on or otherwise incited . Its tail spine can inflict an excruciating injury , and can easily pierce leather or rubber footwear . The paralytic venom delivered may have potentially life @-@ threatening effects on those with heart or respiratory problems , and is the subject of biomedical and neurobiological research . This species is popular with ecotourist divers . Abundant and widespread , the bluntnose stingray is caught incidentally by commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries operating in nearshore U.S. waters ; these activities are not a threat to its population , as most captured rays are released alive . The impact of fishing in the southern parts of its range is uncertain , but is unlikely to significantly affect the species as a whole as these activities occur outside its centers of distribution . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed the bluntnose stingray as of Least Concern .
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= Siege of Trsat =
The Siege of Trsat ( Croatian : Opsada Trsata ) was a battle fought over possession of the town of Trsat ( Latin : Tarsatica ) in Liburnia , near the Croatian – Frankish border . The battle was fought in the autumn of 799 between the defending forces of the Dalmatian Croatia under the leadership of Croatian duke Višeslav and the invading Frankish army of the Carolingian Empire led by Eric of Friuli . The battle was a Croatian victory , and the Frankish commander Eric was killed during the siege .
The Frankish invasion of Croatia , the destruction of Tarsatica , the coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor , and negotiations from 802 – 815 between the Franks and Byzantines led to a stalemate . The Dalmatian Croatia consequently peacefully accepted a limited Frankish overlordship .
= = Background = =
Charlemagne , King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814 , expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western and central Europe . He brought the Frankish state face to face with the Slavs to the northeast and the Avars and Slavs to the southeast of the Frankish empire . The Croats lived in Pannonian Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia ( Littoral Croatia ) to the southeast of the Frankish Empire . Dalmatian Croatia was ruled by Duke Višeslav , one of the first known Croatian dukes .
While fighting the Avars , the Franks called for Slavic @-@ Croatian support . Croatian Prince Vojnomir of Pannonian Croatia launched a joint counterattack with the help of Frankish troops under Charlemagne in 791 . The offensive was successful and the Avars were driven out of Croatia . In return for the help of Charlemagne , Vojnomir was obliged to recognize Frankish sovereignty , convert to Christianity , and have his territory named Pannonian Croatia . Charlemagne again campaigned against the Avars and won a major victory in 796 . Prince Vojnomir aided him , and the Franks became overlords of the Croatians of northern Dalmatia , Slavonia , and Pannonia . The Franks placed Pannonian Croats under Eric , the margrave of Friuli , who then tried to extend his rule over the Croatians of Dalmatia .
The conquest of Istria by the Franks brought the realm of Charlemagne adjacent to Dalmatia . Dalmatia at that time included both Roman cities and a Slavic @-@ Croatian hinterland that was loosely subject to the rule of the Byzantine Empire . In the treaty of 798 , the Franks acknowledged Byzantine rights over the Slavs , but in the following years both Croatian Župans ( dukes ) and Roman communities recognized an opportunity to win full independence from both Imperial powers .
As the eldest son of Gerold of Vinzgouw and as a high ranking Frankish commander , Eric was titled from 789 to his death the Duke of Friuli ( dux Foroiulensis ) . He was appointed governor of Istria , Fruli , and neighbouring areas by Charlemagne . Eric wanted to extend his dominion by conquering Dalmatian Croatia . In the autumn of 799 , Eric marched from Istria along the seacoast of Liburnia towards the town of Trsat , which is today part of the city of Rijeka . Meanwhile his opponent , duke Višeslav , gathered his forces and moved north from his governing center at Nin .
= = Siege = =
Upon arriving at the foot of the settlement , Eric besieged and attacked the city , but was repelled . Led by duke Višeslav , the inhabitants of Trsat threw spears , shot arrows , and hurled huge stones on the enemy , and managed to kill many of them . Eric 's forces fled their positions , and were subsequently routed by the forces of Višeslav in an ambush . Eric was among those killed , and his death and defeat proved to be a great blow for the Carolingian Empire . Aquileian Patriarch Saint Paulinus II cursed the land in which the hero was killed , and wrote Carmen de regula fidei , the rhythmus or elegy for his death .
According to contemporary Frankish scholar and courtier Einhard , Eric was killed at Trsat ( Tarsatch ) , a town on the coast of Liburnia by the treachery of the inhabitants . Due to a lack of primary materials , it is uncertain who killed Duke Eric . Most of historians point at Croats , while some point at Byzantines . Einhard also notes the death of Gerold , Prefect of Bavaria , another Frankish commander who was slain in Pannonia in the same year . Croatian historian Nenad Labus refers to this event as a successful assassination attempt by Avars and Slavs . Historian Pierre Riché believes that Dalmatian Croats ( Guduscani ) killed Eric in collusion with Avars .
Besides the Royal Frankish Annals ( Annales Regni Francorum ) , there is another primary source compiled in c . 950 , the historical work De administrando imperio , ascribed to Constantine Porphyrogenitus , which refers to Croatian @-@ Frankish relations . Constantine notes that for a number of years the Croats of Dalmatia were subjects of the Franks , who treated them brutally . The Croats revolted and slew their princes . In an act of revenge , a large army from Francia invaded Croatia . After seven years of war , the Croats managed to defeat the Franks , killing a large portion of the invading army along with its commander . Although Constantine describes a chain of events that are analogous to the ' Siege of Trsat ' , he does not mention Tarsatica or the exact year of these events .
= = Aftermath = =
In 800 , Eric 's successor Cadolah of Friuli invaded the Dalmatian Croatia by the order of Charlemagne , but without considerable military success . Still , Tarsatica was burned down . Tarsatica 's surviving inhabitants moved to a more protected hill , where they established a new settlement called Trsat . Višeslav continued to rule over the Dalmatian Croatia and warred against the Franks , avoiding defeat upon his death in 802 . He was succeeded by his son Borna , who later become a Frankish ally .
On Christmas Day in 800 , Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Imperator Romanorum ( Holy Roman Emperor ) in Saint Peter 's Basilica . This was a direct challenge to Byzantium 's claim to be the one - the Roman - empire . Nicephorus I of the Byzantine Empire and Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire settled their imperial boundaries in 803 . Dalmatian Croatia peacefully accepted a limited Frankish overlordship . The peace of Aache in 812 confirmed Dalmatia , except for the Byzantine cities and islands , as under Frankish domain .
Ljudevit Posavski , Croatian Duke of Pannonian Croatia , led a resistance to Frankish domination . Ljudevit also had to fight against Dalmatian Croatia , as their prince Borna was a Frankish ally . After unsuccessful resistance by Ljudevit and Pannonian Croats , the Franks again controlled Istria , Dalmatia , and Pannonia . Nevertheless , Dalmatian Croatia remained a semi @-@ independent duchy between the two Empires , as they had a right to elect their own prince .
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= Yugoslav destroyer Split =
The Yugoslav destroyer Split was a large destroyer designed for the Royal Yugoslav Navy in the late 1930s . Construction began in 1939 , but she was captured incomplete by the Italians during the Invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . They continued to build the ship , barring a brief hiatus , but she was not completed before she was scuttled after the Italian surrender in September 1943 . The Germans occupied Split and refloated the destroyer later that year , but made no efforts to continue work . The ship was scuttled again before the city was taken over by the Yugoslav Partisans in late 1944 . Split was refloated once more , but the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was able to do little with her before the Tito – Stalin Split in 1948 halted most work . Aid and equipment from the United States and Great Britain finally allowed her to be completed 20 years after construction began . She was commissioned in July 1958 and served as the navy 's flagship for most of her career . Split became a training ship in the late 1970s after a boiler explosion ; she was decommissioned in 1980 , and scrapped six years later .
= = Design = =
The Yugoslav Navy decided to order a single large destroyer rather than a repeat pair of smaller Beograd @-@ class destroyers in the late 1930s because the Navy 's planners didn 't believe that the smaller ships could adequately support the raiding strategy that it intended to conduct in the event of a war with Italy . The staff decided on a much larger equivalent of the flotilla leader Dubrovnik that could out @-@ gun any Italian destroyer and cover the escape and return to base of the raiding forces . The French company Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire was selected and based the new ship on their design for the 2 @,@ 610 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 2 @,@ 570 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Le Fantasque @-@ class destroyer . She was built by Yarrow Shipbuilders at their shipyard in Split and was named after her place of construction .
The Yugoslavs chose to buy the components from a variety of different nations . The pairs of geared steam turbines and Yarrow boilers were intended to give the ship a speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) from 55 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 000 kW ) and were purchased from Great Britain . The fire @-@ control system , with two directors , and radios were French while the armament was supplied by the Škoda Works of Czechoslovakia and Bofors of Sweden .
The ship 's designed armament was five 56 @-@ caliber Škoda 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns in single mounts , five single 43 @-@ caliber Bofors 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , four single 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) ZB vz.60 anti @-@ aircraft machineguns , and two triple mounts for 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes .
The Yugoslav emphasis on anti @-@ aircraft defense meant that Split could only have a single funnel to allow the guns as much freedom to fire as possible , which dictated that the boiler rooms were adjacent to the engine room . This meant that a single torpedo hit in the machinery spaces could immobilize the ship .
= = Construction = =
The ship was laid down in July 1939 with her launching scheduled for the following year and completion by the end of 1942 . By the time the Italians joined the Germans in invading France in May 1940 , only 600 metric tons ( 590 long tons ) of the 1 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 083 long tons ) of material necessary to launch her had been delivered . The British government embargoed her machinery in 1940 , despite French protests , when it discovered surreptitious contacts between the Yugoslav and Soviet governments . The Swedish government embargoed the Bofors guns due to the war and the German control of the Škoda Works meant that the Yugoslavs had to suspend construction of Split .
When the city of Split was captured by the Italians on 14 April 1941 , the hull remained undamaged and the Regia Marina decided to complete the ship after a delay of several months . They renamed the ship Spalato , the Italian name for the city of Split . New machinery was ordered from Franco Tosi , and five 45 @-@ caliber 13 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns , as many Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) AA guns as could be fitted , and four twin mounts for Breda 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) light AA guns replaced the Czech and Swedish weapons . One torpedo tube mount was removed and the Italians planned to add depth charge throwers and racks , the capacity for 40 mines and an EC @-@ 3 ter Gufo radar .
The ship was lightly damaged by saboteurs in December which disrupted progress and the Regia Marina decided to suspend construction in April 1942 as she remained nearly two years from completion . By late 1942 , the Regia Marina 's shortage of destroyers had reached a point that every possible hull was needed and construction restarted at a high priority . This allowed her to be launched on 18 July 1943 , but shortly afterwards a change in the Italian leadership caused any further work to be suspended in August and the resources used in her construction to be diverted to finish a large group of small wooden minesweepers . During the fighting between the Germans and the Italians after the Italian surrender on 9 September , Spalato was scuttled in Split harbor on 24 September . The Germans occupied Split three days later , refloated the ship several weeks later and stripped her of any valuable material . As part of their scorched @-@ earth strategy as they abandoned Split , the Germans scuttled Spalato and wrecked the shipyard before the Yugoslav Partisans occupied the port on 27 October 1944 .
= = = Postwar completion = = =
The new communist government of Yugoslavia lacked any sizable warships after the end of the war and decided to resurrect Split as the centerpiece of their new navy . The Yugoslav Navy ordered replacement parts for the machinery from Franco Tosi and contacted Škoda in 1948 to get delivery of her original main armament , which had sat out the war in a warehouse . The damage to the shipyard meant that the navy had to tow the ship to the Kvarner Shipyard ( formerly the Cantieri navali del Quarnaro ) in Rijeka . Shortly afterwards , however , the Tito @-@ Stalin split deprived the ship of her main armament and the technical assistance needed to complete her .
The Yugoslavs re @-@ launched Split in March 1950 to free up the slipway , but no other work was done . In 1953 there was a rapprochement with the NATO powers and the American and the British agreed to help complete the ship . The Tosi machinery ordered earlier had been used for other ships so the British agreed to furnish her propulsion machinery while the Americans provided the ship 's armament , fire @-@ control equipment and electronics .
= = Description = =
Split had an overall length of 120 meters ( 393 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 12 meters ( 39 ft 4 in ) , and a draft of 3 @.@ 7 meters ( 12 ft 2 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 400 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 362 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 953 long tons ) at deep load . She was powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by two Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) . Split carried 590 metric tons ( 581 long tons ) of fuel oil , although her range is unknown , and had a crew of 240 .
The main armament of Split consisted of four 38 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair each fore and aft of the superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four twin @-@ gun and four single mounts for license @-@ built Bofors 40 mm guns . The ship carried one quintuple set of 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes and retained her capacity for 40 mines . For anti @-@ submarine combat , Split was equipped with two Hedgehog spigot mortars , six depth @-@ charge throwers and two depth @-@ charge racks . The ship was fitted with a Mk 37 fire @-@ control director for the 5 @-@ inch guns and a Mk 51 director for the AA guns . The Mk 37 director was equipped with a Mk 12 fire @-@ control radar and a Mk 22 height @-@ finding radar . SC and SG @-@ 1 search radars completed her radar suite .
= = Service = =
Construction proceeded at a snail 's pace and the ship was finally commissioned on 4 July 1958 , although she did not enter service until 1959 . She immediately became the navy 's flagship and retained that position for most of her career . Split proved to be top @-@ heavy , short ranged , slow and very cramped for in service . She accidentally collided with the ex @-@ Italian torpedo boat Biokovo in 1963 , damaging the latter so badly that she was immediately struck from the Navy List . In the late 1970s , an explosion of one of Split 's main boiler steam lines killed all of the men standing watch in the boiler room . The boiler was not repaired and she was limited to a speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The ship became a stationary training ship afterwards . She was decommissioned in 1980 , struck on 2 February 1984 and scrapped in 1986 .
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= U.S. Route 12 in Michigan =
US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) is a US Highway that runs from Aberdeen , Washington , to Detroit , Michigan . In Michigan it runs for 210 miles ( 338 km ) between New Buffalo and Detroit as a state trunkline highway and Pure Michigan Byway . On its western end , the highway is mostly a two @-@ lane road that runs through the southern tier of counties roughly parallel to the Indiana state line . It forms part of the Niles Bypass , a four @-@ lane expressway south of Niles in the southwestern part of the state , and it runs concurrently with the Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) freeway around the south side of Ypsilanti in the southeastern . In between Coldwater and the Ann Arbor area , the highway angles northeasterly and passes the Michigan International Speedway . East of Ypsilanti , US 12 follows a divided highway routing on Michigan Avenue into Detroit , where it terminates at an intersection with Cass Avenue .
When US 12 was designated in Michigan on November 11 , 1926 , along with the other original US Highways , it ran along a more northerly course . It originally replaced sections of the original M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 17 along Michigan Avenue in the state , the route of the much older St. Joseph Trail , a footpath used by Native Americans before European settlement in the area . It entered from Indiana as it does now , but it followed the Lake Michigan shoreline farther north to Benton Harbor – St. Joseph before turning eastward to run through Kalamazoo , Battle Creek and Jackson . In the Ann Arbor area , it followed a more northerly path into Detroit before terminating downtown . In the 1940s and 1950s , sections of the highway were converted into expressways and freeways . Starting in 1959 , these freeway segments were renumbered as part of I @-@ 94 , and in January 1962 , US 12 was shifted to replace US Highway 112 ( US 112 ) . That highway , when it was designated in 1926 replaced the original M @-@ 23 along the Chicago Road . Later , US 112 replaced the first M @-@ 151 when the former was extended to New Buffalo in the mid @-@ 1930s . Since 1962 , the highway has remained relatively unchanged aside from minor truncations in the city of Detroit . US 112 previously had two business loops , both of which were renumbered Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) in 1962 . In 2010 , the Niles business loop was decommissioned , but the one in Ypsilanti remains . One section of the former US 112 was renumbered US 112S for a few years in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
Between the state line near Michiana and the interchange with I @-@ 94 near New Buffalo , US 12 forms a portion of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) . The full length of the highway in the state is also a Pure Michigan Historic Byway . Outside of the various cities , most of US 12 is a rural , two @-@ lane state highway . One section runs concurrently with I @-@ 94 south of Ypsilanti . From there eastward , the US 12 is a divided highway and then a boulevard into the Detroit area . The entire length of the highway east of Coldwater is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the US 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = = Southwest Michigan = = =
US 12 enters the state of Michigan southwest of New Buffalo near the town of Michiana . The highway runs a bit inland and parallel to the Lake Michigan shore on Red Arrow Highway past the community of Grand Beach before turning eastward away from the lake on the north side of New Buffalo . US 12 intersects I @-@ 94 less than a mile east of this turn and continues due east along Pulaski Highway through rural farmland . The highway is the main east – west street as it crosses through Three Oaks in southern Berrien County . East of Galien , the highway dips southward around Dayton Lake before passing south of Buchanan . The highway continues eastward , intersecting US 31 ( St. Joseph Valley Parkway ) near Niles . East of that freeway , US 12 expands into an expressway as the Niles Bypass . This bypass intersects M @-@ 139 , crosses the St. Joseph River and intersects M @-@ 51 on the south side of Niles . US 12 turns northeasterly along the bypass east of downtown and then departs to the southeast at an interchange with Main Street and M @-@ 60 just across the county line with Cass County .
Continuing through southern Cass County , US 12 runs roughly parallel to the state line . It turns northeasterly to run into Edwardsburg , where it intersects M @-@ 62 . The highway turns southeasterly and runs to the south of Eagle Lake before entering the community of Adamsville . The highway continues on this southeasterly course until it intersects the former M @-@ 205 and M @-@ 217 ( Michiana Parkway ) near Union and turns to the northeast . US 12 intersects the southern end of M @-@ 40 before crossing into St. Joseph County at the eastern crossing of the St. Joseph River .
On the eastern side of the river , US 12 enters Mottville and intersects M @-@ 103 . The highway continues as Chicago Road through farmland and intersects US 131 near White Pigeon . It runs along the south side of Klinger Lake and continues to a junction with M @-@ 66 in Sturgis ; the two highways run concurrently for about eight blocks through town . East of Sturgis , US 12 turns northeasterly into Branch County . Still named Chicago Road , it passes through Bronson and Batavia . Northeast of Batavia , US 12 intersects the eastern end of M @-@ 86 near Branch County Memorial Airport . The airport is on the western edge of Coldwater , and after crossing the Coldwater River between Cemetery and South lakes , the highway runs through residential neighborhoods and into downtown . East of Division Street , Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) follows US 12 through downtown and out to an interchange with I @-@ 69 on the east side of Coldwater . The highway continues past retail businesses and parallel to the Sauk River . US 12 passes through the town of Quincy before crossing into Hillsdale County .
= = = Southeast Michigan = = =
East of Hillsdale County line , US 12 runs easterly into Allen , where it intersects M @-@ 49 . The highway continues northeastward through farmland to Jonesville , where it runs concurrently with M @-@ 99 through downtown and across a different St. Joseph River . The trunkline continues northeasterly through northern Hillsdale County , crossing the South Branch of the Kalamazoo River in Moscow . US 12 runs along the south side of Lake LeAnn in Somerset Center in the northeastern corner of the county . East of Somerset , the highway crosses into northern Lenawee County .
Immediately east of the Lenawee County line , US 12 intersects US 127 in the Irish Hills region . South of Brooklyn in Cambridge Junction , it passes the Michigan International Speedway and crosses the River Raisin next to a junction with M @-@ 50 . East of the racetrack , the highway meanders through an area dotted by several smaller lakes until it intersects M @-@ 124 at Walter J. Hayes State Park . Continuing as Michigan Avenue , US 12 angles northeasterly from the park until it hits the Lenawee – Washtenaw county line . The highway follows the line for several miles before reentering Lenawee County . It continues through an intersection with M @-@ 52 and into Clinton before turning northeasterly and fully crossing into Washtenaw County .
In Washtenaw County , US 12 passes through Benton in a rural southern section of the county . At Saline , the highway enters the suburban edge of the Ann Arbor – Ypsilanti metro area . US 12 follows Michigan Avenue northeasterly through Saline and across an interchange with US 23 before intersecting I @-@ 94 in Pittsfield and Ypsilanti townships . US 12 leaves Michigan Avenue to follow I @-@ 94 at that freeway 's exit 181 ; Michigan Avenue continues into downtown Ypsilanti as a city street . I @-@ 94 / US 12 skirts around the south side of the city and intersects the western end of Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) at Huron Street south of downtown . The freeway continues around the south side of the city and rounds the north end of Ford Lake . It is bounded by residential neighborhoods , and it crosses the Huron River on the eastern side of Ypsilanti . Near the Willow Run industrial complex and airport , US 12 separates from I @-@ 94 and turns northeasterly along an expressway on the north side of the airport . There are three interchanges , including one for the eastern end of M @-@ 17 before US 12 crosses into Wayne County and intersects the eastern end of Bus . US 12 .
= = = East into Detroit = = =
Once US 12 intersects the eastern end of its business loop , it returns to Michigan Avenue for the remainder of its routing in the state . The roadway is a boulevard in this area , a street divided by a central median . It runs through Canton Township and parallel to the Lower River Rouge . US 12 intersects I @-@ 275 on the eastern side of the township before crossing into Wayne . The highway is bounded by a mix of industrial and commercial properties in suburban Metro Detroit . In downtown Wayne , the two sides of Michigan Avenue split apart , surrounding the central business district of the city and separated by two to three city blocks . East of this split , Michigan Avenue crosses a section of Westland before entering Inkster .
In Dearborn , US 12 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) at an interchange on the western side of the city , and M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) on the eastern side near the River Rouge crossing and Greenfield Village . On the Dearborn – Detroit city border , US 12 pass through a complex interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) and M @-@ 153 ( Ford Road / Wyoming Avenue ) . Michigan Avenue continues northeasterly parallel to I @-@ 94 for a short distance before it turns due east . Once it makes the direction change , it forms the 0 Mile of Detroit 's Mile Road System . US 12 continues through residential areas on Detroit 's West Side , passing through the interchange that connects I @-@ 75 with I @-@ 96 's eastern terminus near the Ambassador Bridge . The highway runs through Corktown , Detroit and beside the site of the former Tiger Stadium at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull . East of the former stadium , US 12 crosses M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) near the MGM Grand Detroit casino . East of M @-@ 10 , Michigan Avenue enters Downtown Detroit . At the corner of Michigan and Cass , US 12 ends while Michigan Avenue continues several blocks further to terminate at Campus Martius Park at Woodward Avenue .
= = History = =
= = = Before 1926 = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . Two of these trails are relevant to US 12 . The St. Joseph Trail ran between the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area and Detroit by way of what is now Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Jackson and Ann Arbor . The second , the Sauk Trail , ran further south through what is now Niles , and Coldwater to the Ann Arbor area .
The Town of Detroit created 120 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city in 1805 , including Michigan Avenue . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit , with a mandate from the territorial governor to improve on the previous plan . The wide width of the avenues was an emulation of the street plan for Washington , DC , and intended to make Detroit the " Paris of the West " .
The southern of these two Indian trails later became the Chicago Road . Father Gabriel Richard , the first priest to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives , petitioned Congress to fund a highway between Detroit and Chicago in March 1824 . A year later , the road was established in federal law , and it was surveyed by the end of 1825 . Construction started in 1829 , and the road was finished across Michigan in 1833 . The northern Indian trail was established as an unnamed territorial road in 1829 .
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , two of the system 's divisions corresponded to the original US 12 . Division 5 had a segment from New Buffalo to Benton Harbor and Watervliet while Division 6 connected Watervliet through Kalamazoo , Jackson and Ann Arbor to Detroit . No divisions corresponded to the future US 112 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 12 corridor was assigned two numbers . From the state line north through Benton Harbor to Watervliet , it carried the original M @-@ 11 designation , and from Watervliet eastward it was the original M @-@ 17 . From Dearborn into Detroit , the original M @-@ 10 ran concurrently along M @-@ 17 .
The future US 112 along the Chicago Road had two different numbers in the original highway plan . Between New Buffalo and Niles , the highway was numbered M @-@ 60 , and from Union to Ypsilanti , it was M @-@ 23 . East of Ypsilanti , the corridor was part of M @-@ 17 and M @-@ 10 . In November 1926 , these two highway corridors were renumbered as part of the United States Numbered Highway System .
= = = Original US Highway : 1926 – 62 = = =
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and US 12 was the designation assigned to a highway running northeasterly from Indiana near Lake Michigan to Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and turning east to Detroit through Kalamazoo , Jackson and Ann Arbor . This designation replaced sections of the original M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 17 through the southern part of the state . By the end of the next year , the MSHD rerouted the highway between Sawyer and Stevensville , and Downtown Stevensville was bypassed in 1928 . Additional work to fully bypass Stevensville was finished in 1929 .
In 1931 , the original routing of US 12 along a section of Michigan Avenue between Kalamazoo and Comstock was renumbered US 12A , and a new routing along King Highway south of the original opened . By 1936 , another US 12A debuted in Battle Creek , and by the end of the year , the main highway was rerouted between Augusta and Battle Creek . Another new segment of highway opened that same year east of Jackson , bypassing Leoni and Grass Lake to the north . This new bypass was extended eastward from Sylvan to bypass Chelsea to the south the following year , filling a gap in " super highway " segments between Jackson and Ann Arbor . The last routing change in the 1930s was the opening of Stadium Drive in Kalamazoo , after which US 12 was rerouted to follow it west of downtown .
In 1940 , a southern bypass of Battle Creek opened along Columbia Avenue , and the former routing through downtown on Michigan Avenue became a Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In late 1951 or early 1952 , a northerly bypass of Jackson opened , and the former route through downtown on Michigan Avenue became another Bus . US 12 . By the next year , the western half of the Jackson bypass opened , including a bypass of Parma . In 1954 , a new bypass of Kalamazoo and Galesburg opened ; US 12 was rerouted to follow the new highway while M @-@ 96 replaced part of the old route and the US 12A in the area .
In 1956 , several changes were made to US 12 's routing . A southern bypass of Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti was converted to a freeway . US 12 was rerouted to follow the bypass , supplanting the M @-@ 17 and Bypass US 112 designations used previously on the bypass . US 112 was also rerouted , and it runs concurrently with US 12 along the bypass . The former route of US 12 along Plymouth Road from Ann Arbor east to Detroit was renumbered M @-@ 14 , and the M @-@ 112 designation on the Willow Run and Detroit Industrial expressways was replaced by US 12 . At the same time as these changes were made , the Jackson bypass was upgraded to a full freeway . By the middle of 1958 , the Kalamazoo bypass was converted to a full freeway .
Previously delayed so that the designations could be finalized , the MSHD started numbering its Interstate Highways in 1959 , adding I @-@ 94 to the sections of US 12 freeway . Later that year , additional segments of I @-@ 94 / US 12 were opened , starting with a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section from Hartford to Coloma , then another from Paw Paw to Kalamazoo which connected with a segment between Galesburg to Battle Creek . The overall 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) section from Paw Paw to Battle Creek was dedicated on December 7 , 1959 . By the middle of 1960 , US 12 followed the I @-@ 94 freeway from Coloma to Watervliet and from Paw Paw to the east side of Jackson . It was also routed along the freeway from the west side of Ann Arbor into Detroit , where it followed the southern end of the Lodge Freeway . By the middle of 1961 , the Watervliet – Paw Paw and Jackson – Ann Arbor freeway gaps were completed , and the freeway was extended westward to Stevensville ; By the end of the year , I @-@ 94 / US 12 extended all the way to New Buffalo . In January 1962 , the state made the biggest rerouting change of all to US 12 : the designation was removed from the I @-@ 94 freeway from New Buffalo to Detroit and shifted to completely replace US 112 .
= = = US Highway 112 : 1926 – 62 = = =
In 1925 , US 112 was originally proposed to run from Oshkosh to Fremont , Wisconsin , on what later became U.S. Route 110 . When it was initially designated in November 1926 , US 112 made a sharp turn to the southwest to connect to US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . In 1931 , a new trunkline highway was designated between M @-@ 60 at Niles and US 112 at Union . This highway was numbered M @-@ 151 . In 1933 , the section of US 112 from Union to Elkhart was renumbered US 112S . M @-@ 151 and US 112S each lasted until 1935 when US 112 was extended to replace M @-@ 151 . US 112 was also extended to run concurrently with M @-@ 60 to New Buffalo , and US 112S was renumbered M @-@ 205 .
In 1936 , the section of US 112 along Michigan Avenue east of Ypsilanti was expanded into a " super highway " . In 1955 , a realignment of US 127 in southern Jackson County removed a short concurrency with US 112 from Somerset Center in Hillsdale County and the current intersection in northwestern Lenawee County .
On December 1 , 1956 , the highway department opened the first 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of a new four @-@ lane divided highway around the south side of Niles , with the final 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) of the bypass opening early the next year . Consequently , they converted the former route through town into a business loop numbered Bus . US 112 back to US 112 / M @-@ 60 . At the end of the decade , another highway concurrency was removed when US 131 was realigned to run directly south of US 112 to the state line instead of running concurrently along US 112 between Mottville and White Pigeon . In January 1962 , the US 112 designation was decommissioned when US 12 was shifted off the I @-@ 94 freeway to replace US 112 .
= = = After 1962 = = =
After US 12 replaced US 112 , the Bus . US 12 routes were renumbered as Business Loop I @-@ 94 , and the two Bus . US 112s were renumbered to Bus . US 12 . In 1966 , the state truncated M @-@ 60 and removed it as a concurrent designation along US 12 between New Buffalo and Niles .
In October 2000 , the state proposed changing jurisdiction of several highways near Campus Martius Park in Detroit , and US 12 was shortened by four city blocks the next year to end along Michigan Avenue at Griswold Street . This would be shortened again in 2005 to Michigan Avenue and Cass Avenue .
= = Memorial highway and byway names = =
The roads that have carried US 12 in Michigan have been given a number of memorial highway names . In 1922 , after the publication of Main Street by Sinclair Lewis , that street name took on a pejorative connotation . The newspaper in Jackson advocated that the main road from Detroit to Chicago which formed the main street through many communities in southern Michigan should be given a new name . It was already labeled the Michigan – Detroit – Chicago Highway on travel maps of the time , so the paper suggested that the roadway should be renamed to create the longest street in the country . Both Chicago and Detroit had streets named Michigan Avenue , so that is what the paper suggested for a new name . Albion was the first community to change the name of its street after the paper followed by Jackson and Marshall in 1924 , Battle Creek in 1928 and Kalamazoo in 1929 .
In 1952 , US 12 was dedicated to the 32nd Infantry Division . The division used a red arrow as its insignia to symbolize how they pierced the German Hindenburg Line during World War I and Japanese defenses during World War II . The soldiers who composed the division were drawn from the Michigan and Wisconsin National Guards . After other proposals failed , US 12 was named the Red Arrow Highway on August 30 , 1952 , and dedicated on March 22 , 1953 . Jurisdiction of most of the roadways that composed US 12 at that time has passed to local governments as I @-@ 94 was built , but the highway still bears that name in Berrien County .
Count Casimir Pulaski was a Polish @-@ born noble and soldier who fought on the side of the Americans during the Revolutionary War . He was appointed a brigadier general on the recommendations of George Washington and later became known as the " Father of the American Cavalry " . He was severely wounded during the Siege of Savannah and died while being treated on the brigantine Wasp . The route of US 112 was designated the Pulaski Memorial Highway by Public Act 11 of 1953 and formally dedicated in Detroit on October 4 , 1953 . The segment of what is now US 12 in Berrien County still bears this name .
US 12 has also been designated as the Iron Brigade Memorial Highway , a designation which it also has in Indiana , Illinois and Wisconsin . The name honors the 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment , part of the Iron Brigade from the American Civil War . The regiment lost more troops than any other on the Union side during the war and provided the military escort for Abraham Lincoln 's funeral in Springfield , Illinois . The unit traveled along the Chicago Road to join the war effort . The highway was dedicated in twin ceremonies in New Buffalo on October 9 , 1994 , and in Detroit on November 11 , 1995 , to the Iron Brigade .
In 1986 , the Michigan Department of Transportation consulted with its counterparts in Wisconsin ( WisDOT ) , Minnesota ( Mn / DOT ) and Ontario ( Ministry of Transportation of Ontario , MTO ) about the formation of a circle tour around Lake Superior . The Lake Michigan Circle Tour was signed on maps by 1988 .
In May 2001 , the section of US 12 through Saline was designated a Michigan Historic Heritage Route . The segment through Clinton was given the same status in October 2002 . On June 9 , 2004 , the full length of US 12 was dedicated as the US 12 Heritage Trail . In December 2014 , this became a Pure Michigan Byway when Governor Rick Snyder signed legislation renaming the Michigan Heritage Route System to the Pure Michigan Byway System .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Niles business loop = = =
Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) was a business route running in Niles . The western terminus was at the corner of West Chicago Road and US 12 ( Pulaski Highway ) east of the US 12 / US 31 interchange . From there , the business loop followed Chicago Road northeasterly through residential areas on the west side of town . Bus . US 12 turned north along Lincoln Avenue and then east on Main Street , crossing the St. Joseph River . The loop intersected the southern end of M @-@ 139 at Front Street one block east of the river in downtown Niles . Four blocks further east , Bus . US 12 met M @-@ 51 . The two highways merged along Main Street and then turned south along 11th Street at an intersection that also marks the western terminus of Bus . M @-@ 60 ( Oak Street ) . Bus . US 12 / M @-@ 51 continued south along 11th Street to the corner of US 12 ( Pulaski Highway ) and M @-@ 51 ( South 11th Street ) where the business loop terminated .
The trunkline was first designated in 1956 as a business route of US 112 . At that time , US 112 and M @-@ 60 were transferred to a bypass south of Niles . When US 112 was decommissioned in January 1962 , Bus . US 112 was redesignated Bus . US 12 to match the new US 12 designation .
In 1986 , US 33 was truncated in Michigan to end at US 12 . Bus . US 12 was rerouted in Niles to replace US 33 through town ; Bus . US 31 was added a year later when the signage was updated in the area . In 1998 , US 33 was removed from Michigan completely . At this time , M @-@ 51 was extended over former US 33 and replaced part of the Bus . US 31 designation in Niles .
On March 5 , 2010 , the segment of Bus . US 12 between Bus . US 31 and M @-@ 51 was turned over to local control . In April 2010 the Bus . US 12 designation was retired when an extended M @-@ 139 replaced it from the local control section southwestward prior to maps and signage being changed . The concurrent segment along M @-@ 51 became M @-@ 51 only .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in St. Joseph County .
= = = Ypsilanti business loop = = =
Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) is a business route running in Ypsilanti . The loop starts at exit 183 on I @-@ 94 / US 12 south of downtown Ypsilanti and runs northward along the one @-@ way pairing of Huron Street ( northbound ) and Hamilton Street ( southbound ) . At the intersection with Michigan Avenue in downtown , the two directions reunite and turn eastward , merging onto M @-@ 17 in the process . Michigan Avenue crosses the Huron River and continues due east until an intersection at Prospect Street where it turns northeasterly . M @-@ 17 separates from Bus . US 12 at Ecorse Road , and Michigan Avenue continues through commercial areas , exiting the city of Ypsilanti . Once Bus . US 12 crosses from Washtenaw County into Wayne County , it expands into a boulevard with Michigan left turns . Just north of the Willow Run industrial complex , Bus . US 12 terminates where US 12 merges onto Michigan Avenue .
In 1942 or 1943 , Ypsilanti was bypassed by a Bypass US 112 ( Byp . US 112 ) . US 112 continued to run along its routing in Ypsilanti . The first business loop in Ypsilanti was created in 1956 when US 112 was realigned to bypass downtown along the former Byp . US 112 . The former route through downtown was then numbered Bus . US 112 . The current designation was changed to Bus . US 12 in 1962 when US 12 replaced US 112 .
Major intersections
= = = Suffixed route = = =
US Highway 112S ( US 112S ) was a spur route of US 112 in the mid @-@ 1930s . Originally , US 112 turned southward at Union and ran to US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . In 1933 , this section of highway was renumbered US 112S , before US 112 was relocated to go through Michigan 's southwestern most counties in 1935 . At the same time , US 112S was renumbered M @-@ 205 , a designation it would hold until it was transferred to local control on October 10 , 2002 , decommissioning the trunkline .
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= Sierra Leone at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
Sierra Leone competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . This marked the nation 's tenth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics . The Sierra Leone delegation included two track and field athletes ; Ibrahim Turay , a sprinter and Ola Sesay , a long jumper . Sesay and Turay were selected as flag bearers for the opening and closing ceremonies respectively . Neither of the two athletes progressed beyond the first round .
= = Background = =
Sierra Leone participated in ten Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , Mexico and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , with the exception of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich , and the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , the latter because of a boycott relating to the New Zealand national rugby union team touring South Africa . The highest number of Sierra Leonean athletes participating in a summer games is fourteen in the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , Russia and the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , USA . As of 2015 , no Sierra Leonean athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympics . Two athletes from Sierra Leone qualified for the London games ; Ibrahim Turay in the track and field 200 m and Ola Sesay in the long jump . They both qualified after meeting the " A " and " B " qualifying standards for their events respectively . Sesay and Turay were flag bearers for the opening and closing ceremonies respectively .
= = Athletics = =
The 2012 Summer Games marked Ibrahim Turay 's Olympic debut . He qualified for the 200 metres after posting a time of 22 @.@ 54 seconds in the 2010 Commonwealth Games Men 's 200 metres , 0 @.@ 01 seconds faster than the " A " qualifying standard . He competed on 7 August in heat two , finishing last out of eight athletes , despite achieving a personal best time of 21 @.@ 90 seconds . He ranked behind Chile 's Cristián Reyes ( 21 @.@ 29 seconds ) , in a heat led by France 's Christophe Lemaitre ( 20 @.@ 34 @.@ seconds ) . Overall he finished 51st out of 55 athletes , and was 1 @.@ 18 seconds slower than the slowest athlete that progressed to the final round and , therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Competing at her first Olympics , Ola Sesay was notable for carrying the Sierra Leone flag for the opening ceremony . She qualified for the Olympics after meeting the " B " qualifying standard in the long jump . She competed on 7 August in Group A , and finished joint 11th out of 16 athletes with Philippines ' Marestella Torres , both of whom posting a jump of 6 @.@ 22 metres . She ranked ahead of Ukraine 's Marharyta Tverdohlib ( 6 @.@ 19 metres ) in a group led by Great Britain 's Shara Proctor ( 6 @.@ 83 metres ) . Sesay finished 23rd out of 32 athletes overall , and was 0 @.@ 18 metres behind a qualification spot , therefore not advancing to the final .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
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= Battersea Bridge =
Battersea Bridge is a five @-@ span arch bridge with cast @-@ iron girders and granite piers crossing the River Thames in London , England . It is situated on a sharp bend in the river , and links Battersea south of the river with Chelsea to the north . The bridge replaced a ferry service that had operated near the site since at least the middle of the 16th century .
The first Battersea Bridge was a toll bridge commissioned by John , Earl Spencer , who had recently acquired the rights to operate the ferry . Although a stone bridge was planned , difficulties in raising investment meant that a cheaper wooden bridge was built instead . Designed by Henry Holland , it was initially opened to pedestrians in November 1771 , and to vehicle traffic in 1772 . The bridge was poorly designed and dangerous both to its users and to passing shipping , and boats often collided with it . To reduce the dangers to shipping , two piers were removed and the sections of the bridge above them were strengthened with iron girders .
Although dangerous and unpopular , the bridge was the last surviving wooden bridge on the Thames in London , and was the subject of paintings by many significant artists such as J. M. W. Turner , John Sell Cotman and James McNeill Whistler , including Whistler 's Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge , and his controversial Nocturne in Black and Gold – The Falling Rocket .
In 1879 the bridge was taken into public ownership , and in 1885 demolished and replaced with the existing bridge , designed by Sir Joseph Bazalgette and built by John Mowlem & Co . The narrowest surviving road bridge over the Thames in London , it is one of London 's least busy Thames bridges . The location on a bend in the river makes the bridge a hazard to shipping , and it has been closed many times due to collisions .
= = Background = =
Chelsea ( Old English Cealchyð , chalk wharf ) , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Westminster on the north bank of the River Thames , has existed as a settlement since at least Anglo @-@ Saxon times . The Thames at this point bends through a sharp angle from a south @-@ north to an east @-@ west flow , and the slow @-@ moving and relatively easily fordable river here is popularly believed to be the site of Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Thames during the 54 BC invasion of Britain . Chelsea enjoyed good road and river connections to the seat of government at Westminster and the commercial centre of the City of London since at least the 14th century . It was a centre of the British porcelain industry , and a major producer of baked goods – at peak periods almost 250 @,@ 000 chelsea buns per day were sold . By the 18th century it had large numbers of very prosperous residents .
Battersea , listed as Patricesy ( St Peter 's Water ) in the Domesday Book and first mentioned in records of 693 AD , on the south bank of the river opposite Chelsea , was by contrast low and marshy land , prone to flooding . Conditions were ideal for farming asparagus and lavender , and a small market town grew in the area based on the asparagus and lavender industries .
Although Chelsea and Battersea had been linked by ferry since at least 1550 , the nearest fixed links between the two were Putney Bridge , 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) upstream and opened in 1729 , and Westminster Bridge , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream , opened in 1746 . In 1763 John , Earl Spencer , purchased the manor of Battersea , and consequently acquired ownership of the ferry service between Chelsea and Battersea .
The ferry was old and somewhat dangerous , and in 1766 Spencer formed the Battersea Bridge Company and sought and obtained Parliamentary consent to build " a fine stone bridge " across the Thames . The bridge was to be built between Cheyne Walk and Battersea , at the point where the river 's course turns sharply east towards Westminster , at a projected cost of £ 83 @,@ 000 ( about £ 10 @,@ 968 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The Earl had anticipated that many local residents would invest in the project , but soon found that there was widespread scepticism about the scheme . Only 15 investors , including the Earl himself , were willing to invest , and a total of only £ 17 @,@ 662 ( about £ 2 @,@ 215 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) was raised , far less than was needed to finance the ambitious project .
= = Old Battersea Bridge = =
Spencer calculated that the money raised would be sufficient to finance a modest timber bridge , and a design was commissioned from rising architect Henry Holland . The bridge was built to Holland 's designs by John Phillips , whose uncle Thomas Phillips had built the 1729 bridge at Putney . The bridge was opened to pedestrians in November 1771 while still incomplete . In 1772 a chalk and gravel surface was added and the bridge was opened to vehicle traffic . Tolls were charged on a sliding scale , ranging from 1 ⁄ 2d for pedestrians to 1 shilling for vehicles drawn by four or more horses . The bridge was never formally named , and was referred to on maps of the period as both " Battersea Bridge " and " Chelsea Bridge " .
The bridge was not a commercial success . It was 734 feet ( 224 m ) long and only 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , making it impractical for larger vehicles to use . Holland 's design consisted of nineteen separate narrow spans , the widest being only 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide , and boats found it difficult to navigate beneath the bridge ; there were a number of accidents including serious injuries and deaths . Repeatedly rammed by passing shipping , the bridge required frequent costly repairs , and dividends paid to investors were low . During a particularly cold winter in 1795 the bridge was badly damaged by ice , necessitating lengthy and expensive reconstruction , and no dividends at all were paid for the next three years . Concerns were expressed in Parliament about the reliability of the bridge , and the Battersea Bridge Company was obliged to provide a ferry service at the same rate as the bridge tolls , in the event of the bridge being closed for repairs .
In an effort to improve the bridge 's poor safety record for its customers , oil lamps were added to the deck in 1799 , making Battersea Bridge the first Thames bridge to be lit . Between 1821 and 1824 the flimsy wooden fences along the edges of the bridge , which were often breaking , were replaced by sturdy iron 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) railings , and in 1824 the oil lamps were themselves replaced by gas lighting . In 1873 , in an effort to improve navigation around the bridge and reduce accidents , two of the piers were removed , making the widest span a more easily navigated 77 feet ( 23 m ) , and the bridge deck was strengthened with iron girders to compensate for the missing piers .
= = = Competition and disputes with Vauxhall Bridge = = =
In 1806 , a scheme was proposed by Ralph Dodd to open the south bank of the Thames opposite Westminster and London for development , by building a new major road from Hyde Park Corner to Kennington and Greenwich , crossing the river at Vauxhall , about halfway between Battersea Bridge and Westminster Bridge . The Battersea Bridge Company were concerned about the potential loss of custom , and petitioned Parliament against the scheme , stating that " [ Dodd ] is a well known adventurer and Speculist , and the projector of numerous undertakings upon a large scale most if not all of which have failed " , and the bill was abandoned . However , in 1809 a new bill was presented to Parliament for a bridge at Vauxhall , this time obliging the operators of the new bridge to compensate the Battersea Bridge Company for any losses , and the Company allowed it to pass and accepted compensation . The Act obliged the Vauxhall Bridge Company to reimburse the Battersea Bridge Company for any loss in revenue caused by the new bridge .
After many delays and setbacks , the new bridge at Vauxhall ( initially named Regent Bridge after George , Prince Regent , but shortly afterwards renamed Vauxhall Bridge ) opened on 4 June 1816 . However , the Vauxhall Bridge Company failed to pay the agreed compensation to the Battersea Bridge Company and were taken to court . After a legal dispute lasting five years , a judgement was made in favour of the Battersea Bridge Company , with the Vauxhall Bridge Company being obliged to pay £ 8 @,@ 234 ( about £ 633 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) compensation .
= = = Old Battersea Bridge in art = = =
Although the bridge was inconvenient for its users and flimsily constructed , as the last surviving wooden bridge on the Thames in the London area it was considered an important landmark , and many leading artists of the period were attracted to it . Camille Pissarro , J. M. W. Turner , John Sell Cotman and John Atkinson Grimshaw produced significant paintings of the bridge . Walter Greaves , whose family owned a boathouse adjacent to the bridge and whose father had been boatman to Turner , painted numerous scenes of the bridge . Local resident and mentor to Greaves James McNeill Whistler created many images of it , including the influential Hokusai @-@ inspired Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge ( painted c . 1872 – 5 ) , in which the dimensions of the bridge are intentionally distorted and Chelsea Old Church and the newly built Albert Bridge are visible through a stylised London fog .
Whistler 's Nocturne series achieved notoriety in 1877 , when influential critic John Ruskin visited an exhibition of the series at the Grosvenor Gallery . He wrote of the painting Nocturne in Black and Gold – The Falling Rocket , that Whistler was " asking two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public 's face " . Whistler sued for libel , the case reaching the courts in 1878 . The judge in the case caused laughter in the court when , referring to Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge , he asked Whistler " Which part of the picture is the bridge ? " ; the case ended with Whistler awarded token damages of one farthing .
In 1905 , Nocturne : Blue and Gold became the first significant acquisition by the newly formed National Art Collections Fund , and is now in Tate Britain .
= = = Takeover and public ownership = = =
A more modern and convenient competing bridge opened nearby at Chelsea Bridge in 1858 , and usage of Battersea Bridge fell sharply . There were serious public concerns about the safety of the bridge by this time , after an 1844 incident in which a woman was murdered on the bridge in view of one of the toll collectors , who did not intervene because both parties had paid their fares .
The new Albert Bridge opened in 1873 , less than 500 yards ( 460 m ) from Battersea Bridge . Mindful of the impact the new bridge would have on older bridge 's financial viability , the 1864 Act of Parliament authorising the Albert Bridge compelled the Albert Bridge Company to purchase Battersea Bridge at the time of the new bridge 's opening and to compensate the owners of Battersea Bridge with £ 3 @,@ 000 ( about £ 266 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) per annum until the new bridge opened , and so Battersea Bridge was bought outright by the Albert Bridge Company in 1873 . By this time the bridge was in extremely poor condition , and there were many calls from local residents for it to be demolished . As an interim measure , the Albert Bridge 's architect Rowland Mason Ordish strengthened the foundations of the bridge with concrete while debate continued as to its future .
The Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed in 1877 , which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo Bridges and free them from tolls , and in 1879 the Board of Works bought Albert and Battersea bridges for a combined cost of £ 170 @,@ 000 ( about £ 15 @,@ 589 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and the tolls were removed from both bridges .
Inspections by the Chief Engineer of the Metropolitan Board of Works , Sir Joseph Bazalgette , following the purchase found that Battersea Bridge was in such poor condition that it was unable to be repaired safely . In 1883 it was restricted to pedestrian traffic only , and in 1885 it was demolished to make way for a new bridge designed by Bazalgette .
= = New Battersea Bridge = =
The contract to build the new bridge was awarded to John Mowlem & Co , and in June 1887 the Duke of Clarence laid a ceremonial foundation stone in the southern abutment and construction work began . Bazalgette 's design incorporated five arches with cast iron griders , on granite piers which in turn rest on concrete foundations . The roadway itself is 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , and 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide footpaths are cantilevered on either side of the bridge , giving the bridge a total width of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The balustrade is a distinctive Moorish @-@ style lattice . Construction work was overseen by Bazalgette 's son Edward , and cost a total of £ 143 @,@ 000 ( about £ 14 @,@ 193 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
On 21 July 1890 , the bridge was officially opened by future Prime Minister Lord Rosebery , then chairman of the newly formed London County Council . Unlike its predecessor , the new bridge was officially named Battersea Bridge . Although the road was narrow , trams operated on it from the outset . Initially these were horse @-@ drawn , but from 22 June 1911 the electric trams of London County Council Tramways were introduced .
= = = Collisions = = =
Although the five spans of the current bridge are far wider than the nineteen spans of the original bridge , Battersea Bridge 's location on a sharp bend in the river still presents a hazard to navigation . In 1948 , the MV Delta jammed under the bridge , and its master Hendrikus Oostring suffered broken arms and needed to be rescued from the smashed wheelhouse . On 23 March 1950 , the collier John Hopkinson collided with the central pier , causing serious structural damage , leaving the tram tracks as the only element holding the bridge together . The London County Council was concerned that the entire structure would collapse and closed the bridge until January 1951 . Tram services in the area were withdrawn on 30 September 1950 , so when the bridge was re @-@ opened the tram tracks were lifted . Another serious incident took place on 21 September 2005 , when the James Prior , a 200 @-@ ton barge , collided with the bridge , causing serious structural damage costing over £ 500 @,@ 000 to repair . The bridge was closed to all motor vehicles other than buses while repairs were carried out , causing severe traffic congestion ; it eventually reopened on 16 January 2006 . Brian King , the master of the James Prior , was formally cleared of navigating without due care and attention in 2008 , when the judge in the case injured his back and was unable to proceed and prosecutors decided not to re @-@ present the case .
= = = Restoration = = =
At only 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , Bazalgette 's bridge is now London 's narrowest surviving road bridge over the Thames , and in 2004 was the fifth least @-@ used Thames bridge in London . In 1983 the bridge was designated a Grade II listed structure , protecting its character from further alterations , and in 1992 English Heritage oversaw a project to renovate the bridge , which for some years had been painted blue and red .
Paint samples were analysed and photographs from the time of opening consulted , and the bridge was restored to its original appearance . The main body of the bridge was painted in dark green , with the spandrels decorated in gilding . The lamp standards , which had been removed during the Second World War , were replaced with replicas copied from the surviving posts at the ends of the bridge . A statue of James McNeill Whistler by Nicholas Dimbleby was erected at the north end of the bridge in 2005 .
= = = 2006 Thames whale = = =
Shortly after its reopening following the collision with the James Prior , the bridge briefly attained national prominence on 20 January 2006 when a 19 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) long female bottlenose whale became stranded at Battersea Bridge . A rescue operation was mounted , and large crowds flocked to the bridge . The whale was successfully transferred to a barge , but died while being transported back to the sea to be released . A year after the whale 's death , its skeleton was put on public display in the offices of The Guardian newspaper . Today it resides at the Natural History Museum .
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= Astley , Greater Manchester =
Astley is a settlement within the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan in Greater Manchester , England , variously described as a suburb or a village . Astley lies on flat land to the northwest of the city of Manchester , and is crossed by the Bridgewater Canal and the A580 " East Lancashire Road " . It forms a continuous urban area with neighbouring Tyldesley , and is equidistant from Wigan and Manchester city centre , both 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) away . The Astley Mosley Common ward of Wigan MBC , which covers both settlements , had a population of 11 @,@ 654 in the 2001 Census , falling to 11 @,@ 270 at the 2011 Census .
Historically a part of Lancashire , the name Astley is derived from Old English , indicating Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement . It means " east Leigh " or " east of Leigh " , a reference to Astley 's location relative to the town of Leigh ; or ēastlēah the " eastern wood or clearing " . Throughout the Middle Ages , Astley constituted a township within the parish of Leigh and hundred of West Derby . Astley first appears in written form as Asteleghe in 1210 , when its lord of the manor granted land to the religious order of Premonstratensian canons at Cockersand Abbey .
Medieval and Early Modern Astley is distinguished by the dignitaries who occupied Damhouse , the local manor house around which a settlement expanded . The newly extended Bridgewater Canal reached Astley in 1795 , and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830 . The Industrial Revolution introduced mechanised coal mining and the factory system to the region in and around Astley , triggering its expansion . The village 's only cotton mill was built in 1833 .
Mining subsidence coupled with structural and political changes to the mining industry began the decline in Astley 's industrial activities during the mid @-@ 20th century ; its cotton mill closed in 1955 , and the last coal was brought to the surface in 1970 . However , Astley has grown as part of a commuter belt , supported by its proximity to Manchester city centre and inter @-@ city transport links . Astley Green Colliery Museum houses collections of Astley 's industrial heritage .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Astley is of Old English derivation , and means " East Leigh " , a reference to its position in relation to Leigh . Leigh is derived from leah , meaning a " wood " , a " clearing " or a " meadow " . The earliest written record of Astley was in documents dated 1210 when it appeared as the Middle English Asteleghe . Other archaic spellings include Asteleye ( 1292 ) and Astlegh ( 14th and 15th centuries ) .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest evidence of human activity in the area is the remains of a Roman road which served as the route between Roman camps at Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . The road ran to the north of Astley , past Keeper Delph and through Tyldesley . Evidence for the presence of Anglo @-@ Saxons in the sparsely populated , heavily wooded and isolated region is provided by place names incorporating the Old English suffix leah , such as in Leigh , Tyldesley , Shakerley and Astley .
= = = Manor = = =
Astley emerged during the Early Middle Ages as a township in the parish of Leigh . It was mentioned in documents in 1210 , when Hugh of Tyldesley , Lord of the Manors of Tyldesley and Astley , granted land to Cockersand Abbey . In 1212 , he was recorded as tenant of Astley Hall , the manor house for both Astley and Tyldesley , located just inside the Tyldesley township . After his death , his son Henry inherited the manors . He was succeeded by his son , another Henry , who , when he died in 1301 , divided the lands between three of his six sons . It is from this division that the manors of Astley and Tyldesley were separated . Tyldesleys lived at the Astley manor until April 1353 when Richard Radcliff bought it for 100 marks . The Radcliffs remained there until 1561 when William Radcliff died childless and the land passed to his half @-@ sister Anne , who married Gilbert Gerard .
In 1606 Adam Mort bought the manor house and land in Astley . He was a wealthy man who built the first Astley Chapel as a chapel of ease for the parish church in Leigh . The chapel was consecrated in 1631 , the year that he died . He built a grammar school that stood for over 200 years until 1833 , when it was demolished and rebuilt . Adam Mort 's grandson , also Adam , rebuilt Damhouse in 1650 and his initials are carved in the plaque over the front door . The stone and timber structure was named from the stream which was dammed to supply water to a waterwheel powering a corn mill near the house . It is possible the hall was once surrounded by a moat .
Adam Mort 's descendants continued to support the chapel and school and remained at Damhouse until 1734 when it was bought by Thomas Sutton . After Sutton 's death in 1752 the house was inherited by Thomas Froggatt of Bakewell who contributed to rebuilding the chapel in 1760 . Froggatt 's descendants owned Damhouse until 1800 when it was leased to tenants , one of whom was George Ormerod , owner of the Banks Estate in Tyldesley who gave land for its churchyard and church school . In 1839 the house became the property of Captain Adam Durie of Craig Lascar by marriage to Sarah Froggatt . Damhouse was dilapidated when the Duries moved in . Captain Durie gave land to build a school on Church Road . After his death in 1843 his widow , Sarah , married Colonel Malcolm Nugent Ross . The Ross 's Arms public house at Higher Green is named in his honour . The Durie 's daughter Katharine , who married first , Henry Davenport and second Sir Edward Robert Weatherall , became lady of the manor after her mother 's death but the family was in financial difficulties and the house and estate sold in November 1889 .
The Leigh Hospital Board bought Damhouse in 1893 for use as a sanatorium dealing with cases of diphtheria , scarlet fever and , in 1947 , poliomyelitis . Two bombs fell close to the hospital during the Second World War . It became a general hospital in 1948 dealing with chronically ill and geriatric patients and closed in 1994 .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Astley became more industrialised during the early 19th century , but not so much as neighbouring Leigh , Tyldesley and Boothstown . A factory was built by James and Robert Arrowsmith on Peel Lane at Astley Green , near the Bridgewater Canal in 1833 . Until then , agriculture and cottage spinning and weaving had been the main economic activities . Fustians , muslins and , after 1827 , silk were woven in the area . Handloom weaving declined after the cotton factory was built . Arrowsmith 's factory lasted until 1955 , when mining subsidence damaged its foundations and it was demolished , ending Astley 's link with the textile industry .
Astley on the Lancashire Coalfield and had several coal mines within its boundaries . On a map of 1768 , a lane leading to Nook and Gin Pit Collieries was called the Coal Road and later North Coal Pit Lane . Gin Pit 's name alludes a method of coal mining , raising coal using a horse gin . An early colliery at Cross Hillock was abandoned in 1886 because of flooding . Samuel Jackson developed the mines that became Astley and Tyldesley Collieries between Astley and Tyldesley . Peat works were opened close to Astley railway station by the Astley Peat Moss Litter Company Limited in 1888 .
On 7 May 1908 the Pilkington Colliery Company started sinking No 1 Shaft of Astley Green Colliery near the Bridgewater Canal . A colliery railway moved coal from the screens to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway but some coal was transported to power stations at Trafford Park and Stretford using the Bridgewater Canal . Pit head baths , a canteen and medical centre designed for the Miners ' Welfare Committee by architect C. Kemp , were built in 1935 – 36 at a cost of over £ 24 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 5 million as of 2016 ) . There was a mining accident at Astley Green on 7 June 1939 when five men including the manager died in an explosion of firedamp . Women , " pit brow lasses " , worked on the screens sorting coal from rock until 1955 . The last coal was wound on 3 April 1970 .
The headgear at Astley Green Colliery Museum remains a landmark in the 21st century . It is made from wrought @-@ iron lattice girders with rivetted plates at all the joints , three wheels , two large and one small , are mounted at the top . Built by Head Wrightson of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees in 1912 , it is nearly 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high . In the winding house is a twin tandem compound steam engine made by Yates and Thom of Blackburn who also supplied 16 Lancashire boilers .
= = Governance = =
Historically , Astley formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . It was one of six townships or vills that made up the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish . Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , the townships formed the Leigh Poor Law Union established on 26 January 1837 , comprising the whole of the ancient parish and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley and Lowton , but Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh replaced them in the 1850s . In 1894 the civil parishes of Astley , Culcheth , Kenyon and Lowton became part of Leigh Rural District which lasted until it was dissolved in 1933 and Astley was incorporated into the Tyldesley Urban District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and Astley became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
In 2012 Astley and Mosley Common form an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . The ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council . As of 2012 , the Astley Mosley Common ward is represented by three Labour councillors .
After a review of parliamentary representation in Greater Manchester , the Boundary Commission recommended Astley should be part of the Leigh constituency at the United Kingdom general election , 2010 . At the 2010 General Election Andy Burnham retained the Leigh seat with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 30 ′ 3 ″ N 2 ° 26 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5008 ° , − 2 @.@ 4454 ° ) , and 163 miles ( 262 km ) northwest of central London , Astley is on the northern side of the Chat Moss bog , about 177 feet ( 54 m ) above sea level . It forms a continuous urban area with Tyldesley to the north , and , according to the Office for National Statistics , is a part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third largest conurbation .
Astley is 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manchester city centre , and 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of the Bridgewater Canal , which straddles the village 's southern hinterland from east @-@ to @-@ west . Astley is crossed east @-@ to @-@ west by the A572 and A580 roads . The hamlet of Astley Green lines a straight road leading southwards through Chat Moss , to the former Astley railway station , which is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the village . Astley spans an area of 2 @,@ 685 acres ( 10 @.@ 87 km2 ) , of which 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km2 ) is peat bog . Astley and Bedford Mosses is one of the last surviving fragments of Chat Moss , most of which has been drained for agriculture or lost through peat removal . It occupies a 33 @-@ hectare ( 82 @-@ acre ) site between Astley and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . It has been a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) since 1989 . Astley Moss is crossed by the Astley Brook and Moss Brook , tributaries to the Glaze Brook and the River Mersey .
The underlying geology consists of the Permo @-@ Triassic New Red Sandstone in the south , and the Middle Coal Measures of the Manchester Coalfield to the north . The upper soils are a mixture of clay and sand , with a subsoil of clay . The Astley area encompasses smaller , suburban and semi @-@ outlying areas , including Blackmoor , Astley Green , Gin Pit and Cross Hillock . The isolated hamlet of terraced houses at Gin Pit was built by the Astley and Tyldesley Collieries Company . Peace Street , Lord Street and Maden Street were named after directors of the company .
= = Demography = =
= = Economy = =
Before deindustrialisation in the late 20th century , Astley 's economy was linked with the textile industry and coal mines which developed during the Industrial Revolution . Now the main concentration of employment is at the Chaddock Lane Industrial Estate on either side of the A572 road between Astley and the East Lancashire Road .
Since the early 1980s , much of the area between Tyldesley and Astley has been built on for housing . Indicators show that the township has a strong housing market , with a high owner occupancy rate of almost 80 % . Parts of Astley are among the 5 % least deprived areas in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , whilst parts of the Blackmoor area , where social housing is concentrated , are within the 10 – 20 % most deprived neighbourhoods nationally . Facilities in the village include a small local shopping centre at Blackmoor . The development of Astley Green Colliery Museum and the heritage centre at Damhouse attract visitors interested in the area 's heritage .
= = Landmarks = =
The site of Astley Green Colliery Museum , a scheduled ancient monument , retains its engine house and headgear , a prominent feature that can be seen from around the local area .
Damhouse , the former manor house , is a listed building , parts of which were dated to 1595 by the Greater Manchester Archaeological Unit . The house was extended in 1650 . In 1999 , Morts Astley Heritage Trust was formed to preserve Damhouse and open the surrounding woodland to the public . It is situated within the Astley Village conservation area .
Morleys Hall lies on part of the lands donated to Cockersand Abbey by Hugh Tyldesley in 1210 . It was owned by the Morleys until 1431 , then subsequently by the Leylands . In 1540 it was described as being largely built of timber on stone foundations and surrounded by a moat . It was rebuilt in 1804 , but parts of the old hall survive . Edward Tyldesley of Wardley Hall married Anne Leyland and inherited Morleys in 1564 . Their granddaughter , Elizabeth Tyldesley , became abbess of the Convent of Poor Clares at Gravelines in the Spanish Netherlands . Sir Thomas Tyldesley was the most famous of this line of the family , having been a Cavalier commander and supporter of Charles II , King of England during the English Civil War . He died in the Battle of Wigan Lane and is buried at the Church of St Mary the Virgin , Leigh . The hall passed through the Legh and Wilkinson families until it was sold to Tyldesley Urban District Council and the land used for a sewage works . The hall is a private residence .
= = Transport = =
Public transport in Astley is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Bus services operate to Bolton , The Trafford Centre , Tyldesley , Atherton , Wigan and Manchester , operated by Diamond Bus North West , Stagecoach Manchester and First Greater Manchester . Major A roads link Astley with other settlements , including the A580 " East Lancashire Road " , which opened in 1934 bisecting the village . Its dual carriageway crosses the Bridgewater Canal on a bridge at Morleys . The A572 road connects Astley and Worsley and the A5082 road heads north east to Tyldesley .
By 1795 , the original Bridgewater Canal from Worsley to Manchester had proved an economic success , prompting its owner , Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , to seek powers to extend it route to Leigh via Astley . The Duke 's plans were approved , despite opposition from the local population . Canal traffic brought trade to Astley Green where the Hope and Anchor Inn ( now the Boathouse ) was built with stabling for horses that pulled the barges . The original canal bridge built to connect Lower and Higher Green lasted until 1904 , when it was replaced . The second bridge was replaced in 1920 by an iron bridge , which could be raised to counter the effects of mining subsidence . A boatyard was established by Lingards Bridge .
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway of 1830 crosses Astley Moss . It was built on a raft of branches and cotton bales to prevent the track sinking into Chat Moss . The early engines reached speeds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . The first passengers told the driver where they wished to alight until Astley railway station was built in the mid @-@ 1840s . The railway was distant from the village and early travellers came on horseback or in carriages .
An early tramway ran to a wharf on the Bridgewater Canal at Marsland Green and a mineral railway system linked Gin Pit Colliery to the Tyldesley Loopline at Jackson 's sidings and Bedford Colliery and Speakman 's Sidings . The colliery locomotives were named after Gin Pit Colliery 's company directors .
= = Education = =
Adam Mort established a grammar school by the chapel in 1631 which was in use until 1833 . Children from poor families were admitted free and those who could afford to pay covered the costs . Mort 's School closed in 1894 . In 1832 children were taught in a barn at the vicarage , the curate , Alfred Hewlett , improved it and the chapel was used as a classroom . A national school built by subscription on land donated by Captain Durie of Damhouse opened in November 1841 . Meanleys Infant School was opened at Gin Pit in 1904 to serve the mining community that had grown up by there . Other schools were built at Ellesmere Street and Marsland Green .
= = Religion = =
Adam Mort built Astley Chapel which was completed in 1630 and consecrated 3 August 1631 . It was the first of three chapels in Astley , and the first chapel of ease of Leigh parish church . Astley Chapel was rebuilt in 1760 ; Thomas Froggatt gave a contribution towards the cost . The new church was built of brick and measured 54 ft 6 in ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) in length and 36 ft ( 11 m ) in width and held 170 people and was enlarged in 1834 , 1842 and 1847 . It had a small chancel and its embattled western tower contained a single bell . The church , dedicated to Saint Stephen , was destroyed by arson on 18 June 1961 . Also destroyed was the book collection , acquired by the Morts , memorials to the old families and the First and Second World War memorials . It was too severely damaged to restore and a third church has been built on a nearby site .
Prominent Catholic families in the Leigh parish did not abandon the Catholic faith after the English Reformation despite penalties levied on papists . Secret Roman Catholic masses were held in private homes , including Morleys Hall , home of the Tyldesleys . On Easter Sunday 1641 , the Catholic priest , Ambrose Barlow was arrested during a service at Morleys Hall at the instigation of the vicar of Leigh . He was taken to Lancaster Castle , tried as a traitor and executed on 10 September 1641 . He was canonised by the Roman Catholic Church as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . A church and school bear his name . The St Ambrose Barlow parish was formed in 1965 and the church was built in 1981 . St Ambrose Barlow parish is in the Leigh Pastoral Area in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Liverpool .
There were two Methodist churches but one in Lower Green closed in 2009 . Astley Unitarian Chapel was demolished and the site built on . Gin Pit School doubled as a chapel for Wesleyan Methodists .
= = Sport = =
Astley and Tyldesley Miners ' Welfare Club at Gin Pit is the venue for several sporting groups including Astley and Tyldesley Cricket Club and the Astley and Tyldesley Roadrunners . The Astley and Tyldesley Cycle Speedway Club was formed in 1989 and built a race track at the Miners ' Welfare Club in 1991 .
= = Public services = =
Astley is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Leigh and Atherton fire stations . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust who provide an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan Hospital and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary . Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by Wigan Metropolitan Council , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Astley 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manages Astley 's drinking and waste water .
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= Gil Grissom =
Gilbert Arthur " Gil " Grissom , Ph.D. is a fictional character on the CBS crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , portrayed by William Petersen . Grissom is a forensic entomologist and , for the series ' first nine seasons , a CSI Level III Supervisor employed by the Las Vegas Police Department . He appeared in 198 episodes , and was replaced by Laurence Fishburne and , later , Ted Danson .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Series regular = = =
Petersen appeared in every episode of the series ' first eight seasons , with the exceptions of :
Season 05 : " Hollywood Brass "
Season 06 : " Gum Drops " , " The Unusual Suspect "
Season 07 : " Sweet Jane " , " Redrum "
Petersen then appeared in the first ten episodes of the ninth season , before departing the main cast .
= = = Guest star = = =
Following his departure from the main cast , Petersen reprised his role on five occasions .
Voice
Season 09 : " Turn , Turn , Turn "
Season 13 : " Wild Flower " , " Dead Air "
On Screen
Season 11 : " The Two Mrs. Grissoms "
Petersen also guest starred in Immortality , CSI 's feature @-@ length series finale .
= = Creation = =
Anthony E. Zuiker , who created the show , loosely based Grissom on real life Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department criminalist Daniel Holstein . Zuiker was " fascinated " by Holstein , who , like Grissom , kept maggots and pig 's blood in his refrigerator . Holstein works as a consultant for the show . Zuiker originally named the character Gil Sheinbaum , but after he became part of the cast , William Petersen requested the name to be changed , Petersen and Zuiker decided to rename the character " Grissom , " after astronaut Gus Grissom , of whom Petersen was a great admirer . The name Gil came from one of the actor 's hobbies , fishing .
In 2000 , CBS had bought the pilot script from Zuiker , and Nina Tassler , CBS 's head of drama development , passed it on to Petersen , who had a pay or play contract with the network . Petersen has said that many TV shows were offered to him over the years , but he " didn 't want to get locked down " . However , he was impressed with the complexity of Grissom 's character , and he decided to audition . It was the second time Petersen portrayed a forensic scientist , having portrayed Will Graham in the 1986 film Manhunter .
= = Development = =
Gil Grissom first appears in CSI : Crime Scene Investigation on the pilot episode . After this he appeared in almost every single episode of the show 's first eight years , except in " Hollywood Brass " , from season five , an episode that turns entirely around Jim Brass ; besides him , only three other regular characters appear . William Petersen did not appear during the season six episode " Gum Drops " . This episode was originally going to be how Grissom was convinced that an abduction victim was still alive . When Petersen 's nephew died , he flew home and was unavailable for the filming of the episode , which was rewritten to be centered on Nick . During 2007 ( CSI 's season seven ) William Petersen took a break from CSI to appear in a five @-@ week run of the Trinity Repertory Company production of Dublin Carol in Providence , Rhode Island , resulting in Grissom taking a sabbatical , being replaced by Liev Schreiber , as Michael Keppler , who developed a small story arc through " Sweet Jane " , " Redrum " and " Meet Market " . Also in 2007 , the character appeared in a two part crossover with another CBS series , Without a Trace . It was the sixth episode of the sixth season entitled Where and Why . The plot of the crossover between CSI and Without a Trace involved a serial killer that had eluded capture in Nevada and had escaped to New York City . Gil Grissom was brought in to assist in the apprehension .
= = Character background = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gilbert Arthur " Gil " Grissom was born on August 17 , 1956 , as an only child to a middle @-@ class family in Santa Monica , California . Grissom 's father taught botany at a local college and passed his enthusiasm for natural sciences onto his son . His father died when Grissom was 9 years old . Grissom recalls the day his father died to Catherine Willows in the episode " Still Life " , " He came home from school , one hot humid day , laid down on the couch . I was watching TV , my mom brought in some cold drinks , but she couldn 't wake him up . No one would tell me why . " Consequently , as a young child , Grissom played doctor by performing necropsies on small , deceased animals in the local area .
Gil 's mother , Betty , who became deaf as a result of the genetic disorder Otosclerosis , was responsible for his love of books . As a result of his mother 's deafness , Gil became fluent in American Sign Language in order to be able to communicate with her . In the earlier seasons of CSI , it becomes clear that Gil is also beginning to lose his hearing as well ; however , after seeking medical treatment , the disease was prevented from developing .
Grissom earned his Bachelor of Science degree in biology magna cum laude from the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , and his Ph.D. in Biology from the University of Chicago . He became a forensic entomologist . In the episode " Grissom vs. the Volcano " , Catherine tells the story of losing at a science competition as a child against a " kid with some lame red ants " . Later in the episode Nick also reveals that he lost a science competition and Grissom tells him to let it go . In his childhood science competition , Grissom was the kid with the ants .
In the season two episode " Bully for You " , he told Warrick that in high school , he was a " ghost " ( meaning that he did not belong to any group in particular ) . When he was in college , Grissom financed his first body farm with his winnings from a high @-@ stakes poker game . At the same time , he also attended boxing matches to learn about the patterns of bruise formations on bodies and eventual blood spatters from the injuries .
= = = Career = = =
Grissom became a crime scene investigator around 1985 ( Grissom mentioned in " Living Doll " , which first aired on May 17 , 2007 , that he had been a crime scene investigator for 22 years ) . Grissom once mentioned losing a body while in Minneapolis , implying he spent time there before taking a job in Las Vegas . This is mentioned again when he works with his former mentor , Dr. Phillip Gerard , played by Raymond J. Barry , stating that he used to work for him in Hennepin County , whose seat is Minneapolis .
He became the night shift team supervisor for the Las Vegas CSI unit on the second episode of the series , after Jim Brass was demoted following the death of co @-@ worker Holly Gribbs . In season seven , Grissom took a sabbatical to teach a class at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts for four weeks . Prior to his sabbatical , Grissom had been showing signs of " burnout " . Upon his return , however , he appears reinvigorated and tells Warrick Brown that he " missed " Las Vegas . After the resignation of Sara Sidle , his fiancée , from the lab , and the murder of Warrick Brown , his burnout seems to be resurfacing . This is particularly evident in " Say Uncle " , where , at the end of the episode , he expresses deep regret over solving a particularly depressing case .
Grissom announced his retirement just as evidence comes to light that The Dick and Jane Killer , a serial killer from the 1990s currently serving two life sentences , did not act alone , and that his accomplice has begun killing again . Rather than leave in the middle of a case , Grissom stays on to help solve it , and ultimately proves instrumental in saving the life of a woman who would have been the killer 's latest victim . The case closed , Grissom , having already had a series of one @-@ on @-@ one farewells with his co @-@ workers , silently left the crime lab and departed for Costa Rica for a reunion with fiancée Sara Sidle , an allusion perhaps to his comments in a season one episode that when he left , people would not throw a party for him because he was not the sort of person who people would get deeply involved with . He also says to Warrick in season two ( " Ellie " ) that when he left there would not be a cake in the break room — he would just pick up and leave .
= = = After CSI = = =
After reuniting with Sara Sidle , Grissom presumably remains in Costa Rica for a short time , before guest @-@ lecturing at the Sorbonne , as noted in the tenth season . During the series ' eleventh season , Grissom begins consulting for the Peruvian government on the etymology and physicality of the Inca . It is during this time that Sara and Grissom divorce , citing geographical differences . He later joins a group dedicated to protecting fish and wildlife in the Pacific , a role described as a " CSI at sea " . After his activities lead him to the Port of San Diego , Grissom reunites with Willows and the CSI team in order to consult on a series of bombings in Las Vegas . During this case , he reconciles with Sidle , and the two sail off together in order to continue his work as a wildlife advocate .
= = Characterization = =
= = = Personality = = =
Early episodes revealed Grissom to be a witty , enthusiastic , and quirky scientist who had some sense of humor . He flirted regularly and seemed to be constantly in a hyperactive state .
However , when he began to lose his hearing , Grissom retreated into himself and became easily irritated and unapproachable . After his surgery , he lightened up a bit , but never returned to the whimsical science nerd he once was .
Grissom is often regarded as well @-@ educated , but unusual in his approach toward his work and social life . In the series , some of his comments and actions can be seen to dumbfound his co @-@ workers and superiors . His relationship with his subordinates in the office is portrayed as being a father figure to the team , but very professional in his work .
Despite being calm , Grissom can get very angry or annoyed if interrupted during an interrogation as seen in season one episode " Table Stakes " when he berates Nick Stokes for calling him out of interrogation .
In addition to being a genius and somewhat of a polymath beyond his career training , he exhibits Asperger @-@ like traits . In " Caged " , it is hinted that ( in fact ) he has Asperger 's syndrome . Another character on CSI who shares these kind of traits is his subordinate ( and ex @-@ wife ) , Sara Sidle . She once insinuated that Grissom was a misanthrope when he quoted her Thoreau 's Walden .
In the season two episode " Alter Boys " , Grissom confides in a priest that he does not believe in the concept of organized religion and is a lapsed Catholic , but does believe in the idea of God . In addition to belief in God , Grissom and Greg would later agree that scientific education should not necessarily preclude belief in occultism and other paranormal concepts .
Although he is very dedicated to his job and sometimes goes to extremes in his investigations , his unwillingness to dabble in office politics often alienates his superiors , and sometimes his subordinates . He gets a lot of help in these areas from right @-@ hand woman Catherine Willows , who is always trying to make him " look up from the microscope " .
Grissom claims to have never hired a prostitute for sex , stating that sex is intended to create a human emotional connection . He has also expressed distaste for carrying a firearm when in the field , a tendency that has brought several scoldings from co @-@ worker Jim Brass . Despite this , he has proven to have an exceptional accuracy at the firing range .
He once listed his hobbies to Lady Heather : " I have outlets . I read . I study bugs . I sometimes even ride roller coasters " . Indeed , he has proven to be a very cultured man on many occasions , having a wide knowledge of history , literature , and art . He often offers quotes from a variety of literary sources , including Shakespeare and Keats . Later in this same season , he reveals himself to be a baseball fan . Sara notes that this is typical of Grissom , saying that he would like " all those stats " . However , Grissom is not too familiar with popular culture . In " Two and a Half Deaths " , Jim Brass was talking about a TV program which he thought had already " jumped the shark , " but Grissom did not know the term . While trying to explain , Brass says , " Remember the Fonz ? " , which Grissom did not know either .
Being an entomologist , he has a wide and varied knowledge of insects , which he applies to his investigations . This has led to his nickname , " The Bug Man " . In the beginning of the show , he was referred as " Gruesome Grissom " for his sometimes morbid fascination with the more bizarre aspects of man and nature . Grissom keeps a variety of specimens in his office , including a radiated fetal pig , a tarantula , and a two @-@ headed scorpion . He also has a bulletin board that looks like a fish on which unsolved cases go : " the ones that got away " . Occasionally , he keeps evidence from closed cases ( such as the models created by " The Miniature Killer " ) . In season seven , CSI newcomer Michael Keppler takes a look around Grissom 's office and observes that he must be quite a freak . In " The Grave Shift " , even after his office has been cleared out ( and later reclaimed by a somewhat @-@ reluctant Nick Stokes after Catherine Willows passed on the offer ) , the fetal pig in a jar was placed back in there by Hodges , who stated simply that " [ it ] belongs here . "
When asked why he is a CSI , he responds , " Because the dead can 't speak for themselves . " This is one of his favorite quotes , and he uses it frequently .
= = = Parallelism with Sherlock Holmes = = =
Gil Grissom has a more than passing similarity to Sherlock Holmes . Like Holmes , Grissom is dispassionate with a fierce devotion to logic and little regard for societal norms of behavior ; Grissom once smashed mustard jars in a grocery store to illustrate a theory ( " I @-@ 15 Murders " ) , much as Holmes once practiced spearing a pig in a butchers to determine how strong a man would have to be to transfix a man with a harpoon .
Grissom possesses a Moriarty @-@ like nemesis , Paul Millander , whom he pursues in several episodes ( " Pilot " , " Anonymous " and " Identity Crisis " ) . Coincidentally , " Paul Millander " has the same initials as " Professor Moriarty . " There 's also a woman , Lady Heather , in whom he takes an unusual interest . Their relationship is similar to that of Irene Adler and Holmes . Both Irene and Lady Heather enchant Holmes and Grissom with their beauty , their wit and their resolution . Lady Heather often wears Victorian @-@ style dresses , referencing Holmes 's era ( " Slaves of Las Vegas " , " Lady Heather 's Box , " " Pirates of the Third Reich , " and " The Good , the Bad , and the Dominatrix " ) .
= = Relationships with other characters = =
In the sixth season episode " Bang @-@ Bang , " Grissom tells Doc Robbins , concerning a woman shot in the mouth , " This was someone who was emotionally close to her . " Doc Robbins asks him if he has ever even been close to getting married . Grissom tells him about " Nicole Daley , " who , like him , was interested in bugs . He goes on a bit about her , then says , " Second grade . "
Grissom may not ask to take on the role of mentor , but it seems to happen naturally , going all the way back to Sara Sidle when they first met in San Francisco , then Nick Stokes and Greg Sanders in Vegas . Although he can be annoyed with his protégés at times , he is visibly proud when they succeed , as Greg did by passing his field test and becoming a CSI . He is also protective of his staff and defends them as much as he can , as seen in episode 521 ( " Rashomama " ) for example .
He also shares a good friendship with Dr. Al Robbins and the two were seen singing together in the autopsy room while processing the body of a murdered rock ' n ' roll star ( season 7 , " Built to Kill , Part 2 " ) . In the season six finale , it was revealed that Jim Brass 's living will gave Grissom power of attorney , showing that Grissom was the one person Brass trusted with his life . He has also been shown to be something of an inadvertent mentor @-@ figure to David Hodges , who looks up to him and often seeks his advice or approval , despite not always receiving it . Upon learning of Grissom 's plans to quit CSI , Hodges becomes visibly upset .
His relationship with Warrick Brown had aspects of a mentor / student bond , but out of all the CSIs ( Catherine included ) , Grissom seemed to view Warrick as his successor , the one who would lead when he was gone .
Some fans have always expected to see a relationship between Grissom and Catherine Willows , in whom he is shown confiding many times , once even likening her to being his " wife " . The two were never more than very good friends , as the show 's producers see them as more of brother and sister than lovers . Catherine has many times encouraged Grissom to be more open and less self @-@ absorbed , and to pursue something with Sara Sidle .
Grissom has been allegedly involved with forensic anthropologist Teri Miller and with S & M parlor operator Lady Heather , whose " safeword " it has been suggested that he knows - however , as all he says is " Heather , stop ! " and " I 'm saying Stop " , he evidently does not use it , as " Stop " is never a " safeword " . Rather , this is a reference to the episode Lady Heather 's Box , in which she reminds Grissom that the submissive is in control ; Grissom tells her when they begin kissing , " You can always say stop , " and she replies , " So can you . "
= = = Sara Sidle = = =
Since the first season , there were hints that both Sara Sidle and Grissom were interested in each other romantically . In fact , the show 's creators made Sara Sidle while thinking of a future love interest for Grissom , but during the show 's first three seasons , Grissom flirted with all the female characters , and when Sara asked him out to dinner , he rejected her , claiming that he did not know what to do about what is going on between them .
In season four , Grissom 's true feelings are revealed in " Butterflied " , an episode that centers entirely around him discovering his sentiments for Sara . It was then that he admitted not being able to risk his career to be with her . In season four , Sara apparently develops a drinking problem , which Grissom acknowledges on the season finale ; after this , they would hardly see each other , and Grissom becomes interested in detective Sofia Curtis .
In mid @-@ season five , Sara is suspended for insubordination and she reveals to Grissom her tormented childhood . He refuses to fire her and has her working in every case of the next two seasons with him .
It was not until the sixth season finale that it is revealed that Grissom and Sara have worked through whatever issues they had , and are , in fact , a couple , and have been for two years . This revelation caused mixed reviews among critics , some of them see this relationship as CSI " jumping the shark " , an attempt to include more drama and romance to the show , so as to be able to compete with the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which airs at around the same time . By killing off the sexual tension between the two characters and making them an item , the production crew were seen to be adding more personal drama to the show , increasing the appeal to some of Grey 's Anatomy 's younger audience . This has been denied by the writers , Carol Mendelsohn even said that she has never been able to see Grissom with someone else other than Sara and that this episode was seen by the writers as the right time to reveal the relationship , Jorja Fox and William Petersen have also admitted that the relationship is not new .
Throughout season seven , the audience sees Grissom and Sara as a couple , but the relationship is kept secret from the others in the lab until Sara 's abduction by The Miniature Killer in the season finale when Grissom unwittingly refers to his feelings for Sara . During season eight , they have become engaged . When Jorja Fox decided to leave the show , both she and the writers decided not to kill the character , so as to leave the doors open for a possible comeback . Consequently , Sara Sidle is submerged into depression after her kidnap in the season seven finale , and , even though she accepts Grissom 's marriage proposal on the season 's fourth episode , she shows signs of burnout during the subsequent episodes , breaking down on the season 's seventh episode , leaving Las Vegas and the CSIs with only a goodbye letter for Grissom and a good luck note for Ronnie Lake . In the letter she claims that ever since her father 's death she has been dealing with " ghosts " and that she now needs to go away and deal with them before self @-@ destructing .
After Grissom leaves CSI , he goes to Costa Rica , in hopes of finding Sara . Once they see each other , they embrace in a passionate kiss , and Sara 's return to CSI in the first episode of season ten reveals that she and Grissom are now married . In " Forget Me Not " , Sara reveals " he 's not my husband anymore " as she and Grissom had split up . According to her , he was the one to propose an end to the relationship , saying that it was in her best interest . However , in the series finale , Gil and Sara reunite . They sail off together in the final scene of the series .
= = Reception = =
This fictional character has an extensive fan base . There are more than one thousand videos made using the character on sites such as YouTube and a thousand more depicting his relationship with Sara Sidle .
Of more than twenty @-@ five @-@ thousand fan fictions written about CSI on FanFiction.Net , more than half include Gil Grissom . There are also many other sites that update daily news about either Gil Grissom 's status on CSI or William Petersen 's activities in real life .
On September 27 , 2007 , after CSI 's season eight premiered , a miniature model of Gil Grissom 's office ( which he was seen building during season seven ) was put up for auction on eBay . The auction ended on October 7 with the prop being sold for US $ 15 @,@ 600 , which CBS donated to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse Association .
CSI : Crime Scene Investigation executive producer and showrunner Carol Mendelsohn considers Grissom the center of the show . Grissom has received positive responses from critics , ranking number 82 on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters list , along with Catherine Willows . He was ranked at number 9 on Sleuth Channel 's poll of America 's Top Sleuths . AOL TV named him one of TV 's Smartest Detectives . Grissom 's final episode as a regular drew over 23 million viewers .
= = Succession = =
Grissom initially appears as the Grave Shift Assistant Supervisor , a post he holds during " Pilot " . He is succeeded by Catherine Willows .
Grissom is then promoted to Grave Shift Supervisor , replacing Jim Brass . This is a post he holds from " Cool Change " to " One to Go " . He is once again succeeded by Willows .
= = Further Reading = =
Marrinan , Corinne and Parker , Steve . Ultimate CSI : Crime Scene Investigation ( 2006 ) . DK Publishing Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7566 @-@ 2353 @-@ 7
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= George W. Bush =
George Walker Bush ( born July 6 , 1946 ) is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 . The eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush , he was born in New Haven , Connecticut . After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975 , he worked in oil businesses . He married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter . He later co @-@ owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . He was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial election against Al Gore , becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes nationwide than an opponent . He is the second president to have been the son of a former president , the first having been John Quincy Adams . He is also the brother of Jeb Bush , a former Governor of Florida and candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election .
Eight months into Bush 's first term as president , the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred . Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine : launching a " War on Terror " , an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan , in 2001 , and the Iraq War , in 2003 . He also promoted policies on the economy , health care , education , social security reform , and amending the Constitution to prohibit same @-@ sex marriage . He signed into law broad tax cuts , the Patriot Act , the No Child Left Behind Act , the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act , Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors , and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . His tenure saw national debates on immigration , Social Security , electronic surveillance , and torture .
Bush successfully ran for re @-@ election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004 , in another relatively close election . After his re @-@ election , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post @-@ World War II recession , often referred to as the " Great Recession " , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis . He was met with public protests during visits to the United Kingdom .
Bush left office in 2009 , returning to Texas where he purchased a home in suburban Dallas . He is currently a public speaker , and has written a memoir , Decision Points . His presidential library was opened in 2013 . His presidency has been ranked among the worst in surveys of presidential scholars published in the late 2000s and 2010s .
= = Childhood to mid @-@ life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
George Walker Bush was born on July 6 , 1946 , at Grace @-@ New Haven Hospital ( now Yale – New Haven Hospital ) in New Haven , Connecticut , as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Pierce . He was raised in Midland and Houston , Texas , with four siblings , Jeb , Neil , Marvin and Dorothy . Another younger sister , Robin , died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953 . His grandfather , Prescott Bush , was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut . His father , George H.W. Bush , was Ronald Reagan 's Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U.S. President from 1989 to 1993 . Bush has English and some German ancestry , along with more distant Dutch , Welsh , Irish , French , and Scottish roots .
Bush attended public schools in Midland , Texas , until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade . He then went to The Kinkaid School , a prep school in Houston for two years .
Bush attended high school at the Phillips Academy , a boarding school ( then all @-@ male ) in Andover , Massachusetts , where he played baseball , and during his senior year , was the head cheerleader . He attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968 , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History . During this time , he was a cheerleader and a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon , serving as the president of the fraternity during his senior year . Bush became a member of the Skull and Bones society as a senior . Bush was a rugby union player and was on Yale 's 1st XV . He characterized himself as an average student . His GPA during his first three years at Yale was 77 , and he had a similar average under a nonnumeric rating system in his final year .
Beginning in the fall of 1973 , Bush attended the Harvard Business School , where he earned an M.B.A. degree . He is the only U.S. President to have earned an M.B.A.
= = = Texas Air National Guard = = =
In May 1968 , Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard . After two years of active @-@ duty service while training , he was assigned to Houston , flying Convair F @-@ 102s with the 147th Reconnaissance Wing out of the Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base . Critics , including former Democratic National Committee Chairman Terry McAuliffe , have alleged that Bush was favorably treated due to his father 's political standing as a member of the House of Representatives , citing his selection as a pilot despite his low pilot aptitude test scores and his irregular attendance . In June 2005 , the United States Department of Defense released all the records of Bush 's Texas Air National Guard service , which remain in its official archives .
In late 1972 and early 1973 , he drilled with the 187th Fighter Wing of the Alabama Air National Guard , having moved to Montgomery , Alabama , to work on the unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign of Republican Winton M. Blount . In 1972 , Bush was suspended from flying for failure to take a scheduled physical exam . He was honorably discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21 , 1974 .
= = Marriage , family , and personal life = =
At a backyard barbecue in 1977 , friends introduced him to Laura Lane Welch , a school teacher and librarian . Bush proposed to her after a three @-@ month courtship , and they married on November 5 of that year . The couple settled in Midland , Texas . Bush left his family 's Episcopal Church to join his wife 's United Methodist Church . On November 25 , 1981 , Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters , Barbara Pierce Bush and Jenna Welch Bush ; they graduated from high school in 2000 and from Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin , respectively , in 2004 .
Prior to his marriage , Bush had multiple episodes of alcohol abuse . In one instance , on September 4 , 1976 , he was arrested near his family 's summer home in Kennebunkport , Maine , for driving under the influence of alcohol . He pleaded guilty , was fined $ 150 , and had his Maine driver 's license briefly suspended . Bush says his wife has had a stabilizing effect on his life , and attributes to her influence his 1986 decision to give up alcohol . While Governor of Texas , Bush said of his wife , " I saw an elegant , beautiful woman who turned out not only to be elegant and beautiful , but very smart and willing to put up with my rough edges , and I must confess has smoothed them off over time . "
Bush has been an avid reader throughout his adult life , preferring biographies and histories . During his time as president , Bush read the Bible daily . He also read 14 Lincoln biographies and , during the last three years of his presidency , he reportedly read 186 books . Walt Harrington , a journalist , recalls seeing " books by John Fowles , F. Scott Fitzgerald , James Joyce , and Gore Vidal lying about , as well as biographies of Willa Cather and Queen Victoria " in his home when Bush was a Texas oilman . Other hobbies include cigar smoking and golf . Since leaving the White House , Bush has also taken up oil painting .
His first granddaughter , Margaret Laura " Mila " Hager , was born to his daughter Jenna Bush on April 14 , 2013 . She is named after her two grandmothers .
= = Early career = =
In 1978 , Bush ran for the House of Representatives from Texas 's 19th congressional district . His opponent , Kent Hance , portrayed him as out of touch with rural Texans . Bush lost the election by 6 @,@ 000 votes ( 6 percent ) of the 103 @,@ 000 votes cast . He returned to the oil industry and began a series of small , independent oil exploration companies . He created Arbusto Energy , and later changed the name to Bush Exploration . In 1984 , his company merged with the larger Spectrum 7 , and Bush became chairman . The company was hurt by decreased oil prices , and it folded into HKN , Inc . Bush served on the board of directors for HKN . Questions of possible insider trading involving HKN arose , but the Securities and Exchange Commission 's ( SEC ) investigation concluded that the information Bush had at the time of his stock sale was not sufficient to constitute insider trading .
Bush moved his family to Washington , D.C. in 1988 to work on his father 's campaign for the U.S. presidency . He served as a campaign adviser and liaison to the media ; he assisted his father by campaigning across the country . Returning to Texas after the successful campaign , he purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989 , where he served as managing general partner for five years . He actively led the team 's projects and regularly attended its games , often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans . Bush 's sale of his shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over $ 15 million from his initial $ 800 @,@ 000 investment .
In December 1991 , Bush was one of seven people named by his father to run his father 's 1992 Presidential re @-@ election campaign as " campaign advisor " . The previous month , his father asked him to tell White House chief of staff John H. Sununu that he should resign .
= = Governor of Texas ( 1995 – 2000 ) = =
As Bush 's brother , Jeb , sought the governorship of Florida , Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . His campaign focused on four themes : welfare reform , tort reform , crime reduction , and education improvement . Bush 's campaign advisers were Karen Hughes , Joe Allbaugh , and Karl Rove .
After easily winning the Republican primary , Bush faced popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards . In the course of the campaign , Bush pledged to sign a bill allowing Texans to obtain permits to carry concealed weapons . Richards had vetoed the bill , but Bush signed it after he became governor . According to The Atlantic Monthly , the race " featured a rumor that she was a lesbian , along with a rare instance of such a tactic 's making it into the public record – when a regional chairman of the Bush campaign allowed himself , perhaps inadvertently , to be quoted criticizing Richards for ' appointing avowed homosexual activists ' to state jobs " . The Atlantic , and others , connected the lesbian rumor to Karl Rove , but Rove denied being involved . Bush won the general election with 53 @.@ 5 percent against Richards ' 45 @.@ 9 percent .
Bush used a budget surplus to push through Texas 's largest tax @-@ cut , $ 2 billion . He extended government funding for organizations providing education of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse , and helping to reduce domestic violence . Critics contended that during his tenure , Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations . Supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the salaries of teachers and improve educational test scores .
In 1999 , Bush signed a state law obliging electric retailers to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources ( RPS ) , which helped Texas eventually become the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.
In 1998 , Bush won re @-@ election with a record 69 percent of the vote . He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four @-@ year terms . For most of Texas history , governors served two @-@ year terms ; a constitutional amendment extended those terms to four years starting in 1975 . In his second term , Bush promoted faith @-@ based organizations and enjoyed high approval ratings . He proclaimed June 10 , 2000 to be Jesus Day in Texas , a day on which he " urge [ d ] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need " .
Throughout Bush 's first term , national attention focused on him as a potential future presidential candidate . Following his re @-@ election , speculation soared . Within a year , he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination .
= = Presidential campaigns = =
= = = 2000 presidential candidacy = = =
= = = = Primary = = = =
In June 1999 , while Governor of Texas , Bush announced his candidacy for President of the United States . With no incumbent running , Bush entered a large field of candidates for the Republican Party presidential nomination consisting of John McCain , Alan Keyes , Steve Forbes , Gary Bauer , Orrin Hatch , Elizabeth Dole , Dan Quayle , Pat Buchanan , Lamar Alexander , John Kasich , and Bob Smith .
Bush portrayed himself as a compassionate conservative , implying he was more centrist than other Republicans . He campaigned on a platform that included bringing integrity and honor back to the White House , increasing the size of the United States Armed Forces , cutting taxes , improving education , and aiding minorities . By early 2000 , the race had centered on Bush and McCain .
Bush won the Iowa caucuses , but , although he was heavily favored to win the New Hampshire primary , he trailed McCain by 19 percent and lost that primary . Despite this , Bush regained momentum and , according to political observers , effectively became the front runner after the South Carolina primary , which according to The Boston Globe made history for his campaign 's negativity ; The New York Times described it as a smear campaign .
= = = = General election = = = =
On July 25 , 2000 , Bush surprised some observers by asking Dick Cheney , a former White House Chief of Staff , U.S. Representative , and Secretary of Defense , to be his running mate . Cheney was then serving as head of Bush 's Vice @-@ Presidential search committee . Soon after , Bush and Cheney were officially nominated by the Republican Party at the 2000 Republican National Convention .
Bush continued to campaign across the country and touted his record as Governor of Texas . Bush 's campaign criticized his Democratic opponent , incumbent Vice President Al Gore , over gun control and taxation .
When the election returns came in on November 7 , Bush won 29 states , including Florida . The closeness of the Florida outcome led to a recount . The initial recount also went to Bush , but the outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court . On December 9 , in the controversial Bush v. Gore ruling , the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court decision ordering a third count , and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the use of different standards among Florida 's counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of six million cast . Although he received 543 @,@ 895 fewer individual votes than Gore nationwide , Bush won the election , receiving 271 electoral votes to Gore 's 266 ( Gore 's statewide victories had electoral votes tallying 267 ; however , one of Gore 's pledged electors abstained , rendering the official tally at 266 ) . Bush was the first person to win an American presidential election with fewer national votes than another candidate since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 .
= = = 2004 presidential candidacy = = =
In 2004 , Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge . He appointed Ken Mehlman as campaign manager , with a political strategy devised by Karl Rove . Bush and the Republican platform included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan , support for the USA PATRIOT Act , a renewed shift in policy for constitutional amendments banning abortion and same @-@ sex marriage , reforming Social Security to create private investment accounts , creation of an ownership society , and opposing mandatory carbon emissions controls . Bush also called for the implementation of a guest worker program for immigrants , which was criticized by conservatives .
The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates , including Bush 's emerging opponent , Massachusetts Senator John Kerry . Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the Iraq War , and accused him of failing to stimulate the economy and job growth . The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government . The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry 's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq , and argued that Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the War on Terror .
In the election , Bush carried 31 of 50 states , receiving a total of 286 electoral votes . He won an absolute majority of the popular vote ( 50 @.@ 7 percent to his opponent 's 48 @.@ 3 percent ) . The previous President to win an absolute majority of the popular vote was Bush 's father in the 1988 election . Additionally , it was the first time since Herbert Hoover 's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re @-@ elected Republican majorities in both Houses of Congress .
= = Presidency ( 2001 – 09 ) = =
Though Bush originally outlined an ambitious domestic agenda , his priorities were significantly altered following the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 . Wars were waged in Afghanistan and Iraq with significant domestic debates regarding immigration , healthcare , Social Security , economic policy , and treatment of terrorist detainees . Over an eight @-@ year period , Bush 's once @-@ high approval ratings steadily declined , while his disapproval numbers increased significantly . In 2007 , the United States entered the longest post @-@ World War II recession .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Economic policy = = = =
Bush took office during a period of economic recession in the wake of the bursting of the Dot @-@ com bubble . The terrorist attacks also impacted the economy . The Bush administration increased federal government spending from $ 1 @.@ 789 trillion to $ 2 @.@ 983 trillion ( 60 percent ) while revenues increased from $ 2 @.@ 025 trillion to $ 2 @.@ 524 trillion ( from 2000 to 2008 ) . Individual income tax revenues increased by 14 percent , corporate tax revenues by 50 percent , customs and duties by 40 percent . Discretionary defense spending was increased by 107 percent , discretionary domestic spending by 62 percent , Medicare spending by 131 percent , social security by 51 percent , and income security spending by 130 percent . Cyclically adjusted , revenues rose by 35 percent and spending by 65 percent .
The increase in spending was more than under any predecessor since Lyndon B. Johnson . The number of economic regulation governmental workers increased by 91 @,@ 196 .
The surplus in fiscal year 2000 was $ 237 billion — the third consecutive surplus and the largest surplus ever . In 2001 , Bush 's budget estimated that there would be a $ 5 @.@ 6 trillion surplus over the next ten years . Facing congressional opposition , Bush held townhall style meetings across the U.S. in order to increase public support for his plan for a $ 1 @.@ 35 trillion tax cut program — one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history . Bush argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers , saying " the surplus is not the government 's money . The surplus is the people 's money . " Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan warned of a recession and Bush stated that a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs . Treasury Secretary Paul H. O 'Neill , opposed some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security . O 'Neill disputes the claim , made in Bush 's book Decision Points , that he never openly disagreed with him on planned tax cuts . By 2003 , the economy showed signs of improvement , though job growth remained stagnant . Another tax cut program was passed that year .
During the 2001 to 2008 years , GDP grew at an average annual rate of 2 @.@ 125 percent , less than for past business cycles .
Bush entered office with the Dow Jones Industrial Average at 10 @,@ 587 , and the average peaked in October 2007 at over 14 @,@ 000 . When Bush left office , the average was at 7 @,@ 949 , one of the lowest levels of his presidency .
Unemployment originally rose from 4 @.@ 2 percent in January 2001 to 6 @.@ 3 percent in June 2003 , but subsequently dropped to 4 @.@ 5 percent as of July 2007 . Adjusted for inflation , median household income dropped by $ 1 @,@ 175 between 2000 and 2007 , while Professor Ken Homa of Georgetown University has noted that " Median real after @-@ tax household income went up 2 % " . The poverty rate increased from 11 @.@ 3 percent in 2000 to 12 @.@ 3 percent in 2006 after peaking at 12 @.@ 7 percent in 2004 . By October 2008 , due to increases in spending , the national debt had risen to $ 11 @.@ 3 trillion , an increase of over 100 percent from 2000 when the debt was only $ 5 @.@ 6 trillion . Most debt was accumulated as a result of what became known as the " Bush tax cuts " and increased national security spending . In March 2006 , then @-@ Senator Barack Obama said when he voted against raising the debt ceiling : " The fact that we are here today to debate raising America 's debt limit is a sign of leadership failure . " By the end of Bush 's presidency , unemployment climbed to 7 @.@ 2 percent .
In December 2007 , the United States entered the longest post – World War II recession , which included a housing market correction , a subprime mortgage crisis , soaring oil prices , and a declining dollar value . In February , 63 @,@ 000 jobs were lost , a five @-@ year record . To aid with the situation , Bush signed a $ 170 billion economic stimulus package which was intended to improve the economic situation by sending tax rebate checks to many Americans and providing tax breaks for struggling businesses . The Bush administration pushed for significantly increased regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2003 , and after two years , the regulations passed the House but died in the Senate . Many Republican senators , as well as influential members of the Bush Administration , feared that the agency created by these regulations would merely be mimicking the private sector 's risky practices . In September 2008 , the crisis became much more serious beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers and a federal bailout of American International Group for $ 85 billion .
Many economists and world governments determined that the situation became the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression . Additional regulation over the housing market would have been beneficial , according to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan . Bush , meanwhile , proposed a financial rescue plan to buy back a large portion of the U.S. mortgage market . Vince Reinhardt , a former Federal Reserve economist now at the American Enterprise Institute , said " it would have helped for the Bush administration to empower the folks at Treasury and the Federal Reserve and the comptroller of the currency and the FDIC to look at these issues more closely " , and additionally , that it would have helped " for Congress to have held hearings " .
In November 2008 , over 500 @,@ 000 jobs were lost , which marked the largest loss of jobs in the United States in 34 years . The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in the last four months of 2008 , 1 @.@ 9 million jobs were lost . By the end of 2008 , the U.S. had lost a total of 2 @.@ 6 million jobs .
= = = = Education and health = = = =
Bush undertook a number of educational priorities , such as increasing the funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office , and creating education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students . Funding for the NIH was cut in 2006 , the first such cut in 36 years , due to rising inflation .
One of the administration 's early major initiatives was the No Child Left Behind Act , which aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance , provide options to parents with students in low @-@ performing schools , and target more federal funding to low @-@ income schools . This landmark education initiative passed with broad bipartisan support , including that of Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts . It was signed into law by Bush in early 2002 . Many contend that the initiative has been successful , as cited by the fact that students in the U.S. have performed significantly better on state reading and math tests since Bush signed " No Child Left Behind " into law . Critics argue that it is underfunded and that NCLBA 's focus on " high @-@ stakes testing " and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive .
After being re @-@ elected , Bush signed into law a Medicare drug benefit program that , according to Jan Crawford , resulted in " the greatest expansion in America 's welfare state in forty years ; " the bill 's costs approached $ 7 trillion . In 2007 , Bush opposed and vetoed State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) legislation , which was added by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress . The SCHIP legislation would have significantly expanded federally funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low @-@ income families from about six million to ten million children . It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax . Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward socialized health care , and asserted that the program could benefit families making as much as $ 83 @,@ 000 per year who did not need the help .
= = = = Social services and social security = = = =
Following Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003 , Bush signed the bill , which included major changes to the Medicare program by providing beneficiaries with some assistance in paying for prescription drugs , while relying on private insurance for the delivery of benefits . The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement . Bush said the law , estimated to cost $ 400 billion over the first ten years , would give the elderly " better choices and more control over their health care " .
Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security , which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005 . Bush made it the centerpiece of his domestic agenda despite opposition from some in the U.S. Congress . In his 2005 State of the Union Address , Bush discussed the potential impending bankruptcy of the program and outlined his new program , which included partial privatization of the system , personal Social Security accounts , and options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax ( FICA ) into secured investments . Democrats opposed the proposal to partially privatize the system .
Bush embarked on a 60 @-@ day national tour , campaigning for his initiative in media events known as " Conversations on Social Security " , in an attempt to gain public support . Nevertheless , public support for the proposal declined and the House Republican leadership decided not to put Social Security reform on the priority list for the remainder of their 2005 legislative agenda . The proposal 's legislative prospects were further diminished by the political fallout from Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005 . After the Democrats gained control of both houses of Congress as a result of the 2006 midterm elections , there was no prospect of further congressional action on the Bush proposal for the remainder of his term in office .
= = = = Environmental policies = = = =
Upon taking office in 2001 , Bush stated his opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions , citing that the treaty exempted 80 percent of the world 's population and would have cost tens of billions of dollars per year . He also cited that the Senate had voted 95 – 0 in 1997 on a resolution expressing its disapproval of the protocol .
In May 2001 , Bush signed an executive order to create an inter @-@ agency task force to streamline energy projects , and later signed two other executive orders to tackle environmental issues .
In 2002 , Bush announced the Clear Skies Act of 2003 , aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs . Many experts argued that this legislation would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher emission rates of pollutants than were previously legal . The initiative was introduced to Congress , but failed to make it out of committee .
Later in 2006 , Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument , creating the largest marine reserve to date . The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument comprises 84 million acres ( 340 @,@ 000 km2 ) and is home to 7 @,@ 000 species of fish , birds , and other marine animals , many of which are specific to only those islands . The move was hailed by conservationists for " its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area " .
Bush has said that he believes that global warming is real and has noted that it is a serious problem , but he asserted there is a " debate over whether it 's man @-@ made or naturally caused " . The Bush Administration 's stance on global warming remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities . Critics have alleged that the administration misinformed the public and did not do enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming .
= = = = Energy policies = = = =
In his 2006 State of the Union Address , Bush declared , " America is addicted to oil " and announced his Advanced Energy Initiative to increase energy development research .
In his 2007 State of the Union Address , Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production . Amid high gasoline prices in 2008 , Bush lifted a ban on offshore drilling . However , the move was largely symbolic as there is still a federal law banning offshore drilling . Bush said , " This means that the only thing standing between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from the U.S. Congress . " Bush had said in June 2008 , " In the long run , the solution is to reduce demand for oil by promoting alternative energy technologies . My administration has worked with Congress to invest in gas @-@ saving technologies like advanced batteries and hydrogen fuel cells ... In the short run , the American economy will continue to rely largely on oil . And that means we need to increase supply , especially here at home . So my administration has repeatedly called on Congress to expand domestic oil production . "
In his 2008 State of the Union Address , Bush announced that the U.S. would commit $ 2 billion over the next three years to a new international fund to promote clean energy technologies and fight climate change , saying , " Along with contributions from other countries , this fund will increase and accelerate the deployment of all forms of cleaner , more efficient technologies in developing nations like India and China , and help leverage substantial private @-@ sector capital by making clean energy projects more financially attractive . " He also announced plans to reaffirm the United States ' commitment to work with major economies , and , through the UN , to complete an international agreement that will slow , stop , and eventually reverse the growth of greenhouse gases ; he stated , " This agreement will be effective only if it includes commitments by every major economy and gives none a free ride . "
= = = = Stem cell research and first veto = = = =
Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the passage in 1995 of the Dickey @-@ Wicker Amendment by Congress and the signature of President Bill Clinton . Bush has said that he supports adult stem cell research and has supported federal legislation that finances adult stem cell research . However , Bush did not support embryonic stem cell research . On August 9 , 2001 , Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing " lines " of stem cells , but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned . Testing can be done on only 12 of the original lines , and all approved lines have been cultured in contact with mouse cells , which creates safety issues that complicate development and approval of therapies from these lines . On July 19 , 2006 , Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act . The bill would have repealed the Dickey @-@ Wicker Amendment , thereby permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo .
= = = = Genetic Nondiscrimination = = = =
On May 21 , 2008 President George W. Bush signed into law the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act ( GINA ) . The bill aims to protect Americans against discrimination based on their genetic information when it comes to health insurance and employment . The issue had been debated for 13 years before becoming law . It is designed to protect citizens while not hindering genetic research .
= = = = Immigration = = = =
Nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2005 , more than in any other five @-@ year period in the nation 's history . Almost half entered illegally . In 2006 , Bush urged Congress to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to work in the United States with the creation of a " temporary guest @-@ worker program " . Bush also urged Congress to provide additional funds for border security and committed to deploying 6 @,@ 000 National Guard troops to the Mexico – United States border . From May to June 2007 , Bush strongly supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was written by a bipartisan group of Senators with the active participation of the Bush administration . The bill envisioned a legalization program for illegal immigrants , with an eventual path to citizenship ; establishing a guest worker program ; a series of border and work site enforcement measures ; a reform of the green card application process and the introduction of a point @-@ based " merit " system for green cards ; elimination of " chain migration " and of the Diversity Immigrant Visa ; and other measures . Bush argued that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation , and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor . Bush contended that the proposed bill did not amount to amnesty .
A heated public debate followed , which resulted in a substantial rift within the Republican Party , most conservatives opposed it because of its legalization or amnesty provisions . The bill was eventually defeated in the Senate on June 28 , 2007 , when a cloture motion failed on a 46 – 53 vote . Bush expressed disappointment upon the defeat of one of his signature domestic initiatives . The Bush administration later proposed a series of immigration enforcement measures that do not require a change in law .
On September 19 , 2010 , former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert said that Bush offered to accept 100 @,@ 000 Palestinian refugees as American citizens if a permanent settlement had been reached between Israel and the Palestinian Authority .
= = = = Hurricane Katrina = = = =
Hurricane Katrina , one of the most damaging natural disasters in U.S. history , struck early in Bush 's second term . Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north @-@ central Gulf Coast of the United States , particularly New Orleans .
Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27 , and in Mississippi and Alabama the following day ; he authorized the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) and Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) to manage the disaster , but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action . The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29 , and New Orleans began to flood due to levee breaches ; later that day , Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana , officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to assist in the recovery effort .
On August 30 , DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff declared it " an incident of national significance " , triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan . Three days later , on September 2 , National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans . The same day , Bush toured parts of Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was " not enough " .
As the disaster in New Orleans intensified , critics charged that Bush was misrepresenting his administration 's role in what they saw as a flawed response . Leaders attacked Bush for having appointed apparently incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA , notably Michael D. Brown ; it was also argued that the federal response was limited as a result of the Iraq War and Bush himself did not act upon warnings of floods . Bush responded to mounting criticism by accepting full responsibility for the federal government 's failures in its handling of the emergency . It has been argued that with Katrina , Bush passed a political tipping point from which he would not recover .
= = = = Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys = = = =
During Bush 's second term , a controversy arose over the Justice Department 's midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys . The White House maintained that the U.S. attorneys were fired for poor performance . Attorney General Alberto Gonzales later resigned over the issue , along with other senior members of the Justice Department . The House Judiciary Committee issued subpoenas for advisers Harriet Miers and Josh Bolten to testify regarding this matter , but Bush directed Miers and Bolten to not comply with those subpoenas , invoking his right of executive privilege . Bush maintained that all of his advisers were protected under a broad executive privilege protection to receive candid advice . The Justice Department determined that the President 's order was legal .
Although Congressional investigations focused on whether the Justice Department and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage , no official findings have been released . On March 10 , 2008 , the Congress filed a federal lawsuit to enforce their issued subpoenas . On July 31 , 2008 , a United States district court judge ruled that Bush 's top advisers were not immune from Congressional subpoenas .
In all , twelve Justice Department officials resigned rather than testify under oath before Congress . They included Attorney General Alberto Gonzales and his chief of staff Kyle Sampson , Gonzales ' liaison to the White House Monica Goodling , aide to the president Karl Rove and his senior aide Sara Taylor . In addition , legal counsel to the president Harriet Miers and deputy chief of staff to the president Joshua Bolten were both found in contempt of Congress .
In 2010 , the Justice Department investigator concluded that though political considerations did play a part in as many as four of the attorney firings , the firings were " inappropriately political " , but not criminal . According to the prosecutors , there was insufficient evidence to pursue prosecution for any criminal offense .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
In July 2001 , Bush visited Pope John Paul II at Castel Gandolfo .
During his Presidential campaign , Bush 's foreign policy platform included support for stronger economic and political relationship with Latin America , especially Mexico , and a reduction of involvement in " nation @-@ building " and other small @-@ scale military engagements . The administration pursued a national missile defense . Bush was an advocate of China 's entry into the World Trade Organization .
In his 2002 State of the Union Address , Bush referred to an axis of evil including Iraq , Iran and North Korea . After the September 11 attacks on New York , Bush launched the War on Terror , in which the United States military and a small international coalition invaded Afghanistan . In 2003 , Bush then launched the invasion of Iraq , searching for Weapons of Mass Destruction , which he described as being part of the War on Terrorism . Those invasions led to the toppling of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the removal of Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq .
Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations . He appointed long @-@ time adviser Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign . Bush lauded the pro @-@ democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine .
In March 2006 , a visit to India led to renewed ties between the two countries , reversing decades of U.S. policy . The visit focused particularly on areas of nuclear energy and counter @-@ terrorism cooperation , discussions that would lead eventually to the India – United States Civil Nuclear Agreement .
This is in stark contrast to the stance taken by his predecessor , Clinton , whose approach and response to India after the 1998 nuclear tests was that of sanctions and hectoring . The relationship between India and the United States was one that dramatically improved during Bush 's tenure .
Midway through Bush 's second term , it was questioned whether Bush was retreating from his freedom and democracy agenda , highlighted in policy changes toward some oil @-@ rich former Soviet republics in central Asia .
In an address before both Houses of Congress on September 20 , 2001 , Bush thanked the nations of the world for their support following the September 11 attacks . He specifically thanked UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for traveling to Washington to show " unity of purpose with America " , and said " America has no truer friend than Great Britain . "
= = = = September 11 attacks = = = =
The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush 's presidency . That evening , he addressed the nation from the Oval Office , promising a strong response to the attacks . He also emphasized the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims . On September 14 , he visited Ground Zero , meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani , firefighters , police officers , and volunteers . Bush addressed the gathering via a megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble , to much applause : " I can hear you . The rest of the world hears you . And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon . "
In a September 20 speech , Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and his organization Al @-@ Qaeda , and issued an ultimatum to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan , where bin Laden was operating , to " hand over the terrorists , or ... share in their fate " .
= = = = War on Terrorism = = = =
After September 11 , Bush announced a global War on Terror . The Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden , so Bush ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime . In his January 29 , 2002 State of the Union Address , he asserted that an " axis of evil " consisting of North Korea , Iran , and Iraq was " arming to threaten the peace of the world " and " pose [ d ] a grave and growing danger " . The Bush Administration asserted both a right and the intention to wage preemptive war , or preventive war . This became the basis for the Bush Doctrine which weakened the unprecedented levels of international and domestic support for the United States which had followed the September 11 attacks .
Dissent and criticism of Bush 's leadership in the War on Terror increased as the war in Iraq continued . In 2006 , a National Intelligence Estimate concluded that the Iraq War had become the " cause célèbre for jihadists " .
= = = = Afghanistan invasion = = = =
On October 7 , 2001 , U.S. and British forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the arrival of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul on November 13 . The main goals of the war were to defeat the Taliban , drive al @-@ Qaeda out of Afghanistan , and capture key al @-@ Qaeda leaders . In December 2001 , the Pentagon reported that the Taliban had been defeated , but cautioned that the war would go on to continue weakening Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda leaders . Later that month the UN had installed the Afghan Transitional Administration chaired by Hamid Karzai . In 2002 , based on UNICEF figures , Nicholas Kristof reported that " our invasion of Afghanistan may end up saving one million lives over the next decade " as the result of improved healthcare and greater access to humanitarian aid .
Efforts to kill or capture al @-@ Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora , which the Bush Administration later acknowledged to have resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops . It was not until May 2011 , two years after Bush left office , that bin Laden was killed by U.S. forces . Bin Laden 's successor , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , remains at large .
Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul , by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping , amassing new funds and recruits . The 2005 failure of Operation Red Wings showed that the Taliban had returned . In 2006 , the Taliban insurgency appeared larger , fiercer and better organized than expected , with large @-@ scale allied offensives such as Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success . As a result , Bush commissioned 3 @,@ 500 additional troops to the country in March 2007 .
= = = = Iraq invasion = = = =
Beginning with his January 29 , 2002 State of the Union address , Bush began publicly focusing attention on Iraq , which he labeled as part of an " axis of evil " allied with terrorists and posing " a grave and growing danger " to U.S. interests through possession of weapons of mass destruction .
In the latter half of 2002 , CIA reports contained assertions of Saddam Hussein 's intent of reconstituting nuclear weapons programs , not properly accounting for Iraqi biological and chemical weapons , and that some Iraqi missiles had a range greater than allowed by the UN sanctions . Contentions that the Bush Administration manipulated or exaggerated the threat and evidence of Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction capabilities would eventually become a major point of criticism for the president .
In late 2002 and early 2003 , Bush urged the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates , precipitating a diplomatic crisis . In November 2002 , Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei led UN weapons inspectors in Iraq , but were advised by the U.S. to depart the country four days prior to the U.S. invasion , despite their requests for more time to complete their tasks . The U.S. initially sought a UN Security Council resolution authorizing the use of military force but dropped the bid for UN approval due to vigorous opposition from several countries .
More than 20 nations ( most notably the United Kingdom ) , designated the " coalition of the willing " joined the United States in invading Iraq . They launched the invasion on March 20 , 2003 . The Iraqi military was quickly defeated . The capital , Baghdad , fell on April 9 , 2003 . On May 1 , Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq . The initial success of U.S. operations increased his popularity , but the U.S. and allied forces faced a growing insurgency led by sectarian groups ; Bush 's " Mission Accomplished " speech was later criticized as premature . From 2004 until 2007 , the situation in Iraq deteriorated further , with some observers arguing that there was a full @-@ scale civil war in Iraq . Bush 's policies met with criticism , including demands domestically to set a timetable to withdraw troops from Iraq . The 2006 report of the bipartisan Iraq Study Group , led by James Baker , concluded that the situation in Iraq was " grave and deteriorating " . While Bush admitted that there were strategic mistakes made in regards to the stability of Iraq , he maintained he would not change the overall Iraq strategy .
In January 2005 , free , democratic elections were held in Iraq for the first time in 50 years . According to Iraqi National Security Advisor Mowaffak al @-@ Rubaie , " This is the greatest day in the history of this country . " Bush praised the event as well , saying that the Iraqis " have taken rightful control of their country 's destiny " . This led to the election of Jalal Talabani as President and Nouri al @-@ Maliki as Prime Minister of Iraq . A referendum to approve a constitution in Iraq was held in October 2005 , supported by most Shiites and many Kurds .
On January 10 , 2007 , Bush announced a surge of 21 @,@ 500 more troops for Iraq , as well as a job program for Iraqis , more reconstruction proposals , and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion for these programs . On May 1 , 2007 , Bush used his second @-@ ever veto to reject a bill setting a deadline for the withdrawal of U.S. troops , saying the debate over the conflict was " understandable " but insisting that a continued U.S. presence there was crucial .
In March 2008 , Bush praised the Iraqi government 's " bold decision " to launch the Battle of Basra against the Mahdi Army , calling it " a defining moment in the history of a free Iraq " . He said he would carefully weigh recommendations from his commanding General David Petraeus and Ambassador Ryan Crocker about how to proceed after the end of the military buildup in the summer of 2008 . He also praised the Iraqis ' legislative achievements , including a pension law , a revised de @-@ Baathification law , a new budget , an amnesty law , and a provincial powers measure that , he said , set the stage for the Iraqi elections . By July 2008 , American troop deaths had reached their lowest number since the war began , and due to increased stability in Iraq , Bush announced the withdrawal of additional American forces .
= = = = Surveillance = = = =
Following the events of September 11 , Bush issued an executive order authorizing the President 's Surveillance Program which included allowing the NSA to monitor communications between suspected terrorists outside the U.S and parties within the U.S. without obtaining a warrant as required by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act . As of 2009 , the other provisions of the program remained highly classified . Once the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel questioned its original legal opinion that FISA did not apply in a time of war , the program was subsequently re @-@ authorized by the President on the basis that the warrant requirements of FISA were implicitly superseded by the subsequent passage of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists . The program proved to be controversial , as critics of the administration , as well as organizations such as the American Bar Association , argued that it was illegal . In August 2006 , a U.S. district court judge ruled that the NSA electronic surveillance program was unconstitutional , but on July 6 , 2007 , that ruling was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on the grounds that the plaintiffs lacked standing . On January 17 , 2007 , Attorney General Alberto Gonzales informed U.S. Senate leaders that the program would not be reauthorized by the President , but would be subjected to judicial oversight . Later in 2007 , the NSA launched a replacement for the program , referred to as PRISM , that was subject to the oversight of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court . This program was not publicly revealed until reports by The Washington Post and The Guardian emerged in June 2013 .
= = = = Interrogation policies = = = =
Bush authorized the CIA to use waterboarding as one of several enhanced interrogation techniques . Between 2002 and 2003 the CIA considered certain enhanced interrogation techniques , such as waterboarding , to be legal based on a secret Justice Department legal opinion arguing that terror detainees were not protected by the Geneva Conventions ' ban on torture and Vice President Cheney said enhanced interrogation including waterboarding was not torture or illegal . The CIA had exercised the technique on certain key terrorist suspects under authority given to it in the Bybee Memo from the Attorney General , though that memo was later withdrawn . While not permitted by the U.S. Army Field Manuals which assert " that harsh interrogation tactics elicit unreliable information " , the Bush administration believed these enhanced interrogations " provided critical information " to preserve American lives . Critics , such as former CIA officer Bob Baer , have stated that information was suspect , " you can get anyone to confess to anything if the torture 's bad enough . "
On October 17 , 2006 , Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006 , a law enacted in the wake of the Supreme Court 's decision in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld , 548 U.S. 557 ( 2006 ) , which allows the U.S. government to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants by military commission rather than a standard trial . The law also denies them access to habeas corpus and bars the torture of detainees , but allows the president to determine what constitutes torture .
On March 8 , 2008 , Bush vetoed H.R. 2082 , a bill that would have expanded congressional oversight over the intelligence community and banned the use of waterboarding as well as other forms of interrogation not permitted under the United States Army Field Manual on Human Intelligence Collector Operations , saying that " the bill Congress sent me would take away one of the most valuable tools in the War on Terror " . In April 2009 , the ACLU sued and won release of the secret memos that had authorized the Bush administration 's interrogation tactics . One memo detailed specific interrogation tactics including a footnote that described waterboarding as torture as well as that the form of waterboarding used by the CIA was far more intense than authorized by the Justice Department .
= = = = North Korea condemnation = = = =
Bush publicly condemned Kim Jong @-@ il of North Korea , naming North Korea one of three states in an " axis of evil " , and saying that " the United States of America will not permit the world 's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world 's most destructive weapons . " Within months , " both countries had walked away from their respective commitments under the U.S. – DPRK Agreed Framework of October 1994 . " North Korea 's October 9 , 2006 , detonation of a nuclear device further complicated Bush 's foreign policy , which centered for both terms of his presidency on " [ preventing ] the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical , biological , or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world " . Bush condemned North Korea 's position , reaffirmed his commitment to " a nuclear @-@ free Korean Peninsula " , and stated that " transfer of nuclear weapons or material by North Korea to states or non @-@ state entities would be considered a grave threat to the United States " , for which North Korea would be held accountable . On May 7 , 2007 , North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear reactors immediately pending the release of frozen funds held in a foreign bank account . This was a result of a series of three @-@ way talks initiated by the United States and including China . On September 2 , 2007 , North Korea agreed to disclose and dismantle all of its nuclear programs by the end of 2007 . By May 2009 , North Korea had restarted its nuclear program and threatened to attack South Korea .
On June 22 , 2010 , " While South Korea prospers , the people of North Korea have suffered profoundly , " he said , adding that , " communism had resulted in dire poverty , mass starvation and brutal suppression . " In recent years , " he went on to say , " the suffering has been compounded by the leader who wasted North Korea 's precious few resources on personal luxuries and nuclear weapons programs . "
= = = = Syria sanctions = = = =
Bush expanded economic sanctions on Syria . In early 2007 , the Treasury Department , acting on a June 2005 executive order , froze American bank accounts of Syria 's Higher Institute of Applied Science and Technology , Electronics Institute , and National Standards and Calibration Laboratory . Bush 's order prohibits Americans from doing business with these institutions suspected of helping spread weapons of mass destruction and being supportive of terrorism . Under separate executive orders signed by Bush in 2004 and later 2007 , the Treasury Department froze the assets of two Lebanese and two Syrians , accusing them of activities to " undermine the legitimate political process in Lebanon " in November 2007 . Those designated included : Assaad Halim Hardan , a member of Lebanon 's parliament and current leader of the Syrian Socialist National Party ; Wi 'am Wahhab , a former member of Lebanon 's government ( Minister of the Environment ) under Prime Minister Omar Karami ( 2004 – 2005 ) ; Hafiz Makhluf , a colonel and senior official in the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate and a cousin of Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad ; and Muhammad Nasif Khayrbik , identified as a close adviser to Assad .
= = = = Africa = = = =
Bush initiated the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief Program ( PEPFAR ) . The U.S. government has spent some $ 44 billion on the project since 2003 ( a figure that includes $ 7 billion contributed to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis , and Malaria , a multilateral organization ) , saving an estimated 5 million lives . According to The New York Times correspondent Peter Baker , " Bush did more to stop AIDS and more to help Africa than any president before or since . "
= = = = Assassination attempt = = = =
On May 10 , 2005 , Vladimir Arutyunian , a native Georgian who was born to a family of ethnic Armenians , threw a live hand grenade toward a podium where Bush was speaking at Freedom Square in Tbilisi , Georgia . Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili was seated nearby . It landed in the crowd about 65 feet ( 20 m ) from the podium after hitting a girl , but it did not detonate . Arutyunian was arrested in July 2005 , confessed , was convicted and was given a life sentence in January 2006 .
= = = = Other issues = = = =
Bush withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements , including the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty ( ABM ) with Russia . He also signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty with Russia .
Bush emphasized a careful approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians ; he denounced Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat for his support of violence , but sponsored dialogues between Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Palestinian National Authority President Mahmoud Abbas . Bush supported Sharon 's unilateral disengagement plan , and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine after Arafat 's death .
Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand @-@ off in April 2001 with the People 's Republic of China over the Hainan Island incident , when an EP @-@ 3E Aries II surveillance aircraft collided with a People 's Liberation Army Air Force jet , leading to the detention of U.S. personnel . From 2003 to 2004 , Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests . Bush condemned the militia attacks Darfur and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide . Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur , but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court .
In the State of the Union address in January 2003 , Bush outlined a five @-@ year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief , the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief . Bush announced $ 15 billion for this effort which directly supported life @-@ saving antiretroviral treatment for more than 3 @.@ 2 million men , women and children worldwide .
On June 10 , 2007 , Bush met with Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha and became the first president to visit Albania . Bush has voiced his support for the independence of Kosovo . Bush opposed South Ossetia 's independence . On August 15 , 2008 , Bush said of Russia 's invasion of the country of Georgia : " Bullying and intimidation are not acceptable ways to conduct foreign policy in the 21st century . "
Bush opened the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utha . Departing from previous practice , he stood among a group of U.S. athletes rather than from a ceremonial stand or box , saying : " On behalf of a proud , determined , and grateful nation , I declare open the Games of Salt Lake City , celebrating the Olympic Winter Games . " In 2008 , in the course of a good @-@ will trip to Asia , he attended the Summer Olympics in Beijing .
Bush twice invoked Section 3 of the Twenty @-@ fifth Amendment , which allows a President to temporarily transfer the powers and duties of his office to the Vice President who then becomes Acting President . On June 29 , 2002 , Bush underwent a colonoscopy and chose to invoke Section 3 of the amendment , making Vice President Dick Cheney the Acting President . The medical procedure began at 7 : 09 a.m. EDT and ended at 7 : 29 a.m. EDT . Bush woke up twenty minutes later , but did not resume his presidential powers and duties until 9 : 24 a.m. EDT after the president 's doctor , Richard Tubb , conducted an overall examination . Tubb said he recommended the additional time to make sure the sedative had no after effects . On July 21 , 2007 , Bush again invoked Section 3 in response to having to undergo a colonoscopy , again making Vice President Cheney the Acting President . Bush invoked Section 3 at 7 : 16 a.m. EDT . He reclaimed his powers at 9 : 21 a.m. EDT . In both cases , Bush specifically cited Section 3 when he transferred the Presidential powers to the Vice President and when he reclaimed those powers .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
Following the announcement of Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor 's retirement on July 1 , 2005 , Bush nominated John Roberts to succeed her . On September 5 , following the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist , this nomination was withdrawn and Bush instead nominated Roberts for Chief Justice to succeed Rehnquist . Roberts was confirmed by the Senate as the 17th Chief Justice on September 29 , 2005 .
On October 3 , 2005 , Bush nominated long time White House Counsel Harriet Miers for O 'Connor 's position . After facing significant opposition from both parties , who found her to be ill @-@ prepared and uninformed on the law , Miers asked that her name be withdrawn on October 27 . Four days later , on October 31 , Bush nominated federal appellate judge Samuel Alito . Alito was confirmed as the 110th Supreme Court Justice on January 31 , 2006 .
= = = = Other courts = = = =
In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments , Bush appointed 61 judges to the United States courts of appeals and 261 judges to the United States district courts . Each of these numbers , along with his total of 324 judicial appointments , is third in American history , behind both Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton . Bush experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies . Debate during one confirmation session lasted " 39 stupefying hours " according to The New York Times . On August 3 , 2001 , the Senate did not consent to keep existing nominations in status quo , returning 40 judicial nominations , and 164 total nominations .
At the outset , Judicature magazine noted that the " Senate Democrats were gearing up for the approaching confirmation hearings " before the first set of nominees were sent to the Senate . It then cites The New York Times as saying " Senate Democrats have pledged they will not automatically vote to confirm Mr. Bush 's judicial nominees and will subject them to intense scrutiny . "
The Senate confirmed only 8 out of 60 judicial nominations by October 2001 . In February 2003 , the Democrats successfully filibustered the nomination of Miguel Estrada .
= = = Public image and perception = = =
= = = = Domestic = = = =
= = = = = Image = = = = =
Bush 's upbringing in West Texas , his accent , his vacations on his Texas ranch , and his penchant for country metaphors contribute to his folksy , American cowboy image . " I think people look at him and think John Wayne , " said Piers Morgan , editor of the British Daily Mirror . It has been suggested that Bush 's accent was an active choice , as a way of distinguishing himself from Northeastern intellectuals and anchoring himself to his Texas roots . Both supporters and detractors have pointed to his country persona as reasons for their support or criticism .
Bush has been parodied by the media , comedians , and other politicians . Detractors tended to cite linguistic errors made by Bush during his public speeches , which are colloquially referred to as Bushisms . Some pundits labeled Bush " the worst president ever " . In contrast to his father , who was perceived as having troubles with an overarching unifying theme , Bush embraced larger visions and was seen as a man of larger ideas and associated huge risks . Tony Blair wrote in 2010 that the caricature of Bush as being dumb is " ludicrous " and that Bush is " very smart " . In an interview with Playboy , New York Times columnist David Brooks said George W. Bush " was 60 IQ points smarter in private than he was in public . He doesn 't want anybody to think he 's smarter than they are , so puts on a Texas act . "
= = = = = Job approval = = = = =
Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50 percent . After the September 11 attacks , Bush gained an approval rating of 90 percent , maintaining 80 to 90 percent approval for four months after the attacks . It remained over 50 percent during most of his first term and then fell to as low as 19 percent in his second term .
In 2000 and again in 2004 , Time magazine named George W. Bush as its Person of the Year , a title awarded to someone who the editors believe " has done the most to influence the events of the year " . In May 2004 , Gallup reported that 89 percent of the Republican electorate approved of Bush . However , the support waned due mostly to a minority of Republicans ' frustration with him on issues of spending , illegal immigration , and Middle Eastern affairs .
Within the United States armed forces , according to an unscientific survey , the president was strongly supported in the 2004 presidential elections . While 73 percent of military personnel said that they would vote for Bush , 18 percent preferred his Democratic rival , John Kerry . According to Peter Feaver , a Duke University political scientist who has studied the political leanings of the U.S. military , members of the armed services supported Bush because they found him more likely than Kerry to complete the War in Iraq .
Bush 's approval rating went below the 50 percent mark in AP @-@ Ipsos polling in December 2004 . Thereafter , his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues steadily dropped . Bush received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War , his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse , NSA warrantless surveillance , the Plame affair , and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies . There were calls for Bush 's impeachment , though most polls showed a plurality of Americans would not support such an action . The arguments offered for impeachment usually centered on the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy , the Bush administration 's justification for the war in Iraq , and alleged violations of the Geneva Conventions . Representative Dennis Kucinich ( D @-@ OH ) , who had run against Bush during the 2004 presidential campaign , introduced 35 articles of impeachment on the floor of the House of Representatives against Bush on June 9 , 2008 , but Speaker Nancy Pelosi ( D @-@ CA ) declared that impeachment was " off the table " .
Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37 percent approval ratings for Bush , the lowest for any second @-@ term president at that point of his term since Harry S. Truman in March 1951 ( when Truman 's approval rating was 28 percent ) , which contributed to what Bush called the " thumping " of the Republican Party in the 2006 mid @-@ term elections . Throughout most of 2007 , Bush 's approval rating hovered in the mid @-@ thirties ; the average for his entire second term was 37 percent , according to Gallup .
By the beginning of 2008 , his final year in office , Bush 's approval rating had dropped to a low of just 19 percent , largely from the loss of support among Republicans . Commenting on his low poll numbers and accusations of being " the worst president , " Bush would say , " I make decisions on what I think is right for the United States based upon principles . I frankly don 't give a damn about the polls . "
In the spring of that year , Bush 's disapproval ratings reached the highest ever recorded for any president in the 70 @-@ year history of the Gallup poll , with 69 percent of those polled in April 2008 disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28 percent approving — although the majority ( 66 percent ) of Republicans still approved of his job performance .
In polls conducted in the fall , just before the 2008 election , his approval ratings remained at record lows of 19 to 20 percent , while his disapproval ratings ranged from 67 percent to as high as 75 percent . In polling conducted January 9 – 11 , 2009 , his final job approval rating by Gallup was 34 percent , which placed him on par with Jimmy Carter and Harry S. Truman , the other presidents whose final Gallup ratings measured in the low 30s ( Richard Nixon 's final Gallup approval rating was even lower , at 24 percent ) . According to a CBS News / New York Times poll conducted January 11 – 15 , 2009 , Bush 's final approval rating in office was 22 percent , the lowest in American history .
= = = = Foreign perceptions = = = =
Bush was criticized internationally and targeted by the global anti @-@ war and anti @-@ globalization campaigns for his administration 's foreign policy . Views of him within the international community — even in France , a close ally of the United States — were more negative than those of most previous American presidents in history .
Bush was described as having especially close personal relationships with Tony Blair of Great Britain and Vicente Fox of Mexico , although formal relations were sometimes strained . Other leaders , such as Afghan president Hamid Karzai , Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni , Spanish prime minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero , and Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez , openly criticized the president . Later in Bush 's presidency , tensions arose between him and Vladimir Putin , which led to a cooling of their relationship .
In 2006 , most respondents in 18 of 21 countries surveyed around the world were found to hold an unfavorable opinion of Bush . Respondents indicated that they judged his administration as negative for world security . In 2007 , the Pew Global Attitudes Project reported that during the Bush presidency , attitudes towards the United States , and towards Americans , became less favorable around the world .
A March 2007 survey of Arab opinion conducted by Zogby International and the University of Maryland found that Bush was the most disliked leader in the Arab world .
The Pew Research Center 's 2007 Global Attitudes poll found that out of 47 countries , in only nine countries did most respondents express " a lot of confidence " or " some confidence " in Bush : Ethiopia , Ghana , India , Israel , Ivory Coast , Kenya , Mali , Nigeria , and Uganda .
During a June 2007 visit to the predominantly Muslim Albania , Bush was greeted enthusiastically . Albania has a population of 2 @.@ 8 million , has troops in both Iraq and Afghanistan , and the country 's government is highly supportive of American foreign policy . A huge image of the President was hung in the middle of the capital city of Tirana flanked by Albanian and American flags while a local street was named after him . A shirt @-@ sleeved statue of Bush was unveiled in Fushë @-@ Krujë , a few kilometers northwest of Tirana . The Bush administration 's support for the independence of Albanian @-@ majority Kosovo , while endearing him to the Albanians , has troubled U.S. relations with Serbia , leading to the February 2008 torching of the U.S. embassy in Belgrade .
= = = = Acknowledgments and dedications = = = =
On May 7 , 2005 , during an official state visit to Latvia , Bush was awarded the Order of the Three Stars presented to him by President Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga . A few places outside the United States bear Bush 's name . In 2005 , the Tbilisi City Council voted to rename a street in honor of the U.S. president . Previously known as Melaani Drive , the street links the Georgian capital 's airport with the city center and was used by Bush 's motorcade during his visit four months earlier . A street in Tirana , formerly known as Rruga Puntorët e Rilendjes , situated directly outside the Albanian Parliament , was renamed after Bush a few days before he made the first @-@ ever visit by an American president to Albania in June 2007 . In Jerusalem , a small plaza with a monument bearing his name is also dedicated to Bush .
In 2012 , Estonian President Toomas Hendrik Ilves awarded Bush the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana for his work in expanding NATO .
= = = Criticism = = =
The Bush Presidency has been ranked among the worst in surveys of presidential scholars published in the late 2000s and 2010s .
After his re @-@ election in 2004 , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post @-@ World War II recession , often referred to as the " Great Recession " , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
= = = Residence ( since 2009 ) = = =
Following the inauguration of Barack Obama , Bush and his family flew from Andrews Air Force Base to a homecoming celebration in Midland , Texas , following which they returned to their ranch in Crawford , Texas . They bought a home in the Preston Hollow neighborhood of Dallas , Texas , where they settled down .
He makes regular appearances at various events throughout the Dallas / Fort Worth area , most notably when he conducted the opening coin toss at the Dallas Cowboys first game in the team 's new stadium in Arlington and an April 2009 visit to a Texas Rangers game , where he thanked the people of Dallas for helping him settle in and was met with a standing ovation . He also attended every home playoff game for the Texas Rangers 2010 season and , accompanied by his father , threw out the ceremonial first pitch at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington for Game 4 of the 2010 World Series on October 31 , 2010 .
On August 6 , 2013 , Bush was successfully treated for a coronary artery blockage with a stent . The blockage had been found during an annual medical examination .
In reaction to the 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers , Bush stated : " Laura and I are heartbroken by the heinous acts of violence in our city last night . Murdering the innocent is always evil , never more so than when the lives taken belong to those who protect our families and communities . "
= = = Publications and appearances = = =
Since leaving office , Bush has kept a relatively low profile though he has made public appearances , most notably after the release of his memoirs in 2010 and for the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2011 . In March 2009 , he delivered his first post @-@ presidency speech in Calgary , Alberta , appeared via video on The Colbert Report during which he praised U.S. troops for earning a " special place in American history , " and attended the funeral of Senator Ted Kennedy . Bush made his debut as a motivational speaker on October 26 at the " Get Motivated " seminar in Dallas . In the aftermath of the Fort Hood shooting that took place on November 5 , 2009 , in Texas , the Bushes paid an undisclosed visit to the survivors and victims ' families the day following the shooting , having contacted the base commander requesting that the visit be private and not involve press coverage .
Bush released his memoirs , Decision Points , on November 9 , 2010 . During a pre @-@ release appearance promoting the book , Bush said he considered his biggest accomplishment to be keeping " the country safe amid a real danger " , and his greatest failure to be his inability to secure the passage of Social Security reform . He also made news defending his administration 's enhanced interrogation techniques , specifically the waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , saying , " I 'd do it again to save lives . "
In 2012 , he wrote the foreword of The 4 % Solution : Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs , an economics book published by the George W. Bush Presidential Center . He also presented the book at the Parkland Memorial Hospital in Dallas , Texas .
Bush appeared on NBC 's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on November 19 , 2013 , along with the former First Lady , Laura Bush . When asked by Leno why he does not comment publicly about the Obama administration , Bush said , " I don 't think it 's good for the country to have a former president criticize his successor . " Despite this statement , on Saturday , April 25 , 2015 , Bush criticized President Barack Obama at a meeting of the Republican Jewish Coalition at the Venetian Hotel in Las Vegas . Bush criticized Obama 's handling of Iran , specifically with respect to sanctions and a nuclear deal , saying : " You think the Middle East is chaotic now ? Imagine what it looks like for our grandchildren . That 's how Americans should view the deal . " Bush also attacked Obama 's withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq in 2011 , calling it a " strategic blunder " , borrowing a term that had been used by South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham .
Alongside the 2014 United States – Africa Leaders Summit , Bush , Michelle Obama , the State Department , and the George W. Bush Institute hosted a daylong forum on education and health with the spouses of the African leaders attending the summit . Bush urged African leaders to avoid discriminatory laws that make the treatment of HIV / AIDS more difficult .
Bush has spoken in favor of increased global participation of women in politics and societal matters in foreign countries .
On November 2 , 2014 , Bush spoke at an event to 200 business and civic leaders at the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum to raise awareness for the upcoming Museum of the Bible in Washington D.C.
Bush published a biography of his father , George Bush , called 41 : A Portrait of My Father . It was released on November 11 , 2014 .
In an interview published by Israel Hayom magazine on June 12 , 2015 , Bush said that " boots on the ground " would be needed in order to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIS ) . He added that people had said during his Presidency that he should withdraw American troops from Iraq , but he chose the opposite , sending 30 @,@ 000 more troops in order to defeat Al Qaeda in Iraq , and that Al Qaeda in Iraq was defeated . Bush was also asked about Iran but declined to answer , stating that any answer he gives would be interpreted as undermining President Barack Obama .
Bush declined to endorse the 2016 Republican nominee Donald Trump and he didn 't attend the 2016 Republican National Convention that formally nominated Trump . On the eve of Trump 's nomination , it was reported that Bush had privately expressed concern about the current direction of the Republican Party and told a group of his former aides and advisors , " I 'm worried that I will be the last Republican president . "
= = = Collaborations = = =
In January 2010 , at President Obama 's request , Bush and Bill Clinton established the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund to raise contributions for relief and recovery efforts following the 2010 Haiti earthquake earlier that month .
On May 2 , 2011 , President Obama called Bush , who was at a restaurant with his wife , to inform him that Osama bin Laden had been killed . The Bushes joined the Obamas in New York City to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks . At the Ground Zero memorial , Bush read a letter that President Abraham Lincoln wrote to a widow who lost five sons during the Civil War .
= = = Visual art = = =
After serving as president , Bush began painting as a hobby . Subjects have included dogs and still life . He has also painted self @-@ portraits and portraits of world leaders , including Vladimir Putin and Tony Blair .
His paintings have been met with a middling reception from art critics . Bill Arning , director of the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston , called his portraits " thickly painted in what I would call ' high @-@ amateur ' mode " and wrote , " I would say they need to be less based on photographic reproduction . You can tell when someone is taking a found photograph and making a painting out of it [ ... ] I think he 'd be well advised to work from other , multiple photographic sources or the real person to get a little bit more liveliness going on . "
= = Legacy = =
George W. Bush 's legacy remains a contested one . Supporters credit Bush 's counterterrorism policies with preventing another major terrorist attack from occurring in the US after 9 / 11 and also praise individual policies such as the Medicare prescription drug benefit and the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . Critics often point to his handling of the Iraq War , specifically the failure to find weapons of mass destruction , that were the main rationale behind the initial invasion — as well as his handling of tax policy , Hurricane Katrina and the 2008 financial crisis as proof that George W. Bush was unfit to be president .
Several historians and commentators hold the view that Bush was one of the most consequential presidents in American history . Princeton University scholar Julian Zelizer described Bush 's presidency as a " transformative " one , and said that " some people hate him , some people love him , but I do think he 'll have a much more substantive perception as time goes on " . Bryon Williams of The Huffington Post referred to Bush as " the most noteworthy president since FDR " and said that the Patriot Act " increased authority of the executive branch at the expense of judicial opinions about when searches and seizures are reasonable " as evidence . Bush 's administration presided over the largest tax cuts since the Reagan administration , and his homeland security reforms proved to be the most significant expansion of the federal government since the Great Society . Much of these policies have endured in the administration of Bush 's Democratic successor , Barack Obama .
Among the public , his reputation has improved somewhat since his presidency ended in 2009 . In February 2012 , Gallup reported that " Americans still rate George W. Bush among the worst presidents , though their views have become more positive in the three years since he left office . " Gallup had earlier noted that Bush 's favorability ratings in public opinion surveys had begun to rise a year after he had left office , from 40 percent in January 2009 and 35 percent in March 2009 , to 45 percent in July 2010 , a period during which he had remained largely out of the news . Other pollsters have noted similar trends of slight improvement in Bush 's personal favorability since the end of his presidency . In April 2013 , Bush 's approval rating stood at 47 percent approval and 50 percent disapproval in a poll jointly conducted for The Washington Post and ABC , his highest approval rating since December 2005 . Bush had achieved notable gains among seniors , non @-@ college whites , and moderate and conservative Democrats since leaving office , although majorities disapproved of his handling of the economy ( 53 percent ) and the Iraq War ( 57 percent ) . His 47 percent approval rating was equal to that of President Obama 's in the same polling period . A CNN poll conducted that same month found that 55 percent of Americans said Bush 's presidency had been a failure , with 80 percent of Republican calling it a success , but only 43 percent of independents calling it a success and nearly 90 percent of Democrats calling it a failure .
While President Bush 's approval rating among the public has seen an improvement , the most recent survey of the opinions of historians , political scientists , and Presidential scholars , conducted in 2010 by the Siena Research Institute , ranked him 39th out of 43 Presidents . The survey respondents gave President Bush low ratings on his handling of the U.S. economy , communication , ability to compromise , foreign policy accomplishments , and intelligence .
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= CMLL World Welterweight Championship =
The CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( Spanish : Campionato Mundial Peso Welter de CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world championship in the Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) . The official definition of the welterweight division in Mexico is between 70 kg ( 150 lb ) and 78 kg ( 172 lb ) but the official weight limits are not always adhered to these days . As the championship is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won or lost competitively but instead by the decision of the bookers of a wrestling promotion . The title is awarded after the chosen wrestler " wins " a match to maintain the illusion that professional wrestling is a competitive sport .
Overall there have been a total of 32 official championship reigns , shared between 20 different wrestlers . Mephisto is the current and 32bd champion , having won the championship on May 3 , 2016 . Máscara Dorada is the first and only wrestler to hold the championship four times . Mephisto 's first reign was the longest individual reign , 1 @,@ 141 days between 2004 and 2007 . The championship has been defended in Mexico and Japan , including three title changes in Japan . Over the lifetime of the championship was vacated twice and CMLL has held three different tournaments for the championship .
= = History = =
In the late 1980s CMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA . While they left the NWA they did retain control of the NWA World Welterweight Championship as their main championship of the welterweight division . They also promoted the Mexican National Welterweight Championship as a secondary title in the Welterweight division . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL Branded world championships , one of which was for the welterweight division . CMLL held a four @-@ man tournament on February 15 , 1992 to crown the first welterweight champion. the participants were Fuerza Guerrera , El Felino , América and El Khalifa , the finals saw Fuerza Guerrera defeat El Khalifa to become the first Welterweight champion . On July 16 , 1992 then Mexican National Welterweight Champion defeated CMLL Welterweight Champion América , which led to the Mexican National Welterweight Championship being vacated . In 1993 control of the Mexican National Welterweight Championship was transferred from CMLL to rival promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) .
In 1996 the championship was vacated after then @-@ champion El Pantera lost the Championship to Super Delfin while on tour in Japan . Pantera left CMLL for AAA after the tour , and he decided to give Super Delfin the championship by losing a match to him while in Japan . CMLL knew that Pantera was leaving and nullified the championship change , choosing to not recognize the title change at all , instead announcing that they had wikt : vacated the championship . Subsequently CMLL put together a 16 @-@ man tournament crown a new champion , the tournament saw Máscara Mágica defeat El Felino in the tournament final to become the seventh official CMLL World Welterweight Champion . Máscara Mágica would later defeat Super Delfin to put an end to any questions about the lineage of the championship . In 1998 the Mexican National Welterweight Championship was returned to CMLL , making it a tertiary title behind the CMLL and NWA branded world championships . In 2010 CMLL returned the NWA World Welterweight Championship to the NWA , but immediately replaced it with the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship .
From the unrecognized title change on March 15 , 1996 , until January 2011 , when Ryusuke Taguchi won the Championship in Tokyo , all championship matches took place in Mexico . In early 2015 it was announced that then @-@ champion Máscara Dorada had signed a contract to work for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) for a year , taking the championship with him to Japan . During his tour of Japan Máscara Dorada lost the championship to Bushi , which was officially acknowledged by CMLL .
= = Reigns = =
The Championship is designated as a welterweight title , which means that the championship can officially only be competed for by wrestlers weighing between 70 kg ( 150 lb ) and 78 kg ( 172 lb ) . In the 20th century Mexican wrestling enforced the weight divisions more strictly , but in the 21st century the rules have occasionally been ignored for the some weight divisions . The heaviest welterweight champion on record is Olímpico who was announced as weighing 92 kg ( 203 lb ) , 14 kg ( 31 lb ) above the maximum weight limit . While the heavyweight championship is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions . All title matches promoted in Mexico take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules , while championship matches promoted in Japan followed the local custom and were only one fall matches .
Mephisto is the current and two @-@ time after defeating Máscara Dorada at a CMLL show in Arena Mexico May 3 , 2016 . He is the 32nd overall champion . El Felino has the longest combined reigns overall with 1 @,@ 186 days , divided over three separate reigns . Mephisto has the longest individual reign of all champions at 1 @,@ 141 days from 2004 to 2007 . The first champion , Fuerza Guerrera is also the person who 's held the title the shortest time , 22 days but the possibility exists that Mascara Magica 's second reign was shorter as no specific date for the start of the reign has be confirmed , which means his reign lasted between 6 days and 36 days .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1992 = = =
On February 15 , 1992 CMLL held a one @-@ night , four @-@ man tournament to crown the first ever CMLL World Welterweight Champion . The welterweight championship was the fifth CMLL branded world championship created after the CMLL World Heavyweight , CMLL World Light Heavyweight , CMLL World Trios and CMLL World Middleweight Championship . In the tournament finals Fuerza Guerrera defeated El Khalifa to win the championship .
= = = 1996 = = =
In 1996 CMLL decided not to acknowledge that La Pantera had lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship during a tour of Japan , declaring the title vacant instead . They held a 16 @-@ man tournament from May 7 to May 21 , 1996 , in order to crown a new champion . In the finals Máscara Mágica defeated El Felino to become the seventh champion .
= = = 2014 @-@ 2015 = = =
On May 2 , 2015 then @-@ reigning CMLL World Welterweight Champion Místico , crashed his motorcycle , breaking both the fibula and tibia in his right leg , forcing him to undergo surgery the following day . Due to the injury the Welterweight championship became inactive for several months as Místico was unabel to compete . During a press conference on November 19 , 2014 Místico announced that he was not ready to return to the ring , which led to the CMLL World Welterweight Championship being declared vacant . On December 26 , 2014 CMLL held a 10 @-@ man Torneo cibernetico elimination match to determine the next champion . Negro Casas and Máscara Dorada outlasted the other eight competitors ; Delta , Fuego , Kamaitachi , Pólvora , Rey Cometa , Sangre Azteca , Titán and Tritón . A week later Máscara Dorada defeated Negro Casas to become the 29th CMLL World Heavyweight Championship .
Torneo cibernetico order of elimination
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= Solar power =
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power ( CSP ) . Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . Photovoltaics convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect .
The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its " high renewables " scenario , by 2050 , solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent , respectively , of the worldwide electricity consumption , and solar would be the world 's largest source of electricity . Most solar installations would be in China and India .
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium @-@ sized applications , from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off @-@ grid rooftop PV system . As the cost of solar electricity has fallen , the number of grid @-@ connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility @-@ scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built . Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive , low @-@ carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun .
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s . The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world , located in the Mojave Desert of California . The 579 MW Solar Star , near Rosamond , California , is the world 's largest PV power station .
= = Mainstream technologies = =
Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels ( see solar power by country ) . Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption . Solar power plants use one of two technologies :
Photovoltaic ( PV ) systems use solar panels , either on rooftops or in ground @-@ mounted solar farms , converting sunlight directly into electric power .
Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as " concentrated solar thermal " ) plants use solar thermal energy to make steam , that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine .
= = = Photovoltaics = = =
A solar cell , or photovoltaic cell ( PV ) , is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s . The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery . In 1931 , the German engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide , although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity . Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s , researchers Gerald Pearson , Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954 . These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 % .
= = = = Conventional PV systems = = = =
The array of a photovoltaic power system , or PV system , produces direct current ( DC ) power which fluctuates with the sunlight 's intensity . For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current ( AC ) , through the use of inverters . Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules . Modules are wired together to form arrays , then tied to an inverter , which produces power at the desired voltage , and for AC , the desired frequency / phase .
Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available , especially in developed countries with large markets . In these grid @-@ connected PV systems , use of energy storage is optional . In certain applications such as satellites , lighthouses , or in developing countries , batteries or additional power generators are often added as back @-@ ups . Such stand @-@ alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight .
= = = Concentrated solar power = = =
Concentrated solar power ( CSP ) , also called " concentrated solar thermal " , uses lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . Contrary to photovoltaics – which converts light directly into electricity – CSP uses the heat of the sun 's radiation to generate electricity from conventional steam @-@ driven turbines .
A wide range of concentrating technologies exists : among the best known are the parabolic trough , the compact linear Fresnel reflector , the Stirling dish and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light . In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage . Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24 @-@ hour electricity generation .
A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector 's focal line . The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid . The reflector is made to follow the sun during daylight hours by tracking along a single axis . Parabolic trough systems provide the best land @-@ use factor of any solar technology . The SEGS plants in California and Acciona 's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City , Nevada are representatives of this technology .
Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP @-@ plants which use many thin mirror strips instead of parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid . This has the advantage that flat mirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors , and that more reflectors can be placed in the same amount of space , allowing more of the available sunlight to be used . Concentrating linear fresnel reflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants .
The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which normally drives an electric generator . The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime . Parabolic dish systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies . The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra , Australia is an example of this technology .
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors ( heliostats ) to concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower . Power towers are more cost effective , offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability among CSP technologies . The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this technology .
= = = = Hybrid systems = = = =
A hybrid system combines ( C ) PV and CSP with one another or with other forms of generation such as diesel , wind and biogas . The combined form of generation may enable the system to modulate power output as a function of demand or at least reduce the fluctuating nature of solar power and the consumption of non renewable fuel . Hybrid systems are most often found on islands .
CPV / CSP system
A novel solar CPV / CSP hybrid system has been proposed , combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non @-@ PV technology of concentrated solar power , or also known as concentrated solar thermal .
ISCC system
The Hassi R 'Mel power station in Algeria , is an example of combining CSP with a gas turbine , where a 25 @-@ megawatt CSP @-@ parabolic trough array supplements a much larger 130 MW combined cycle gas turbine plant . Another example is the Yazd power station in Iran .
PVT system
Hybrid PV / T ) , also known as photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy . Such a system combines a solar ( PV ) module with a solar thermal collector in an complementary way .
CPVT system
A concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid ( CPVT ) system is similar to a PVT system . It uses concentrated photovoltaics ( CPV ) instead of conventional PV technology , and combines it with a solar thermal collector .
PV diesel system
It combines a photovoltaic system with a diesel generator . Combinations with other renewables are possible and include wind turbines .
PV @-@ thermoelectric system
Thermoelectric , or " thermovoltaic " devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current . Solar cells use only the high frequency part of the radiation , while the low frequency heat energy is wasted . Several patents about the use of thermoelectric devices in tandem with solar cells have been filed . The idea is to increase the efficiency of the combined solar / thermoelectric system to convert the solar radiation into useful electricity .
= = Development and deployment = =
= = = Early days = = =
The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . However , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum . In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems . The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan . Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the United States ( SERI , now NREL ) , Japan ( NEDO ) , and Germany ( Fraunhofer – ISE ) . Between 1970 and 1983 installations of photovoltaic systems grew rapidly , but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of photovoltaics from 1984 to 1996 .
= = = Mid @-@ 1990s to early 2010s = = =
In the mid @-@ 1990s , development of both , residential and commercial rooftop solar as well as utility @-@ scale photovoltaic power stations , began to accelerate again due to supply issues with oil and natural gas , global warming concerns , and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies . In the early 2000s , the adoption of feed @-@ in tariffs — a policy mechanism , that gives renewables priority on the grid and defines a fixed price for the generated electricity — lead to a high level of investment security and to a soaring number of PV deployments in Europe .
= = = Current status = = =
For several years , worldwide growth of solar PV was driven by European deployment , but has since shifted to Asia , especially China and Japan , and to a growing number of countries and regions all over the world , including , but not limited to , Australia , Canada , Chile , India , Israel , Mexico , South Africa , South Korea , Thailand , and the United States .
Worldwide growth of photovoltaics has averaged 40 % per year since 2000 and total installed capacity reached 139 GW at the end of 2013 with Germany having the most cumulative installations ( 35 @.@ 7 GW ) and Italy having the highest percentage of electricity generated by solar PV ( 7 @.@ 0 % ) .
Concentrated solar power ( CSP ) also started to grow rapidly , increasing its capacity nearly tenfold from 2004 to 2013 , albeit from a lower level and involving fewer countries than solar PV . As of the end of 2013 , worldwide cumulative CSP @-@ capacity reached 3 @,@ 425 MW .
= = = Forecasts = = =
In 2010 , the International Energy Agency predicted that global solar PV capacity could reach 3 @,@ 000 GW or 11 % of projected global electricity generation by 2050 — enough to generate 4 @,@ 500 TWh of electricity . Four years later , in 2014 , the agency projected that , under its " high renewables " scenario , solar power could supply 27 % of global electricity generation by 2050 ( 16 % from PV and 11 % from CSP ) . In 2015 , analysts predicted that one million homes in the U.S. will have solar power by the end of 2016 .
= = = Photovoltaic power stations = = =
The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW power plant in Riverside County , California , that uses thin @-@ film CdTe @-@ modules made by First Solar . As of November 2014 , the 550 megawatt Topaz Solar Farm was the largest photovoltaic power plant in the world . This has now been surpassed by the 579 MW Solar Star complex .
= = = Concentrating solar power stations = = =
Commercial concentrating solar power ( CSP ) plants , also called " solar thermal power stations " , were first developed in the 1980s . The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility , located in California 's Mojave Desert , is the world ’ s largest solar thermal power plant project . Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station ( 150 MW ) , the Andasol solar power station ( 150 MW ) , and Extresol Solar Power Station ( 150 MW ) , all in Spain . The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage , allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24 @-@ hour period . Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm , many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage .
= = Economics = =
= = = Cost = = =
Adjusting for inflation , it cost $ 96 per watt for a solar module in the mid @-@ 1970s . Process improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down 99 percent , to 68 ¢ per watt in February 2016 , according to data from Bloomberg New Energy Finance . Palo Alto California signed a wholesale purchase agreement in 2016 that secured solar power for 3 @.@ 7 cents per kilowatt @-@ hour . And in sunny Dubai large @-@ scale solar generated electricity sold in 2016 for just $ 0 @.@ 0299 per kWh -- " competitive with any form of fossil @-@ based electricity — and cheaper than most . "
Photovoltaic systems use no fuel , and modules typically last 25 to 40 years . Thus , capital costs make up most of the cost of solar power . Operations and maintenance costs for new utility @-@ scale solar plants in the US are estimated to be 9 percent of the cost of photovoltaic electricity , and 17 percent of the cost of solar thermal electricity . Governments have created various financial incentives to encourage the use of solar power , such as feed @-@ in tariff programs . Also , Renewable portfolio standards impose a government mandate that utilities generate or acquire a certain percentage of renewable power regardless of increased energy procurement costs . In most states , RPS goals can be achieved by any combination of solar , wind , biomass , landfill gas , ocean , geothermal , municipal solid waste , hydroelectric , hydrogen , or fuel cell technologies .
= = = = Levelized cost of electricity = = = =
The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of electricity ( LCOE ) as the unit of cost . The electrical energy generated is sold in units of kilowatt @-@ hours ( kWh ) . As a rule of thumb , and depending on the local insolation , 1 watt @-@ peak of installed solar PV capacity generates about 1 to 2 kWh of electricity per year . This corresponds to a capacity factor of around 10 – 20 % . The product of the local cost of electricity and the insolation determines the break even point for solar power . The International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments , organized by EPIA , has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years . As a result , since 2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement . Fifty percent of commercial systems in the United States were installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90 % by 2009 .
Shi Zhengrong has said that , as of 2012 , unsubsidised solar power is already competitive with fossil fuels in India , Hawaii , Italy and Spain . He said " We are at a tipping point . No longer are renewable power sources like solar and wind a luxury of the rich . They are now starting to compete in the real world without subsidies " . " Solar power will be able to compete without subsidies against conventional power sources in half the world by 2015 " .
= = = = Current installation prices = = = =
In its 2014 edition of the Technology Roadmap : Solar Photovoltaic Energy report , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) published prices for residential , commercial and utility @-@ scale PV systems for eight major markets as of 2013 ( see table below ) . However , DOE 's SunShot Initiative has reported much lower U.S. installation prices . In 2014 , prices continued to decline . The SunShot Initiative modeled U.S. system prices to be in the range of $ 1 @.@ 80 to $ 3 @.@ 29 per watt . Other sources identify similar price ranges of $ 1 @.@ 70 to $ 3 @.@ 50 for the different market segments in the U.S. , and in the highly penetrated German market , prices for residential and small commercial rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to $ 1 @.@ 36 per watt ( € 1 @.@ 24 / W ) by the end of 2014 . In 2015 , Deutsche Bank estimated costs for small residential rooftop systems in the U.S. around $ 2 @.@ 90 per watt . Costs for utility @-@ scale systems in China and India were estimated as low as $ 1 @.@ 00 per watt .
= = = Grid parity = = =
Grid parity , the point at which the cost of photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than the price of grid power , is more easily achieved in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in California and Japan . In 2008 , The levelized cost of electricity for solar PV was $ 0 @.@ 25 / kWh or less in most of the OECD countries . By late 2011 , the fully loaded cost was predicted to fall below $ 0 @.@ 15 / kWh for most of the OECD and to reach $ 0 @.@ 10 / kWh in sunnier regions . These cost levels are driving three emerging trends : vertical integration of the supply chain , origination of power purchase agreements ( PPAs ) by solar power companies , and unexpected risk for traditional power generation companies , grid operators and wind turbine manufacturers .
Grid parity was first reached in Spain in 2013 , Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use fossil fuel ( diesel fuel ) to produce electricity , and most of the US is expected to reach grid parity by 2015 .
In 2007 , General Electric 's Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015 ; other companies predicted an earlier date : the cost of solar power will be below grid parity for more than half of residential customers and 10 % of commercial customers in the OECD , as long as grid electricity prices do not decrease through 2010 .
= = = Self consumption = = =
In cases of self consumption of the solar energy , the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not purchased from the grid . For example , in Germany , with electricity prices of 0 @.@ 25 Euro / KWh and insolation of 900 KWh / KW , one KWp will save 225 Euro per year , and with an installation cost of 1700 Euro / KWp the system cost will be returned in less than 7 years . However , in many cases , the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide , and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid . The electricity is sold , and at other times when energy is taken from the grid , electricity is bought . The relative costs and prices obtained affect the economics .
= = = Energy pricing and incentives = = =
The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to facilitate an initial small @-@ scale deployment to begin to grow the industry , even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity , to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity . The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence , high tech job creation and reduction of CO2 emissions . Three incentive mechanisms are often used in combination as investment subsidies : the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system , the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate ( ) , and Solar Renewable Energy Certificates ( SRECs )
= = = = Rebates = = = =
With investment subsidies , the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer , while with feed @-@ in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities ' customer bases . While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer , the main argument in favour of feed @-@ in tariffs is the encouragement of quality . Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time , thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance . Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers , such as Austin Energy in Texas , which offers $ 2 @.@ 50 / watt installed up to $ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Net metering = = = =
In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the consumer , and the consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption . Net metering can usually be done with no changes to standard electricity meters , which accurately measure power in both directions and automatically report the difference , and because it allows homeowners and businesses to generate electricity at a different time from consumption , effectively using the grid as a giant storage battery . With net metering , deficits are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the following month . Best practices call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits . Excess credits upon termination of service are either lost , or paid for at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above , as can be excess annual credits . In New Jersey , annual excess credits are paid at the wholesale rate , as are left over credits when a customer terminates service .
= = = = Feed @-@ in tariffs ( FIT ) = = = =
With feed @-@ in tariffs , the financial burden falls upon the consumer . They reward the number of kilowatt @-@ hours produced over a long period of time , but because the rate is set by the authorities , it may result in perceived overpayment . The price paid per kilowatt @-@ hour under a feed @-@ in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity . Net metering refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged .
The complexity of approvals in California , Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better . In some countries , additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV .
France + EUR 0 @.@ 16 / kWh ( compared to semi @-@ integrated ) or + EUR 0 @.@ 27 / kWh ( compared to stand alone )
Italy + EUR 0 @.@ 04 @-@ 0 @.@ 09 kWh
Germany + EUR 0 @.@ 05 / kWh ( facades only )
= = = = Solar Renewable Energy Credits ( SRECs ) = = = =
Alternatively , SRECs allow for a market mechanism to set the price of the solar generated electricity subsity . In this mechanism , a renewable energy production or consumption target is set , and the utility ( more technically the Load Serving Entity ) is obliged to purchase renewable energy or face a fine ( Alternative Compliance Payment or ACP ) . The producer is credited for an SREC for every 1 @,@ 000 kWh of electricity produced . If the utility buys this SREC and retires it , they avoid paying the ACP . In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy , since the all solar facilities are eligible and can be installed in the most economic locations . Uncertainties about the future value of SRECs have led to long @-@ term SREC contract markets to give clarity to their prices and allow solar developers to pre @-@ sell and hedge their credits .
Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries , including Australia , China , Germany , Israel , Japan , and the United States and even across states within the US .
The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003 . By the end of 2004 , Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1 @.@ 1 GW .
In 2004 , the German government introduced the first large @-@ scale feed @-@ in tariff system , under the German Renewable Energy Act , which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany . At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price . The principle behind the German system is a 20 @-@ year flat rate contract . The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year , in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users . The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006 , and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers .
Subsequently , Spain , Italy , Greece — that enjoyed an early success with domestic solar @-@ thermal installations for hot water needs — and France introduced feed @-@ in tariffs . None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though , making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries . The French and Greek FIT offer a high premium ( EUR 0 @.@ 55 / kWh ) for building integrated systems . California , Greece , France and Italy have 30 @-@ 50 % more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive . The Greek domestic " solar roof " programme ( adopted in June 2009 for installations up to 10 kW ) has internal rates of return of 10 @-@ 15 % at current commercial installation costs , which , furthermore , is tax free .
In 2006 California approved the ' California Solar Initiative ' , offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems . The small @-@ system FIT of $ 0 @.@ 39 per kWh ( far less than EU countries ) expires in just 5 years , and the alternate " EPBB " residential investment incentive is modest , averaging perhaps 20 % of cost . All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed .
At the end of 2006 , the Ontario Power Authority ( OPA , Canada ) began its Standard Offer Program , a precursor to the Green Energy Act , and the first in North America for distributed renewable projects of less than 10 MW . The feed @-@ in tariff guaranteed a fixed price of $ 0 @.@ 42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years . Unlike net metering , all the electricity produced was sold to the OPA at the given rate .
= = Environmental impacts = =
Unlike fossil fuel based technologies , solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation , but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution .
= = = Greenhouse gases = = =
The Life @-@ cycle greenhouse @-@ gas emissions of solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 gram ( g ) per kilowatt @-@ hour ( kWh ) depending on if solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed , respectively . With this potentially being decreased to 15 g / kWh in the future . For comparison ( of weighted averages ) , a combined cycle gas @-@ fired power plant emits some 400 – 599 g / kWh , an oil @-@ fired power plant 893 g / kWh , a coal @-@ fired power plant 915 – 994 g / kWh or with carbon capture and storage some 200 g / kWh , and a geothermal high @-@ temp. power plant 91 – 122 g / kWh . The life cycle emission intensity of hydro , wind and nuclear power are lower than solar 's as of 2011 as published by the IPCC , and discussed in the article Life @-@ cycle greenhouse @-@ gas emissions of energy sources . Similar to all energy sources were their total life cycle emissions primarily lay in the construction and transportation phase , the switch to low carbon power in the manufacturing and transportation of solar devices would further reduce carbon emissions . BP Solar owns two factories built by Solarex ( one in Maryland , the other in Virginia ) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar panels . A 1 @-@ kilowatt system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal , 300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere , and saves up to 105 gallons of water consumption monthly .
The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) , in harmonizing the disparate estimates of life @-@ cycle GHG emissions for solar PV , found that the most critical parameter was the solar insolation of the site : GHG emissions factors for PV solar are inversely proportional to insolation . For a site with insolation of 1700 kWh / m2 / year , typical of southern Europe , NREL researchers estimated GHG emissions of 45 gCO2e / kWh . Using the same assumptions , at Phoenix , USA , with insolation of 2400 kWh / m2 / year , the GHG emissions factor would be reduced to 32 g of CO2e / kWh .
The New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment found that the solar PV would have little impact on the country 's greenhouse gas emissions . The country already generates 80 percent of its electricity from renewable resources ( primarily hydroelectricity and geothermal ) and national electricity usage peaks on winter evenings whereas solar generation peaks on summer afternoons , meaning a large uptake of solar PV would end up displacing other renewable generators before fossil @-@ fueled power plants .
= = = Energy payback = = =
The energy payback time ( EPBT ) of a power generating system is the time required to generate as much energy as is consumed during production and lifetime operation of the system . Due to improving production technologies the payback time has been decreasing constantly since the introduction of PV systems in the energy market . In 2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 years for crystalline silicon silicon PV systems and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 years for thin film technologies ( S. Europe ) . These figures fell to 0 @.@ 75 – 3 @.@ 5 years in 2013 , with an average of about 2 years for crystalline silicon PV and CIS systems .
Another economic measure , closely related to the energy payback time , is the energy returned on energy invested ( EROEI ) or energy return on investment ( EROI ) , which is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment . ( This is not the same as the economic return on investment ( ROI ) , which varies according to local energy prices , subsidies available and metering techniques . ) With expected lifetimes of 30 years , the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30 , thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times ( 6 @-@ 31 reproductions ) depending on what type of material , balance of system ( BOS ) , and the geographic location of the system .
= = = Other issues = = =
One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium ( Cd ) , a toxic heavy metal that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains . It is used as semiconductor component in CdTe solar cells and as buffer layer for certain CIGS cells in the form of CdS . The amount of cadmium used in thin @-@ film PV modules is relatively small ( 5 – 10 g / m ² ) and with proper recycling and emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero . Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 microgram / kWh over the whole life @-@ cycle . Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules , and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium . Life @-@ cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3 @.@ 1 microgram / kWh , lignite 6 @.@ 2 , and natural gas 0 @.@ 2 microgram / kWh .
In a life @-@ cycle analysis it has been noted , that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal , cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated .
In the case of crystalline silicon modules , the solder material , that joins together the copper strings of the cells , contains about 36 percent of lead ( Pb ) . Moreover , the paste used for screen printing front and back contacts contains traces of Pb and sometimes Cd as well . It is estimated , that about 1 @,@ 000 metric tonnes of Pb have been used for 100 gigawatts of c @-@ Si solar modules . However , there is no fundamental need for lead in the solder alloy .
Some media sources have reported that concentrated solar power plants have injured or killed large numbers of birds due to intense heat from the concentrated sunrays . This adverse effect does not apply to PV solar power plants , and some of the claims may have been overstated or exaggerated .
A 2014 @-@ published life @-@ cycle analysis of land use for various sources of electricity concluded that the large @-@ scale implementation of solar and wind potentially reduces pollution @-@ related environmental impacts . The study found that the land @-@ use footprint , given in square meter @-@ years per megawatt @-@ hour ( m2a / MWh ) , was lowest for wind , natural gas and rooftop PV , with 0 @.@ 26 , 0 @.@ 49 and 0 @.@ 59 , respectively , and followed by utility @-@ scale solar PV with 7 @.@ 9 . For CSP , the footprint was 9 and 14 , using parabolic troughs and solar towers , respectively . The largest footprint had coal @-@ fired power plants with 18 m2a / MWh .
= = Emerging technologies = =
= = = Concentrator photovoltaics = = =
Concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production . Contrary to conventional photovoltaic systems , it uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small , but highly efficient , multi @-@ junction solar cells . Solar concentrators of all varieties may be used , and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point upon the cell as the sun moves across the sky . Luminescent solar concentrators ( when combined with a PV @-@ solar cell ) can also be regarded as a CPV system . Concentrated photovoltaics are useful as they can improve efficiency of PV @-@ solar panels drastically .
In addition , most solar panels on spacecraft are also made of high efficient multi @-@ junction photovoltaic cells to derive electricity from sunlight when operating in the inner Solar System .
= = = Floatovoltaics = = =
Floatovoltaics are an emerging form of PV systems that float on the surface of irrigation canals , water reservoirs , quarry lakes , and tailing ponds . Several systems exist in France , India , Japan , Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States . These systems reduce the need of valuable land area , save drinking water that would otherwise be lost through evaporation , and show a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion , as the panels are kept at a cooler temperature than they would be on land .
= = Grid integration = =
Since solar energy is not available at night , storing its energy is an important issue in order to have continuous energy availability . Both wind power and solar power are variable renewable energy , meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available , and either stored for when it can be used later , or transported over transmission lines to where it can be used now . Concentrated solar power plants typically use thermal energy storage to store the solar energy , such as in high @-@ temperature molten salts . These salts are an effective storage medium because they are low @-@ cost , have a high specific heat capacity , and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . This method of energy storage is used , for example , by the Solar Two power station , allowing it to store 1 @.@ 44 TJ in its 68 m ³ storage tank , enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours , with an efficiency of about 99 % .
Rechargeable batteries have been traditionally used to store excess electricity in stand alone PV systems . With grid @-@ connected photovoltaic power system , excess electricity can be sent to the electrical grid . Net metering and feed @-@ in tariff programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they produce . This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand , effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism . Credits are normally rolled over from month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually . When wind and solar are a small fraction of the grid power , other generation techniques can adjust their output appropriately , but as these forms of variable power grow , this becomes less practical . As prices are rapidly declining , PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night . Batteries used for grid @-@ storage also stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads , and play an important role in a smart grid , as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high .
Common battery technologies used in today 's PV systems include , the valve regulated lead @-@ acid battery – a modified version of the conventional lead – acid battery , nickel – cadmium and lithium @-@ ion batteries . Lead @-@ acid batteries are currently the predominant technology used in small @-@ scale , residential PV systems , due to their high reliability , low self discharge and investment and maintenance costs , despite shorter lifetime and lower energy density . However , lithium @-@ ion batteries have the potential to replace lead @-@ acid batteries in the near future , as they are being intensively developed and lower prices are expected due to economies of scale provided by large production facilities such as the Gigafactory 1 . In addition , the Li @-@ ion batteries of plug @-@ in electric cars may serve as a future storage devices in a vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid system . Since most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time , their batteries could be used to let electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back . Other rechargeable batteries used for distributed PV systems include , sodium – sulfur and vanadium redox batteries , two prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery , respectively .
Conventional hydroelectricity works very well in conjunction with variable electricity sources such as solar and wind , the water can be held back and allowed to flow as required with virtually no energy loss . Where a suitable river is not available , pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus electricity is available , from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water : the pump becomes a turbine , and the motor a hydroelectric power generator . However , this loses some of the energy to pumpage losses .
The combination of wind and solar PV has the advantage that the two sources complement each other because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year . The power generation of such solar hybrid power systems is therefore more constant and fluctuates less than each of the two component subsystems . Solar power is seasonal , particularly in northern / southern climates , away from the equator , suggesting a need for long term seasonal storage in a medium such as hydrogen . The storage requirements vary and in some cases can be met with biomass . The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot @-@ tested a combined power plant linking solar , wind , biogas and hydrostorage to provide load @-@ following power around the clock , entirely from renewable sources .
Research is also undertaken in this field of artificial photosynthesis . It involves the use of nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds , by splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel or then combining with carbon dioxide to make biopolymers such as methanol . Many large national and regional research projects on artificial photosynthesis are now trying to develop techniques integrating improved light capture , quantum coherence methods of electron transfer and cheap catalytic materials that operate under a variety of atmospheric conditions . Senior researchers in the field have made the public policy case for a Global Project on Artificial Photosynthesis to address critical energy security and environmental sustainability issues .
= = Geographic solar insolation = =
Different parts of the world experience different amounts of sunshine , depending on latitude and weather . Locations nearer the equator receive many more hours of sunshine than those further north or south , thus photovoltaic panels can be more economically desirable in some places more than others .
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= LACM 149371 =
LACM 149371 ( Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County specimen 149371 ) is an enigmatic fossil mammalian tooth from the Paleogene ( 66 to 23 million years ago , mya ) of Peru . It is from the Santa Rosa fossil site , which is of uncertain age but possibly late Eocene ( 55 to 34 mya ) or Oligocene ( 34 to 23 mya ) . The tooth is poorly preserved and may have been degraded by acidic water or because it passed through a predator 's digestive tract . Its largest dimension is 2 @.@ 65 mm . It is triangular in shape and bears six cusps that surround the middle of the tooth , where there are three basins ( fossae ) . Crests connects the cusps and separate the fossae . The microscopic structure of the enamel is poorly preserved .
LACM 149371 was described in 2004 by Francisco Goin and colleagues , who tentatively interpreted the tooth as a left last upper molar . Although they saw similarities with South American ungulates , some early rodents , and multituberculates , they believed the tooth was most likely of a gondwanathere . Among gondwanatheres — a small and poorly known group otherwise known from the Cretaceous through Eocene of some of the southern continents ( Gondwana ) — they thought the Cretaceous Argentinian Ferugliotherium to be the most similar .
= = Discovery and context = =
LACM 149371 was discovered in 1998 at the Santa Rosa fossil site in the Ucayali Region of Peru . The Santa Rosa fauna also contains fossils of various unique species of marsupials and hystricognath rodents , a possible bat , and some notoungulates . The fauna was published in a volume of the Science Series of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in 2004 , which included a paper by Francisco Goin and colleagues that described and discussed LACM 149371 .
The age of the Santa Rosa fauna remains highly uncertain , as the outcrop where the fossils were found cannot easily be placed in a known stratigraphical unit , and the fossils are so distinct from other known fossil faunas that biostratigraphy cannot provide a precise estimate . In a summary of the 2004 volume , Kenneth Campbell tentatively referred Santa Rosa to the Mustersan South American Land Mammal Age ( SALMA ) , which he placed near the Eocene – Oligocene boundary , around 35 million years ago . However , Mario Vucetich and colleagues suggested in 2010 that the Santa Rosa fauna may be substantially later — perhaps as young as the Deseadan SALMA ( late Oligocene , around 25 million years ago ) . According to Campbell , the Santa Rosa mammals likely lived in a savanna habitat that contained rivers .
= = Description = =
LACM 149371 is a poorly preserved molar @-@ like tooth that largely lacks a recognizable enamel surface and shows many small grooves and holes on the crown surface . This suggests the tooth may have been chemically degraded , perhaps by acidic water or because it passed through the digestive tract of a predator . The roots are broken off , but remaining pulp cavities suggest the presence of four main roots , which are partially joined into two pairs . A smaller pulp cavity between those roots suggests the likely presence of a fifth root and a slight depression in the tooth may represent another root .
The crown of the tooth is triangular and contains six cusps , connected by low crests , that surround two prominent , low @-@ lying fossae ( basins ) and a third , smaller fossa . Because of the complexity of the crown , Goin and colleagues interpreted it as a molar ; because of the number of roots , the arrangement of the cusps , and the shape of the tooth , as an upper molar ; and because it tapers towards the end , as a last molar . One side , the longest , is flat and low compared to the others , suggesting it is the labial ( outer ) face . This would imply that the tooth is from the left jaw . Under this interpretation , the length of the tooth is 2 @.@ 65 mm , width is 2 @.@ 20 mm , height at the labial side is 1 @.@ 05 mm , and height at the lingual side is 1 @.@ 30 mm .
For convenience , Goin and colleagues designated the six cusps as A through F : A on the front labial corner of the tooth ; B on the labial face ; C on the back corner ; D on the lingual ( inner ) face ; E on the front lingual corner ; and F on the front face . The large front fossa is located between cusps A , B , D , E , and F ; the smaller intermediate fossa is between cusps B and D ; and the much smaller back fossa is just in front of cusp C. All three are nearly round . Cusp A , the largest cusp , is triangular in shape and is separated from the smaller , rounded B by a deep valley ; a low crest connects the two cusps further lingually , separating the valley from the front fossa . At its back , B connects to a long crest that reaches the back fossa and behind it the small cusp C , which has a groove on its labial side . A valley separates it from cusp D. D itself is crest @-@ shaped and forms the lingual wall of the intermediate fossa ; it is described as " very odd " , and may in fact consist of two fused , triangular cusps . A crest issuing from D separates the back from the intermediate fossa , and another , larger crest separates the front from the back fossa and nearly reaches cusp B. Cusp E is triangular and separated from cusps F and D by valleys , which are bordered internally by crests connecting the cusps . F is rounded . The microstructure of the tooth enamel is not clearly recognizable , evidently because the tooth is degraded , though structures resembling enamel prisms ( bundles of hydroxyapatite crystalls ) and Hunter @-@ Schreger bands are recognizable .
= = Identity = =
Because of the complexity of the crown , Goin and colleagues identified the tooth as a mammal ; although some non @-@ mammalian groups , like crocodylians , may have complex teeth , none approach the level of complexity seen in LACM 149371 . They could find no resemblance to australosphenidans including monotremes , metatherians including marsupials , xenarthrans , and some related groups . They did see some general resemblances to the upper premolars of the early South American ungulates , but the cusp arrangement is different from that of any ungulate . There are also some resemblances to the early rodents Ivanantonia from Asia and Nonomys from North America , but Ivanantonia has a central groove and lacks fossae , and Nonomys has a prominent cingulum ( shelf ) at the edges of the tooth and also lacks the fossae of LACM 149371 .
The tooth resembles multituberculates — a large group of extinct mammals with many @-@ cusped teeth — in the shapes of the valleys and crests , but multituberculates lack fossae and usually have quadrangular teeth with two longitudinal rows of cusps separated by a central valley . In the same features , LACM 149371 resembles gondwanatheres , a small and enigmatic group of mammals from the Cretaceous through Eocene of the southern ( Gondwanan ) continents that may be related to multituberculates . In particular , Ferugliotherium from the late Cretaceous of Argentina has similarly formed cusps and also has crests that connect the cusps to the center of the tooth . However , the upper molars are unknown , and the low @-@ crowned teeth of Ferugliotherium lack deep fossae . Members of the higher @-@ crowned gondwanathere family Sudamericidae do have fossae . Goin and colleagues conclude that LACM 149371 most likely represents a member of the gondwanathere family Ferugliotheriidae ; if so , it would be among the youngest known gondwanatheres .
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= Disappearance of Natalee Holloway =
Natalee Ann Holloway ( born October 21 , 1986 ) was an American teenager who disappeared on May 30 , 2005 , while on a high school graduation trip to Aruba , a Dutch island in the Caribbean . Holloway lived in Mountain Brook , Alabama , at the time of her disappearance , and graduated from Mountain Brook High School on May 24 , 2005 , shortly before the trip . Her disappearance caused a media sensation in the United States and remains unsolved .
Holloway was scheduled to fly home on May 30 , but failed to appear for her flight . She was last seen by her classmates outside Carlos 'n Charlie 's , a chain restaurant and nightclub in Oranjestad , in a car with locals Joran van der Sloot and brothers Deepak and Satish Kalpoe . When questioned , the three men said they dropped Holloway off at her hotel and denied knowing what became of her . Upon further investigation by authorities , Van der Sloot was arrested twice on suspicion of involvement in her disappearance and the Kalpoes were each arrested three times . Due to lack of evidence the three men were released without charge each time .
With the help of hundreds of volunteers , Aruban investigators conducted an extensive search for Holloway . Special Agents from the FBI , fifty Dutch soldiers and three specially equipped Dutch Air Force F @-@ 16 aircraft participated in the search . In addition to the ground search , divers searched the ocean floor for Holloway 's body . It was never found . On December 18 , 2007 , Aruban prosecutors announced that the case would be closed without any charges made against the former suspects . The Aruban prosecutor 's office reopened the case on February 1 , 2008 , after receiving video footage of Joran van der Sloot , under the influence of marijuana , saying that Holloway died on the morning of May 30 , 2005 , and that a friend had disposed of her body . Van der Sloot later denied that what he said was true , and in an interview with Greta Van Susteren ( the contents of which he later retracted ) said that he sold Holloway into slavery .
Holloway 's parents criticized Aruban police for a lack of rigor in the investigation and questioning of the three men last seen with her . The family also called for a boycott of Aruba , which gained Alabama Governor Bob Riley 's support but failed to gain widespread backing . On January 12 , 2012 , an Alabama judge declared Holloway legally dead .
= = Background = =
Natalee Ann Holloway was the first of two children born to David Edward ( " Dave " ) and Elizabeth Ann Reynolds ( " Beth " ) Holloway in Clinton , Mississippi . Her parents divorced in 1993 , and she and her younger brother Matthew were raised by their mother . In 2000 , Elizabeth Holloway married George " Jug " Twitty , a prominent Alabama businessman , and Natalee moved to Mountain Brook , Alabama . Natalee Holloway graduated with honors from Mountain Brook High School . She was a member of the National Honor Society , her school dance squad , and was a participant in other extracurricular activities . Holloway was to attend the University of Alabama on a full scholarship , where she planned to pursue a pre @-@ med track . At the time of the disappearance , Dave Holloway was an insurance agent for State Farm Insurance in Meridian , Mississippi , while Beth Twitty was employed by the Mountain Brook School System .
= = Disappearance = =
On Thursday , May 26 , 2005 , Holloway and 124 fellow graduates of Mountain Brook High School , located in a wealthy suburb of Birmingham , Alabama , arrived in Aruba for a five @-@ day , unofficial graduation trip . The graduates were accompanied by seven chaperones . According to teacher and chaperone Bob Plummer , the chaperones met with the students each day to ensure nothing was wrong . Jodi Bearman , who organized the trip , stated , " the chaperones were not supposed to keep up with their every move " . Police Commissioner Gerold Dompig , who headed the investigation from mid @-@ 2005 until 2006 , described the behavior of the Mountain Brook students , stating there was " wild partying , a lot of drinking , lots of room switching every night . We know the Holiday Inn told them they weren 't welcome next year . Natalee , we know , she drank all day every day . We have statements she started every morning with cocktails — so much drinking that Natalee didn 't show up for breakfast two mornings " . Two of Holloway 's classmates , Liz Cain and Claire Fierman , " agreed that the drinking was kind of excessive " .
Holloway was last seen by her classmates leaving the Aruban bar and night club Carlos 'n Charlie 's around 1 : 30 a.m. on Monday , May 30 . Holloway left with 17 @-@ year @-@ old Joran van der Sloot , a Dutch honors student living in Aruba and attending the International School of Aruba , and his two Surinamese friends , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Deepak Kalpoe and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Satish Kalpoe , in Deepak Kalpoe 's car . Holloway , who had been scheduled to fly home later on May 30 , did not appear for her return flight , and her packed luggage and passport were found in her Holiday Inn room . Aruban authorities initiated searches for Holloway throughout the island and surrounding waters but did not find her .
= = Investigation = =
= = = Early investigation = = =
On May 30 , 2005 , immediately following Holloway 's missed flight , Jug and Beth Twitty traveled to Aruba with friends by private jet . Within four hours of landing in Aruba , the Twittys presented the Aruban police with the name and address of Van der Sloot as the person with whom Holloway left the nightclub . Beth Twitty has stated that Van der Sloot 's full name was given to her by the night manager at the Holiday Inn , who supposedly recognized him on a videotape . The Twittys and their friends , with two Aruban policemen , went to the Van der Sloot home looking for Holloway . Van der Sloot initially denied knowing Holloway 's name , but he then told the following story , with which Deepak Kalpoe , who was present , agreed : Van der Sloot related that they drove Holloway to the California Lighthouse area of Arashi Beach because Holloway wanted to see sharks , before dropping Holloway off at her hotel around 2 : 00 a.m. According to Van der Sloot , Holloway fell down as she exited the car but refused Van der Sloot 's help . He stated that she was then approached by a dark man in a black shirt similar to those worn by security guards as the young men drove away .
Searches for Holloway began immediately afterwards . Hundreds of volunteers from Aruba and the United States joined the search . During the first days of the search , the Aruban government gave thousands of civil servants the day off to participate in the search . Fifty Dutch marines conducted an extensive search of the shoreline . Aruban banks raised $ 20 @,@ 000 and provided other support to aid volunteer search teams . Beth Twitty was provided with housing , initially at the Holiday Inn where she stayed in her daughter 's former room . She subsequently stayed at the nearby Wyndham Hotel 's presidential suite .
Reports indicate Holloway did not appear on any security camera footage from her hotel 's lobby during the course of the night ; however , Beth Twitty has made varying statements as to whether the cameras were actually working that night . According to an April 19 , 2006 , statement made by her , the security cameras at the Holiday Inn were not working the night Holloway vanished . Twitty has made other statements indicating that they were working , and has stated so in her book . In any event , according to Police Commissioner Jan van der Straten , initial head of the investigation until his 2005 retirement , Holloway did not have to go through the lobby to return to her room .
The search for physical evidence was extensive and , on occasion , subject to false leads ; for example , a possible blood sample taken from Deepak Kalpoe 's car was tested but determined not to be blood .
There was heavy involvement by American law enforcement from the early days of the investigation . United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice stated to reporters that the United States was in constant contact with Aruban authorities . Another State Department official indicated , " Substantial resources are being applied to this as they [ Aruba officials ] continue to ask for more " .
= = = 2005 arrests = = =
On June 5 , Aruban police detained Nick John and Abraham Jones , former security guards from the nearby Allegro Hotel which was then closed for renovation , on suspicion of murder and kidnapping . The initial reason for their arrests has never been officially disclosed ; however , according to news accounts , the Van der Sloot and Kalpoe statements may have been a factor in the arrests . Reports also indicate that the two former guards were known for cruising hotels to pick up women , and at least one of them had a prior incident with law enforcement . John and Jones were released on June 13 without being charged .
On June 9 , 2005 , Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were arrested on suspicion of kidnapping and murdering Holloway . Aruban law allows for arrest on serious suspicion from investigators ; to continue holding the suspect in custody , an increasing evidential burden must be met at periodic reviews . According to Dompig , the focus was on these three suspects from the " get @-@ go " . Aruba police corps chief Gerald Dompig stated that surveillance of the three began three days after Holloway was reported missing , and included surveillance , telephone wire taps , and even monitoring of their e @-@ mail . Dompig indicated pressure from Holloway 's family caused them to stop their surveillance prematurely and to detain the three suspects .
As the investigation continued , on June 11 , David Cruz , spokesman for the Aruban Minister of Justice , indicated that Natalee Holloway was dead and authorities knew the location of her body . Cruz later retracted the statement , saying he was a victim of a " misinformation campaign " . That evening , Dompig alleged to the Associated Press that one of the detained young men admitted " something bad happened " to Holloway after the suspects took her to the beach , and that the suspect was leading police to the scene . The next morning prosecution spokeswoman Vivian van der Biezen refused to confirm or deny the allegation , simply stating that the investigation was at a " very crucial , very important moment " .
On Friday , June 17 , a fourth person , later identified as disc jockey Steve Gregory Croes , was also arrested . Van der Straten told the media that " Croes was detained based on information from one of the other three detainees " . On June 22 Aruban police detained Paulus van der Sloot , Joran van der Sloot 's father , for questioning ; Paulus van der Sloot was arrested that same day . Both Paulus van der Sloot and Croes were ordered to be released on June 26 .
During this period the remaining detained suspects ' stories changed . All three suspects indicated that Van der Sloot and Holloway were dropped off at the Marriott Hotel beach near the fishermen 's huts . Van der Sloot stated that he did not harm Holloway , but left her on the beach . According to Satish Kalpoe 's attorney , David Kock , Van der Sloot called Deepak Kalpoe to tell the latter that he was walking home , and sent him a text message forty minutes later .
At some time during the interrogation Van der Sloot detailed a third account , that he was dropped off at home and Holloway was driven off by the Kalpoe brothers . Dompig discounted the story , stating :
This latest story [ came ] when [ Van der Sloot ] saw the other guys , the Kalpoes , were kind of finger @-@ pointing in his direction , and he wanted to screw them also , by saying he was dropped off . But that story doesn 't check out at all . He just wanted to screw Deepak . They had great arguments about this in front of the judge . Because their stories didn 't match . This girl , she was from Alabama , she 's not going to stay in the car with two black kids . We believe the second story , that they were dropped off by the Marriott .
On Monday , July 4 , following hearings before a judge , Deepak and Satish Kalpoe were released , but Joran van der Sloot was detained for an additional sixty days .
= = = Continued search , suspects rearrested and released again = = =
On July 4 , the Royal Netherlands Air Force deployed three F @-@ 16 aircraft equipped with infrared sensors to aid in the search , without initial result . In March 2006 it was reported that satellite photos were being compared with photographs taken more recently ( presumably from the F @-@ 16s ) in an attempt to find unexpected shifts of ground that might be Holloway 's grave .
A small pond near the Aruba Racquet Club close to the Marriott Hotel beach was partly drained between July 27 and 30 , 2005 , after an individual ( " the gardener " ) came forward . According to Jug Twitty , the gardener claimed to have seen Joran van der Sloot attempting to hide his face , driving into the Racquet Club with the two Kalpoes on the morning of May 30 between 2 : 30 a.m. and 3 : 00 a.m. Nancy Grace described the gardener as " the man whose testimony cracks the case wide open " . Another person , " the jogger " , claimed to have seen men burying a blonde @-@ haired woman in a landfill during the afternoon of May 30 . The police had searched the landfill in the days following Holloway 's disappearance . The landfill was searched three times after the jogger 's statements , including a search by the FBI with cadaver dogs . The searches were fruitless .
On July 25 , 2005 , the reward for Holloway 's safe return was increased from $ 200 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , with a $ 100 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the location of her remains . Following Holloway 's disappearance , a reward of $ 50 @,@ 000 had been established for her return . In August 2005 , the reward for information as to her remains was increased from $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 250 @,@ 000 .
The FBI announced that Aruban authorities had provided it with documents , suspect interviews , and other evidence . A group from the Aruban police and prosecutor 's office traveled to the FBI central laboratory at Quantico , Virginia , to consult with American investigators . After a piece of duct tape was found with strands of blond hair attached to it , samples were tested both at a Dutch lab and at Quantico . The FBI announced that the hair was not Holloway 's .
The Kalpoe brothers were rearrested on August 26 along with another new suspect . According to his lawyer , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Freddy Arambatzis was suspected of taking photographs of and having physical contact with an underage girl , an incident which allegedly occurred before the Holloway disappearance and in which Arambatzis 's friends Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were supposedly involved . Van der Sloot 's mother , Anita van der Sloot , stated , " It 's a desperate attempt to get the boys to talk . But there is nothing to talk about " . While no public explanation was then made for the Kalpoe rearrests , Dompig later said that it was an unsuccessful attempt to pressure the Kalpoe brothers into confessing .
On September 3 , 2005 , all four of the detained suspects were released by a judge despite the attempts of the prosecution to keep them in custody , on the condition that they remain available to police . On September 14 , all restrictions on them were removed by the Combined Appeals Court of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba .
In the months following his release , Joran van der Sloot gave several interviews , expanding upon his version of events , most notably a lengthy interview for Fox News , which aired over three nights in March 2006 . During the interview , Van der Sloot indicated that Holloway wanted to have sex with him , but he did not because he did not have a condom . Van der Sloot stated that Holloway wanted them to stay on the beach , but that he had to go to school in the morning . According to Van der Sloot , he was picked up by Satish Kalpoe at about 3 : 00 am , leaving Holloway sitting on the beach . In August 2005 , David Kock , Satish Kalpoe 's attorney , stated that his client had gone to sleep , and had not returned to drive Van der Sloot home . Van der Sloot stated he was somewhat ashamed to have left a young woman alone on the beach , albeit by her own request , and related that he was not truthful at first because he was convinced Holloway would soon turn up .
The FBI and Aruban authorities interviewed ( or in some cases , re @-@ interviewed ) several of Holloway 's fellow graduates in the United States in January 2006 . On January 17 , 2006 , Aruban police searched sand dunes on the northwest coast of Aruba in search of Holloway 's body , as well as areas close by the Marriott beach . Additional searches took place in March and April 2006 , without result .
Shortly before leaving the case , Dompig gave an interview to CBS correspondent Troy Roberts , which was broadcast on March 25 , 2006 . In that interview , Dompig stated that he believes Holloway probably died from self @-@ consumed alcohol and / or drug poisoning , was not murdered , and that someone later hid her body . Dompig also stated that Aruba had spent about $ 3 million on the investigation , about 40 % of the police operational budget . Dompig indicated that there is evidence that points to possession ( though not necessarily use ) of drugs by Holloway . Members of her family have denied drug use by Holloway .
On April 11 , 2006 , Dave Holloway published his book recounting the search for his daughter , co @-@ authored with R. Stephanie Good and Larry Garrison , Aruba : The Tragic Untold Story of Natalee Holloway and Corruption in Paradise .
= = = 2006 arrest of new suspects , the Dutch take over the investigation = = =
On April 15 , 2006 , Geoffrey von Cromvoirt was arrested by Aruban authorities on suspicion of criminal offenses related to dealing in illegal narcotics that , according to the prosecutor , might have been related to the disappearance of Holloway . At his first court appearance , his detention was extended for eight days . However , Von Cromvoirt was released on April 25 , 2006 . In addition , another individual with initials " A.B. " was arrested on April 22 , 2006 , but was released the same day .
On May 17 , 2006 , another suspect , Guido Wever , the son of a former Aruban politician , was detained in the Netherlands on suspicion of assisting in the abducting , battering , and killing of Holloway . Wever was questioned for six days in Utrecht . While initially Aruban prosecutors sought his transfer to the island , he was instead released by agreement between the prosecutor and Wever 's attorney .
At Aruba 's request the Netherlands took over the investigation . A team of the Dutch National Police started work on the case in September 2006 following receipt of extensive case documentation in Rotterdam . On April 16 , 2007 , a combined Aruban – Dutch team began pursuing the investigation in Aruba .
= = = Book , search , and inspection = = =
A book by Joran van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic , De zaak Natalee Holloway ( The Case of Natalee Holloway ) was published , in Dutch , in April 2007 . In the book , Van der Sloot gives his perspective of the night Holloway disappeared and the media frenzy which followed . He admits , and apologizes for , his initial untruths , but maintains his innocence .
On April 27 , 2007 , a new search involving some twenty investigators was launched at the Van der Sloot family residence in Aruba . Dutch authorities searched the yard and surrounding area , using shovels and thin metal rods to penetrate the dirt . Prosecution spokeswoman Van der Biezen stated , " The investigation has never stopped and the Dutch authorities are completely reviewing the case for new indications " . A statement from the prosecutor 's office related , " The team has indications that justify a more thorough search " . Investigators did not comment on what prompted the new search , except that it was not related to Van der Sloot 's book . According to Paulus van der Sloot , " nothing suspicious " was found , and all that was seized were diary entries of him and his wife , and his personal computer — which was subsequently returned .
According to Jossy Mansur , managing editor of Aruba 's Diario newspaper , investigators were following up on statements made during early suspect interrogations regarding calls made and emails sent between the Kalpoe brothers and Joran van der Sloot . He also said investigators could be seen examining a laptop at the house .
On May 12 , 2007 , the Kalpoe family home was subject to an " inspection " . The two brothers were detained for about an hour upon objecting to the entry by police and Dutch investigators , but were released when the authorities left . According to Kock , the brothers objected to the search because officials did not show them an order justifying the intrusion . A statement from Van der Biezen did not mention what , if anything , officials were searching for , but indicated nothing was removed from the home . A subsequent statement from Het Openbaar Ministerie van Aruba ( the Aruban prosecutor 's office ) indicated that the purpose of the visit was to " get a better image of the place or circumstances where an offense may have been committed and to understand the chain of events leading to the offense " .
= = = 2007 rearrests and re @-@ releases = = =
With Aruban investigators citing what was described as newly discovered evidence , Joran van der Sloot and Satish and Deepak Kalpoe were rearrested November 21 , 2007 , on suspicion of involvement in " manslaughter and causing serious bodily harm that resulted in the death of Holloway " . Van der Sloot was detained by Dutch authorities in the Netherlands , while the Kalpoe brothers were detained in Aruba . Van der Sloot returned to Aruba and was incarcerated .
In November 2007 , Dave Holloway announced a new search for his daughter , probing the sea beyond the original 330 @-@ foot ( 100 m ) depths in which earlier searches had taken place . That search , involving a vessel called the Persistence , was abandoned due to lack of funds at the end of February 2008 with nothing of significance found .
On November 30 , 2007 , a judge ordered the release of Satish and Deepak Kalpoe , despite attempts by the prosecution to extend their detention . The two brothers were released on the following day . The prosecution appealed the Kalpoes ' release . That appeal was denied on December 5 , 2007 , with the court writing , " Notwithstanding expensive and lengthy investigations on her disappearance and on people who could be involved , the file against the suspect does not contain direct indications that Natalee passed away due to a violent crime . " Van der Sloot was released without charge on December 7 , 2007 , due to lack of evidence implicating him as well as a lack of evidence that Holloway died as the result of a violent crime . The prosecution indicated it would not appeal .
On December 18 , 2007 , prosecutor Hans Mos officially declared the case closed , and that no charges would be filed due to lack of evidence . The prosecution indicated a continuing interest in the Kalpoes and Joran van der Sloot ( though they ceased to be legally suspects ) , and alleged that one of the three , in a chat room message , had stated that Holloway was dead . This was hotly contested by Deepak Kalpoe 's attorney , who stated that the prosecution , in translating from Papiamento to Dutch , had misconstrued a reference to a teacher who had drowned as one to Holloway . Attorney Ronald Wix also stated , " Unless ( Mos ) finds a body in the bathroom of one of these kids , there 's no way in hell they can arrest them anymore . "
= = = Secret cameras , statements , and stories = = =
On January 31 , 2008 , Dutch crime reporter Peter R. de Vries claimed that he had solved the Holloway case . De Vries stated that he would tell all on a special television program on Dutch TV on February 3 . Beth Twitty 's attorney , John Q. Kelly , told ABC News that he had little faith that the supposed evidence would prove pivotal to the case of her daughter and suggested that it would be quickly debunked .
On February 1 , the Dutch media reported that Joran van der Sloot made a confession regarding the disappearance of Natalee Holloway . Later that day , Van der Sloot stated that he was telling the individual what he wanted to hear , and that he had no role in her disappearance . That same day , the Aruba prosecutor 's office announced the reopening of the case .
The broadcast aired February 3 , 2008 . The broadcast included excerpts from footage recorded from hidden cameras and microphones in the vehicle of Patrick van der Eem , a Dutch businessman and ex @-@ convict , who gained Van der Sloot 's confidence . Van der Sloot was seen smoking marijuana and stating that he was with Holloway when she began convulsively shaking , then became unresponsive . Van der Sloot stated that he attempted to revive her , without success . He said that he called a friend , who told Van der Sloot to go home and who disposed of the body . An individual reputed to be this friend , identified in the broadcast as Daury , has denied Van der Sloot 's account , indicating that he was then in Rotterdam at school .
The Aruban prosecutor 's office attempted to obtain an arrest warrant for Van der Sloot based on the tapes ; however , a judge denied the request . The prosecutor appealed the denial , but the appeal failed on February 14 , 2008 . The appeals court held that the statements on the tape were inconsistent with evidence in the case and were insufficient to hold Van der Sloot .
On February 8 , 2008 , Van der Sloot met with Aruban investigators in the Netherlands . Van der Sloot denied that what he said on the tape was true , stating that he was under the influence of marijuana at the time . Van der Sloot indicated that he still maintains that he left Holloway behind on the beach .
In March 2008 , news reports indicated that the tables had been turned on Van der Eem , who himself was secretly taped after giving an interview for Aruban TV . Van der Eem , under the impression that cameras had been turned off , kept talking . Van der Eem disclosed that he had been a friend of Van der Sloot for years ( contradicting his statement on the De Vries show that he had met Van der Sloot in 2007 ) , that he expects to become a millionaire through his involvement in the Holloway case , and that he knew the person who supposedly disposed of Holloway 's body — and that Van der Sloot had asked him for two thousand euros to buy the man 's silence . According to Dutch news service ANP , Van der Eem , who had already signed a book deal , " was furious " after learning of the taping , and " threatened " the interviewer , who sought legal advice . Van der Eem 's book Overboord ( Overboard ) , co @-@ written with E.E. Byars , was released ( in Dutch ) on June 25 , 2008 . Van der Eem was arrested on December 13 , 2008 in the Netherlands for allegedly hitting his girlfriend with a crowbar and engaging in risky driving behavior while fleeing police .
The De Vries broadcast was discussed in a seminar by Dutch legal psychologist Willem Albert Wagenaar , who indicated that the statements did not constitute a confession . Wagenaar criticized De Vries for broadcasting the material , stating that the broadcast made it harder to obtain a conviction , and had De Vries turned over the material to the authorities without broadcasting it , they would have held " all the trumps " in questioning Van der Sloot . Wagenaar opined that not only was the case not solved , it was not even clear that a crime had been committed . Professor Crisje Brants , in the same seminar , also criticized De Vries 's methods .
On November 24 , 2008 , Fox News aired an interview with Van der Sloot in which he alleged that he sold Holloway into sexual slavery , receiving money both when Holloway was taken , and later on to keep quiet . Van der Sloot also alleged that his father paid off two police officers who had learned that Holloway was taken to Venezuela . Van der Sloot later retracted the statements made in the interview . The show also aired part of an audio recording provided by Van der Sloot , which he alleged is a phone conversation between him and his father , in which the father displays knowledge of his son 's purported involvement in human trafficking . According to Mos , this voice heard on the recording is not that of Paulus van der Sloot — the Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf reports that the ' father 's ' voice is almost certainly that of Joran van der Sloot himself , trying to speak in a lower tone . Paulus van der Sloot died of a heart attack on February 10 , 2010 .
On March 20 , 2009 , Dave Holloway flew a search dog to Aruba to search a small reservoir in northern Aruba , previously identified by a supposed witness as a possible location of Natalee 's remains . Aruban authorities indicated that they had no new information in the case , but that Holloway had been given permission to conduct the search .
On February 23 , 2010 , it was reported that Joran van der Sloot had stated in an interview ( first offered to RTL Group in 2009 ) that he had disposed of Holloway 's body in a marsh on Aruba . New chief prosecutor Peter Blanken indicated that authorities had investigated the latest story , and had dismissed it . Blanken stated that " The locations , names , and times he gave just did not make sense " .
Underwater searches were conducted by Aruban authorities in March 2010 after an American couple reported that while snorkeling they had photographed what they thought might be human skeletal remains , possibly those of Holloway . Aruban authorities sent divers to investigate , but no remains were recovered .
= = = Van der Sloot 's extortion of money from Holloway 's family = = =
On March 29 , 2010 , Van der Sloot contacted John Q. Kelly , legal representative of Beth Twitty , with an offer to reveal the location of Holloway 's body and the circumstances surrounding her death for an advance of US $ 25 @,@ 000 against a total of $ 250 @,@ 000 . After Kelly notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation , they arranged to proceed with the transaction . On May 10 , Van der Sloot had $ 15 @,@ 000 wire transferred to his account in the Netherlands , following the receipt of $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash that was videotaped by undercover investigators in Aruba . Authorities state that the information that he provided in return was false because the house in which he said Holloway 's body was located had not yet been built at the time of her disappearance . On June 3 , Van der Sloot was charged in the U.S. District Court of Northern Alabama with extortion and wire fraud . U.S. Attorney Joyce White Vance obtained an arrest warrant and transmitted it to Interpol . Van der Sloot was indicted on the charges on June 30 .
On June 4 , at the request of the U.S. Justice Department , authorities raided and confiscated items from two homes in the Netherlands , one of them belonging to reporter Jaap Amesz who had previously interviewed Van der Sloot and claimed knowledge of criminal activities by Van der Sloot . Aruban investigators used information gathered from the extortion case to launch a new search at a beach , but no new evidence was found . Dave Holloway returned to Aruba on June 14 to pursue possible new clues .
= = = Van der Sloot kills in Peru = = =
On May 30 , 2010 — five years to the day after Holloway 's disappearance — Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old business student , was reported missing in Lima , Peru . She was found dead three days later in a hotel room registered in Van der Sloot 's name . Van der Sloot was arrested on June 3 in Chile and was extradited to Peru the next day . On June 7 , 2010 , Peruvian authorities said that Van der Sloot confessed to killing Flores Ramírez after he lost his temper because she accessed his laptop without permission and found information linking him to the disappearance of Holloway . Police chief Cesar Guardia related that Van der Sloot told Peruvian police that he knows where Holloway 's body is and offered to help Aruban authorities find it . However , Guardia stated that the interrogation was limited to their case in Peru , and that questions about Holloway 's disappearance were avoided . On June 11 , Van der Sloot was charged in Lima Superior Court with first @-@ degree murder and robbery . On June 15 , Aruban and Peruvian authorities announced an agreement to cooperate and allow investigators from Aruba to interview Van der Sloot at Miguel Castro Castro prison in Peru . In a September 2010 interview from the prison , Van der Sloot reportedly admitted to the extortion plot , stating : " I wanted to get back at Natalee 's family — her parents have been making my life tough for five years . " Van der Sloot pleaded guilty to murdering Ramirez on January 11 , 2012 , and was sentenced to 28 years in prison .
On November 12 , 2010 , tourists found a jawbone on an Aruban beach near the Phoenix Hotel and Bubali Swamp . Aruban prosecutor Peter Blanken stated that a preliminary examination by a forensic expert on the island determined that the bone was from a young woman . A part of the bone was sent to The Hague for testing by the Netherlands Forensic Institute . On November 23 , 2010 , Aruba Solicitor @-@ General Taco Stein announced that , based on dental records , the jawbone was not from Holloway , and it was not possible to determine whether it had come from a man or woman .
= = = Holloway declared dead = = =
In June 2011 , Dave Holloway filed a petition with the Alabama courts seeking to have his daughter declared legally dead . The papers were served on his former wife , who announced her intention to oppose the petition . A hearing was held on September 23 , 2011 , during which Probate Judge Alan King ruled Dave Holloway had met the requirements for a legal presumption of death . On January 12 , 2012 , a second hearing was held , after which Judge King signed the order declaring Natalee Holloway to be dead .
= = Beth Twitty 's involvement = =
Beth Twitty has alleged in televised interviews that Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers know more than they have told , and that at least one of them sexually assaulted or raped her daughter . Twitty stated that she received copies of police statements stating that Joran van der Sloot admitted having sex with Holloway at his home and described intimate details of her . She has never released copies of the alleged statement , though she characterizes them as admissions of " sexual assault " and Vinda de Sousa , former Holloway – Twitty family Aruban attorney , has indicated that no such admission was made . In addition , Dompig denied that any such statement was made , stating that Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers consistently denied having sex with Holloway .
On June 12 , 2005 , three days after the arrest of Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers , and in response to a nationally televised address by Aruba Prime Minister Nelson Oduber reaffirming Aruba 's commitment to solving the case , Twitty stated , " I 'm not getting any answers " . She added , " I don 't feel any further along than the day I got here " . Twitty stated that her complaints were not addressed specifically at the Aruban government , but arose from frustration at not knowing what happened to her daughter .
On July 5 , 2005 , following the initial release of the Kalpoes , Twitty alleged , " Two suspects were released yesterday who were involved in a violent crime against my daughter " , and referred to the Kalpoes as " criminals " . A demonstration involving about two hundred Arubans took place that evening outside the courthouse in Oranjestad in anger over Twitty 's remarks , with signs reading " Innocent until proven guilty " and " Respect our Dutch laws or go home " . On July 8 , 2005 , and after Satish Kalpoe 's attorney threatened legal action over Twitty 's allegations , which he described as " prejudicial , inflammatory , libelous , and totally outrageous " , Twitty read a statement that said her remarks were fueled by " despair and frustration " and that she " apologize [ d ] to the Aruban people and to the Aruban authorities if I or my family offended you in any way " .
Twitty was criticized for her focus on Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers , to the exclusion of any other theory as to what happened to Holloway . According to the lawsuit filed by the Kalpoe brothers , she has ( on various television programs ) repeatedly accused them , and Joran van der Sloot , of " sexual assault " and " gang rape " of her daughter .
Twitty was also criticized for making what have been deemed to be inconsistent and contradictory statements ( for example , as to whether there were operating security cameras at the Holiday Inn ) . According to Julia Renfro , U.S.-born editor of the Aruban tourist @-@ oriented newspaper , Aruba Today , who befriended Twitty in the early days of the investigation , Twitty pandered to tabloid television and her " behavior was odd from the get @-@ go " . Renfro noted that " Twitty immediately concluded that her daughter had been kidnapped and made no effort to check hospitals or police " , adding that within a couple of days , after fixing responsibility on Joran van der Sloot , Twitty " was telling TV interviewers that she knew her daughter had been gang @-@ raped and murdered " .
Her book Loving Natalee : A Mother 's Testament of Hope and Faith , was published on October 2 , 2007 under the name " Beth Holloway , " which she resumed using following her December 2006 divorce from Jug Twitty .
What we want is , we want justice . And you know — and we have to recognize the fact that , you know , this crime has been committed on the island of Aruba , and we know the perpetrators . We know it 's these suspects , Deepak and Satish Kalpoe and Joran Van Der Sloot . And you know , we just have to , though , keep going , Nancy , because the only way we will get justice for Natalee is if we do keep going . I mean , if we give up , absolutely nothing will happen . Nothing .
Following the airing of the De Vries program , Beth Holloway , adhering to the position that the tapes represent the way events transpired , told the New York Post that she believes her daughter might still be alive if Van der Sloot had called for help . She contends that Van der Sloot dumped Holloway 's body , possibly alive , into the Caribbean . Holloway also alleges that the individual Joran van der Sloot supposedly called that evening was his father , Paulus , who , according to Holloway , " orchestrated what to do next " . She , and Dave Holloway , alleged that Joran van der Sloot was receiving " special legal favors " . After the court decision not to rearrest Van der Sloot was affirmed , Beth Holloway stated , " I think that what I do take comfort in , his life is a living hell " , later adding , " I 'd be good with a Midnight Express prison anywhere for Joran . "
In response to her daughter 's disappearance , Beth Holloway founded the International Safe Travels Foundation , a non @-@ profit organization designed " to inform and educate the public to help them travel more safely as they travel internationally " . She has marketed herself as a for @-@ fee speaker through the Nashville Speakers Bureau . In April 2010 , Holloway announced plans for a service called " Mayday 360 " , to intervene immediately when young people get into trouble overseas . She stated that if necessary , former federal agents with specific knowledge of a country could be dispatched there . In May 2010 , she announced that the Natalee Holloway Resource Center would open at the National Museum of Crime & Punishment . Located in Washington , D.C. , the center opened on June 8 to aid families of missing persons .
Though Beth Holloway made television appearances as new developments arose in the case , she is under FBI direction not to discuss her daughter 's case or that of Stephany Flores Ramírez .
= = Criticism of the investigation = =
The Twittys and their supporters criticized a perceived lack of progress by Aruban police . The Twittys ' own actions in Aruba were also criticized , and the Twittys were accused of actively stifling any evidence that might impugn Holloway 's character by asking her fellow students to remain silent about the case and using their access to the media to push their own version of events . The Twittys denied this .
While initially the Twittys discouraged a travel boycott of Aruba , this changed by September 2005 . Beth Twitty urged that persons not travel to Aruba and other Dutch territories because of what she stated were tourist safety issues . Alabama Governor Bob Riley , joined by the Twittys , urged Alabamians and others to boycott Aruba on November 8 , 2005 , in a news conference . Riley also wrote to other United States governors seeking their support — the governors of Georgia and Arkansas eventually joined in the call for boycott . The Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , city council voted to ask the governor of Pennsylvania to call for a boycott . The governor did not join in the call for a boycott , and no federal support was given .
The boycott was supported by some of Alabama 's Congressional delegation , including both senators and Congressman Spencer Bachus ( R @-@ AL ) , who represents Mountain Brook . Senator Richard Shelby ( R @-@ AL ) voiced his support for the boycott in a letter to the American Society of Travel Agents . Shelby stated , " For the safety , security and wellbeing of our citizens , I do not believe that we can trust that we will be protected while in Aruba " . Prime Minister Oduber stated that Aruban investigators have done their best to solve the mystery , and responded to the call for boycott , " This is a preposterous and irresponsible act . We are not guerillas . We are not terrorists . We don 't pose a threat to the United States , nor to Alabama " .
Members of the Aruba Hotel and Tourism Association , the Aruba Tourism Authority , the Aruba Hospitality and Security Foundation , the Aruban Chamber of Commerce and government figures , including Public Relations Representative Ruben Trapenberg , formed an " Aruba Strategic Communications Task Force " to respond collectively to what they perceived to be unfounded and / or negative portrayals of the island . The group issued press releases and sent representatives to appear in news media . They joined the Aruban government in opposing the calls for a boycott of the island .
= = = Skeeters tape and Dr. Phil ; lawsuits = = =
On September 15 , 2005 , the Dr. Phil television show showed parts of a hidden @-@ camera interview with Deepak Kalpoe in which Kalpoe seems to answer " She did . You 'd be surprised how easy it was " to a suggestion that Holloway had sex with all three men . The taping had been instigated by Jamie Skeeters , a private investigator . When the tape was broadcast , news reports indicated an expectation of a rearrest , which Dompig termed a " strong possibility " if the tapes were legitimate .
Aruban police subsequently provided a fuller version of the relevant part of the tape in which Kalpoe 's response differed from the Dr. Phil version , apparently due to editing that may have altered the meaning of what was said . An unofficial Aruban @-@ affiliated spokesperson and commentator on the case said videotape showed Kalpoe had shaken his head and said " No , she didn 't . " , thereby denying that Holloway had sex with him and the other two men . According to an MSNBC report , the crucial words are inaudible , and presenter Rita Cosby questioned if it could be substantiated that Kalpoe had ever made the statements attributed to him in the Dr. Phil version 's transcript of the secret recording .
In December 2006 , the Kalpoes filed a slander and libel suit against Dr. Phil and Skeeters ( who died in January 2007 ) in Los Angeles . Beth Twitty and Dave Holloway responded by filing a wrongful death lawsuit against the Kalpoes in the same venue . The wrongful death suit was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction on June 1 , 2007 ; the libel and slander case was initially set for trial on October 12 , 2011 but was later set for April 2015 . An earlier lawsuit had been filed in New York City by the parents against Paulus and Joran van der Sloot and served on them on a visit to New York . The case had been dismissed in August 2006 as filed in an inconvenient forum .
On November 10 , 2005 , Paulus van der Sloot won an unjust detention action against the Aruban government , clearing him as a suspect and allowing him to retain his government contract . The elder Van der Sloot then brought a second action , seeking monetary damages for himself and his family because of his false arrest . The action was initially successful , but the award of damages was reversed on appeal .
= = = Amigoe article = = =
The Amigoe reported on interviews with Renfro and Dompig in which they said that Aruban authorities had been systematically obstructed in their investigation by US officials . They also said that within a day of Holloway being declared missing , a medjet , unauthorized by Aruban authorities , had arrived on Aruba and had remained for several days for the purpose of covertly taking Holloway off the island without notifying local authorities . Renfro also said she and Beth Twitty received a phone call from an unknown woman on June 2 , 2005 asking for money in return for her giving Holloway 's location , and asserting that Holloway was unwilling to return to her mother . According to Renfo , she and another American went to a drug house where Holloway supposedly was , bringing money , but found that Jug Twitty had already been to the area , spreading " a lot of uproar and panic in the direct vicinity " , and nothing could be accomplished . The Twittys disputed Renfo 's accounts , Beth describing Renfro as " a witch " .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
On April 19 , 2009 , Lifetime Movie Network aired Natalee Holloway , a television film based on Beth Holloway 's book Loving Natalee . Starring Tracy Pollan as Beth Holloway @-@ Twitty , Grant Show as George " Jug " Twitty , Amy Gumenick as Natalee Holloway and Jacques Strydom as Joran van der Sloot , the film retells events leading up to the night of Holloway 's disappearance in 2005 , and the ensuing investigation in the aftermath . It was shot in South Africa .
The movie does not solve the case , but stages re @-@ creations of various scenarios , based on the testimony of key players and suspects , including Van der Sloot . The broadcast of the film attracted 3 @.@ 2 million viewers , garnering the highest television ratings in the network 's 11 @-@ year history . Although it set ratings records for Lifetime , the movie received mixed reviews from critics . Alec Harvey of The Birmingham News called the movie " sloppy and uneven , a forgettable look at the tragedy that consumed the nation 's attention for months " . However , Jake Meaney of PopMatters found the film to be surprisingly " calm and levelheaded " , and praised Tracy Pollan 's portrayal of Holloway 's mother . A follow up film , Justice for Natalee Holloway , aired in mid @-@ 2011 on the Lifetime Movie Network . This film picks up in 2010 , on the five year anniversary of Natalee 's disappearance . It continues to center on the investigation and what exactly happened to the Alabama teen .
= = Media coverage = =
U.S. television networks devoted much air time to the search for Holloway , the investigation of her disappearance , and rumors surrounding the case . Greta Van Susteren , host of Fox News Channel 's On the Record , and Nancy Grace on her eponymous Headline News program were among the most prominent television personalities to devote time to the incident . Van Susteren 's almost continuous coverage of the story caused On the Record to get its best ratings to date , while Grace 's show became the cornerstone of the new " Headline Prime " block on Headline News , which ran two episodes ( a live show and a repeat ) every night during prime @-@ time . As the case wore on , much of the attention was given to Beth Twitty and her statements . Aruban government spokesman Ruben Trapenberg stated , " The case is under a microscope , and the world is watching . "
The saturation of coverage triggered a backlash among some critics who argued that such extensive media attention validates the " missing white woman syndrome " theory , which argues that missing @-@ person cases involving white women and girls receive disproportionate attention in the media compared with cases involving white males or people of color . CNN ran a segment criticizing the amount of coverage their competitors gave to the story despite what they characterized as a lack of new items to report , with CNN news anchor Anderson Cooper calling the coverage " downright ridiculous " .
Early in the case , political commentator and columnist Arianna Huffington wrote , " If you were to get your news only from television , you 'd think the top issue facing our country right now is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Natalee who went missing in Aruba . Every time one of these stories comes up , like , say , Michael Jackson , when it 's finally over I think , what a relief , now we can get back to real news . But we never do . "
In March 2008 , El Diario commented , " But if doubts persist about cases involving missing Latinas , there are reasons why . These cases rarely receive the attention and resources we see given to other missing persons . The English @-@ language media , for example , appear to be focused on the stories of missing white women , such as with the disappearance of Natalee Holloway in Aruba . Cases of missing Latina and African American women often remain faceless , when they are even covered . "
CBS senior journalist Danna Walker stated , " There is criticism that it is only a story because she is a pretty blonde — and white — and it is criticism that journalists are taking to heart and looking elsewhere for other stories . But it is a big story because it is an American girl who went off on an adventure , and didn 't come back . It is a huge mystery , it is something people can identify with . "
Good Morning America anchor Chris Cuomo was unapologetic of his program 's extensive coverage of the Holloway case . " I don 't believe it 's my role to judge what people want to watch … If they say , ' I want to know what happened to this girl ' … I want to help them find out . "
Holloway 's family , however , instead criticized the lessening of coverage of the young woman 's disappearance . The saturation coverage of Holloway 's disappearance by the American media was largely eclipsed in late August 2005 by Hurricane Katrina . Beth Twitty and Dave Holloway alleged that Aruba took advantage of the extensive coverage of the hurricane to release the suspects . However , the deadline for judicial review of Joran van der Sloot 's detention was set long before the hurricane .
Lamented Dave Holloway in his book ,
Hurricane Katrina had left the door open for the boys to be sent on their way with little publicity and few restrictions because it took the world 's focus off of Natalee , but only for a brief time . The huge amount of publicity had waned and , during that time of quiet for us , Joran and the Kalpoe brothers were sent home ... All of the news shows that had followed our every move only a day before had now become fixated on the next big ratings grabber : the victims of Hurricane Katrina .
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= Finnish Civil War =
The Finnish Civil War ( 27 January – 15 May 1918 ) concerned leadership and control of Finland during the transition from a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire to an independent state . The conflict formed a part of the national , political , and social turmoil caused by World War I ( Eastern Front ) in Europe . The war was fought between the Reds , led by the Social Democratic Party and the Whites , conducted by the non @-@ socialist , conservative @-@ led Senate . The paramilitary Red Guards , composed of industrial and agrarian workers , controlled the towns and industrial centres of southern Finland . The paramilitary White Guards , composed of peasants and middle- and upper @-@ class factions , controlled rural central and northern Finland .
Finnish society had experienced - by 1917 , under the Russian regime - rapid population growth , industrialisation , preurbanization and the rise of a comprehensive labour movement . The country 's political and governmental systems were in an unstable phase of democratisation and modernization , while the people 's socioeconomic condition and national @-@ cultural status gradually improved . World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and a power struggle , militarization , and escalating crisis between the left @-@ leaning Finnish labor movement and the Finnish conservatives .
The Reds carried out an unsuccessful general offensive in February 1918 , supplied with weapons by Soviet Russia . A counteroffensive by the Whites began in March , reinforced by an Imperial German Army squad in April . The decisive military actions of the war were the Battles of Tampere and Viipuri , won by the Whites , and the Battles of Helsinki and Lahti , won by German troops , leading to overall victory of the Whites and the German forces . Both the Reds and Whites engaged in political terror . A large number of Reds perished due to malnutrition and disease in prison camps . Altogether , around 39 @,@ 000 people died in the war , including 36 @,@ 000 Finns — out of a population of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
In the aftermath , the Finns passed from Russian rule to the German Empire 's sphere of power . The conservative Finnish Senate attempted to establish a Finnish monarchy , but the plan was aborted by the defeat of Germany in World War I. Finland emerged as an independent , democratic republic . The war divided the nation for many years and remains one of the most emotionally charged events in Finnish history . The society was reunited through social compromises based on a long @-@ term culture of moderate politics and religion , the outcome of World War I , and the postwar economic recovery .
= = Background = =
The main factor behind the Finnish Civil War was World War I ; the Russian Empire collapsed under the pressures of the war , leading to the February and October Revolutions in 1917 . The breakdown caused a large power vacuum and subsequent power struggle in Eastern Europe . The Grand Duchy of Finland , a part of the Russian Empire since 1809 , became embroiled in the struggle for power . Geopolitically less important Finland was a peaceful sidefront until early 1918 , but the war between the German Empire and Russia had indirect effects on the Finns . Since the end of 19th century , the Grand Duchy had become a vital source of raw materials , industrial products , food and labor for the growing Imperial Russian capital Petrograd ( Saint Petersburg ) , and World War I emphasized the role . Strategically , the Finnish territory was the northern section of the Estonian – Finnish gateway and buffer zone to and from Petrograd via the Gulf of Finland , the Narva area and the Karelian Isthmus .
The German Empire saw Eastern Europe — mainly Russia — as a major source of vital products and raw materials , both during World War I and in the future . Her resources overstretched by the two @-@ front war , Germany pursued a policy of breaking up Russia from within by providing financial support to revolutionary groups such as the Bolsheviks , Socialist Revolutionary Party ( SRs ) and separatist factions such as the Finnish Activists leaning toward Germanism . Between 30 and 40 million marks were spent on this endeavor . Controlling the Finnish area would allow the Imperial German Army to penetrate Petrograd and the Kola Peninsula , an area rich in raw materials for the mining industry . Finland possessed large ore reserves and a well @-@ developed forest industry .
From 1809 to 1898 , a period called Pax Russica , the peripheral power of the Finns gradually increased , and the Russian @-@ Finnish relations were exceptionally peaceful compared with other parts of the Russian Empire . Russia 's defeat in the Crimean War in the 1850s led to attempts to speed up the modernization of the country . This caused more than 50 years of economic , industrial , cultural and educational progress in the Grand Duchy of Finland , including improvement in the status of the Finnish language . All this encouraged Finnish nationalism and cultural unity through the birth of the Fennoman movement , which bound the Finns to the domestic governmental system and led to the idea that the Finnish Grand Duchy was an increasingly autonomous state of the Russian Empire .
In 1899 , the Russian Empire initiated a policy of integration through the Russification of Finland . The strengthened , pan @-@ slavist central power tried to unite the " Russian Multinational Dynastic Union " , because the military and strategic situation of Russia became more difficult due of the rise of Germany and Japan . The Finns called the increased military and administrative control " the First Period of Oppression , 1899 – 1905 " , and plans for disengagement from Russia or sovereignty for Finland were drawn up for the first time . In the power struggle , the most radical political group opposing Russia , the Activist movement , included terrorist factions from the working class and the Swedish @-@ speaking intelligentsia . During World War I and the rise of Germanism , the Svecomans began their covert collaboration with Imperial Germany , and from 1915 to 1917 , a Finnish " Jäger " ( Jääkärit ) battalion consisting of 1900 volunteers were trained in Germany .
= = = Politics = = =
The major reasons for rising political tensions among the Finns were the autocratic rule of the Russian Czar and the undemocratic class system of the estates of the realm . The system originated in the Swedish Empire regime , preceding the Russian power , and divided the Finnish people into two groups , separated economically , socially and politically . Finland 's population grew rapidly in the 19th century ( from 860 @,@ 000 in 1810 to 3 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 in 1917 ) , and a class of industrial and agrarian workers and property @-@ less peasants emerged . The Industrial Revolution was rapid in Finland , though it started later than in the rest of Western Europe . Industrialization was financed by the state , and some of the social problems associated with the industrial process were diminished via control of the administration . Among urban workers , socioeconomic problems steepened during periods of industrial depression . The position of rural workers had worsened since the end of the 19th century , as farming became more efficient and market @-@ oriented and the gradually developing industry did not fully utilize the rapid population growth of the countryside .
The difference between Scandinavian @-@ Finnish ( Finno @-@ Ugric peoples ) and Russian @-@ Slavic culture affected the nature of Finnish national integration ; the social upper faction took the lead , though it gained domestic might from the Russian Czar in 1809 . The estates planned to build up an increasingly autonomous Finnish state , led by the elite and intelligentsia . The Fennomans aimed to include the common people in a nonpolitical role in order to reduce unrest due to social problems ; the labor movement , youth associations and temperance movement were initially led " from above . "
Social conditions , the standard of living and the self @-@ confidence of the workers gradually improved due to industrialization between 1870 – 1916 but , while the standard of living rose among the common people , the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly . The common people 's rising awareness of the socioeconomic and political questions interacted with the ideas of socialism , social liberalism and nationalism ( Fennomania ) . The commoners ' responses and the corresponding counteracts of the dominating upper factions steepened the social relations in Finland .
The Finnish labor movement , which emerged at the end of the 19th century from temperance , religious movements and Fennomania , had a Finnish nationalist , working @-@ class character . From 1899 – 1906 the labor movement became conclusively independent , shedding the patriarchal thinking of the Fennoman estates , and it was represented by the Finnish Social Democratic Party , established in 1899 . Workers ' activism directed both toward opposing Russification and in developing a domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy . This was a reaction to the domestic dispute , ongoing since the 1880s , between the Finnish nobility @-@ burghers and the labor movement concerning voting rights for the common people .
Besides their obligations as obedient , peaceful and nonpolitical inhabitants of the Grand Duchy , who had a few decades earlier accepted the class system as the natural order of their life , the commoners had begun to ask for and then demand their civil rights and citizenship in Finnish society . The power struggle between the Finnish estates and the Russian administration gave a concrete role model and free space for the labor movement . On the other side , due to at least a century @-@ long tradition and experience of administrative leadership , the Finnish elite saw itself as the inherent natural power in the Grand Duchy .
The political struggle for democracy was solved outside Finland , via international power politics ; the Russian Empire 's failed 1904 – 1905 war against Japan led to the 1905 Revolution in Russia and to a general strike in Finland . In an attempt to quell the general unrest , the system of estates was abolished in the Parliamentary Reform of 1906 , which introduced universal suffrage . The general strike increased support for the Social Democrats substantially , as a proportion of the population , the party was the most powerful socialist movement in the world .
The Reform of 1906 was a giant leap in the political and social liberalization of the common Finnish people ; the Russian royal family was the most autocratic and conservative rulers in Europe . The Finns adopted a unicameral parliamentary system with all political rights for female citizens , increasing the number of voters from 126 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 273 @,@ 000 . This produced around 50 % turnouts for the Social Democrats , but the Czar regained his authority after the crisis of 1905 , and during the second period of Russification between 1908 and 1917 neutralized the power of the Parliament . He dissolved it and ordered parliamentary elections almost annually between 1908 – 1916 , and determined the composition of the Finnish Senate , which did not correlate with the assembly of the Parliament , prohibiting true parliamentarism .
The capacity of the Parliament to solve major socioeconomic problems was stymied by confrontations between the representatives of the largely uneducated common man and the representatives of the former estates , accustomed to autocratic rule and attitudes . At the same time , conflict grew between industrial employers and their workers as the industrialists denied collective bargaining and the right of the labour unions to represent working people ; the employers essentially dictated contracts signed on the personal level . Although the parliamentary process disappointed the labour movement , dominance in the Finnish Parliament and in legislation was the workers ' pathway to reach a more balanced society - they identified themselves powerfully to the state . Altogether , these political developments led to conditions that encouraged a struggle for leadership of the Finnish state , during the ten years before the collapse of the Russian Empire .
= = = February Revolution = = =
The more severe programme of Russification , called " the Second Period of Oppression , 1908 – 1917 " by the Finns , was halted on 15 March 1917 by the removal of the Russian Czar Nicholas II . The immediate reason for the collapse of the Russian Empire was crisis caused by military defeats in the war against Imperial Germany and war @-@ weariness among the Russians . The deeper causes lay in the collision between the most conservative and autocratic regime in Europe and the Russian people urging for socioeconomic modernization . The Czar 's power was transferred to the Russian Parliament , Duma and the right @-@ wing Provisional Government , but it was challenged by the Petrograd Soviet , leading to dual power in the country .
Autonomous status was returned to the Finns in March 1917 , and the revolt in Russia handed to the Finnish Parliament true political power for the first time . The political left , consisting mainly of Social Democrats , covered a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists . The political right was even more diverse , ranging from social liberals and moderate conservatives to rightist conservative elements . The four main parties were :
the conservative Finnish Party
the Young Finnish Party including both liberals and conservatives , the liberals divided to social liberals and economic liberals
the social reformist , centrist Agrarian League , which drew its support mainly from peasants with small or middle @-@ sized farms
the conservative Swedish People 's Party , which sought to retain the rights of the former nobility and the Swedish @-@ speaking minority of Finland .
The Finns faced a detrimental interaction of power struggle and breakdown of society during 1917 . The collapse of Russia induced a chain reaction of disintegration , starting from the government , military power and economy , and spreading downwards to all fields of the society such as local administration and workplaces , and finally to the level of individual citizens as changes and questions of freedom , responsibility and morality . The Social Democrats aimed at retaining the political rights of the labor movement already achieved , and gaining power over the people and society . The conservatives were fearful of losing their long @-@ held socioeconomic might . Both factions , with groups aiming at major supremacy , collaborated with the corresponding political forces in Russia , deepening the split in the nation .
As a consequence of the unbalanced social development and the labour movement 's continuous position in the political opposition , the Social Democratic Party had gained an absolute majority in the new Parliament of Finland , in the general parliamentary elections of 1916 . The new Senate was formed in March 1917 by Social Democrat and trade union leader Oskari Tokoi . His cabinet did not reflect the assembly of the Finnish parliament , with the socialists ' absolute majority . It comprised six representatives from the Social Democrats and six from non @-@ socialist parties .
In theory , the new Senate consisted of a broad national coalition , but in practice , with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and the most experienced politicians remaining outside it , the cabinet proved unable to solve any major local Finnish problems . After the First Russian Revolution of 1917 in February , real political power shifted to the street level in the form of mass meetings , strike organizations , and the street councils formed by workers and soldiers , and to active organizations of the employers , all of which served to undermine the authority of the state .
The rapid economic growth stimulated by World War I , which had raised the incomes of industrial workers and profits of the employers during 1915 and 1916 , collapsed with the February Revolution . The consequent decrease in production and economy led to unemployment and high inflation . For those who had a job , the February revolution gave freedom to reach for resolving long @-@ term problems of their laborious working life . The workers called for eight @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ day working limits , better working conditions and higher wages . The demands led to demonstrations and large @-@ scale strikes in both industry and agriculture throughout Finland .
The food supply of the country depended on cereals produced in southern Russia , while the Finns had specialized in milk and butter production . The cessation of the cereal imports from disintegrating Russia led to food shortages in Finland . The Senate responded by introducing rationing and price controls . The farmers opposed the state control ; a black market with sharply rising food prices formed and export to free market of the Petrograd area increased . Food supply , prices , and in the end the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers and industrial workers , in particular the unemployed ones . The common people , their fears exploited by the politicians and the political media , took to the streets . Despite the food shortages , no large @-@ scale starvation hit southern Finland before the war . Economic factors remained a supporting factor in the crisis of 1917 , but only a secondary part of the power struggle of the state .
= = = = Battle for leadership = = = =
The passing of the Tokoi Senate bill , called the " Power Act " , in July 1917 became the first one of the three culminations of the power struggle between the Social Democrats and the conservatives during the political crisis from March 1917 to the end of January 1918 . The fall of the Russian emperor opened the question of who would hold the highest political power in the former Grand Duchy . Although the Finns had accepted the liberating manifesto ( from the period of 1908 – 1916 ) of March 1917 issued by the Russian Provisional Government , they planned at least an expansion of the former autonomy .
The February Revolution offered the Finnish Social Democrats momentum : they had the absolute majority in the Parliament and a narrow dominance in the Senate . After the decades of political disappointments , the socialists gained an opportunity to take power . Conservatives were alarmed by the continuous increase of the socialists ' might since 1899 , with the climax in 1917 without the offsetting control of Russian administration ; the Social Democrats had to be halted before they were able to markedly alter the power structure of the country .
The " Power Act " incorporated a plan by the Social Democrats to substantially increase the power of Parliament , as a reaction to the non @-@ parliamentary and conservative leadership of the Finnish Senate between 1906 and 1916 . The bill furthered Finnish autonomy by restricting Russia 's influence on domestic affairs : the Provisional Government would determine the foreign and military policies of Finland . In Parliament , the bill was adopted with the support of the Social Democrats , the Agrarian League , some members of the Young Finnish Party and some Activists eager for Finnish sovereignty . The conservatives opposed the Act and some of the most right @-@ wing representatives resigned from Parliament .
In Petrograd , the Social Democrats ' plan had the backing of Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks , who by July 1917 were plotting a revolt against the Provisional Government . In the end , the Government still had the support of the Russian military ; Lenin was thwarted during the " July Days " and forced to flee to Finland . As the Russians ' war against Germany came increasingly closer to total defeat , the significance of the Finnish area as a buffer zone protecting Petrograd was highlighted , the Provisional Government disapproved the " Power Act " and sent reliable troops to Finland . There , with the demands and co @-@ operation of Finnish conservatives , the Finnish Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced .
In the October 1917 elections , the Social Democrats lost their absolute majority , which radicalized the labor movement and decreased support for relying on parliamentary means of achieving its aims . The events of July 1917 did not bring about the Red Revolution in January 1918 on their own , but together with political development based on the labor movement 's interpretation of the ideas of Fennomania and socialism since the 1880s , these events were decisive for the goals of a Finnish revolution . In order to win power , the socialists had to overcome the Finnish Parliament .
The collapse of Russia in the February Revolution resulted in a loss of institutional authority in Finland and the dissolution of the police force , creating fear and uncertainty . In response , both the right and left began assembling their own security groups , which were initially local and largely unarmed . By Autumn 1917 , in the power struggle and vacuum following the dissolution of Parliament , and in the absence of a stable government or a Finnish army , such forces began assuming a paramilitary character . The Civil / White Guards were organized by local men of influence , conservative academics , industrialists , major landowners and activists , and were armed by the Germans . The Workers ' Security / Red Guards were recruited through their local party sections and the labor unions , and were armed by the Russians .
= = = October Revolution = = =
Vladimir Lenin 's Bolshevik October / November Revolution on 7 November transferred political power in Petrograd to the radical , left @-@ wing socialists . The German Empire 's intrigue , based on idea that Lenin was the most powerful weapon they could launch against Russia , to finance the Bolsheviks and arrange safe conduct of Lenin and his comrades from exile in Switzerland to Petrograd in April 1917 , was a success . An armistice between Germany and the Bolshevik regime came into force on 6 December and peace negotiations began on 22 December 1917 at Brest @-@ Litovsk .
November 1917 saw the second turning point in the 1917 – 1918 rivalry for the leadership of Finland . After the dissolution of the Finnish Parliament , polarization between the Social Democrats and Conservatives increased dramatically , including political violence . An agricultural worker was shot during a local strike on 9 August at Ypäjä and a Civil Guard member was killed in aftermath of local political crisis at Malmi on 24 September 1917 .
The informal truce between the Finnish non @-@ socialists and the Russian Provisional Government was disrupted by the October Revolution . After political wrangle how to react on the revolt , the majority of the politicians accepted a compromising proposal of Santeri Alkio , the leader of the Agrarian League . The Finnish Parliament seizured the highest power in Finland , on 15 November , on the model of the " Power Act " of the socialists , and ratified the Social Democratic proposals from July 1917 of eight @-@ hour working day and universal suffrage in local elections .
A purely non @-@ socialist , conservative @-@ led cabinet of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was appointed on 27 November . The nomination was both a long @-@ term aim of the conservatives and a respond to the labour movements ' acts during November 1917 . Svinhufvud 's main goals were to separate Finland from Russia , strengthen the military power of the Civil @-@ White Guards and to return at least a part of the Parliament 's new power to the Senate .
There were 149 Civil @-@ White Guards in Finland ( local units in towns and rural communes ) on 31 August 1917 , 251 on 30 September , 315 on 31 October , 380 on 30 November 1917 and 408 on 26 January 1918 . The first attempt at serious military training among the Civil Guards was the establishment of a 200 @-@ strong " cavalry school " at the Saksanniemi estate , in the vicinity of the town of Porvoo , in September 1917 . The vanguard of the Finnish Jägers and German weapons arrived in Finland in October – November 1917 , on a ship Equity and a German U @-@ boat ( SM UC @-@ 57 ) ; around 50 Jägers had returned by the end of 1917 .
After the political defeats in July and October 1917 , the Social Democrats put forward , on 1 November , an uncompromising program called " We Demand " in order to push for political concessions ; they demanded a return to the power political status before dissolution of the Parliament in July 1917 , disbanding of the Civil Guards and elections to establish a Finnish Constituent Assembly . Following the October Revolution , based on the " Power Act " , socialists planned to ask the Bolsheviks for acceptance of Finland 's sovereignty in a manifesto on 10 November , but the uncertain situation in Petrograd stalled the plan . After the " We Demand " program had failed , the socialists initiated a General strike on 14 – 19 November 1917 to increase the political pressure , in particular on the conservatives , who had opposed the " Power Act " and the 15 November parliamental Power proclamation .
Revolution had been the goal of the radical left since the loss of the political power in July and October 1917 , and November 1917 offered momentum for an uprising . At this phase , Lenin and Joseph Stalin , under threat in Petrograd , urged the Social Democrats to seize power in Finland . The majority of Finnish socialists were moderate and preferred parliamentary methods , prompting Lenin to label them " reluctant revolutionaries . " The reluctance diminished as the General strike appeared to offer a major power for the workers in southern Finland . The strike leadership voted by a narrow majority to seize power on 16 November , but the proposed revolution had to be called off the same day , due to lack of true revolutionaries for executing the decision .
The moderate socialists won a repeated vote over revolutionary versus parliamentary means at a special party meeting in the end of November 1917 , but when they tried to pass a resolution to completely abandon the idea of a socialist revolution , the party representatives and several powerfull leaders voted it down . The Finnish labor movement wanted to sustain a military force of its own and keep the revolutionary road open too . The Finnish socialists ' weak interest in revolutionary activity was a disappointment to Lenin . He lost his faith in them finally in December 1917 and shifted his energies toward encouraging the Finnish Bolsheviks in Petrograd .
Among the labor movement , a more marked consequence of Autumn 1917 was the rise of the Workers ' Guards . There were approximately 20 – 60 Guards of the Working class in Finland between 31 August and 30 September 1917 , but on 20 October , after the defeat in the October Parliamentary elections , the Finnish Labor Union proclaimed the need to establish more Guards in the country . The announcement led to a rush of recruits to the Guards ; on 31 October their number was 100 – 150 , 342 on 30 November 1917 and 375 on 26 January 1918 . There were two parts to the Workers ' Guards since May 1917 , most of them being Security Guards . The minority were Red Guards ; partly secret groups formed in industrialized towns and industrial centres including Helsinki , Kotka , Tampere , Turku , Viipuri and the Kymenlaakso area , on the model of the domestic Red Guards built up during 1905 – 1906 in Finland .
The presence of the two opposing armed forces , the Red and White Guards , imposed a state of dual power and multiple sovereignty on Finnish society , typically the prelude to a civil war . The decisive cleavage between the guards broke out during the General strike ; the Reds executed several political opponents in southern Finland , and the first armed clashes between the Whites and Reds broke out . In total , 34 casualties were reported . Eventually , the political rivalries of 1917 led to a race for weapons and an escalation towards civil war .
= = = Independence of Finland = = =
The disintegration of Russia offered the Finns a historic opportunity to gain national independence , but after the October Revolution , the positions of the conservatives and the Social Democrats on the sovereignty issue became reversed . The conservatives were eager for secession from Russia , in order to control the left and minimize the influence of the Bolsheviks . The socialists feared a loss of support among nationalistic workers , after constant promises of increasing liberty , in particular through the " Power Act " , and they hoped to renew political majority later . Both political factions agreed on the need for Finnish sovereignty , despite strong disagreement on the selection of its leadership .
Nationalism had become a " civic religion " among the Finns by the end of 19th century , but their main goal , in particular during the First Period of Russification and the General strike of 1905 , was a return to the autonomy of 1809 – 1898 , not independence . Since 1809 , under the less uniform Russian rule , the domestic power of the Finns increased substantially , compared to the unitary Swedish regime . In economy the Grand Duchy benefited from an independent domestic state budget , own currency ( the markka , since 1860 ) and customs organization , and the industrial progress during 1860 – 1916 . The economy of the Grand Duchy was dependent on the huge Russian market , and separation from Russia would create a risk of losing Finland 's preferred position . The economic collapse of Russia and the political power struggle of the Finnish state during 1917 were among the key factors that brought sovereignty to the fore in Finland .
P.E. Svinhufvud 's Senate proposed Finland 's declaration of independence , which the Parliament adopted on 6 December 1917 . The Social Democrats voted against the Senate 's proposal while presenting an alternative declaration of independence . The establishment of an independent state was not a foregone conclusion for the small Finnish nation ; recognition by Russia and the major European powers was essential . Svinhufvud accepted , by the end of December 1917 , that he had to negotiate with Lenin for Russian recognition . The socialists , reluctant to talks with the Russian leadership in July 1917 , sent two delegations to Petrograd to ask Lenin to approve Finnish sovereignty .
In December 1917 the Bolsheviks were under intense pressure from the Germans to conclude peace negotiations at Brest @-@ Litovsk , and Russia Bolshevism was in crisis , with a demoralized army and the fate of the October Revolution in doubt . Lenin calculated that the Bolsheviks could hold central parts of Russia but had to give up some peripheral territories , including Finland in the geopolitically less important north @-@ western corner . As a result , Svinhufvud and his senate delegation won Lenin 's concession of sovereignty on 31 December 1917 .
By the beginning of the Civil War , Austria @-@ Hungary , Denmark , France , Germany , Greece , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland had recognized Finnish independence . The United Kingdom and United States did not approve it ; they were standing by and followed the relations between Finland and Germany , the main enemy of the Allies , which hoped to override Lenin 's regime and get Russia back into the war against Germany . As to Finland 's separation from Russia , Germany hastened it , in order to get Finland within the German sphere of power . France broke off diplomatic relations to the White government later , during the war of 1918 , as a consequence of White Finland 's co @-@ operation with Germany .
= = Warfare = =
= = = Escalation = = =
The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918 , as each military or political act of the Reds or the Whites resulted in a corresponding counteraction by their opponents . Both sides justified these acts as defensive measures , particularly to their own supporters . On the left , the vanguard of the war was the most active , urban Red Guards from Helsinki , Kotka and Turku ; they led the rural Reds , and convinced the socialist leaders who wavered between peace and war to support revolution . On the right , the vanguard of the conflict was the Finnish " Jägers " who had been moved to Finland by the end of 1917 , and the most active volunteer White Guards of Viipuri province in the southeastern corner of Finland , southwestern Finland and southern Ostrobothnia . The first local battles were fought during 9 – 21 January in southern and southeastern Finland , mainly to win the race for weapons and for controlling the Viipuri town .
The Svinhufvud Senate and the Parliament decided , on 12 January 1918 to create a " State power of internal order and discipline " , leaning on the White forces . On 15 January , Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , a competent former general of the Imperial Russian Army , was appointed supreme commander of the White Guards . He established a major power base in Vaasa @-@ Seinäjoki area . The Senate renamed the White Guards the Finnish White Army and the White Order to engage was issued , on 25 January . The Whites gained weaponry by disarmament of Russian garrisons during 21 – 28 January , in particular in southern Ostrobothnia .
The Red Guards , led by Ali Aaltonen , refused to recognise the Whites Guard 's power status , and decided to establish a military authority of their own . Aaltonen placed the Red power base in Helsinki . The Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January 1918 , and a red lantern , a symbolic indicator of the Uprising , was lit in the tower of the Helsinki Workers ' Hall . The large scale mobilization of the Reds began in the late evening of 27 January , with the Helsinki Guard and some of the Guards located along the Viipuri @-@ Tampere railway having become active between 23 – 26 January , in order to safeguard vital positions and escort a heavy railroad shipment of Bolsheviks ' weapons from Petrograd to Finland . White troops tried to capture the shipment ; 20 – 30 Finns , Red and White , died in the " Battle of the Rahja Trains " in the Karelian Isthmus on 27 January 1918 .
The third and final culmination of the Finnish power struggle and the disintegration of the society had begun .
= = = Finland divided into White and Red = = =
At the beginning of the war , a discontinuous front line ran through southern Finland from west to east , dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland . The Red Guards controlled the area to the south , including nearly all the major towns and industrial centres , and the largest estates and farms with high numbers of crofters and tenant farmers . The White Army controlled the area to the north , which was predominantly agrarian with small or medium @-@ sized farms and tenant farmers , and where crofters were few , or held a better social position than in the south . Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line : within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus , Kuopio , Oulu , Raahe , Kemi and Tornio ; within the Red area lay Porvoo , Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki . The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies in February 1918 .
Red Finland , called also the Finnish Socialist Workers ' Republic , was led by the People 's Delegation , established on 28 January , in Helsinki . The delegation sought democratic socialism based on the Finnish Social Democratic ethos ; their visions differed from Lenin 's dictatorship of the proletariat . Otto Ville Kuusinen formulated a proposal for a new constitution , influenced by those of Switzerland and the United States . Political power was to be concentrated to Parliament , with a lesser role for Senate . The proposal included a multi @-@ party system , freedom of assembly , freedom of speech and press , and the use of referenda in political decision making . In order to ensure the power of the labour movement , the common people would have a right to " continuous revolution " .
The Reds ' plans concerning private property rights were in conflict with their plans for an " ultrademocratic " and free society ; the state and local administration of municipalities would have had true property rights . In agriculture the crofters were liberated from the control of the landowners at the beginning of the war , but they were allowed a right of containment of the farms under the plans of a later general socialization in the country . All these plans , including the new constitution , remained unfulfilled , as the Reds lost the 1918 war .
In foreign policy Red Finland leaned on Bolshevist Russia . A Finnish @-@ Russian Red treaty and peace agreement was signed on 1 March 1918 . The negotiations for the treaty revealed , that , as in World War I in general , nationalism was more important for both sides than the principles of international socialism . The Red Finns did not accept alliance with the Bolsheviks and major disputes appeared e.g. over demarcation of the border between Red Finland and Soviet Russia . The bargaining sides exchanged land areas ; an artillery base , Ino , located in the Karelian Isthmus , was transferred to Russia , while Finland received Petsamo in north @-@ eastern Lapland . The significance of the Russian @-@ Finnish Treaty evaporated soon , due to the signing of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk between the Bolsheviks and the German Empire on 3 March 1918 .
V. I. Lenin 's policy of the right of nations to self @-@ determination aimed at preventing the disintegration of Russia during the period of military weakness . He tried to utilize the power vacuums and political rivalries commonly formed inside fledgling nations as they separated from major , splintering countries . Lenin expected that in the political circumstances of Europe at the time , the proletariat of free nations would carry out socialist revolutions , and unite with Soviet Russia later . The majority of the Finnish labor movement supported Finland 's independence . The Finnish Bolsheviks , influential though few in number , favoured annexation of Finland by Russia . The question of annexation , in the aftermath of WWI , was resolved by the defeat of Red Finland and weakness of Russia .
The government of White Finland , Pehr Evind Svinhufvud 's first senate , was called the Vaasa Senate after relocation to the west @-@ coast city of Vaasa , acting as the capital of the Whites from 29 January to 3 May . In domestic policy the White Senate 's main goal was to return the political right to power in Finland . The conservatives planned a monarchist political system , with a lesser role for Parliament . A section of the conservatives had always been against democracy ; others approved parliamentarianism since the revolutionary reform of 1906 , but after the crisis of 1917 and the outbreak of the 1918 war concluded , that empowering the common people would not work . Social liberals and reformist , moderate non @-@ socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism . They initially resisted German military help , but the prolonged warfare changed their stance .
In foreign policy , the Vaasa Senate leaned on the German Empire for military and political aid , in order to defeat the Finnish Red Guards , end the influence of Bolshevist Russia in Finland , and expand Finnish territory to Russian Karelia , which held geopolitical significance , and was home to people speaking Finno @-@ Ugric languages ( Irredentist campaigns / Heimosodat ) . The weakness of Russia induced an idea of Greater Finland among the expansive factions of both the right and left ; the Reds had claims concerning the same areas . General Mannerheim agreed on the need to take over eastern Karelia and for German weapons , but opposed German intervention in Finland . Mannerheim recognized the lack of combat skills of the Finnish Red Guards , and he leaned on the high military skills of the Finnish Jägers . As a former Russian army officer , Mannerheim was well aware of the demoralization of the Russian army . He co @-@ operated with White Russian officers in Finland and Russia .
The competing parties ' war propaganda aimed to prove their support of democracy and liberty and their ability to represent the whole Finnish nation . Both failed by allowing the political crisis to end up in the bloody Civil War and a comprehensive terror , instead of reaching a compromise to accomplish a peaceful political settlement .
= = = = Soldiers on rails = = = =
The number of Finnish troops on each side varied from 70 @,@ 000 to 90 @,@ 000 ; both sides had around 100 @,@ 000 rifles , 300 @-@ 400 machine guns and a few hundred cannons . While the Red Guards consisted mostly of volunteers ( wages paid at the beginning of the war ) , the White Army contained only 11 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 volunteers , the remainder being conscripts . The main motives for volunteering were economic factors ( salary , food ) , idealism , and peer pressure . The Red Guards included 2 @,@ 000 female troops , mostly girls recruited from the industrial centres of southern Finland . Urban and agricultural workers constituted the majority of the Red Guards , whereas land @-@ owning farmers and well @-@ educated people formed the backbone of the White Army .
Both armies used child soldiers , mainly between 14 and 17 years of age . The usage of juvenile soldiers was not rare in World War I ; children of that time were under the absolute authority of adults and generally were not shielded against exploitation . In the Finnish case , chaotic conditions , particularly at the start of the war , provided an additional reason to recruit child soldiers ; military leaders took whoever they could get their hands on . In the Red Guards there was also the chance for salary and food supplies .
The Finnish Civil War was fought primarily along the railways , the vital means of transporting troops and supplies . One of the most important objectives for both Guards was the seizure of Haapamäki , a railway junction northeast of Tampere which connected both western @-@ eastern and southern @-@ northern Finland . The Whites captured the junction at the end of January 1918 , leading to fierce battles at Vilppula . The Whites ' bridgehead south of the River Vuoksi at Antrea on the Karelian Isthmus threatened the railway connection Viipuri @-@ Petrograd also . The other vital railway junctions during the war were Kouvola , Riihimäki , Tampere and Toijala . The significance of the railways is well symbolized by the most frightening weapon used in the turmoil : armoured train , carrying light cannons and heavy machine guns .
= = = Red Guards and the Russian troops = = =
The Finnish Red Guards seized the early initiative in the war , taking control of Helsinki on 28 January , and with a general attack phase lasting from February till early March 1918 . The Reds were relatively well armed , but a chronic shortage of skilled leaders , both at command level and in the field , left them unable to capitalize on their initial momentum , and most of the offensives came to nothing . The military order chain functioned relatively well at Red company and platoon level , but leadership and authority were weak , as most of the field commanders were chosen by the vote of the troopers . The common troopers were more or less armed civilians , whose military training , discipline and combat morale were both inadequate and low .
Ali Aaltonen found himself rapidly replaced in command of the Red troops by Eero Haapalainen , who in turn was replaced by the triumvirate of Eino Rahja , Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta . The last commander of the Red Guards was Kullervo Manner , who led the final retreat into Russia . Some talented men with a high sense of responsibility such as Hugo Salmela rose up to take the lead , but they could not change the course of the war . The Red Guards achieved victories , only at local level , as they retreated from southern Finland towards Russia ; they won German troops in the fierce battles on 28 – 29 April 1918 at Hauho and Tuulos , Syrjäntaka , where female Red Guard platoons played a combat role .
Although some 60 @,@ 000 Russian soldiers of the former Czar 's army remained stationed in Finland at the start of the Civil War , the Russian contribution to the Reds ' cause was negligible . V.I. Lenin tried to commit the troops on behalf of Red Finland , but the soldiers were demoralized , war @-@ weary and home @-@ sick after years of World War I. The majority of the troops returned to Russia by the end of March 1918 . In total 7 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 soldiers participated in the 1918 war , of which around 4 @,@ 000 , in separate smaller units of 100 – 1 @,@ 000 men , could be persuaded to fight in the front line .
The Russian revolutions split the Russian army officers politically and their attitude toward the Finnish civil war varied ; Mikhail Svechnikov led Finnish Red troops in western Finland in February and Konstantin Yeremejev the Russian forces in the Karelian Isthmus , while other officers were mistrustful of their revolutionary underlings and co @-@ operated with their former colleague General Mannerheim , assisting the Whites in the disarmament of the Russian garrisons in Finland . On 30 January 1918 Mannerheim proclaimed to Russian soldiers in Finland that the White army did not fight against Russia : the goal of the White campaign was to beat the Finnish Red rebels and the Russian troops supporting them .
The number of Russian soldiers active in the Civil War declined markedly once Germany attacked Russia on 18 February 1918 . The German @-@ Russian Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk of 3 March , restricted the Bolsheviks ' support to the Finnish Reds to weapons and supplies . The Russians remained active on the south @-@ eastern front , defending the approaches to Petrograd .
= = = White Guards and Sweden 's role = = =
While the conflict has been called by some " The War of the Amateurs " , the White Army had two major advantages over the Red Guards in the war : the professional military leadership of General Mannerheim and his staff — which included 84 Swedish volunteer officers and former Finnish officers of the Czar 's army — and 1 @,@ 450 soldiers of the 1 @,@ 900 @-@ strong , elite Jäger ( Jääkärit ) battalion . This battalion was trained in Germany during 1915 – 1917 , and battle @-@ hardened on the Eastern Front . The main part of the battalion arrived in Vaasa on 25 February 1918 .
On the battlefield the Jägers provided strong leadership that made disciplined action by the common White soldiers possible . The White troopers were similar to those of the Red Guards : most of them had brief and inadequate training . At the beginning of the war , the leadership of the White Guards had little authority over volunteer White Guard platoons and companies , which obeyed only their dominant , local leaders . In the end of February , the Jägers started rapid training of six Jäger Regiments , with conscripts .
Even the Jäger battalion was divided in the same way that the rest of the country was : 450 mostly socialist Jägers remained stationed in Germany as they could have chosen the Red side in the conflict . The leaders of the White Guards faced a similar problem with drafting young men to the army in February 1918 : 30 @,@ 000 obvious supporters of the Finnish labor movement never showed up . It was also uncertain whether common troopers drafted from the small @-@ sized and poor farms of central and northern Finland had strong enough motivation to fight the Finnish Reds ; the White 's propaganda promoted a nationalist war against the Red , Bolshevist Russians , and belittled the significance of the Red Finns .
Social divisions did appear both between southern and northern Finland and within rural Finland . The economy and society of the north had modernized more slowly than those of the south , there was a more pronounced conflict between Christianity and socialism in the north , and farmland had a major social status ; ownership of even a small parcel of land created a motivation to fight against the Reds .
Sweden declared neutrality during WWI and the Finnish Civil War . The general opinion , in particular among the Swedish elite was divided between supporters of the Allies and the Central powers , Germanism being somewhat more popular . Three war @-@ time priorities determined pragmatic policy of the Swedish liberal @-@ social democratic government ; sound economics , via export of iron @-@ ore and foodstuff to Germany , sustaining tranquility of the Swedish society and geopolitics . The government accepted participation of Swedish volunteer officers and soldiers in the Finnish Civil War , on the White side , in order to block expansion of revolutionary unrest to Scandinavia .
A 800 – 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong " Swedish Brigade " , led by Hjalmar Frisell , took part in the battles of Tampere and those fought in the area south of the town . In February 1918 , the Swedish Navy escorted the German naval squadron , transporting Finnish Jägers and German weapons , and allowed it to pass through Swedish territorial waters . The Swedish socialists did not aid the Finnish Reds but tried to open peace negotiations between the Whites and Reds . The weakness of Finland gave Sweden a chance to take @-@ over geopolitically vital Finnish Åland islands , east of Stockholm , but the German army 's Finland @-@ operation stalled the plan .
= = = = Battle of Tampere = = = =
In February 1918 General Mannerheim weighed the question of where to focus the general offensive of the Whites , between two strategically vital enemy strongholds : Tampere , Finland 's major industrial town in the south @-@ west , and Viipuri , Karelia 's main city . Although seizing Viipuri offered major advantages , the lack of combat skills of his army and potential for a major counterattack by the enemy in the area or in the south @-@ west made it too risky .
Mannerheim decided to strike first at Tampere . He launched the attack on 16 March at Längelmäki , 65 km north @-@ east of the town . At the same time , the White Army began advancing along a northern and north @-@ western frontline , through Vilppula – Kuru – Kyröskoski – Suodenniemi . Many Red Guard units collapsed and retreated in panic under the weight of the assault , while some detachments defended their posts relentlessly , and were able to slow the advance of the White Guards , who were unaccustomed to offensive warfare . Eventually , the Whites lay siege to Tampere . They cut off the Reds southward connection in Lempäälä on 24 March and westward in Siuro ( Nokia , Finland ) and Ylöjärvi on 25 March .
The battle for Tampere was fought between 16 @,@ 000 White and 14 @,@ 000 Red soldiers . It was Finland 's first large scale urban battle , and , along with the battles of Helsinki and Viipuri , one of the three decisive military engagements of the 1918 war . The fight for the Tampere town area began on 28 March , on the eve of Easter 1918 , later called the " Bloody Maundy Thursday " , in the Kalevankangas graveyard . After this fierce combat , won by the Whites , with more than 50 % losses in some of the attacking units , the White army re @-@ organized the troops and plans , and attacked the town centre , in the early hours of 3 April .
After a heavy , concentrated artillery barrage , the White Guards began advancing from house to house and street to street , as the Red Guards retreated . In the late evening of 3 April the Whites reached the eastern river banks of Tammerkoski . The Reds ' major attempts to break the siege of Tampere from outside , along the Helsinki @-@ Tampere railway , failed . The Red Guards lost the western parts of the town between 4 and 5 April . The Tampere City Hall was among the last strongholds of the Red troops . The battle ended 6 April 1918 with the surrender of Red forces in the Pyynikki and Pispala sections of Tampere .
In the battle , the Reds , now on the defensive , had shown markedly increased motivation to fight . General Mannerheim had been compelled to deploy parts of his best trained detachments , the fresh Jäger regiments , which he had initially hoped to conserve for later use in the Viipuri area . The fighting in Tampere was purely a civil war — Finn against Finn , " brother rising against brother " — as most of the Russian army had retreated to Russia in March and the German troops had yet to arrive in Finland . The Battle of Tampere was the bloodiest action of the Civil War . The White Army lost 700 – 900 men , including 50 Jägers , the highest number of deaths the former Jäger battalion suffered in a single battle of the 1918 war . The Red Guards lost 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 soldiers , with a further 11 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 captured . 71 civilians died , mainly due to artillery fire . The eastern parts of the city , consisting mostly of wooden buildings , were destroyed completely .
After their defeat in Tampere , the Red Guards began a slow retreat eastwards . As the German army seized Helsinki , the White Army shifted the military focus to Viipuri , taking it on 29 April 1918 with a major attack of 18 @,@ 500 men , against 15 @,@ 000 Red troopers . 500 – 800 Reds died , and 12 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 were imprisoned .
= = = German intervention = = =
The German Empire intervened in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the White Army in March 1918 . The Finnish Activists leaning on Germanism had been seeking German aid in freeing Finland from Russian hegemony since Autumn 1917 , but the Germans did not want to prejudice their armistice and peace negotiations with Russia because of the pressure they were facing at the Western front . The German stance changed after 10 February when Leon Trotsky , despite the weakness of the Bolsheviks ' position , broke off negotiations , hoping revolutions would break out in the German Empire and change everything . The German government promptly decided to teach Russia a lesson and , as a pretext for aggression , invited " requests for help " from the smaller countries west of Russia . Representatives of White Finland in Berlin duly requested help on 14 February ; on 13 February the German Imperial Military Council had made the decision to send troops to Finland .
The Germans attacked Russia on 18 February ; the offensive led to a rapid collapse and retreat of the Russian troops and to signature of the first Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk by the Bolsheviks on 3 March 1918 . Finland , the Baltic countries , Poland and Ukraine were transferred to the German power sphere . The economic and political investments that Germany had made in Vladimir Lenin had paid off . The German army did not alter the military plans concerning Finland after the peace treaty with the Bolsheviks because the Civil War of the Finns opened an easy access with low costs to Fennoscandia , where the geopolitical status altered as troops of a British Naval squadron invaded the harbour of Murmansk on the northwestern coast of Russia by the Arctic Ocean on 9 March 1918 .
On 5 March a German naval squadron landed in the southwestern archipelago of Finland , on the Åland Islands , which the Swedish military expedition took over in mid @-@ February ( departed in May ) . On 3 April 1918 , the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Baltic Sea Division , led by Rüdiger von der Goltz , launched the main attack , west of Helsinki at Hanko , followed on 7 April by the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Detachment Brandenstein taking the town of Loviisa on the south @-@ eastern coast . The main German formations advanced rapidly eastwards from Hanko and took Helsinki on 12 – 13 April . The Brigade Brandenstein overran the town of Lahti on 19 April , cutting the connection between the western and eastern Red Guards . The main German detachment advanced northwards from Helsinki and took Hyvinkää and Riihimäki on 21 – 22 April , followed by Hämeenlinna on 26 April . The efficient performance of the German top detachments contrasted strikingly with that of the demoralized Russian troops . The final blow to the cause of the Finnish Reds was dealt when the Bolsheviks broke off the peace negotiations at Brest @-@ Litovsk , leading to the German eastern offensive in February 1918 .
= = = = Battle of Helsinki = = = =
After peace talks between the Germans and the Finnish Reds were broken off on 11 April , the true battle for the capital of Finland began . On 12 April , at 5 a.m. 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 German soldiers from the Brigade von Tshirsky attacked the city from the north @-@ west , supported via the Helsinki @-@ Turku railway . The Germans broke through the area between Munkkiniemi and Pasila , and advanced on the central @-@ western parts of the town . The German naval squadron Meurer blocked the city harbour , bombarded the southern town area , and landed naval troops at Katajanokka .
Around 7 @,@ 000 Finnish Reds defended Helsinki , but their best troops fought on the main fronts of the war . The main strongholds of the Red defence were the Workers Hall , the Railway station , the Red Headquarters of " Smolna " ( the former palace of the Russian governor @-@ general , in southern Esplanade ) , the Senate @-@ University area , and the former Russian garrisons in Helsinki . By the late evening of 12 April most of the major southern parts and all the western area of the city had been occupied by the Germans , who cleared the city house by house , street by street . Local Helsinki White Guards , hidden in the city during the war , joined the battle as the Germans advanced through the town .
On 13 April German troops took over the Market Square , " Smolna " , the Presidential Palace , and the Senate @-@ Ritarihuone area . Toward the end , the Brigade Wolff with 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 soldiers joined the battle . The units rushed from north to the eastern parts of Helsinki , pushing into the working @-@ class neighborhoods of Hermanni , Kallio and Sörnäinen . German artillery bombarded and destroyed the Helsinki Workers ' Hall , and put out the Red lantern of the Finnish revolution . The eastern parts of the town surrendered around 2 p.m. , 13 April ; a white flag was raised in the tower of the Kallio Church , but sporadic fighting lasted until the evening . In total , 60 Germans , 300 – 400 Reds and 23 White Guard troopers were killed in the battle . Around 7 @,@ 000 Reds were captured . The German army celebrated the victory and demonstrated its might with a major military parade in the centre of Helsinki on 14 April 1918 .
= = = Red and White terror = = =
During the civil war , the White Army and the Red Guards both perpetrated acts of terror , called the Red terror and White terror . The threshold of political violence had been crossed in the primarily peaceful Grand Duchy of Finland during the first period of Russification 1899 – 1905 ; the Finnish Activists murdered a Russian governor @-@ general , police officers and a Finnish civil servant . World War I enhanced the potential of terror as it was widespread between the Allies and the Central Powers . The February Revolution in 1917 initiated a comprehensive terror in Finland ; the Russian army common soldiers murdered several Russian army officers in March 1917 . The first Finnish socialist victim was killed at the beginning of August and the first non @-@ socialist victim was killed at the end of September 1917 . The general strike in November 1917 led to a marked political terror ; the Workers ' Guards murdered 27 Finns .
During the war of 1918 there were two kinds of Red and White political violence : ( i ) a calculated part of the general warfare , ( ii ) local , personal murders and corresponding acts of revenge . In the former , the highest staffs of both sides planned and organized these actions and gave orders to the lower level . At least a third of the Red terror and most of the White terror was centrally led . At first the governments of White Finland and Red Finland officially opposed acts of terror , but such operational decisions were made at the military level .
The main purpose of the Red and White terror was to destroy the power structure of the opponent , clear and secure the areas governed by the armies since the beginning of the war and the areas seized and occupied by the common units during the conflict . Another goal of the terror was to create shock and fear among the civil population and the opposing soldiers . The common troopers ' paramilitary nature and lack of combat skills , in the both armies , led and created the opportunity to use terror as a military weapon . Terror achieved some of the intended military objectives , but also gave additional motivation to each side to fight against an enemy perceived to be inhuman and cruel . The propaganda of the Reds and Whites utilized the terror acts of the opponent effectively , which increased the local political violence and the spiral of revenge .
The number of casualties and the timing of the terror differed markedly between the Reds and Whites .
The level of killings by the Red Guards varied over the months because the Reds could never seize and occupy new areas outside Red Finland , and they had to focus their efforts on the industrialized southern Finland , where they faced the establishment of Finland , and because in the end the Reds retreated from southern Finland . The Red Guards were less organized than the White army in respect to the political terror . The level of killings by the Whites varied over the months of the war because they occupied southern Finland , and initially did not encounter marked resistance from the area of White Finland . The comprehensive White terror started with the general offensive of the Whites in March 1918 , increased constantly , culminated in the end of the war , and ceased soon after the enemy had been sent to the prison camps .
The Red Guards executed the representatives of economic and / or social power in Finland , including politicians , major landowners , industrialists , police officers , civil servants , teachers , and leaders and members of the White Guards . Ten priests of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and 90 ( moderate ) socialists were executed also . The two major sites of the Red terror were Toijala and Kouvola . There 300 – 350 Whites were executed between February and April 1918 .
The White Guards executed Red Guard and party leaders , Social Democratic representatives of the Finnish parliament and local Red administrations , members of the Red tribunals and police , and common troopers of the Red Guards , and those who had participated in a way or another to the Red Terror . During the peak of the White terror , between the end of April and the beginning of May , 200 Reds were shot per day . The White terror hit particularly strong against the Russian soldiers who fought with the Finnish Red Guards , and several Russian non @-@ socialist civilians were executed in the aftermath of the Battle for Viipuri .
Most of the terror was undertaken by " flying detachments " deployed by the both armies . These were cavalry units , usually consisting of 10 to 80 soldiers aged 15 to 20 , under the absolute authority of an experienced adult leader . The detachments , specialising in search @-@ and @-@ destroy operations behind the front lines and during and after battles , have been described as death squads . They resembled German Sturmbattalions and Russian Assault units organized during WWI .
In total , 1 @,@ 650 Whites died in the Red terror , while 10 @,@ 000 Reds perished in the White terror , which eventually became political cleansing , typical for victors of many civil wars . The White victims have been recorded quite exactly , but there are questions and permanent uncertainty about the Red victims of the terror . It is unclear which of the victims died in the battles and which of them were executed immediately after the battles . Together with the prison camp experiences of the Reds later in 1918 , the terror caused the deepest mental wounds and scars of the Civil War among the majority of the Finns regardless of their political allegiance . Some of those , who carried out the terror were seriously traumatized , a phenomenon that was later to become well @-@ documented .
= = = End = = =
After the defeat in Tampere and under the threat of invasion by the German division on the south coast , the People 's Delegation retreated from Helsinki to Viipuri on 8 April . After the loss of Helsinki , most of them , only Edvard Gylling standing by his warriors , moved to Petrograd on 25 April 1918 . The escape of the Red leadership made the ranks of the Red soldiers bitter and resentful . At the end of April , thousands of them , without true leadership , tried to flee to Petrograd from Red Finland , but the majority of the refugees were besieged by the White and the German troops . The Reds surrendered on 1 – 2 May in the Lahti area .
The long caravans of the Reds included women and children , who experienced a desperate , chaotic escape with several human losses due to the attacks of the enemy . It was a " road of tears " for the Reds , for the Whites the long enemy caravans heading east was a victorious scene . The Red Guards ' last stronghold in south @-@ east Finland , the area between Kouvola and Kotka , fell by 5 May . The war of 1918 ended on 15 May , when the Whites took over Ino , a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus , from the Russian troops . White Finland and General Mannerheim celebrated the victory with a large military parade in Helsinki on 16 May 1918 .
The Red Guards had been defeated . The initially pacifist Finnish labour movement had lost the Civil War , several military leaders committed suicide and a majority of the Reds were sent to prison camps . The Vaasa Senate returned to Helsinki on 4 May 1918 , but the capital was under the control of the German army . White Finland had become a protectorate of the German Empire . General Rüdiger von der Goltz was called " the true Regent of Finland . " No armistice or peace negotiations were carried out between the Whites and Reds , and an official peace treaty in order to end the Finnish Civil War was never signed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Bitter legacy = = =
The Civil War was a catastrophe for Finland ; around 36 @,@ 000 people , 1 @.@ 2 percent of the nation 's total population , perished . The war left about 15 @,@ 000 children orphaned . As is often the case during ( civil ) war , most of the deaths occurred outside the battlefields , in the terror campaigns and from the appalling conditions in the prison camps . Many Reds fled to Russia at the end of the war and during the period that followed . The traumatic war deepened the divisions within Finnish society , many moderate @-@ neutral Finns identifying themselves as " citizens of two nations . "
The war of 1918 led to disintegration within both socialist and the non @-@ socialist factions . The power political shift toward the right caused a dispute between conservatives and liberals on the best system of government for Finland to adopt : the former demanded monarchy and restricted parliamentarianism , the latter demanded a Finnish republic with full @-@ scale democracy and social reforms . Both sides justified their views via political and legal grounds .
The monarchists leaned on the Swedish regime 's year 1772 monarchist constitution , belittled the Declaration of Independence 1917 and proposed a modernized monarchist constitution for Finland . The republicans argued that the 1772 law , accepted by Russia in 1809 , lost its status in the February Revolution , the might of the Russian Czar was assumed by the Finnish Parliament on 15 November 1917 and Finnish republic was accepted on 6 December . The republicans were able to postpone processing of the monarchists ' proposal in the parliament , and in the end a new monarchist constitution was not accepted in Finland . The monarchists responded by applying directly the 1772 law to select a new monarch for the country .
A major consequence of the 1918 conflict was the breakup of the Finnish labour movement into three parts : moderate Social Democrats and left @-@ wing socialists in Finland , and communists acting in Soviet Russia with the support of the Bolsheviks . The Social Democratic Party had the first official party meeting after the civil war on 25 December 1918 . The party proclaimed commitment to parliamentary means and disclaimed Bolshevism and communism . The leaders of Red Finland , who had fled to Russia established the Communist Party of Finland in Moscow on 29 August 1918 . After the power struggle of 1917 and the bloody civil war , the former Fennomans and Social Democrats , who had supported " ultrademocratic " means in Red Finland , declared to have committed to revolutionary Bolshevism @-@ communism and to dictatorship of proletariat , under the control of V.I. Lenin .
A conservative @-@ monarchist Senate was formed by JK Paasikivi in May 1918 . All members of the Parliament , who had taken part in the red uprising were removed from office . Eventually three Social Democrats continued there ; the Parliament was called a " Rump Parliament " . In May 1918 , the Senate asked the German troops to remain in Finland , but overall the 3 March Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and the 7 March 1918 German @-@ Finnish agreements bound White Finland to the power sphere of the German Empire . General Mannerheim resigned his post on 25 May after disagreements with the Senate about German hegemony over Finland , and about his planned attacks on Petrograd to repulse the Bolsheviks , and to Russian Karelia . The Germans opposed these attacks under the peace treaties they had signed with Russia .
On 9 October 1918 , under pressure by Germany , the Senate and Parliament elected a German prince , Friedrich Karl , brother @-@ in @-@ law of German Emperor William II , to become the King of Finland . Eventually , General Rüdiger von der Goltz was able to utilize the weakness of Finland for the power political benefit of the German Empire . All of these measures diminished Finnish sovereignty . The Finns , both right and left , had achieved independence on 6 December 1917 without a gunshot , but then compromised that independence by allowing the Germans to enter the country without difficulty during the Civil War .
The economic condition of the country had deteriorated so drastically that recovery to pre @-@ conflict levels was not achieved until 1925 . The most acute crisis was in the food supply , already deficient in 1917 , though starvation had at that time been avoided in southern Finland . The Civil War , according to the leaders of Red Finland and White Finland , would solve all past problems ; instead it led to starvation in southern Finland too . Late in 1918 , Finnish politician Rudolf Holsti appealed for relief to Herbert Hoover , the American chairman of the Committee for Relief in Belgium : Hoover arranged for food shipments and persuaded the Allies to relax their blockade of the Baltic Sea , which had obstructed food supplies to Finland , to allow the food in .
= = = = Prison camps = = = =
The White Army and the German troops captured around 80 @,@ 000 Red war prisoners , including 5 @,@ 000 women , 1 @,@ 500 children and 8 @,@ 000 Russians . The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna , an island facing Helsinki , Hämeenlinna , Lahti , Riihimäki , Tammisaari ( Ekenäs ) , Tampere and Viipuri . The Senate decided to keep the prisoners detained until each person 's guilt could be investigated ; a law for a Tribunal of Treason was enacted on 29 May 1918 . The Tribunal did not meet all the standards of neutral justice , due to the mental atmosphere of White Finland after the war . In total 76 @,@ 000 cases were examined and 68 @,@ 000 Reds were convicted , primarily for complicity to treason ; 39 @,@ 000 got out on parole and mean punishment of the rest was 2 – 4 years in penitentiary . 555 people were sentenced to death , of which 113 were executed . The trials revealed that also some innocent adults had been imprisoned .
Combined with the severe food shortage , the mass imprisonment led to high mortality rates in the camps , and the catastrophe was compounded by a mentality of punishment , anger and indifference on the part of the victors . Many prisoners felt that they were abandoned by their own leaders , who had fled to Russia . The physical and mental condition of the prisoners declined rapidly in May as food supplies had disrupted during the Red Guards ' chaotic retreat in April , and a high number of Red prisoners had been sent to the less organized prison camps already during the first half of April in Tampere and Helsinki . As a consequence , in June 2 @,@ 900 starved to death or died as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition and Spanish flu , 5 @,@ 000 in July , 2 @,@ 200 in August , and 1 @,@ 000 in September . The mortality rate was highest in the Tammisaari camp at 34 percent , while in the others the rate varied between 5 percent and 20 percent . In total around 13 @,@ 000 Finns perished ( 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 due to Spanish influenza ) . The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps .
The majority of the prisoners were paroled or pardoned by the end of 1918 , after the change in the political situation . There were 6 @,@ 100 Red prisoners left at the end of the year , 4 @,@ 000 at the end of 1919 ( 3 @,@ 000 pardoned in January 1920 , at the same time civil rights were given back to 40 @,@ 000 prisoners ) , 500 in 1923 , and in 1927 the last 50 prisoners were pardoned by the Social Democratic government led by Väinö Tanner . In 1973 , the Finnish government paid reparations to 11 @,@ 600 persons imprisoned in the camps after the civil war . Several reasons for the long @-@ term and relatively high support of communism in Finland can be found ; for the civil war generation of the left , the traumatic hardships of the prison camps were decisive .
= = = Compromise = = =
Just as the fate of the Finns was decided outside Finland in Saint Petersburg on 15 March 1917 , so it was decided outside Finland again on 11 November 1918 , this time in Berlin , as Germany accepted defeat in World War I. The grand plans of the German Empire had come to nothing , and revolution had spread among the German people due to lack of food , war @-@ weariness , and defeat in the battles on the Western Front . General Rüdiger von der Goltz and the German troops left Helsinki on 16 December , and Prince Friedrich Karl , who had not yet been crowned , left his post on 20 December . Finland 's status altered from a monarchist protectorate of the German Empire to an independent democratic republic , with a modernizing civil society . The system of government , the primary Constitution of Finland , was confirmed on 17 July 1919 .
The first local elections based on universal suffrage in the history of Finland were held during 17 – 28 December 1918 , and the first parliamentary election after the Civil War on 3 March 1919 . The United States and the United Kingdom recognised Finnish sovereignty on 6 – 7 May 1919 . The Western powers demanded establishment of democratic republics in post @-@ war Europe in order to calm down the widespread revolutionary movements in Europe . The Finnish @-@ Russian Treaty of Tartu ( Russian @-@ Finnish ) signed on 14 October 1920 aimed to stabilize the political relations and settle the border line between the former Grand Duchy and its mainland .
In April 1918 , the leading Finnish social liberal , the eventual first president of Finland , Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg wrote : " It is urgent to get the life and development in this country back on the path that we had already reached in 1906 and which the turmoil of war turned us away from . " A moderate Social Democrat , Väinö Voionmaa agonised in 1919 : " Those who still trust in the future of this nation must have an exceptionally strong faith . This young independent country has lost almost everything due to the war .... " He was a vital companion for the leader of the reformed Social Democratic Party , Väinö Tanner .
Santeri Alkio supported moderate politics . His party colleague Kyösti Kallio urged in his Nivala address on 5 May 1918 : " We must rebuild a Finnish nation , which is not divided into the Reds and Whites .... We have to establish a democratic Finnish republic , where all the Finns can feel that we are true citizens and members of this society . " In the end , many of the moderate Finnish conservatives followed the thinking of Lauri Ingman , who wrote in spring 1918 : " A political turn more to the right will not help us now , instead it would strengthen the support of socialism in this country . "
Together with the other broader @-@ minded Finns , the new partnership constructed a Finnish compromise which eventually delivered stable and broad parliamentary democracy . This compromise was based both on the defeat of the Reds in the 1918 war and the fact that most of the Whites ' political goals had not been achieved . After the foreign forces left Finland , the militant factions of the Red and White lost their backup , while the pre @-@ 1918 cultural and national integrity , and the legacy of Fennomania , stood out among the Finns .
The weakness of both Germany and Russia after World War I empowered Finland and made a peaceful , domestic Finnish social and political settlement possible . The reconciliation led to a slow and painful , but steady , national unification . In the end , the power vacuum and interregnum of 1917 – 1919 gave way to the Finnish compromise . From 1919 to 1991 , the democracy and sovereignty of the Finns withstood challenges from right @-@ wing and left @-@ wing political radicalism , the crisis of World War II , and pressure from the Soviet Union during the Cold War .
= = In popular culture = =
Between 1918 and 1950s the mainstream of literature and poetry presented the 1918 war from the point of view of the White victors ; e.g. " Psalm of the Cannons " ( Finnish : Tykkien virsi ) by Arvi Järventaus in 1918 . In poetry , Bertel Gripenberg , who had volunteered for the White army , celebrated its cause in " The Great Age " ( Swedish : Den stora tiden ) in 1928 and V.A. Koskenniemi in " Young Anthony " ( Finnish : Nuori Anssi ) in 1918 . The war tales of the Red side were kept in silence or hidden at home or inside spheres of the workers .
The first neutral @-@ critical books were written soon after the war : " Devout Misery " ( Finnish : Hurskas kurjuus ) written by the Nobel Laureate in Literature Frans Emil Sillanpää in 1919 , " Dead Apple trees " ( Finnish : Kuolleet omenapuut ) by Joel Lehtonen in 1918 and " Home coming " ( Swedish : Hemkomsten ) by Runar Schildt in 1919 . They were followed by Jarl Hemmer in 1931 with the book " A man and his conscience " ( Swedish : En man och hans samvete ) and Oiva Paloheimo in 1942 with " Restless childhood " ( Finnish : Levoton lapsuus ) . Lauri Viita 's book " Scrambled ground " ( Finnish : Moreeni ) from 1950 , presented life and experiences of a worker family in Tampere in 1918 , including a point of view of outsiders in the Civil War .
Between 1959 and 1962 , Väinö Linna , in his trilogy " Under the North Star " ( Finnish : Täällä Pohjantähden alla ) , described the Civil War and World war II from the point of view of the common people . Part II of Linna 's work markedly opened the larger view and the tales of the Reds in the 1918 war , and it had a significant mental effect in Finland . At the same time , a new point of view for the war was opened by the books of Paavo Haavikko " Private matters " ( Finnish : Yksityisiä asioita ) , by Veijo Meri " The events of 1918 " ( Finnish : Vuoden 1918 tapahtumat ) and Paavo Rintala " My grandmother and Mannerheim " ( Finnish : Mummoni ja Mannerheim ) , all published in 1960 .
In poetry Viljo Kajava , who had experienced the horrors of the Battle of Tampere at the age of nine , presented a pacifist view of the civil war in his " Poems of Tampere 1918 " ( Finnish : Tampereen runot ) in 1966 . The similar point of view , in the same battle , is emphasized in the novel " Corpse bearer " ( Finnish : Kylmien kyytimies ) by Antti Tuuri from 2007 . Väinö Linna 's trilogy turned the general tide , and several books were written mainly from the point of view of the Red side in 1918 : e.g. Tampere @-@ trilogy by Erkki Lepokorpi in 1977 , " John " ( Finnish : Juho ) by Juhani Syrjä in 1998 and " The Command " ( Finnish : Käsky ) by Leena Lander in 2003 . Kjell Westö 's epic novel " Where We Once Went " ( Swedish : Där vi en gång gått ) published in 2006 deals with period of 1915 @-@ 1930 , from both the Red and the White point of views . Kjell Westö 's book " Mirage 38 " ( Swedish : Hägring 38 ) from 2013 describes Finnish pre @-@ World War II mental atmosphere and post @-@ war traumas of the 1918 war . F.E. Sillanpää 's , Väinö Linna 's , Lauri Viita 's , Jarl Hemmer 's , Paavo Rintala 's , Leena Lander 's and Kjell Westö 's stories have been utilized in motion picture and in theatre .
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= Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City =
The Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City was a successful effort by the ownership group of the Seattle SuperSonics to move the team from Seattle to Oklahoma City . The team began play as the Oklahoma City Thunder in the 2008 – 2009 basketball season after becoming the third National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise to relocate in the 2000s .
After efforts to persuade Washington state government officials to provide funding to update KeyArena failed , the SuperSonics ' ownership group , led by Howard Schultz , sold the team to the Professional Basketball Club LLC ( PBC ) , an investment group headed by Oklahoma City businessman Clay Bennett . After failing to persuade local governments to fund a US $ 500 million arena complex , Bennett 's group notified the NBA that it intended to move the team to Oklahoma City and requested arbitration with the city of Seattle to be released from its lease with KeyArena . When the request was rejected by a judge , Seattle sued Bennett 's group to enforce the lease that required the team to play in KeyArena through 2010 . On July 2 , 2008 , a settlement was reached that allowed the team to move under certain conditions .
In months prior to the settlement , Seattle publicly released email conversations that took place within Bennett 's ownership group and alleged that they indicated at least some members of the group had a desire to move the team to Oklahoma City prior to the purchase in 2006 . The city used the conversations to argue that the ownership failed to negotiate in good faith , and as a result , Schultz filed a lawsuit seeking to rescind the sale of the team and transfer the ownership to a court @-@ appointed receiver . The NBA claimed the lawsuit was void because Schultz signed a release forbidding himself to sue Bennett 's group , but also argued that the proposal would have violated league ownership rules . Schultz dropped the case before the start of the 2008 – 09 NBA season .
= = Sale of team = =
On July 18 , 2006 , the Basketball Club of Seattle , led by Howard Schultz , sold the Seattle SuperSonics and Seattle Storm after failing to reach an agreement with the city of Seattle over a publicly funded $ 220 million expansion of KeyArena , which was remodeled in 1995 and was the NBA 's smallest venue , with a seating capacity of 17 @,@ 072 . After failing to find a local ownership group to sell the team to , Schultz talked to ownership groups from Kansas City , St. Louis , Las Vegas , San Jose and Anaheim before agreeing to sell the team to an ownership group from Oklahoma City , which pursued an NBA franchise after hosting the New Orleans Hornets franchise successfully for two seasons as New Orleans rebuilt from Hurricane Katrina . The sale to Clay Bennett 's group for US $ 350 million was approved by NBA owners on October 24 , 2006 . Terms of the sale required the new ownership group to " use good faith best efforts " for the term of 12 months in securing a new arena lease or venue in the Seattle metropolitan area .
On February 12 , 2007 , Bennett proposed using tax money to pay for a new $ 500 million arena in Renton , Washington , a suburb of Seattle . After failing to reach a deal by the end of the legislative session , Bennett gave up his attempt in April 2007 . On November 2 , 2007 the team announced it would move to Oklahoma City as soon as it could get free of its KeyArena lease . Seattle 's mayor , Greg Nickels , maintained the stance that the Sonics were expected to stay in Seattle until their lease expired in 2010 and said that the city did not intend to make it easy for Bennett to move the team early . Over concerns that the city would accept a buyout of the lease , a grassroots group filed a citywide initiative that sought to prevent the city from accepting such an offer from Bennett 's group . The Seattle City Council later unanimously passed an ordinance modeled after the initiative .
On August 13 , 2007 , Aubrey McClendon , a minor partner of Bennett 's ownership group , said in an interview with The Journal Record ( an Oklahoma City newspaper ) that the team was not purchased to keep it in Seattle but to relocate it to Oklahoma City . Bennett later denied such intentions , saying McClendon " was not speaking on behalf of the ownership group " . Due to his comments , McClendon was fined $ 250 @,@ 000 by the NBA .
= = Relocation effort = =
On September 21 , 2007 , Bennett applied for arbitration on the issue of whether the team could break its lease in 2008 . Arguing that the lease does not allow for arbitration on the issue of occupancy , the city of Seattle filed for declaratory relief on September 24 . The motion asked the King County Superior court to reject the arbitration request and enforce the Specific Performance Clause of the Sonics ' lease , which required the team to play at KeyArena through 2010 . United States District Court Judge Ricardo Martinez denied the request for arbitration on October 29 , saying that the " arguments ignore the clear language of Article II , which states that PBC ’ s use and occupancy rights with respect to the Premises and the Term of this Agreement shall end on September 30 , 2010 . ”
Two days after Bennett 's October 31 , 2007 deadline passed for public financing of a new arena , he informed NBA commissioner David Stern that the ownership group intended to move the Sonics to Oklahoma City as soon as it was legally possible . The timing of the announcement , one day after the Sonics ' home opener , drew critical comments from Tom Carr , Seattle 's attorney , who said " Mr. Bennett 's announcement today is a transparent attempt to alienate the Seattle fan base and follow through on his plan to move the team to Oklahoma City ... Making this move now continues the current ownership 's insulting behavior toward the Sonics ' dedicated fans and the citizens of the city . " Bennett also reiterated that the team was not for sale and dismissed attempts by local groups to repurchase the team .
On February 15 , 2008 , the Sonics ' ownership group gave the city of Seattle a one @-@ day deadline to accept a $ 26 @.@ 5 million offer that would buy out the Sonics ' lease in KeyArena and pay off what the ownership group claimed was the value of debts on the arena . The city rejected the offer .
The prospect of expanding KeyArena resurfaced on March 6 , 2008 , when Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer promised that his investor group would pay half of the $ 300 million needed for an extensive renovation ; the rest was to be provided by the city and county . However , when the state legislature did not give approval for the county to provide funds by an April 10 deadline , Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels said that the effort had failed and the city 's hopes rested in its lawsuit .
= = = Oklahoma City 's preparations = = =
In anticipation of an NBA team , and led by Mayor Mick Cornett , who had successfully lobbied for the previous temporary relocation of the New Orleans Hornets to Oklahoma City , the voters of that city approved a $ 120 million renovation of the Ford Center on March 3 , 2008 , including construction of a new NBA practice facility . After a tour of downtown Oklahoma City , a subcommittee of three NBA owners recommended that the league approve the move . On March 14 , Bennett reached a preliminary agreement with Oklahoma City on a 15 @-@ year lease of the Ford Center that was finalized by the Oklahoma City Council and the Sonics ’ ownership group two weeks later . The Oklahoma State Legislature later approved a bill to provide tax breaks and other incentives if the team relocated .
NBA owners gave approval of a potential SuperSonics ' relocation to Oklahoma City on April 18 in a 28 – 2 vote by the league 's Board of Governors ; only Mark Cuban of the Dallas Mavericks and Paul Allen of the Portland Trail Blazers voted against the move . The approval meant the Sonics would be allowed to move to Oklahoma City 's Ford Center for the 2008 – 2009 season after reaching a settlement with the city of Seattle .
= = = Popular opposition in Seattle = = =
In 2006 , a group of Seattle residents created Save Our Sonics and Storm ( " SOS " ) to rally support for a permanent professional basketball presence in Seattle . The " and Storm " portion of the name was dropped when the WNBA Storm was sold to local ownership . On June 16 , 2008 , the group organized a well @-@ publicized rally , which reportedly drew over 3 @,@ 000 participants , at the U.S. District Courthouse in Seattle to protest the proposed relocation of the team . The rally was held on the first day of the city of Seattle 's lawsuit against the PBC to enforce the remaining two years on the KeyArena lease .
= = Lawsuits = =
= = = City of Seattle v. Professional Basketball Club LLC = = =
Seattle filed a lawsuit on September 23 , 2007 in an attempt to keep the Sonics from leaving before the end of their lease in 2010 . The trial was set for June 16 , 2008 . On April 10 , 2008 , Seattle asked the Federal District Court to order the NBA to release documents related to the financial situation of each team , the claim that the SuperSonics ' lease with KeyArena was financially unworkable , and the league 's involvement in requiring PBC to make a good @-@ faith effort to stay in Seattle . On April 28 , the trial 's presiding judge , Loretta Preska , ruled that the NBA must supply the internal documents about the possible relocation of the Sonics that the city of Seattle had requested . In addition , the judge said that Stern could be deposed at a later day should the need arise . The city hoped the documents would aid in building its legal case , and cited an email conversation among members of the ownership group that suggested they were privately discussing intent to move the team while publicly insisting that they would not attempt to do so .
The ownership group filed a motion saying that the lawsuit and the release of the emails by the city were meant to drive up the cost of leaving Seattle and force the ownership group to sell the team . The motion requested that all emails and other records be released to the team . Slade Gorton , lead attorney for the city , responded by pointing out that it was PBC that started the fight that led to the lawsuit when they filed for arbitration to break the lease . The motion was denied by the presiding judge , who said the team failed to make a " good @-@ faith effort " to resolve the dispute and that it failed to show that trial preparations were hindered by the records not being made public . However , the ruling also said the team could bring up the issue again if it could prove the relevance or the confidentiality of the records .
On April 21 , 2008 , Gorton said he would be open to a settlement if the league promised a replacement team for Seattle . He said it was " highly unlikely " that the Sonics would stay and indicated the city should instead focus on gaining a replacement team , but noted that local governments would need to be willing to fund an expansion of KeyArena first .
When Bennett 's group requested that the trial also decide the team 's financial obligations to KeyArena should its lease be broken , Seattle 's lawyers requested a six @-@ month delay in the trial date in order to prepare for the additional issues , arguing that the ownership group 's request would " dramatically change the scope " of the case and would require considerable preparation time to determine damages . The trial 's presiding judge denied the motion by Bennett 's group on March 6 , noting that the team would have needed to make the request at the scheduling conference . A second trial would therefore need to have been held to determine the team 's financial obligations .
Attorneys made their closing arguments in the city 's case on June 26 and Judge Marsha J. Pechman announced that she would issue her ruling on the following Wednesday . On July 2 , hours before Judge Pechman was to release her ruling , it was announced that the team and the city had reached a settlement where PBC would pay the city $ 45 million immediately in exchange for breaking the lease , and an additional $ 30 million if Seattle was not given a replacement team in five years . According to the conditions of the settlement , the Sonics ' name and colors could not be used by the team in Oklahoma City , but could be taken by a future team in Seattle , although no promises for a replacement team were given . The OKC team would retain the franchise history of the SuperSonics , which could be " shared " with any future NBA team in Seattle . The team moved to Oklahoma City immediately and announced it would begin play in the 2008 – 09 season .
= = = Basketball Club of Seattle LLC v. Professional Basketball Club LLC = = =
The release of email conversations between members of Bennett 's group prompted former Sonics ' owner Howard Schultz to file a lawsuit that sought to rescind the sale of the team and alleged that Bennett 's group used fraud and misrepresentation to purchase the Sonics without making a " good faith best effort " to keep them in Seattle as mandated by the original sales contract . Bennett said the emails were misinterpreted and that he had spent millions of dollars in attempting to keep the team in Seattle .
The lawsuit was filed on April 22 , 2008 at the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington . It sought , among other things , an injunction to prevent the Sonics from being relocated from Seattle to Oklahoma City . The suit further requested that the franchise be placed in a constructive trust and no longer in the ownership of PBC . On May 20 , 2008 , Schultz 's attorney added alleged a breach of contract as a third cause of action against Bennett . Chicago @-@ based attorney and ESPN senior writer Lester Munson said that while the remedies Schultz sought were " without precedent in the sports industry " , he did believe that both the Schultz case and Seattle 's lease case presented " serious problems " for Bennett .
On May 9 , 2008 , Oklahoma City officials declared intent to sue for damages and a forced relocation of the SuperSonics if Schultz 's lawsuit succeeded and the subsequent ownership did not relocate . In a legal letter to Schultz , Oklahoma City 's attorney said that the Sonics were legally bound to relocate to Oklahoma City at the end of the KeyArena lease regardless of who owned the team . The letter stated that the city had " valid and enforceable agreements with the Team requiring it relocate to Oklahoma City at the end of the current lease with the city of Seattle . " Schultz 's attorney replied to the letter saying the lease agreement was with PBC , not BCOS , and that the city began improvements on Ford Center at their own risk prior to conclusion of the pending litigation .
The NBA filed a motion to intervene with Seattle 's federal court on July 9 , 2008 , claiming that Schultz 's lawsuit would interfere with the stable operation of the franchise and the transfer of ownership would violate NBA regulations unless the team was put under control of NBA Commissioner David Stern . The league also claimed that Schultz signed a release forbidding him to sue Bennett 's ownership group as a condition of the NBA 's approval of the original sale . Weeks later , Schultz requested that two separate trials be used to determine whether Bennett 's group committed fraud and subsequently determine a remedy . On August 29 , 2008 , shortly after the court denied his request and ruled that the NBA could intervene in the case , Schultz said his legal team no longer believed the case could be won . He announced he would drop the lawsuit , saying in a prepared statement , " The prevailing wisdom of many in the Seattle community and the advice of key members of the BCOS is that Seattle 's best chance for a professional basketball franchise is to end this litigation and allow the City , State Legislature and other parties to begin the necessary fence mending with the NBA . "
= = Distribution of assets = =
According to the terms detailed in the settlement agreement , items associated with the SuperSonics ' history in Seattle , including trophies , banners , and retired jerseys , stayed in the city and were placed in the Museum of History & Industry ( MOHAI ) . Other items such as televisions , radios , headphones , CDs , chairs , and equipment were shipped to Oklahoma City after the Seattle Storm finished the 2008 WNBA season .
= = Chronicles = =
In 2009 , Seattle @-@ based filmmakers released " Sonicsgate " , a documentary about the relocation of the Sonics .
In 2012 , the book " Big League City : Oklahoma City 's Rise to the NBA " by David Holt chronicled the story from Oklahoma City 's perspective .
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= Wood turtle =
The wood turtle ( Glyptemys insculpta ) is a turtle endemic to North America . It is in the genus Glyptemys , a designation given to only one other turtle : the bog turtle . The wood turtle reaches a carapace length of 14 to 20 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , its defining characteristic being the pyramidal pattern on its upper shell . Morphologically , it is similar to the bog turtle , spotted turtle , and Blanding 's turtle . The wood turtle exists in a broad range extending from Nova Scotia in the north ( and east ) to Minnesota in the west and Virginia in the south . In the past , it was forced south by encroaching glaciers : skeletal remains have been found as far south as Georgia .
It spends a great deal of time in or near the water of wide rivers , preferring shallow , clear streams with compacted and sandy bottoms . The wood turtle can also be found in forests and grasslands , but will rarely be seen more than several hundred meters from flowing water . It is diurnal and is not overtly territorial . It spends the winter in hibernation and the hottest parts of the summer in estivation .
The wood turtle is omnivorous and is capable of eating on land or in water . On an average day , a wood turtle will move 108 meters ( 354 ft ) , a decidedly long distance . Many other animals that live in its habitat pose a threat to it . Raccoons are over @-@ abundant in many places and are a direct threat to all life stages of this species . Inadvertently , humans cause a large number of deaths through habitat destruction , road traffic , farming accidents , and illegal collection . When unharmed , it can live for up to 40 years in the wild and 58 years in captivity .
= = Taxonomy = =
Formerly in the genus Clemmys , the wood turtle is now a member of Glyptemys , a classification that wood turtles share with only the bog turtle . It and the bog turtle have a similar genetic makeup , which is marginally different from that of the spotted turtle , the only current member of the Clemmys genus . It has undergone extensive name changes by various scientists over the course of its history . Today , there are several prominent common names for the wood turtle , including sculptured tortoise , red @-@ legged tortoise , and redleg .
Although no subspecies are recognized , there are morphological differences in wood turtles between areas . Individuals found in the west of its range ( areas like the Great Lakes and the Midwest United States ) have a paler complexion on the inside of their legs and underside of their necks than ones found in the east ( places including the Appalachian Mountains , New York , and Pennsylvania ) . Genetic analysis has also revealed that southern populations have less genetic diversity than the northern ; however , both exhibit a fair amount of diversity considering the decline in numbers that have occurred during previous ice ages .
= = Description = =
Wood turtles grow to between 14 and 20 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and reach a maximum of 23 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) . They have a rough carapace that is a tan , grayish brown or brown color , with a central ridge ( called a keel ) made up of a pyramidal pattern of ridges and grooves . Older turtles typically display an abraded or worn carapace . Fully grown , they weigh 1 kilogram ( 35 oz ) . The wood turtle 's karyotype consists of 50 chromosomes .
The larger scutes display a pattern of black or yellow lines . The wood turtle 's plastron ( ventral shell ) is yellowish in color and has dark patches . The posterior margin of the plastron terminates in a V @-@ shaped notch . Although sometimes speckled with yellowish spots , the upper surface of the head is often a dark gray to solid black . The ventral surfaces of the neck , chin , and legs are orange to red with faint yellow stripes along the lower jaw of some individuals . Seasonal variation in color vibrancy have been known to occur .
At maturity , males , who reach a maximum length of 23 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) , are larger than females , who have been recorded to reach 20 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) . Males also have larger claws , a larger head , a concave plastron , a more dome @-@ like carapace , and longer tails than females . The plastron of females and juveniles is flat while in males it gains concavity with age . The posterior marginal scutes of females and juveniles ( of either gender ) radiate outward more than in mature males . The coloration on the neck , chin , and inner legs is more vibrant in males than in females who display a pale yellowish color in those areas . Hatchlings range in size from 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 8 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) in length ( straight carapace measurement ) . The plastrons of hatchlings are dull gray to brown . Their tail usually equals the length of the carapace and their neck and legs lack the bright coloration found in adults . Hatchling 's carapaces also are as wide as they are long and lack the pyramidal pattern found in older turtles .
The eastern box turtle and Blanding 's turtle are similar in appearance to the wood turtle and all three live in overlapping habitats . However , unlike the wood turtle , both the Blanding 's turtle and members of the box turtle family have hinged plastrons that allow them to completely close their shells . The diamondback terrapin has a shell closely resembling the wood turtle 's ; however its skin is gray in color , and it inhabits coastal brackish and saltwater marshes . The bog turtle and spotted turtle are also similar , but neither of these have the specific sculptured pattern found on the carapaces of the wood turtle .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The wood turtle is found in most New England states , Nova Scotia , west to Michigan , northern Indiana and Minnesota , and south to Virginia . Overall , the distribution is disjunct with populations often being small and isolated . Roughly 30 % of its total population is in Canada . It prefers slow @-@ moving streams containing a sandy bottom and heavily vegetated banks . The soft bottoms and muddy shores of these streams are ideal for overwintering . Also , the areas bordering the streams ( usually with open canopies ) are used for nesting . Spring to summer is spent in open areas including forests , fields , bogs , wet meadows , and beaver ponds . The rest of the year is spent in the aforementioned waterways .
The densities of wood turtle populations have also been studied . In the northern portion of its range ( Quebec and other areas of Canada ) , populations are fairly dilute , containing an average of 0 @.@ 44 individuals per 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) , while in the south , over the same area , the densities varied largely from 6 to 90 turtles . In addition to this , it has been found that colonies often have more females than males .
In the western portion of its range , wood turtles are more aquatic . In the east , wood turtles are decidedly more terrestrial , especially during the summer . During this time , they can be found in wooded areas with wide open canopies . However , even here , they are never far from water and will enter it every few days .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
In the past , wood turtle populations were forced south by extending glaciers . Remains from the Rancholabrean period ( 300 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found in states such as Georgia and Tennessee , both of which are well south of their current range . After the receding of the ice , wood turtle colonies were able to re @-@ inhabit their customary northern range ( areas like New Brunswick and Nova Scotia ) .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
During the spring , the wood turtle is active during the daytime ( usually from about 7 : 00 a.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. ) and will almost always be found within several hundred metres of a stream . The early morning and late afternoon are preferred foraging periods . Throughout this season , the wood turtle use logs , sandy shores , or banks to bask in sunlight . In order to maintain its body temperatures through thermoregulation , it spends a considerable amount of time basking , most of which takes place in the late morning and late afternoon . The wood turtle reaches a peak body temperature of 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) after basking . During times of extreme heat , it has been known to estivate . Several reports mention individuals resting under vegetation , fallen debris and in shallow puddles . During the summer , the wood turtle is considered a largely terrestrial animal . At night , its average body temperature drops to between 15 and 20 ° C ( 59 and 68 ° F ) and it will rest in small creeks or nearby land ( usually in areas containing some sort of underbrush or grass ) .
During warmer weather , the wood turtle stays in the water for a larger percentage of the time . For this reason , during the winter months ( and the late fall and early spring ) it is considered an aquatic turtle . November through February or March is spent in hibernation at the bottom of a small , flowing river . The wood turtle may hibernate alone or in large groups . During this period , individuals bury themselves in the thick mud at the bottom of the river and rarely move . During hibernation , it is vulnerable to flash floods . Emergence does not occur until March or sometimes April , months that mark the beginning of its activation period ( males are typically more active than females at this time ) .
Males are known to be aggressive , with larger and older turtles being more dominant . Larger males rank higher on the social hierarchy often created by wood turtle colonies . In the wild , the submissive turtle is either forced to flee , or is bombarded with physical abuses , which include biting , shoving , and ramming . Larger and more dominant males will sometimes try to remove a subordinate male while he is mating with a female . The defender will , if he does not successfully fight for his position , lose the female to the larger male . Therefore , among males , there is a direct relationship between copulation opportunities and social rank . However , the outcome of encounters between two turtles is more aggression @-@ dependent than size @-@ dependent . The wood turtle that is more protective of his or her area is the victor . Physical bouts between wood turtles ( regardless of gender ) increases marginally during the fall and spring ( times of mating ) .
The wood turtle is omnivorous , feeding mainly on plant matter and animals both on land and in water . It eats prey such as beetles , millipedes , and slugs . Also , wood turtles consume specific fungi ( Amanita muscaria and Leccinum arcolatum ) , mosses , grasses , various insects , and also carrion . On occasion , it can be seen stomping the ground with alternating hits of the left and right front feet . This behavior is thought to imitate the sound of falling rain , sometimes causing earthworms to rise to the surface where they quickly become easy prey . When hunting , the wood turtle pokes its head into such areas as dead and decaying logs , the bottoms of bushes , and in other vegetation . In the water , it exhibits similar behavior , searching algae beds and cavities along the sides of the stream or river .
Many different animals are predators of or otherwise pose a threat to the wood turtle . They include snapping turtles , porcupines , raccoons , otters , foxes , and cats . All of these species destroy unhatched eggs and prey upon hatchlings and juveniles . Several animals that often target wood turtle eggs are the common raven and coyote , which may completely destroy the nests they encounter . Evidence of predatory attacks ( wounds to the skin and such ) are common on individuals , but the northern populations tend to display more scarring than the southern ones . In addition to these threats , wood turtles also suffer from leech infestations .
= = = Movement = = =
The wood turtle can travel at a relatively fast speed ( upwards of 0 @.@ 32 kilometers per hour ( 0 @.@ 20 mph ) ) ; it also travels long distances during the months that it is active . In one instance , of nine turtles studied , the average distance covered in a 24 @-@ hour period was 108 meters ( 354 ft ) , with a net displacement of 60 meters ( 197 ft ) .
The wood turtle , an intelligent animal , has homing capabilities . Its mental capacity for directional movement was discovered after the completion of an experiment that involved an individual finding food in a maze . The results proved that these turtles have locating abilities similar to that of a rat . This was also proved by another , separate experiment . One male wood turtle was displaced 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) after being captured , and within five weeks , it returned to the original location . The homing ability of the wood turtle does not vary among genders , age groups , or directions of travel .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The wood turtle takes a long time to reach sexual maturity , has a low fecundity ( ability to reproduce ) , but has a high adult survival rate . However , the high survival rates are not true of juveniles or hatchlings . Although males establish hierarchies , they are not territorial . The wood turtle becomes sexually mature between 14 and 18 years of age . Mating activity among wood turtles peaks in the spring and again in the fall , although it is known to mate throughout the portion of the year they are active . However , it has been observed mating in December . In one rare instance , a female wood turtle hybridized with a male Blanding 's turtle .
The courtship ritual consists of several hours of ' dancing , ' which usually occurs on the edge of a small stream . Males often initiate this behavior : starting by nudging the females shell , head , tail , and legs . Because of this behavior , the female may flee from the area , in which case the male will follow . After the chase ( if it occurs ) , the male and female approach and back away from each other as they continually raise and extend their heads . After some time , they lower their heads and swing them from left to right . Once it is certain that the two individuals will mate , the male will gently bite the female 's head and mount her . Intercourse lasts between 22 and 33 minutes . Actual copulation takes place in the water , between depths between 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 0 and 4 ft ) . Although unusual , copulation does occur on land . During the two prominent times of mating ( spring and fall ) , females are mounted anywhere from one to eight times , with several of these causing impregnation . For this reason , a number of wood turtle clutches have been found to have hatchlings from more than one male .
Nesting occurs from May until July . Nesting areas receive ample sunlight , contain soft soil , are free from flooding , and are devoid of rocks and disruptively large vegetation . These sites however , can be limited among wood turtle colonies , forcing females to travel long distances in search of a suitable site , sometimes a 250 meters ( 820 ft ) trip . Before laying her eggs , the female may prepare several false nests . After a proper area is found , she will dig out a small cavity , lay about seven eggs ( but anywhere from three to 20 is common ) , and fill in the area with earth . Oval and white , the eggs average 3 @.@ 7 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in length and 2 @.@ 36 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 93 in ) in width , and weigh about 12 @.@ 7 grams ( 0 @.@ 45 oz ) . The nests themselves are 5 to 10 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep , and digging and filling it may take a total of four hours . Hatchlings emerge from the nest between August and October with overwintering being rare although entirely possible . An average length of 3 @.@ 65 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 44 in ) , the hatchlings lack the vibrant coloration of the adults . Female wood turtles in general lay one clutch per year and tend to congregate around optimum nesting areas .
The wood turtle , throughout the first years of its life , is a rapid grower . Five years after hatching , it already measures 11 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , at age 16 , it is a full 16 @.@ 5 to 17 centimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) , depending on gender . The wood turtle can be expected to live for 40 years in the wild , with captives living up to 58 years .
= = Conservation = =
Despite many sightings and a seemingly large and diverse distribution , wood turtle numbers are in decline . A large number of deaths caused by humans result from : habitat destruction , farming accidents , and road traffic . Also , it is commonly collected illegally for the international pet trade . These combined threats have caused many areas where they live to enact laws protecting it . Despite legislation , enforcement of the laws and education of the public regarding the species are minimal .
For proper protection of the wood turtle , in @-@ depth land surveys of its habitat to establish population numbers are needed . One emerging solution to the highway mortality problem , which primarily affects nesting females , is the construction of under @-@ road channels . These tunnels allow the wood turtle to pass under the road , a solution that helps prevent accidental deaths . Brochures and other media that warn people to avoid keeping the wood turtle as a pet are currently being distributed . Next , leaving nests undisturbed , especially common nesting sites and populations , is the best solution to enable the wood turtle 's survival .
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= Iowa Highway 25 =
Iowa Highway 25 ( Iowa 25 ) is a north – south highway in the southwest and west @-@ central portion of the state . It begins at Iowa 2 seven miles ( 11 km ) south of Clearfield . It heads north along a two @-@ lane road through Creston , Greenfield , and Guthrie Center on its way to its northern end at U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) near Scranton .
Iowa 25 was created in 1926 as a replacement for Primary Road No. 16 , which was redesignated further east . It originally connected US 30 to US 34 in Creston . In the early 1930s , it was extended south to Blockton by absorbing all of Iowa 184 . By the end of the 1930s , the highway reached the Missouri state line , where it ended for over 40 years . In the late 1970s and early 1980s , the highway south of Iowa 2 was turned over to local jurisdictions .
= = Route description = =
Iowa 25 begins at a T intersection with Iowa 2 along the Taylor – Ringgold county line south of Clearfield . Eastbound Iowa 2 comes from the south along the county line and turns east into Ringgold County while Iowa 25 heads north from the intersection along the county line . It passes through Clearfield , which lies in Taylor County , and continues north towards the quadripoint of Taylor , Adams , Union , and Ringgold counties ( counter @-@ clockwise from the southwest ) .
North of the quadripoint , Iowa 25 runs along the Adams – Union county line . It crosses the Platte River south of the unincorporated community of Kent . North of Kent , the highway meets U.S. Route 34 ( US 34 ) and the two routes head east together towards Creston . Shortly after crossing into Union County , the two routes turn to the northeast . In southern Creston , the two routes split with US 34 continuing to the east and Iowa 25 heading north along Sumner Street through the western part of town . Near Southwestern Community College , the route turns to the west along Townline Road . It crosses Summit Lake , a reservoir created by damming the Platte River . West of Summit Lake , the highway turns 90 degrees to the north and passes close to Green Valley State Park .
Iowa 25 crosses into Adair County near the source of the East Nodaway River . At Orient , the highway turns to the west , but west of the town , it turns back to the north . It heads through rural Adair County , occasionally passing a roadside farmhouse . The highway enters Greenfield on the town 's eastern side and intersects Iowa 92 . The section of the route from Creston to Greenfield is part of the Mormon Pioneer Trail , which roughly marks the trail used by Mormons on their exodus to Utah . North of Greenfield , Iowa 25 passes through land equally as rural as that south of the town . In the northern part of the county , the highway passes Freedom Rock , a large boulder painted every year to honor U.S. veterans and their families . Just north of Freedom Rock , it meets Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and US 6 at a diamond interchange adjacent to a golf course .
North of the interchange , Iowa 25 enters Guthrie County and briefly overlaps part of the White Pole Road by heading west towards Casey . The concurrency ends as the White Pole Road curves to the southwest while Iowa 25 turns to the north . Continuing north through the rolling hills of Guthrie County , Iowa 25 eases to the west through a series of S curves which aligns the road with 5th Street , the main north – south road in Guthrie Center . Just before it enters the city , the highway crosses the South Raccoon River . In downtown Guthrie Center , it meets Iowa 44 at a four @-@ way stop . North of Guthrie Center , the highway crosses Brushy Creek , a tributary of the South Raccoon River . Near Springbrook State Park , it crosses the Middle Raccoon River . Further north , between the communities of Bayard and Bagley , Iowa 25 intersects Iowa 141 . The two routes head west towards Bayard and split on the eastern side of town .
North of Bayard , Iowa 25 crosses into Greene County , the final county through which it passes . The highway heads due north through farmland , passing a few houses along the way to Scranton . Just south of Scranton , it picks up the Lincoln Highway Heritage Byway , a designation it carries to its end . The route goes through the west side of Scranton and continues north to its endpoint at US 30 . North of US 30 , the roadway becomes County Road N65 ( CR N65 ) , which carries the Lincoln Highway Heritage Byway .
= = History = =
The original Primary Road No. 25 was designated with the rest of the Iowa Primary Highway System in 1920 . It spanned 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Adel to Winterset . This designation only lasted a few years ; it was absorbed by Primary Road No. 16 in 1926 . When the Adel – to – Winterset route changed numbers in 1926 , it was not paved at all , but the segment in Madison County was graded , the first step in becoming a paved road .
The second iteration of Iowa 25 was created in 1925 during the time when the Iowa State Highway Commission was designating the new U.S. Highway System on the state 's primary road network . In order to avoid driver confusion , the commission reorganized various route numbers to simplify the system and to remove any duplicated numbers , i.e. US 30 and Primary Road No. 30 . Interestingly , Iowa 25 was allocated along a section of former Primary Road No. 16 from Scranton to Creston . Iowa 16 was rerouted to the east , absorbing all of the previous incarnation of Primary Road No. 25 .
A few years later , the highway commission created Iowa 184 , which ran from US 34 south to Blockton . In early 1933 , Iowa 25 was extended southward along US 34 and absorbed all of Iowa 184 . In 1938 , it was extended an additional four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the Missouri state line . Iowa 357 was created as a short spur route into Blockton .
Iowa 25 stayed largely the same for over 40 years . By 1980 , it was truncated at County Road J55 ( formerly Iowa 357 ) near Blockton . Two years later , it trimmed back to its northern junction with Iowa 2 , where it remains today .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
Iowa 184 was the 27 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 43 km ) route that connected Blockton to US 34 . It was designated in 1931 and absorbed into Iowa 25 two years later .
Iowa 357 was a short spur that entered Blockton after Iowa 25 was extended to the Missouri state line in 1938 . It was turned over to Taylor County in 1964 .
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= Office of Strategic Influence ( album ) =
Office of Strategic Influence is the first album by American progressive rock band OSI , released by InsideOut Music on February 18 , 2003 . The album was recorded in June 2002 and mixed in August 2002 at the Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut .
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally recruited Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on a progressive metal album . When keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore ( founder of Chroma Key and former Dream Theater member ) joined the project , the musical direction of the album changed to become more focused on soundscapes and composition than musicianship . Sean Malone ( of Cynic and Gordian Knot ) and Steven Wilson ( of Porcupine Tree ) also performed on the album .
The album is named after the Office of Strategic Influence , an organization set up after the September 11 attacks to spread misinformation and plant false news items in the media , among other functions . The Office was shut after The New York Times published a story on it ; many of its operations were transferred to the Information Operations Task Force . The album 's lyrics were written by Moore in reaction to the September 11 attacks .
Critical reception of the album was generally positive , praising the band 's musicianship . Critics compared the band 's sound to Porcupine Tree . Portnoy was ultimately dissatisfied with the experience of making the album . He performed on the second OSI album , Free , but was replaced by Gavin Harrison for Blood , the band 's third album .
= = Background = =
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally started work on Office of Strategic Influence as a side project while his bandmates took a break before starting work on their next album . Matheos decided to work with Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy because the two had wanted to work on a project together for some time . They originally planned to form a supergroup , envisaging the album as " straight prog metal " .
Matheos spent seven months writing material for the album . He then sent Kevin Moore ( who was living in Costa Rica ) some MP3 files of the music he had written and asked him to write some keyboard parts . Moore ( known as a founding member of Dream Theater and for his solo career as Chroma Key ) had previously performed on three Fates Warning albums , and Matheos was expecting him to write keyboard parts as he had for the Fates Warning album . Instead , Moore " messed with [ Matheos ' ] tracks and switched things around and put vocals to it and stuff like that . " He said that he no longer considered the keyboard , bass and guitar parts separate from each other : " I don 't write like that any more as much as I 'm composing a whole song . " The resulting track would become " Hello , Helicopter ! "
Moore emailed his work back to Matheos , who was " pleasantly surprised " to be sent something completely different from what he expected . Matheos wanted to create a heavy album ; before deciding to takes Moore 's ideas further , Matheos and Moore wrote what would become " OSI " . Moore said that after that , " [ Matheos ] was pretty much comfortable with whatever I wanted to do . " This new song format was very different from what Portnoy and Matheos originally planned : the already @-@ written long tracks were split into multiple short songs , closer to Moore 's project Chroma Key than traditional progressive metal . " The Thing That Never Was " , a track on the bonus disc , shows the direction Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to take the album in .
Matheos and Portnoy initially considered having a different vocalist perform on each track ; this idea was scrapped as they decided the constant change in vocalist would disrupt the flow of the album . Vocalists considered included Steve Walsh , Steve Hogarth , Steven Wilson and John Arch . Portnoy particularly pushed for Daniel Gildenlöw to sing on the album . Early on in the album 's production , Gildenlöw wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics for two songs and completely wrote another song . Matheos liked Gildenlöw 's ideas , but did not want to take the music in the same direction Gildenlöw did . Moore ended up performing most of the vocals on the album . In order to keep the album from becoming too similar to Chroma Key , Matheos and Portnoy decided to feature a guest vocalist on one track . Steven Wilson ( of Porcupine Tree ) wrote lyrics and performed vocals on the track " ShutDOWN " . He was chosen because his music in Porcupine Tree was similar in style to the music on the album . Portnoy also credited Wilson as " a pioneer of his genre " .
Bassist Sean Malone ( of Cynic and Gordian Knot ) was only credited as a guest musician . Portnoy explained that this was because Malone 's schedule did not allow him to join Matheos , Moore and Portnoy in the basic tracking sessions .
= = Recording = =
Office of Strategic Influence was recorded at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut from June 2 to June 9 , 2002 . Matheos and Moore mixed the album with Phil Magnotti ( who had previously mixed for Fates Warning ) in August . Portnoy pushed to get as much of the band together as possible for the main tracking sessions because of his dislike of " side projects done through mail . "
Matheos and Moore created the basic song ideas in Pro Tools . Songs in the progressive metal vein were almost entirely written by Matheos , while Moore had more influence on the more vocal @-@ driven tracks . Portnoy noted that they were ultimately " Jim 's songs " , but that Moore was very involved with arrangements , post @-@ production , melodies and lyrics . Portnoy considered himself as " just a drummer " : he made minor arrangement suggestions but did not have a part in the actual writing . Malone and Wilson contributed their parts after the songs had been arranged . Matheos saved any unused ideas for the next Fates Warning album .
Sean Malone said that he enjoyed playing on the album , but that " it would have been nice to work out parts with Mike as they were being recorded rather than after the fact " . He took a " session approach " to the album , " trying as much as possible to create parts that fit what Jim et al had created , versus trying to impose anything upon it " . He was sent MIDI bass parts for each song which served as a guideline . For the particularly sparse and texture @-@ heavy tracks , Malone did lots of doubletracking to create " a natural kind of chorusing " he prefers to any digital effects .
Before the recording of Office of Strategic Influence , the last time Moore and Portnoy worked together was on Dream Theater 's Awake in 1994 . Matheos was initially concerned about how Moore and Portnoy would feel about working together for the first time in eight years . Moore noted that he and Portnoy were not on bad terms , but " just weren 't in touch . " The two both described the experience as initially " awkward " . When recording the album Portnoy had to take directions from others ; he found this difficult as he was used to taking the creative lead . Moore noted that there was tension when recording the same drum part for a song more than once ( in order to give Moore choice later on ) : " He 's used to just playing the stroke once , the way he wants to , " he said .
In a 2009 interview , Portnoy blamed his frustration with the project on Moore :
Portnoy performed as a session musician on the second OSI album , Free , but was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison for the third album , Blood .
= = Music = =
Moore described the music on Office of Strategic Influence as " a new approach to progressive rock " , stating that he could use his musical roots in progressive music but " was far enough away from it to play with it . " He said that " progressive rock has been around for so long and we have to stop taking it so seriously and really have fun with it . " Portnoy described the album as " more soundscapish " than his work in Dream Theater , focusing more on composition and sounds than musicianship . He noted the style " would never work in Dream Theater . "
Moore wrote lyrics for the album by " mumbling along to the song and then deciphering what I 'm saying . " The lyrics feature political themes ( " Hello , Helicopter ! " is about the US supplying military arsenals to other countries to protect its own national interests ) , although Matheos stated that the album was not political in nature . Moore said that he writes lyrics based on personal experiences , and that much of the album 's lyrical content stems from how the September 11 attacks affected him . Moore 's brother was a firefighter who worked at the World Trade Center after the attacks , " and I was totally apolitical before this , politically naïve and I still am , " Moore stated . " I was like , ' Whoa , what the fuck is going on in the world ? ' "
Office of Strategic Influence features Moore 's signature use of spoke word samples . He collected samples first and then tried to match them with the song 's tempo . Moore said that the samples relate directly to the song 's lyrics .
Matheos listed his influences as progressive rock bands such as Genesis , Jethro Tull and Emerson , Lake & Palmer and heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath , UFO and Uriah Heep . Moore described his influences as minimal techno , experimental electronic musicians and " bands that play live and then chop it up " . He specifically named Pole , The Gordons and Acid Undertones as influences . Malone cited Mick Karn as an influence .
= = Release and promotion = =
Moore chose the album 's name from a list of band , album and song names he kept . The Office of Strategic Influence was a highly secret organization set up three weeks after the September 11 attacks . Part of its mission was to spread misinformation and plant false news items in the media in order to " influence the hearts and minds of the opposition . " After The New York Times ran a story on the Office in February 2002 , it was forced to shut , although many of its operations were later transferred to the Information Operations Task Force . " The funny thing about it was the government and administration was saying it 's so embarrassing that they had to name it the ' Office of Strategic Influence , ' we couldn 't just put it in a room in the Pentagon and name it whatever the room number is , " Moore said . " Someone decided to be really creative about it and name it what it really is . "
The limited edition bonus CD features three bonus tracks on it . There are two cover songs : a cover of the Pink Floyd song " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " performed by Moore and Portnoy , chosen because they both " love Pink Floyd " , according to Portnoy , and a cover of the Neil Young song " New Mama " performed by Moore . The third track , entitled " The Thing That Never Was " , is a seventeen @-@ minute instrumental performed by Matheos and Portnoy , showing the original direction they intended to take the album in . The CD contains a 19 @-@ minute multimedia section , including two documentary @-@ style videos shot during the album 's recording , and a music video for the track " Horseshoes and B @-@ 52s " directed by Moore .
Matheos suggested using an altered version of the United States passport for the album 's cover art . The differences are that the arrows are double @-@ headed , the olive branch is wilted , and the eagle 's wings have been clipped . Matheos , Moore and Portnoy decided against sending out promotional copies of the album before its release date in order to prevent an early Internet leak of it . The album was released in Europe on February 17 , 2003 .
= = Reception = =
Office of Strategic Influence was critically well received . Keith Gordon of Allmusic praised the album as " offering both power and pomp . " Tommy Hash of Prog4you.com described the music as " catchy , complete with great melodies and musicianship that does not overdo it . " He described the album as " almost in complete contrast to the parent bands ' other related side projects , " such as Liquid Tension Experiment and Transatlantic . John Bollenberg of ProgressiveWorld.net praised Matheos , Moore and Portnoy for " [ starting ] from scratch without copying their past in order to deliver something fresh , new and exciting . "
Hash described the album as having " the atmosphere of some of the mid @-@ 90s to the latter era Fates Warning fused with industrial sounding elements and sound effects that create an ambient effect . " Gordon described the music as similar to Pink Floyd , King Crimson and Max Vague . Bollenberg noted " the material on Office Of Strategic Influence gets closer to Moore 's very own Chroma Key mixed with dashes of latterday Porcupine Tree ... there are bits and bobs all over the album that could easily have fit on In Absentia . " Ed Sander of DPRP compared the album 's sound to that of Porcupine Tree : " the album features both the dreaminess of some early Porcupine Tree material , as well as the aggressive riff based approach of tracks like ' Up The Downstair ' , ' Signify ' and ' Wedding Nails ' and other trademark Tree elements like distorted vocals and catchy bass parts . " He noted the music was " more based around catchy dark riffs in the Porcupine Tree vein then on self @-@ indulging fast @-@ finger guitar or keyboard solos . " Sander stated that the use of spoken word samples reminded him of Dark Star .
Gordon described the performances on the album as " crackling with electricity and passion " . He lauded Matheos ' performance on the album : " In any other subgenre of rock , Matheos would be a guitar hero on the order of Steve Vai or Eddie Van Halen , the Fates Warning frontman capable of both classically styled acoustic craftsmanship and chaotic metallic riffing , often in the context of the same song . " He praised Malone and Portnoy for " [ holding ] down the bottom line with rock @-@ solid rhythms . " Sander compared some of Malone 's bass parts to those in Ozric Tentacles . While noting that Portnoy " rather sticks to ' plain ' drumming , " he commended the drummer 's performance , praising his use of ethnic percussion to give the album " an original twist " .
Gordon praised Moore for " providing an instrumental counterpoint to Matheos ' raging guitar . Moore 's imaginative style and natural skill coax a myriad of sounds from his instrument to challenge Matheos in the mix . " Sander noted Moore 's contribution , saying that " at times there 's more technology and electronics than in the average house release . " Bollenberg noted that Moore 's keyboards added " textures flirting with semi @-@ industrial patches and often being closer to Nine Inch Nails than ' vintage ' melodic prog . " Hash praised Moore 's vocals , noting they " fit in well with all of the instrumental textures " . In contrast , Sander criticized Moore 's voice as " dull " : " the many added distortion and echo effects cannot always make it more interesting . His voice is okay for one or two tracks ... but it 's too flat to keep you tied to the speakers for much longer . " He cited Moore 's vocals as the main weakness of some tracks .
Sander considered " ShutDOWN " as " the absolute highlight of the album " , comparing it to the Porcupine Tree track " Russia on Ice " . Bollenberg listed his favorite track as " Hello , Helicopter ! " : " it once again gets so very close to authentic Porcupine Tree with Portnoy introducing some tribal rhythms that go ever so well with the rest of the material . I simply melt once that superb sound of the Fender Rhodes enters , taking turns with synthesizer tweaks . " Gordon described the instrumental parts of the album as " powerful and purposeful : an integral part of each composition rather than an excuse to merely ' jam . ' " Sander praised the tracks " The New Math " and " Dirt from a Holy Place " , but criticized the more experimental " Horseshoes and B @-@ 52s " : " to me it sometimes sounds like some random cutting and pasting was done on this track , leaving out a couple of seconds here and there . " He criticized the track 's video as " nearly unbearable to watch . If some video games are bad for people with epilepsy , this video is going to instantly kill them . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore , except where noted .
= = = Limited edition bonus CD = = =
= = Personnel = =
Jim Matheos – guitars , keyboards , programming , producer , engineering
Kevin Moore – vocals , keyboards , programming , producer
Sean Malone – bass guitar , Chapman stick
Mike Portnoy – drums
Steven Wilson – vocals on " ShutDOWN "
Produced by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore
Mixed by Phil Magnotti
Engineered by Phil Magnotti , Steven Wilson , Sean Malone and Jim Matheos
= = Chart positions = =
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