page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C ) |
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P ) |
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O ) |
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q ) |
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ ) |
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the competition in the third round , receiving a bye as a Premier League club . Their opening match was a 2 – 0 home win against Cardiff City on 7 January 2006 , with both goals scored by Pirès . Arsenal faced Bolton Wanderers the following round ; an understrength team lost 1 – 0 after Giannakopulos headed in the winning goal , six minutes from the end of the match .
= = Football League Cup = =
Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round , where they were drawn away to Sunderland . A 3 – 0 victory meant they progressed to the fourth round , where they beat First Division club Reading by an identical scoreline . Extra time and penalties was required in Arsenal 's fifth round tie against Doncaster Rovers , after a 2 – 2 draw in 90 minutes . Two saves by goalkeeper Manuel Almunia helped Arsenal win 3 – 1 on penalties and reach the semi @-@ finals of the competition for the first time since 1998 . They faced Wigan Athletic , losing 1 – 0 in the first leg and in spite of winning the second leg 2 – 1 with a full strength team , Arsenal was eliminated on aggregate score .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2005 – 06 season on virtue of finishing runners @-@ up in the Premier League the preceding season . They were drawn in Group B , along with Swiss ' Thun , Czech club Sparta Prague and Ajax of the Netherlands . In spite of Van Persie 's dismissal against Thun in the opening group match , Arsenal won 2 – 1 , courtesy of a late goal by substitute Bergkamp . A 2 – 1 win against Ajax was followed by a 2 – 0 victory against Sparta Prague ; Henry scored both goals to surpass Ian Wright 's all @-@ time leading scorer record . A goal from Henry and two from Van Persie in the reverse fixture meant the club reached the knockout stages . A win at Thun on 22 November 2005 ensured Arsenal topped the group ; they ended the group stages with a draw at Highbury against Ajax .
= = = Knockout phase = = =
= = = = First knockout round = = = =
The club faced Real Madrid in the last 16 – the first encounter between both clubs in the competition . A solo goal by Henry at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg , inflicted the home team 's first defeat in 18 Champions League matches . A disciplined display at home a fortnight after helped Arsenal to reach the quarter @-@ finals and become the sole English representative left in the competition .
= = = = Quarter @-@ finals = = = =
At home to Juventus , Arsenal won 2 – 0 with goals from Fàbregas and Henry ; the match was overshadowed by the return of former captain Vieira . A goalless draw at the Stadio delle Alpi meant the club progressed into the semi @-@ finals against Villarreal .
= = = = Semi @-@ finals = = = =
In the club 's final European match at Highbury , Touré scored a first @-@ half goal to give Arsenal a 1 – 0 win . A late penalty save by goalkeeper Lehmann in the second leg helped Arsenal become the first London club to reach a Champions League final . The result , another goalless draw was Arsenal 's tenth cleansheet in a row – a new competition record . Campbell , returning from injury praised the team performance in his post @-@ match interview : " It 's brilliant for us . It 's also great for the manager Arsène Wenger to get to the final in France – I 'm sure he will get a great reception . "
= = = = Final = = = =
In the final against Barcelona at the Stade de France in Saint @-@ Denis , Paris , Arsenal fielded a 4 – 5 – 1 formation , with Eboué replacing the injured Lauren , and Cole making a return at left @-@ back for Flamini .
Lehmann was sent off in 18th minute for a professional foul on striker Samuel Eto 'o . Wenger reacted by substituting Pirès for goalkeeper Manuel Almunia , altering the formation . In spite of the disadvantage , Arsenal took the lead in the 37th minute , after Henry 's free kick was headed in by Campbell . Henry missed a chance in the second half to give Arsenal a two @-@ nil lead before Eto 'o equalised with 14 minutes left . Substitute Henrik Larsson set up Juliano Belletti to score the winner for Barcelona . Wenger used his post @-@ match press conference to criticise referee Terje Hauge for sending off Lehmann , a view later shared by club captain Henry and FIFA president Sepp Blatter .
= = Squad statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 34 players during the 2005 – 06 season and there were 16 different goalscorers . There were also six squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation for much of the season , though Wenger deployed a 4 – 5 – 1 formation in Europe – a five @-@ man midfield with Ljungberg playing behind the main striker Henry . Fàbregas featured in 50 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign ; Lehmann started in all 38 league matches .
The team scored a total of 90 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Henry , with 33 goals , followed by Van Persie who scored 12 goals . Four Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Lehmann , Fàbregas , Van Persie and Gilberto .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season . Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with Arsenal .
Source :
|
= Cliff Alexander =
Cliff Alexander ( born November 16 , 1995 ) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He completed his freshman season at the University of Kansas for the Jayhawks ' on their 2014 – 15 team . He declared himself eligible for the 2015 NBA draft but was undrafted .
He played in high school at Curie High School in Chicago where he won Naismith and Mr. Basketball USA recognition as national player of the year . He did not play organized basketball until eighth grade , but by late in his freshman season he became a notable contributor to his high school 's varsity team . He was ranked among the top 20 prospects in the national class of 2014 prior to his sophomore season . As a junior , he moved into the top 10 of the national class and was recognized as an All @-@ American . By the beginning of his senior season , he was considered to be a top 5 player by most talent evaluators and his stock was still on the rise . Following a Martin Luther King Day performance during his senior year against the number one team in the country , many experts considered him to be the best player in the national class of 2014 .
In 2013 , he represented USA Basketball in international play . Several talent scouts praised his powerful game . As a high schooler , Alexander felt he was most often compared to Amar 'e Stoudemire . He was also contrasted with crosstown rival Jahlil Okafor , especially as a senior when they vied for national attention . Alexander was heavily recruited by many top Division I basketball programs and his recruitment was widely followed . He played in the 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game , 2014 Jordan Brand Classic and the 2014 Nike Hoop Summit , earning co @-@ MVP of the Jordan Brand Classic . Alexander led Curie to the 2014 Chicago Public High School League city championship in a quadruple @-@ overtime game against Okafor that was the lead story on SportsCenter . The championship was later forfeited . As a freshman with Kansas , he did not play in the latter part of the season after the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) launched an investigation into his eligibility .
= = High school career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Alexander , who was also a highly regarded football player , did not play organized basketball until eighth grade . Alexander played on Curie 's 2010 – 11 varsity team as a freshman , but had little impact at first and sat out some games in December . He missed the first ten games due to a heart murmur . In late December , he started getting local attention as part of the reason Curie remained undefeated . During the Chicago Public High School League ( CPL ) and Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) playoffs , he contributed significant performances . On March 9 , 2011 , Curie was eliminated from the IHSA playoffs in a Class 4A sectional semifinal by Lyons Township High School as freshman Alexander posted 9 points , 13 rebounds , and 2 blocks in a 66 – 64 loss . His late @-@ season contributions gave Curie an added dimension , as the team finished with a 28 – 3 record . Following his freshman season , Alexander began to be recognized by local evaluators as a potential top national recruit . After Jabari Parker and Jahlil Okafor , Alexander was already considered the best Chicago area basketball prospect . He earned Red @-@ Central all @-@ conference recognition .
= = = Sophomore = = =
As late as August 2011 , Alexander remained unrecognized by most national evaluators . However , as Alexander entered his sophomore season , he was one of three area prospects that were firmly among the national class of 2014 's top 25 prospects ( along with Whitney M. Young Magnet High School teammates Okafor and Paul White ) . As of September 1 , 2011 Alexander was ranked 13 by ESPN.com and 9 by Rivals.com. On December 30 in the Pontiac Holiday Tournament , Parker 's Simeon Career Academy defeated Alexander 's Curie 44 – 27 as Alexander was almost shut out by Simeon 's Steve Taylor . On January 22 , 2013 , Okafor and Alexander went head to head in CPL play . Curie defeated Young by a 57 – 46 margin as Alexander had 10 points , six rebounds and three blocks before having a personal foul disqualification . Despite fouling out , Alexander had the better game with nearly a dozen Division I programs in attendance . Curie had a rematch against Simeon in the February 17 CPL championship game with Alexander again being ineffective on offense with four points against Parker and Taylor as Curie lost 53 – 49 . The game broadcast on ESPN3 . Following the season , a statewide panel of sportswriters and broadcaster voted Alexander as an Associated Press boys basketball Class 4A all @-@ state honorable mention honoree .
= = = Junior = = =
At the June 2012 Pangos All @-@ American Camp , Alexander was selected as the Most Outstanding Player . Alexander , who was already a top 5 recruit according to some sources , endured a Summer 2012 foot injury that sidelined him . By mid @-@ July 2012 , as ESPN 's number 10 ranked prospect , he received an offer from Kentucky and was being recruited by DePaul , Indiana , Ohio State and Wisconsin . Upon receiving his offer from Kentucky , he told Rivals.com that his two leading schools were Kentucky and Michigan State .
By the fall of his junior season , the Illinois class of 2014 was being mentioned as one of the all @-@ time great statewide classes of basketball players . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Joe Henricksen noted that there was a high chance that this would be the fifth Illinois class and first since 2002 to include three McDonald 's All @-@ Americans . He also noted that the class has a chance to rival if not surpass the classes of 1998 and 2011 which each had nine top 100 players .
On November 30 , at a Draffenville , Kentucky tournament game against Oak Hill Academy , Alexander scored 26 of his teams 39 points on 12 – 14 field goal shooting in a 72 – 39 defeat . On December 29 , Curie again faced Parker and Simeon in the Pontiac Holiday Tournament ( this time in the semifinals ) . Alexander posted 21 points on 9 – 10 field goal shooting , but Simeon still prevailed 62 – 57 . Notably , Parker assumed Alexander as a defensive assignment after Alexander gave Curie a 48 – 47 lead with 4 : 58 time remaining and Alexander went scoreless the rest of the game . Despite 11 points , 9 rebounds and 8 blocked shots from Alexander , Curie was eliminated from the CPL playoffs in a February 11 quarterfinals 60 – 58 loss to the Billy Garrett , Jr.-led Morgan Park High School that went on to become 2013 IHSA Class 3A state champion . On February 26 , the Associated Press Illinois Class 4A basketball rankings showed Whitney Young at number 1 , and it was also expected that Young 's road to the sectional finals would include a March 6 meeting with Curie . According to Henricksen , the March 6 state playoff meeting between Young and Curie was anticipated because it would pit Okafor against Alexander , making it the most highly touted IHSA playoff matchup of centers since 1988 when LaPhonso Ellis led East Saint Louis ' Lincoln High School against Eric Anderson 's St. Francis de Sales High School . Mike Helfgot of the Chicago Tribune said that there have not been many matchups between big men this good with so much at stake . On March 2 , Alexander attended Senior night at University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign 's Assembly Hall . The February 2013 Great Plains blizzard caused controversial postponements of several IHSA games including the March 6 Young @-@ Curie game , which was delayed one day . Young defeated Curie 62 – 58 as the supporting cast made up for Alexander 's 14 – 13 scoring edge over Okafor .
In late April 2013 , Okafor 's father believed it was very possible that Okafor and Tyus Jones would matriculate together as a package . By late April 2013 , there were rumors that Alexander and Justise Winslow would attend whatever school Jones and Okafor attended . Although Alexander was ranked as the fifth best player in the class of 2014 by Rivals.com and had offers from four of the six schools common to Jones and Okafor by the beginning of June , he said the chances of him matriculating with Jones and Okafor was slim .
Alexander was recognized as a 2013 All @-@ CPL first team selection by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times along with Parker , Okafor , Kendrick Nunn and Garrett . Alexander was recognized as an Associated Press All @-@ State Class 4A first team selection along with Parker , Okafor , Malcolm Hill and Sterling Brown . The Chicago Tribune named him to its All @-@ State first team along with Parker , Okafor , Jalen Brunson and Tyler Ulis . Alexander was one of five underclassmen selected by HighSchoolHardwood.com as an All @-@ American , along with Okafor , Jones and Stanley Johnson ( all first team ) and Joel Berry ( second team along with Alexander ) .
= = = Senior = = =
= = = = Summer and preseason = = = =
Alexander has become a member of the Mac Irvin Fire AAU team along with Okafor . During the Nike @-@ backed Pro @-@ Am summer basketball Chi @-@ League Alexander , Okafor and Parker were on the same team . He showed potential that LeBron James himself noticed at the July LeBron James Skills Academy . He also stood out at the July Under Armour Summa Jam , where his Mac Irvin Fire opposed teams led by Myles Turner and Karl @-@ Anthony Towns . On September 4 , 2013 , Rivals.com updated their ranking with Alexander maintaining his number 4 ranking . At the time , Eric Bossi of Rivals described Alexander as " perhaps the most powerful player in the high school ranks " .
In September , Alexander believed that he would make his final selection with a December verbal commitment and an April signing of his National Letter of Intent . On October 7 , the Hoophall Classic schedule was announced and Curie was scheduled to play Montverde Academy on January 20 . By some accounts Kansas was a favorite because his girlfriend was a student at Kansas and the 2013 – 14 Kansas Jayhawks were scheduled to play the 2013 – 14 Duke Blue Devils at Chicago 's United Center in the ESPN Champions Classic on November 12 just before his scheduled announcement . In 2013 Caelynn Manning @-@ Allen became a freshman on the Kansas women 's basketball team . However , Illinois was very excited to be in serious contention for Alexander . It was the first time since Derrick Rose in 2006 that a top 5 prospect was still considering Illinois so late into his senior year and Alexander 's level of interest seemed much higher than Rose 's . Following his Illinois visit , his scheduled announcement date had moved forward to November 15 . On October 31 , Alexander officially eliminated Michigan State from his candidate list , leaving Kansas , Illinois , DePaul and Memphis in contention .
On November 7 Alexander was ranked second behind points leader Emmanuel Mudiay in the Mr. Basketball USA preseason tracker . Although he had only one first place vote on the ten ballots , he was ranked ahead of Okafor and Stanley Johnson who combined for seven first place votes . Alexander and Mudiay were the only players named on 9 of the 10 ballots . The preseason points leader has gone on to win the award in four of the prior five years . His November 15 verbal commitment announcement was scheduled on the same date as Okafor , Jones and Stanley Johnson . According to ESPN , all four were among the top 10 in the national class ( Okafor # 1 , Alexander # 3 , Jones # 4 and Johnson # 9 ) . On the eve of his announcement , Kansas and Illinois were the favorites for his services . He made his verbal commitment on ESPNU to Kansas basketball on November 15 . He was flanked by his father ( Clifton Terry ) and mother ( Latillia Alexander ) . Prior to his senior season , USA Today named him to its 10 @-@ man preseason All @-@ USA team along with Stanley Johnson , Jones , Trey Lyles , Emmanuel Mudiay , Malik Newman , Okafor , Oubre , D 'Angelo Russell , and Turner . Alexander was joined on the Chicago Tribune 's preseason Illinois Mr. Basketball top 5 by Okafor , Brunson , Ulis and Keita Bates @-@ Diop .
= = = = 2013 – 14 regular season = = = =
Alexander posted 22 points , 20 rebounds , and 5 blocks in a December 7 66 – 62 victory at UIC Pavilion against USA Today 's Super 25 number 11 ranked Bishop Gorman High School and its highly touted Stephen Zimmerman . Alexander almost had to serve a one @-@ game suspension from the game due to having been assessed two technical fouls on December 1 against St. Rita High School . Alexander had an impressive start to his season . On December 12 , he posted a triple double against Dunbar High School with 30 points , 24 rebounds , and 15 blocked shots . That week ( December 9 – 17 ) , he earned the Midwest player of the week from StudentSports.com. As a senior , he finally led Curie past three @-@ time defending tournament champion and four @-@ time defending Class 4A state champion Simeon to win the Pontiac Holiday Tournament with 16 points , 16 rebounds , and 6 blocks , earning tournament MVP honors . Even as a top 5 selection , Alexander 's stock continued to rise as a senior , according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Joe Henricksen . Some of the stats that Alexander posted were so impressive as to cause disbelief to some , including Chicago Tribune high school basketball writer Mike Helfgot and several of his associates . In early January , Alexander continued to be a leading contender for national player of the year , holding on to second place in the Mr. Basketball USA race . On January 10 , Alexander led Curie past Villa Angela @-@ St. Joseph High School , which featured Rivals.com Class of 2015 number 10 ranked Carlton Bragg . In the January 20 Hoophall Classic , Alexander led Curie to a victory over D 'Angelo Russell , Ben Simmons and Montverde Academy , the number one rated team in the country . Curie trailed by 9 points entering the fourth quarter , but Alexander had 13 of his 30 points in the final 4 minutes and 30 seconds to key the comeback . Alexander also had 12 rebounds and 5 blocks . Following the game , several writers , including CBS Sports college basketball writer Jeff Borzello said that Alexander has a valid case to present in terms of being the best high school basketball player in the country ( along with Okafor , Turner and Mudiay ) . High school basketball writer Ronnie Flores regards the performance as one of the top 5 performances against a nationally highly rated high school basketball team since the turn of the century , ranking it with Louis Williams ( 2005 ) , Kevin Durant ( 2006 ) , Kevin Love ( 2007 ) and LeBron James ( 2001 ) . The win bolted Curie to the number one ranking in the nation according to StudentSports.com. Alexander 's performance moved him to the top of the rankings in the Mr. Basketball USA midseason tracker . He was ranked first by a wide margin and held the number one position on 7 out of 10 ballots .
= = = = 2014 postseason = = = =
As the CPL playoffs began on February 5 , a February 21 championship game clash between Okafor and Alexander was pondered in the local press after the 32 @-@ team brackets were announced . The CPL playoffs began with victories over Perspectives Charter by 71 – 37 and North Lawndale Charter High School 75 – 63 . Against North Lawndale , Alexander had 27 points , 15 rebounds and 5 blocks . On February 16 , Curie defeated Simeon 71 – 64 . Alexander had 16 points , 12 rebounds , and 6 blocks earning a February 19 CPL semifinals rematch against Hyde Park Academy High School who they have already beaten twice this season . Alexander and Curie won 58 – 56 to reach the anticipated city championship matchup with Young and Okafor at the Jones Convocation Center . Alexander had a triple double with 10 points , 10 rebounds and 10 blocks . The matchup was the most anticipated city championship game since at least 1998 when fellow McDonald 's All @-@ Americans Quentin Richardson of Young and Corey Maggette of Fenwick High School were both top 15 players . On February 20 , Alexander improved his first place total in the Mr. Basketball USA Tracker , holding eight first place and two second place votes . Curie won the city championship 69 – 66 in quadruple overtime as Alexander had 20 points , 14 rebounds and 4 blocks according to Chicago Tribune and Comcast SportsNet , while the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Sports Illustrated credited him with just 12 rebounds . This came against Okafor who had 16 points and 9 , 8 or 4 rebounds before fouling out with 2 : 13 remaining in regulation depending on which of the three sources you believe . The CPL Championship game was attended by Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel and was the lead story on the late edition of SportsCenter . Seven days later , Curie was forced to forfeit all of its wins and the CPL championship due to the academic ineligibility of seven of its players . The title will remain vacant .
Okafor and Alexander vied for a host of local and national player of the year awards , with each winning multiple national player of the year awards . Young and Curie were both in the Marist Class 4A sectional in the 2014 IHSA playoffs and could have met again in the round of sixteen on March 14 if they had both won three regional contests . Despite forfeiting all wins in CPL games , Curie remained eligible to compete in the IHSA playoffs due to differences in eligibility rules . On March 4 , Curie lost their opening IHSA playoff game to 11 – 11 DuSable High School by an 88 – 85 margin in overtime . It marked Curies first loss of the season on the court with Alexander in the lineup . Alexander posted 25 points , 15 rebounds , and 8 blocks despite fouling out in the final minute of regulation time . Curie trailed 13 – 2 early and led 47 – 32 midway through the third quarter . Curie starters Josh and Joseph Stamps were ineligible for IHSA play as was Malik Washington .
In the April 2 , 2014 , McDonald 's All @-@ American Game Alexander posted 9 points and a game @-@ high ( tied with Kevon Looney ) 11 rebounds for the losing east team . In the April 18 Jordan Brand Classic , he was co @-@ MVP ( with Okafor ) . In the game he posted 23 points , 8 rebounds and 5 blocks .
= = = = Awards and honors = = = =
Alexander was selected to the 10 @-@ man Team USA for the 17th annual Nike Hoop Summit on April 12 , 2014 at the Moda Center . He was selected along with fellow Chicagoan Okafor and fellow Kansas commit Oubre . He was also selected to the 24 @-@ player 37th annual April 2 , 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game at the United Center . He was joined as a McDonald 's All @-@ American by fellow Chicagoans Ulis and Okafor as well as Oubre . He was recognized as first team All @-@ City along with Young teammates White and Okafor as well as Louis Adams , Jr. of Orr High School , and Luwane Pipkins of Bogan High School by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . On February 18 , he became one of three finalists for the Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award along with Okafor and Stanley Johnson . On March 7 Alexander won the Chicago Sun @-@ Times Player of the Year as well as the Naismith Player of the Year . On March 10 , he was one of 26 players selected for the April 18 , 2014 Jordan Brand Classic again along with fellow Chicagoans Ulis and Okafor as well as fellow Kansas commit Oubre . He was recognized as one of twenty Parade All @-@ Americans . He was named Associated Press Class 4A 1st team All @-@ state with Okafor , Brunson , Ulis and Sean O 'Mara . Alexander lost out to Okafor in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting by a 492 – 402 vote . He was a USA Today first team All @-@ USA Boys Basketball Team selection along with Okafor , Oubre , Mudiay , and Stanley Johnson . He earned first team All @-@ American recognition from MaxPreps on April 13 . On April 16 , he earned another national player of the year award Mr. Basketball USA .
= = = Comparisons = = =
Prior to his sophomore season , he was considered more raw , but more athletic than Okafor , according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times basketball reporter Joe Henricksen . At that stage in head @-@ to @-@ head competition , Alexander was overmatched by Okafor . Following his sophomore season , Reggie Rose ( Derrick Rose 's brother ) noted that Alexander was more suited toward a fast break offense while Okafor would be more likely to excel in a half @-@ court set . He is also compared to Anthony Bennett , although Alexander needs to improve his outside shooting to make the comparison valid and he needs to improve his low post mastery for a valid comparison to Jared Sullinger . Alexander feels he is most often compared to Amar 'e Stoudemire , which he is comfortable with because he views Stoudemire as someone who " ... can shoot the 15 @-@ footer , put it on the floor , post moves , sets good screens . " NBADraft.net compares Alexander to Thomas Robinson , while Bleacher Report 's Kerry Miller compared him to Robinson and Julius Randle , noting despite his phenomenal physicality , he is undersized to play center and lacking the midrange jump shot necessary to play power forward .
He is known as the type of player likely to get a slam dunk if he gets the ball near the rim . His high dunk frequency is attributed to his multidimensional quickness , intuitive sense for the ball and his " brute physicality " . His " sheer dominance , along with his physical and athletic presence " are what make him a unique talent . At the July 2013 LeBron James Skills Academy , James told him to develop his ballhandling and strength .
Alexander is also compared to local products Jabari Parker and Jahlil Okafor for off the court reasons . Whereas , they have been groomed to think about behaving like future celebrity athletes , Alexander is a star from off the street who has to be reminded of his role now . For example , when WGN named him athlete of the month in December 2013 , they quoted his coach Mike Oliver who said , " People fail to realize ( Simeon and Duke star ) Jabari Parker and ( Duke @-@ bound Young center ) Jahlil Okafor were groomed for this . For Cliff , this came out of nowhere , like a big wind thrown in his face . " As a senior , he and crosstown fellow Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award finalist Okafor were compared by a Chicago Sun @-@ Times photographer as follows : " Okafor is Beverly Hills , Cliff is Inglewood . " because Okafor is known for his polished footwork and finesse , Alexander is known for his dominating power game of dunks and blocks . Sun @-@ Times reporter Michael O 'Brien stated the comparison more eloquently saying that for the next generation area big men will be compared to the duo : " Alexander as the gold standard for speed , power and athleticism ; Okafor for technique , poise and polish . "
= = College career = =
Alexander entered his college career as the Big 12 Conference Preseason Co @-@ Freshmen of the Year ( along with Myles Turner ) according to a vote of the league 's head coaches . In its preseason top 100 player ranking , Alexander was listed at number 27 by ESPN . USA Today named him to its Preseason All @-@ American third team and NBCSports.com named him as an honorable mention for its Preseason All @-@ American team . He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate and a Wayman Tisdale Award Watch list selection . Alexander was also included in the early December Naismith Award top 50 watch list .
Alexander began the season coming off the bench . On November 24 , Alexander had his first double @-@ digit output with 10 points against Rider . In the 2014 Orlando Classic semifinals against Tennessee on November 28 , he posted 16 points . Then in the finals against # 20 Michigan State on November 30 , he contributed 4 blocks . On December 5 during the Big 12 / SEC Challenge contest against Florida , Alexander posted a team @-@ high 10 rebounds along with 12 points for his first collegiate double @-@ double . On December 20 , Alexander was expected to be in the starting lineup for the first time against Lafayette , but he was not . However , he started on December 22 against Temple . On January 19 against # 19 Oklahoma , Alexander posted 13 points and 13 rebounds . The 13 rebounds in just 23 minutes played marked a career high for Alexander and an individual season high for the Jayhawks . Alexander was named Big 12 newcomer of the week on January 26 , 2015 . Alexander made his second start of the season on February 10 against Texas Tech , replacing Jamari Traylor in the lineup and posting 10 points , 4 blocks and 5 rebounds . On February 28 , Alexander was inactivated due to an undisclosed NCAA investigation as a precautionary measure . He did not play any games after February 23 because of the investigation of his mother 's initiation of pre @-@ NBA draft loan processing .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Portland Trail Blazers ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = =
On April 7 , in the face of a battle for NCAA reinstatement that saw him miss the last 8 games of the season , Alexander declared for the June 25 , 2015 NBA draft . On May 31 , Alexander suffered a right knee injury in draft workout with the Los Angeles Lakers . After going undrafted , Alexander joined the Brooklyn Nets for the 2015 NBA Summer League . He averaged 6 @.@ 7 rebounds , 0 @.@ 3 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 blocks in 22 minutes per game in the summer league . On July 24 , 2015 , Alexander signed with the Portland Trail Blazers . By the beginning of training camp , Alexander 's injury caused him to be expected to miss two weeks . He was one of five non @-@ guaranteed contract players vying for three roster spots . Alexander missed the entire preseason with the Trail Blazers due to his knee but made the roster and entered the season behind Meyers Leonard , Mason Plumlee , Ed Davis , Noah Vonleh , and Al @-@ Farouq Aminu on the depth chart . Despite minor torn cartilage issues , Alexander was active for the first time on November 8 in Portland 's seventh game of the season . Alexander played 17 minutes on November 15 , posting 4 points , 4 rebounds and a block against Charlotte .
On March 10 , 2016 , using the flexible assignment rule , Alexander was assigned to the Santa Cruz Warriors , the D @-@ League affiliate of the Golden State Warriors . On March 20 , he was recalled by Portland .
On July 7 , 2016 , Alexander was waived by the Trail Blazers . The transaction was a maneuver to create salary cap space for Festus Ezeli . After he cleared waivers , the Trail Blazers added him to its NBA Summer League roster .
= = National team career = =
Alexander was selected by USA Basketball to represent Team USA in the inaugural 2013 FIBA Americas 3x3 U18 Championship in August . He helped the team achieve gold . In the September 26 – 29 , 2013 FIBA 3x3 U18 World Championship in Jakarta , Indonesia , Team USA finished 9th with a 7 – 1 record , losing in the opening round of 16 in the playoffs .
= = Personal life = =
Alexander 's father is 6 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) Clifton Terry , who played basketball for Robeson High School and Kennedy – King College . Following his time at the two @-@ year Kennedy @-@ King , Terry declared for the 2001 NBA draft . His professional career included time in the NBA Development League . Alexander picked up basketball late due to the lack of available safe courts to play on in his Chicago West Side neighborhood known as the Brian Piccolo community .
|
= Good Vibrations =
" Good Vibrations " is a song composed and produced by Brian Wilson with words by Mike Love for the American rock band the Beach Boys . Released as a single in October 1966 , it was an immediate critical and commercial hit , topping record charts in several countries including the US and UK . Characterized for its complex soundscapes , episodic structure , and subversions of pop music formula , it was the most expensive single ever made at the time of its release . " Good Vibrations " later became widely acknowledged as one of the greatest masterpieces of rock music .
Initiated during the sessions for the album Pet Sounds ( 1966 ) , it was not taken from or issued as a lead single for an album , but rather as a stand @-@ alone single , with the Pet Sounds instrumental " Let 's Go Away for Awhile " as a B @-@ side . It was considered for the Smile project , but instead appeared on the album Smiley Smile ( 1967 ) . Most of the song was developed as it was recorded . Its title derived from Wilson 's fascination with cosmic vibrations , after his mother once told him as a child that dogs sometimes bark at people in response to their " bad vibrations " . He used the concept to suggest extrasensory perception , while Love 's lyrics were inspired by the Flower Power movement that was then burgeoning in Southern California .
The making of " Good Vibrations " was unprecedented for any kind of recording , with a total production cost estimated between $ 50 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Building upon the multi @-@ layered approach he had formulated with Pet Sounds , Wilson recorded the song in different sections at four Hollywood studios over an eight month period , resulting in a cut @-@ up mosaic of several musical episodes marked by disjunctive key and modal shifts . Band publicist Derek Taylor dubbed the unusual work a " pocket symphony " . It contained previously untried mixes of instruments , including jaw harp and Electro @-@ Theremin , and was the first pop hit to have a cello playing juddering rhythms .
For " Good Vibrations " , Wilson is credited with further developing the use of the recording studio as an instrument . The single revolutionized rock music from live concert performances to studio productions which could only exist on record , heralding a wave of pop experimentation and the onset of psychedelic and progressive rock . It is also frequently cited for its use of theremin , which led to the instrument 's revival and to an increased interest in analog synthesizers . Its success earned the Beach Boys a Grammy nomination for Best Vocal Group performance in 1966 ; the song was eventually inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1994 . It has featured highly in many charts , being voted number one in the Mojo " Top 100 Records of All Time " chart in 1997 and number six on Rolling Stone 's list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included " Good Vibrations " in its list of the " 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll " .
= = Background = =
The Beach Boys ' leader Brian Wilson was responsible for the musical composition and virtually all of the arrangement for " Good Vibrations " . His cousin and bandmate Mike Love contributed the song 's lyrics and its bass vocalization in the chorus . During the recording sessions for Pet Sounds ( 1966 ) , Wilson began changing his writing process . Rather than going to the studio with a completed song , he would record a track containing a series of chord changes he liked , take an acetate disc home , and then write the song 's melody and lyrics . For " Good Vibrations " , Wilson explains , " I had a lot of unfinished ideas , fragments of music I called ' feels . ' Each feel represented a mood or an emotion I 'd felt , and I planned to fit them together like a mosaic . " Most of the song 's structure and arrangement was written as it was recorded . Engineer Chuck Britz is quoted saying that Wilson considered the song to be " his whole life performance in one track . " Wilson stated : " I was an energetic 23 @-@ year @-@ old . ... I said : ' This is going to be better than [ the Phil Spector production ] ' You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' ' .' "
= = Inspiration and lyricism = =
Brian explained that the song was inspired by his mother : " [ She ] used to tell me about vibrations . I didn 't really understand too much of what it meant when I was just a boy . It scared me , the word ' vibrations ' . She told me about dogs that would bark at people and then not bark at others , that a dog would pick up vibrations from these people that you can 't see , but you can feel . " Brian first enlisted Pet Sounds lyricist Tony Asher for help in putting words to the idea . When Brian presented the song on piano , Asher thought that it had an interesting premise with the potential for hit status , but could not fathom the end result due to Brian 's primitive piano playing style . Asher remembers : " Brian was playing what amounts to the hook of the song : ' Good , good , good , good vibrations ' . He started telling me the story about his mother . ... He said he ’ d always thought that it would be fun to write a song about vibes and picking them up from other people . ... So as we started to work , he played this little rhythmic pattern – a riff on the piano , the thing that goes under the chorus . " Brian wanted to call the song " Good Vibes " , but Asher advised that it was " lightweight use of the language , " suggesting that " Good Vibrations " would sound less " trendy . " The two proceeded to write a lyric for the verses , later to be discarded , in what was then the most basic section of the song .
From the start , Wilson envisioned a theremin for the track . AllMusic reviewer John Bush pointed out : " Radio listeners could easily pick up the link between the title and the obviously electronic riffs sounding in the background of the chorus , but Wilson 's use of the theremin added another delicious parallel – between the single 's theme and its use of an instrument the player never even touched . " At that time , theremins were most associated with the Alfred Hitchcock film Spellbound ( 1945 ) , but its most common presence was in the theme music for the television sitcom My Favorite Martian ( 1963 – 66 ) . Britz speculates : " He just walked in and said , ' I have this new sound for you . ' I think he must have heard the sound somewhere and loved it , and built a song around it . "
Brian has credited his brother and bandmate Carl for suggesting the cello as an instrument to use . He also stated that its triplet beat on the chorus was his own idea , and that it was based on the Crystals ' " Da Doo Ron Ron " ( 1963 ) , produced by Spector . Alternatively , multi @-@ instrumentalist songwriter Van Dyke Parks says that he suggested having the celloist play triplets for Brian . Parks believes that having Brian exploit the cello " to such a hyperbolic degree " was what encouraged the duo to immediately collaborate on the ultimately unfinished album Smile . At some point , Brian asked Parks to pen lyrics for the song , although Parks declined .
Mike Love submitted the final lyrics for " Good Vibrations " , claiming to have written them on the drive to the studio . Love reacted upon hearing the unfinished backing track : " [ It ] was already so avant @-@ garde , especially with the theremin , I wondered how our fans were going to relate to it . How 's this going to go over in the Midwest or Birmingham ? It was such a departure from ' Surfin ' U.S.A. ' or ' Help Me , Rhonda ' . " Feeling that the song could be " the Beach Boys ' psychedelic anthem or flower power offering " , he based the lyrics on the burgeoning psychedelic music and Flower Power movements occurring in San Francisco and some parts of the Los Angeles area . He described the lyrics : " ... just a flowery poem . Kind of almost like ' If you ’ re going to San Francisco be sure to wear flowers in your hair ' . " Writer Bruce Golden observed :
The new pastoral landscape suddenly being uncovered by the young generation provided a quiet , peaceful , harmonious trip into inner space . The hassles and frustrations of the external world were cast aside , and new visions put in their place . " Good Vibrations " succeeds in suggesting the healthy emanations that should result from psychic tranquility and inner peace . The word " vibrations " had been employed by students of Eastern philosophy and acid @-@ heads for a variety of purposes , but Wilson uses it here to suggest a kind of extrasensory experience .
Capitol Records executives were worried that the lyrics contained psychedelic overtones , and Brian is said to have based the song 's production on his LSD experiences . Brian clarified that the song was written under the influence of marijuana , not LSD . He explained : " I made ‘ Good Vibrations ’ on drugs ; I used drugs to make that . ... I learned how to function behind drugs , and it improved my brain ... it made me more rooted in my sanity . " In Steven Gaines ' 1986 biography , Wilson is quoted on the lyrics : " We talked about good vibrations with the song and the idea , and we decided on one hand that you could say … those are sensual things . And then you 'd say , ' I 'm picking up good vibrations , ' which is a contrast against the sensual , the extrasensory perception that we have . That 's what we 're really talking about . " Brian claimed in 2012 that the song 's " gotta keep those good vibrations " bridge was inspired by Stephen Foster . Al Jardine compared the section to Foster 's " Down by the Riverside . " According to Love , the lyric " ' she goes with me to a blossom world ' was originally meant to be followed by the words ' we find , ' " but Brian elected to cut off the line to highlight the bass track linking into the chorus .
= = Recording and production = =
= = = Modular approach = = =
" Good Vibrations " established a new method of operation for Wilson . Instead of working on whole songs with clear large @-@ scale syntactical structures , Wilson limited himself to recording short interchangeable fragments ( or " modules " ) . Through the method of tape splicing , each fragment could then be assembled into a linear sequence , allowing any number of larger structures and divergent moods to be produced at a later time . This was the same modular approach used during the sessions for Smile and Smiley Smile . To mask each tape edit , vast reverb decays were added at the mixing and sub @-@ mixing stages .
For instrumentation , Wilson employed the services of " the Wrecking Crew " , nickname for the conglomerate of session musicians active in Los Angeles at that time . Most pop singles of the time were typically recorded in a day or two , but production for " Good Vibrations " spanned more than a dozen recording sessions at four different Hollywood studios . It was reported to have used over 90 hours of magnetic recording tape , with an eventual budget estimated between $ 50 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , at that time the largest sum ever spent on a single . In comparison , the whole of Pet Sounds had cost $ 70 @,@ 000 ( $ 510 @,@ 000 ) , itself an unusually high cost for an album . According to Wilson , the Electro @-@ Theremin work alone cost $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 110 @,@ 000 ) . It 's said that Wilson was so puzzled by " Good Vibrations " that he would often arrive at a session , consider a few possibilities , and then leave without recording anything , which exacerbated costs .
= = = Development = = =
The instrumental of the first version of the song was recorded on February 17 , 1966 , at Gold Star Studios and was logged as a Pet Sounds session . On that day 's session log , it was given the name " # 1 Untitled " or " Good , Good , Good Vibrations " , but on its master tape , Wilson distinctly states " ' Good Vibrations ' ... take one . " After twenty @-@ six takes , a rough mono mix completed the session . Some additional instruments and rough guide vocals were overdubbed on March 3 .
The original version of " Good Vibrations " contained the characteristics of a " funky rhythm and blues number " and would not yet resemble a " pocket symphony " . There was no cello at this juncture , but the Electro @-@ Theremin was present , played by its inventor Paul Tanner . It was Brian 's second ever recorded use of the instrument , just three days after the Pet Sounds track " I Just Wasn 't Made for These Times " . Brian then placed " Good Vibrations " on hold in order to devote attention to the Pet Sounds album , which saw release on May 16 . More instrumental sections for " Good Vibrations " were recorded between April and June . Brian then forewent additional instrumental tracking until early September , when it was decided to revisit the song 's bridge section and apply Electro @-@ Theremin overdubs .
According to Brian 's then @-@ new friend David Anderle , during an early stage , Brian considered giving " Good Vibrations " to one of the black rhythm and blues groups signed with Warner Bros. Records such as Wilson Pickett , and then at Anderle 's suggestion to singer Danny Hutton . He thought about junking the track , but after receiving encouragement from Anderle , eventually decided on it as the next Beach Boys single . In the meantime , he worked on writing and recording material for the group 's forthcoming album Smile .
The first Beach Boy to hear " Good Vibrations " in a semi @-@ completed form was Carl Wilson , who had previously participated in rough guide vocals with Brian for the initial February mix . Following a performance with the touring group in North Dakota : " I came back up into my hotel room one night and the phone rang . It was Brian on the other end . He called me from the recording studio and played this really bizarre sounding music over the phone . There were drums smashing , that kind of stuff , and then it refined itself and got into the cello . It was a real funky track . " In 1976 , Brian revealed that before the final mixdown , he had been confronted with resistance by members of the group whom Brian declined to name . The subject of their worries and complaints was the song 's length and " modern " sound : " I said no , it 's not going to be too long a record , it 's going to be just right . … They didn 't quite understand what this jumping from studio to studio was all about . And they couldn 't conceive of the record as I did . I saw the record as a totality piece . "
The vocals for " Good Vibrations " were recorded at CBS Columbia Square , starting on August 24 and continuing sporadically until the very last day of assembly on September 21 . The episodic structure of the composition was continuously revised as the group experimented with different ideas . Brian remembers that he began recording the " bop bop good vibrations " parts first , and that he came up with " the high parts " a week later . Mike Love recalled : " I can remember doing 25 – 30 vocal overdubs of the same part , and when I mean the same part , I mean same section of a record , maybe no more than two , three , four , five seconds long . " Dennis Wilson was to have sung the lead vocal , but due to a bout of laryngitis , Carl replaced him at the last minute . In early September , the master tapes for " Good Vibrations " were stolen . Mysteriously , they reappeared inside Brian 's home two days later .
On September 21 , Brian completed the track after Tanner added a final Electro @-@ Theremin overdub . In 1976 he elaborated on the event : " It was at Columbia . I remember I had it right in the sack . I could just feel it when I dubbed it down , made the final mix from the 16 @-@ track down to mono . It was a feeling of power , it was a rush . A feeling of exaltation . Artistic beauty . It was everything … I remember saying , ' Oh my God . Sit back and listen to this ! ' "
= = Composition and analysis = =
There are six unique sections to the piece , as labelled by music theorist Daniel Harrison :
Verse
Refrain ( chorus )
First episodic digression
Second episodic digression
Retro @-@ refrain
Coda
Each section has a distinct musical texture , partly due to the nature of the song 's recording . The track 's instrumentation changes radically from section to section . Music journal Sound on Sound explains : " Typical pop songs of that era ( or indeed any era ) usually have a basic groove running throughout the track which doesn 't change a great deal from start to finish ... pop records were either guitar , bass and drum combos or traditional orchestrated arrangements for vocalists … The exotic instruments , the complex vocal arrangements , and the many dynamic crescendos and decrescendos all combine to set this record apart from most pop music . In short , if there 's an instruction manual for writing and arranging pop songs , this one breaks every rule . " For the AM radio standards of late 1966 , the song 's final runtime ( 3 minutes 35 seconds ) was considered a " very long " duration . Wilson is quoted in 1979 :
It had a lot of riff changes ... movements ... It was a pocket symphony — changes , changes , changes , building harmonies here , drop this voice out , this comes in , bring this echo in , put the theremin here , bring the cello up a little louder here ... It was the biggest production of our lives !
He characterized the song as " advanced rhythm and blues , " while its theremin and cello has been called the song 's " psychedelic ingredient . " In his book discussing music of the counterculture era , James Perrone stated that the song represented a type of impressionistic psychedelia , in particular for its cello playing repeated bass notes and its theremin . Professor of American history John Robert Greene named " Good Vibrations " among examples of psychedelic or acid rock . Stebbins wrote that the song was " replete with sunshine [ and ] psychedelia . " Uncut wrote that " Good Vibrations " was " three minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds of avant @-@ garde pop . " Steve Valdez says that , like Pet Sounds , Brian was attempting a more experimental rock style . It has since been marketed as pop music , " possibly because it comes across relatively innocent compared with the hard @-@ edged rock we have since come to know , " says historian Lorenzo Candelaria . Sound on Sound argues that the song " has as many dramatic changes in mood as a piece of serious classical music lasting more than half an hour " . Tom Roland of American Songwriter described the piece : " with its interlocking segments – a sort of pop version of the classical sonata , consisting of a series of musical movements " . New York Magazine compared it to " a fugue with a rhythmic beat " . John Bush compared the track 's fragmented cut @-@ and @-@ paste style to 1960s experimentalists such as William S. Burroughs .
According to academic Rikky Rooksby , " Good Vibrations " is an example of Brian 's growing interest in musical development within a composition , something antithetical to popular music of the time . Suppressing tonic strength and cadential drive , the song makes use of descending harmonic motions through scale degrees controlled by a single tonic and " radical disjunctions " in key , texture , instrumentation , and mood while refusing to develop into a predictable formal pattern . It instead develops " under its own power , " and " luxuriates in harmonic variety , " exemplified by beginning and ending not only in different keys but also in different modes . Comparing " Good Vibrations " to Brian 's previous work Pet Sounds , biographer Andrew Hickey has said : " [ T ] he best way of thinking about [ the song ] is that it 's taking the lowest common denominator of ' Here Today ' and ' God Only Knows ' and turned the result into an R & B track . We have the same minor @-@ key change between verse and chorus we 've seen throughout Pet Sounds , the same descending scalar chord sequences , the same mobile bass parts , but here , rather than to express melancholy , these things are used in a way that 's as close as Brian Wilson ever got to funky . " Stebbins adds that " unlike Pet Sounds , the chorus of ' Good Vibrations ' projects a definite ' rock and roll ' energy and feel . "
= = = Verses and choruses = = =
" Good Vibrations " begins without introduction in a traditional verse / refrain format , opening with Carl Wilson singing the word " I " , a triplet quaver before the downbeat . The sparse first verse contains a repetition of chords played on a Hammond organ filtered through a Leslie speaker ; underneath is a two @-@ bar Fender bass melody . This sequence repeats once ( 0 : 15 ) , but with the addition of two piccolos sustaining over a falling flute line . For percussion , bongo drums double the bass rhythm and every fourth @-@ beat is struck by either a tambourine or a bass @-@ drum @-@ and @-@ snare combination , in alternation . The beat projects a triplet feel despite being in 4 / 4 time ; this is sometimes called a " shuffle beat " or " threes over fours " . The chord progression used is i – ♭ VII – ♭ VI – V , also called an Andalusian cadence . Although the verses begin in the minor mode of E ♭ , the mode is not used to express sadness or drudgery . Occurring at the very end of these verses is a passing chord , D ♭ .
The refrain ( 0 : 25 ) begins in the newly tonicized relative major G ♭ , which suggests ♭ III . Providing a backdrop to the Electro @-@ Theremin is a cello and string bass playing a bowed tremolo triplet , a feature that was an exceedingly rare effect in pop music . The Fender bass is steady at one note per beat while tom drums and tambourine provide a backbeat . This time , the rhythm is stable , and is split into four 4 @-@ bar sections which gradually build its vocals . The first section consists of only the line " I 'm picking up good vibrations " ; the second adds an " ooo bop bop " figure ; the third adds a " good , good , good , good vibrations " higher harmony . This type of polyphony ( counterpoint ) is also rare in contemporary popular styles . Meanwhile , the song transposes up by two whole steps , ascending from G ♭ to A ♭ and then B ♭ . It then returns to the verse , thus making a perfect cadence back into E ♭ minor . Unusually , when the verse and chorus are repeated , there are no changes to the patterns of its instrumentation and harmony . Normally , a song 's arrangement adds something once it reaches the second verse .
= = = Episodic digressions = = =
The first episode ( 1 : 41 + ) begins disjunctively . The refrain 's B ♭ , which had received a dominant ( V ) charge , is now maintained as a tonic ( I ) . There is harmonic ambiguity , where the chord progression may be either interpreted as I – IV – I ( in B ♭ ) or V – I – V ( in G ♭ ) . Biographer Jon Stebbins says that this section " might be called a bridge under normal circumstances , but the song 's structure takes such an abstract route that traditional labels don 't really apply . " A new sound is created by tack piano , jaw harp , and bass relegated to strong beats which is subsequently ( 1 : 55 ) augmented by a new electric organ , bass harmonica , and sleigh bells shaken on every beat . This section lasts for ten measures ( 6 + 2 + 2 ) , which is unexpectedly long in light of previous patterns .
Another tape splice occurs at 2 : 13 , transitioning to an electric organ playing sustained chords set in the key of F accompanied by a maraca shaken on every beat . Sound on Sound highlights this change as the " most savage edit in the track ... most people would go straight into a big splash hook @-@ line section . Brian Wilson decided to slow the track even further , moving into a 23 @-@ bar section of church organ ... Most arrangers would steer clear of this kind of drop in pace , on the grounds that it would be chart suicide , but not Brian . " Harrison says : " The appearance of episode 1 was unusual enough but could be explained as an extended break between verse and refrain sections . Episode 2 however , makes that interpretation untenable , and both listener and analyst must entertain the idea that ' Good Vibrations ' develops under its own power , as it were , without the guidance of overdetermined formal patterns . Brian ’ s own description of the song — a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute ' pocket symphony ' — is a telling clue about his formal ambitions here . " The slowed pace is complemented by the lyric ( " Gotta keep those loving good vibrations a @-@ happening with her " ) , sung once first as a solo voice , with the melody repeated an octave higher the second time with an accompanying harmony . This two @-@ part vocal fades as a solo harmonica plays a melody on top of the persistent quarter @-@ note bass line and maraca that maintain the only rhythm throughout Episode 2 . The section ends with a five @-@ part harmony vocalizing a whole @-@ note chord that is sustained by reverb for a further 4 beats . Lambert calls it the song 's " wake @-@ up chord at the end of the meditation that transports the concept into a whole new realm : it 's an iconic moment among iconic moments . As it rouses us from a blissful dream and echoes into the silence leading into the chorus , it seems to capture every sound and message the song has to say . "
= = = Retro @-@ refrain and coda = = =
The refrain reappears for an additional five measures , marching through a transpositional structure that begins in B ♭ , repeats at A ♭ , and then ends at G ♭ for an unexpectedly short single measure . There follows a short section of vocalizing in three @-@ part counterpoint that references the original refrain by reproducing upward transposition . However , this time it settles on A ♭ , the concluding key of the song . By the end of " Good Vibrations " , all seven scale degrees of the opening E ♭ -minor tonic are activated on some level .
= = Promotion = =
In July 1966 , an ad was placed in Billboard for the Pet Sounds album which thanked the industry for the sales of their latest album , and that , " We 're moved over the fact that our Pet Sounds brought on nothing but Good Vibrations . " This was the first public hint of the new single . Later in the year , Brian told journalist Tom Nolan that the new Beach Boys single was " about a guy who picks up good vibrations from a girl " and that it would be a " monster " . He then suggested : " It 's still sticking pretty close to that same boy @-@ girl thing , you know , but with a difference . And it 's a start , it 's definitely a start . " Newly employed band publicist Derek Taylor is credited for originally coining the work a " pocket symphony " . He promoted the single stating : " Wilson 's instinctive talents for mixing sounds could most nearly equate to those of the old painters whose special secret was in the blending of their oils . And what is most amazing about all outstanding creative artists is that they are using only those basic materials which are freely available to everyone else . "
To promote the single , four different music videos were shot . The first of these — with Caleb Deschanel as cameraman — features the group at a fire station , sliding down its pole , and roaming the streets of Los Angeles in a fashion comparable to The Monkees . The second features the group during vocal rehearsals at United Western Recorders . The third is footage recorded during the making of The Beach Boys in London , a documentary by Peter Whitehead of their concert performances . The fourth is an alternative edit of the third . Brian also made a rare personal appearance on local television station KHJ @-@ TV for its Teen Rock and Roll Dance Program , introducing the song to its in @-@ studio audience and presenting an exclusive preview of the completed record .
= = Critical reaction and sales = =
On October 15 , 1966 , Billboard predicted that the single would reach the top 20 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart . " Good Vibrations " was the Beach Boys ' third US number one hit after " I Get Around " and " Help Me , Rhonda " , reaching the top of the Hot 100 in December , as well as being their first number one in Britain . It sold over 230 @,@ 000 copies in the US during its first four days of its release and entered the Cash Box chart at number 61 on October 22 . In the UK , the song sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies in the first 15 days of its release . " Good Vibrations " quickly became the Beach Boys ' first million @-@ selling single . In December 1966 , the record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA . After the criteria for a gold record was modified , the RIAA failed to correct the listing , despite " Good Vibrations " being eligible for status as a platinum record as of 2015 . On March 30 , 2016 , the single was certified platinum by the RIAA .
Both New Musical Express and Melody Maker gave positive reviews at the time of the single 's release . Soon after , the Beach Boys were voted the number one band in the world in a readers ' poll conducted by NME , ahead of the Beatles , the Walker Brothers , the Rolling Stones , and the Four Tops . Billboard speculated that this was influenced by the success of " Good Vibrations " , and that " The sensational success of the Beach Boys , however , is being taken as a portent that the popularity of the top British groups of the last three years is past its peak . " In a Danish newspaper , readers ' polls voted Brian the winner of its " best foreign @-@ produced recording award " for the single , its first that the publication awarded to an American . A 1972 New York Magazine article would call the song " harmonically perfect " .
When asked about the song in 1990 , Paul McCartney of the Beatles responded " I thought it was a great record . It didn 't quite have the emotional thing that Pet Sounds had for me . I 've often played Pet Sounds and cried . It 's that kind of an album for me . " Pete Townshend of the Who was quoted in the 1960s saying " ' Good Vibrations ' was probably a good record but who 's to know ? You had to play it about 90 bloody times to even hear what they were singing about , " and feared that the single would lead to a trend of overproduction . In an Arts Magazine issue published in 1966 , Jonathan King said : " With justification , comments are being passed that ' Good Vibrations ' is an inhuman work of art . Computerized pop , mechanized music . Take a machine , feed in various musical instruments , add a catch phrase , stir well , and press seven buttons . It is long and split . ... impressive , fantastic , commercial — yes . Emotional , soul @-@ destroying , shattering — no . " In the 2000s , record producer Phil Spector criticized the single for depending too much on tape manipulation , negatively referring to it as an " edit record ... It 's like Psycho is a great film , but it 's an ' edit film . ' Without edits , it 's not a film ; with edits , it 's a great film . But it 's not Rebecca ... it 's not a beautiful story . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
Virtually every pop music critic recognizes " Good Vibrations " as one of the most important compositions and recordings of the entire rock era , and it is regularly hailed as one of the finest pop productions of all time . To the counterculture of the 1960s , it served as an anthem . The A.V. Club theorized that the song helped turn around the perception of Pet Sounds ; that the " un @-@ hip orchestrations and pervasive sadness baffled some longtime fans , who didn 't immediately get what Wilson was trying to do . " Encouraged by the success of the song , Brian continued working on the Smile project , intending it as an entire album using the writing and production techniques devised for " Good Vibrations " . " Heroes and Villains " , a follow @-@ up single , continued Brian 's modular recording practices , spanning nearly thirty recording sessions between May 1966 and June 1967 .
= = = Advancements = = =
= = = = Recording and popular music = = = =
" Good Vibrations " is acknowledged to have further developed the use of recording studios as a musical instrument . Author Domenic Priore noted that the song 's making was " unlike anything previous in the realms of classical , jazz , international , soundtrack , or any other kind of recording " . A milestone in the development of rock music , it was a prime proponent in revolutionizing rock music from live concert performances to studio productions which could only exist on record . Musicologist Charlie Gillett called it " one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right , rather than as a means of presenting a performance " . In a 1968 editorial for Jazz & Pop , Gene Sculatti predicted :
" Good Vibrations " may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance ; executed as it is in conventional Beach Boys manner , it is one of the few organically complete rock works ; every audible note and every silence contributes to the whole three minutes , 35 seconds , of the song . It is the ultimate in @-@ studio production trip , very much rock ' n ' roll in the emotional sense and yet un @-@ rocklike in its spacial , [ sic ] dimensional conceptions . In no minor way , " Good Vibrations " is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists ; everyone has felt its import to some degree , in such disparate things as the Yellow Balloon 's " Yellow Balloon " and the Beatles ' " A Day in the Life " , in groups as far apart as ( recent ) Grateful Dead and the Association , as Van Dyke Parks and the Who .
Popmatters wrote : " ' Good Vibrations ' changed the way a pop record could be made , the way a pop record could sound , and the lyrics a pop record could have . " It contained previously untried mixes of instruments , and was the first pop hit to have cellos in a juddering rhythm . Microtonal composer Frank Oteri agreed that it " sounds like no other pop song recorded up to that point " . Stebbins reflected that : " This signature sound would be duplicated , cloned , commercialized , and re @-@ fabricated in songs , commercials , TV shows , movies , and elevators to the point of completely diluting the genius of the original . But ' Good Vibrations ' was probably the quintessential ' sunshine pop ' recording of the century . " He added that the single " vaulted nearly every other rock act in their delivery of a Flower Power classic . It was just strange enough to be taken seriously , but still vibrant , happy , accessibly Beach Boys @-@ esque pop . " John Bush wrote that the single " announced the coming era of pop experimentation with a rush of riff changes , echo @-@ chamber effects , and intricate harmonies . " Gillett noted : " For the rest of the sixties , countless musicians and groups attempted to represent an equivalently blissful state , but none of them ever applied the intense discipline and concentration that Wilson had devoted to the recording . "
Priore argued that the song served as a forerunner to later works such as Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On ( 1971 ) and Isaac Hayes ' Shaft ( 1971 ) which presented soul music in a similar , multi @-@ textured context imbued with ethereal sonic landscapes . Tom Roland believed that the song 's " format " would later be " borrowed " by Wings ( " Band on the Run " ) , the Beatles ( " A Day in the Life " ) , and Elton John ( " Funeral for a Friend / Love Lies Bleeding " ) . The song 's approach was repeated in Queen 's 1975 single " Bohemian Rhapsody " , which was also pieced together using various different sections . Upon release , Wilson praised Queen 's effort , calling it " the most competitive thing that 's come along in ages " and " a fulfillment and an answer to a teenage prayer — of artistic music " .
= = = = Psychedelic and progressive rock = = = =
With " Good Vibrations " , the Beach Boys ended 1966 as the only band besides the Beatles to have a high @-@ charting psychedelic rock song , a time when the genre was still in its formative stages . Barney Hoskyns proclaimed it the " ultimate psychedelic pop record " from Los Angeles in its time . Popmatters added : " Its influence on the ensuing psychedelic and progressive rock movements can ’ t be overstated , but its legacy as a pop hit is impressive as well . " Former Atlantic Records executive Phillip Rauls is quoted saying , " I was in the music business at the time , and my very first recognition of acid rock — we didn 't call it progressive rock then — was , of all people , the Beach Boys and the song ' Good Vibrations ' . ... That [ theremin ] sent so many musicians back to the studio to create this music on acid . " Author Bill Martin suggested that the Beach Boys were clearing a pathway toward the development of progressive rock , writing : " The fact is , the same reasons why much progressive rock is difficult to dance to apply just as much to ' Good Vibrations ' and ' A Day in the Life ' . "
= = = = Use of theremin = = = =
Even though the song does not technically contain a theremin , " Good Vibrations " is the most frequently cited example of the instrument in pop music . Upon release , the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins and increased the awareness of analog synthesizers .
When the Beach Boys needed to reproduce its sound onstage , Wilson first requested that Tanner play the Electro @-@ Theremin live with the group , but he declined due to commitments . He recalls saying to Wilson , " I 've got the wrong sort of hair to be on stage with you fellas , " to which Wilson replied , " We 'll give you a Prince Valiant wig . " The Beach Boys then requested the services of Walter Sear , who then asked Bob Moog to design a ribbon controller , since the group was used to playing the fretboards of a guitar . Sears remembers marking fretboard @-@ like lines on the ribbon " so they could play the damn thing " . Moog then set out to manufacture his own models of theremins . He ultimately noted : " The pop record scene cleaned us out of our stock which we expected to last through Christmas . "
In Steven M. Martin 's 1993 documentary Theremin : An Electronic Odyssey , in which Wilson makes an appearance , it was revealed that the attention being paid to the theremin after the release of " Good Vibrations " caused Russian authorities to exile the inventor Leon Theremin .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The song has been covered by a range of artists including Groove Holmes , the Troggs , Charlie McCoy , and Psychic TV . John Bush argued " ' Good Vibrations ' was rarely reprised by other acts , even during the cover @-@ happy ' 60s . Its fragmented style made it essentially cover @-@ proof . " In 1976 , a nearly identical cover version was released as a single by Todd Rundgren for his album Faithful . When asked for an opinion , Brian responded : " Oh , he did a marvelous job , he did a great job . I was very proud of his version . " The single peaked at 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 Pop Singles . Rundgren explained : " I used to like the sound of the Beach Boys , but it wasn 't until they began to compete with the Beatles that I felt that what they were doing was really interesting – like around Pet Sounds and " Good Vibrations " ... when they started to shed that whole surf music kind of burden and start to branch out into something that was a little more universal . ... I tried to do [ the song ] as literally as I could because in the intervening 10 years , radio had changed so much . Radio had become so formatted and so structured that that whole experience was already gone . "
In 2004 , Wilson rerecorded the song as a solo artist for his album Brian Wilson Presents Smile . It was placed as the album 's closer , immediately following the track " In Blue Hawaii " . It is the only track on the album that eschewed the modular recording method . Its verses and chorus were recorded as part of one whole take , and were not spliced .
= = = In popular culture = = =
In 1996 , experimental rock group His Name Is Alive recorded an homage entitled " Universal Frequencies " on their album Stars on E.S.P .. Reportedly , Warren Defever listened to " Good Vibrations " repeatedly for one week before deciding that the song " needed a sequel , " explaining that : " ' Good Vibrations ' is one of the first pop hits where you can actually hear the tape edits and I think that 's wonderful . " " Good Vibrations " inspired the title of French duo Air 's fifth LP : Pocket Symphony , released in 2007 . The song 's lyrics " I 'm picking up good vibrations " are quoted in Cyndi Lauper 's 1984 single " She Bop " .
= = Release history = =
Smiley Smile marks " Good Vibrations " ' s first album appearance , with no differences from the single version . Both Good Vibrations : Thirty Years of The Beach Boys ( 1993 ) and The Smile Sessions ( 2011 ) box sets contain extracts and highlights from the song 's extensive recording sessions . In early 2011 , the single was remastered and reissued as a four @-@ sided 78 rpm vinyl for Record Store Day as a teaser to the forthcoming The Smile Sessions box set . It contained " Heroes and Villains " as a B @-@ side along with previously released alternate takes and mixes . It was the first single issued by the group since " I Just Wasn 't Made for These Times " in 1996 .
Live versions appear on Live in London ( 1970 ) , Endless Harmony Soundtrack ( 1998 ) , Hawthorne , CA ( 2001 ) , and Good Timin ' : Live at Knebworth England 1980 ( 2002 ) .
= = = Stereo version = = =
There had never been an official true stereo release of the final track until the 2012 remastered version of Smiley Smile due to the loss of the original multi @-@ track tape . The 2012 stereo mix was made possible by newly invented digital technology by Derry Fitzgerald , with the blessings of Brian Wilson and Mark Linett . This software extracted individual instrumental and vocal stems from the original mono master — as the multi @-@ track vocals remained missing — to construct the stereo version that appears on the 2012 re @-@ issue of Smiley Smile .
= = = 40th Anniversary Edition = = =
In celebration of its 40th year , the Good Vibrations : 40th Anniversary Edition EP was released . The EP includes " Good Vibrations " , four alternate versions of the song , and the stereo mix of " Let 's Go Away for Awhile " .
= = Awards and accolades = =
In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked " Good Vibrations " at number 6 in " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , the highest position of seven Beach Boys songs cited in the list . In 2001 , the song was voted number 24 in the RIAA and NEA 's listing of Songs of the Century . As of 2014 , " Good Vibrations " is ranked as the number three song of all time in an aggregation of critics ' lists at Acclaimed Music .
= = Personnel = =
The following people are identified as players on the " Good Vibrations " single .
The Beach Boys
Mike Love – co @-@ lead vocals
Brian Wilson – vocals , production , mixing
Carl Wilson – lead vocals
Dennis Wilson – Hammond organ during 2 : 14 – 2 : 56
Additional musicians and production staff
Hal Blaine – drums , timpani , other percussion
Al De Lory – piano , harpsichord
Jesse Ehrlich – cello
Larry Knechtel – organ in verses and choruses
Tommy Morgan – harmonica
Ray Pohlman – electric bass
Paul Tanner – Electro @-@ Theremin
Bassist Carol Kaye played on several of the " Good Vibrations " sessions , and has been identified as a prominent contributor to the track . However , analysis by Beach Boys archivist Craig Slowinski indicates that none of those recordings made the final edit as released on the single .
= = Sessionography = =
Session dates , track distinctions , studios , and notes adapted from Andrew Doe .
= = Chart positions = =
|
= HMS Pomone ( 1897 ) =
HMS Pomone was a Pelorus @-@ class protected cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the late 1890s . The ship 's boilers were so troublesome that she was decommissioned in 1904 after only a single foreign deployment . She was hulked in 1910 and served as a stationary training ship until 1922 when she was sold for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
These " third @-@ class " cruisers were designed by Sir William White . They were designed for colonial service rather than support of the main fleet . This class served as testbeds for a variety of water @-@ tube boiler designs and those used by Pomone were so unsatisfactory that the ship was decommissioned after only five years of service .
HMS Pomone displaced 2 @,@ 135 long tons ( 2 @,@ 169 t ) , with an overall length of 313 feet 6 inches ( 95 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 36 feet 6 inches ( 11 @.@ 1 m ) and a draft of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by two inverted 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by 16 coal @-@ fired Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers . The engines were intended to develop a maximum of 7 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) under forced draft , but developed a total of 7 @,@ 340 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 470 kW ) during her sea trials and gave a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 23 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 224 officers and men .
Pomone was armed with eight single QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , eight QF 3 @-@ pounder guns , three machine guns , and two 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes . Her protective deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) in thickness and the ship had a conning tower with walls 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick . The four @-@ inch guns were protected by gun shields 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
HMS Pomone was laid down at Sheerness Dockyard on 21 December 1896 , launched on 25 November 1897 , and completed in May 1899 . The ship only served a single commission , with the East Indies Squadron and suffered from continuous boiler problems . In January 1902 she was stationed in the Persian Gulf to protect British interests there , and especially in Kuwait . Commander Harry Jones was appointed in command in late March 1902 . In November and December 1903 , Pomone and three other cruisers escorted Lord Curzon 's tour of the Middle East . Her Blechynden boilers were so unreliable that she was removed from the effective list in October 1904 when Admiral Lord Fisher started disposing of ineffective ships upon becoming First Sea Lord . She was laid @-@ up pending a decision on her final disposal . Pomone was disarmed and hulked on 5 January 1910 as a stationary training ship for engineers at the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth . She was sold for scrap on 25 October 1922 to J. H. Lee of Dover .
|
= Gravity the Seducer =
Gravity the Seducer is the fifth studio album by electronic music band Ladytron . The album was released by Nettwerk in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2011 and in the United States , a day later . Recorded in Kent , England , the album has been described as " haunted , evocative , romantic " , and having " a feminine warmth " .
Three singles have been released from the album , " White Elephant " , " Ambulances " and " Mirage " . The song " Ace of Hz " had previously been released as a single from the greatest hits album Best of 00 – 10 before appearing on Gravity the Seducer . Release of the album coincided with a tour across Canada and the United States .
Gravity the Seducer earned generally positive reviews and reached number seventy @-@ two on the UK Albums Chart , the group 's highest @-@ peaking album in their home country as of September 2012 .
= = Production = =
Gravity the Seducer was Ladytron 's second studio album produced for record label Nettwerk , with whom they signed in 2007 . Their first release through the Nettwork label was the 2008 studio album Velocifero , followed in March 2011 by the greatest hits album Best of 00 – 10 . Ladytron also self @-@ released the live album , Live at London Astoria 16 @.@ 07 @.@ 08 in 2009 .
Gravity the Seducer was recorded in Kent , England , and was co @-@ produced by Barny Barnicott , who had previously collaborated with Arctic Monkeys and Editors. as well has having worked on Ladytron 's 2005 album Witching Hour . The band felt that the production of the album was different from that of Velocifero , with band member Daniel Hunt noting that the latter record had been " made with performance in mind " , as the band had recently finished touring when it was produced . Gravity the Seducer was produced " while removed from that thinking " .
In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine , singer Helen Marnie described the album as " the warmest , most emotional , thing we 've ever done " . The vocal parts on the album have been mixed at a lower volume than previous Ladytron albums , while four tracks are entirely instrumental . The title Gravity the Seducer is taken from a line in the song " Ninety Degrees " , which Hunt has described as " expanding our creative horizons " . The cover artwork , designed by Neil Krug , has been described as an " endless vista " thematically linked the music 's " vast atmospheres " , and has been compared to the works of design group Hipgnosis .
= = Release = =
Gravity the Seducer was released on 12 September 2011 in the United Kingdom , and the following day in the United States . The album 's release coincided with a number of tour dates in Canada and the United States throughout September and October . During the album 's active promotion in 2011 , Ladytron also toured in Mexico , Brazil , Chile , Thailand , Indonesia , and Singapore .
= = = Singles = = =
" Ace of Hz " , the fourth song from Gravity the Seducer , also appeared on band 's greatest hits compilation Best of 00 – 10 and on their Ace of Hz EP . " Ace of Hz " had been released as a single on 30 November 2010 . The song was also included in the video game FIFA 11 . " White Elephant " was officially released as the lead single from Gravity the Seducer on 17 May 2011 .
For further promotion , the songs " Ambulances " and " Mirage " were released as digital downloads on 21 June and 9 August , respectively . The video for " Mirage " was filmed at the Callanish Stones , a five @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ old stone circle near the Scottish village of Callanish . The video was co @-@ directed by Michael Sherrington and Daniel Hunt .
= = Critical reception = =
Gravity the Seducer was met with generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 20 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Heather Phares , writing for Allmusic , rated the album three @-@ and @-@ half stars out of five , describing it as " an admirable artistic choice , even though it doesn ’ t always pay off " . Phares felt that Gravity the Seducer was " more focused " than the band 's previous album Velocifero , but was " not as accessible " as that record . The A.V. Club 's Christopher Bahn gave the album a B- rating , calling it " heart @-@ on @-@ sleeve and icily detached at the same time " ; however , Bahn felt that " the lack of a propulsive single ... as well as an overabundance of instrumentals , suggests a band that ’ s spinning its wheels " .
Chris Todd of Clash magazine scored Gravity the Seducer nine out of ten , describing the album as having " a feminine warmth " compared to the band 's earlier work . Todd felt that the album added " a new found spaciousness to [ the band 's ] sound " , and described the tracks " Mirage " , " Ritual " and " White Gold " as being " three of Ladytron ’ s finest songs " .
The Independent 's Simon Price described the album as " faultless " , noting that it represented the band " at their most electronically pure " . Price found the song " Transparent Days " to be a highlight , and added that the album makes " the world feel a more haunted , evocative , romantic place " . NME 's Jamie Crossan rated Gravity the Seducer seven out of ten , finding it to be " nothing new " , but feeling that the album 's content is more of what " the band have always excelled " at . Crossan also singled out the song " Moon Palace " as a highlight of the album .
Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork Media gave the album a score of six out of ten , describing it as " upsettingly uneven " . Fitzmaurice felt that Gravity the Seducer represented a transition away from the sound of band 's earlier work , which he felt was still evident in " Ace of Hz " and " Mirage " , towards a " floatier , airy feel " . Drowned in Sound 's John Calvert gave the album a rating of five out of ten , finding it to be " slightly bland " and " nondescript in its understated sophistication " . Calvert felt that the album 's overall direction was " well realised " , but ultimately found that " Gravity the Seducer never manages to get under your skin the way the band intended " .
Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson rated the album three stars out of five , describing it as " uniformly sleek [ and ] polished like a summer skyline " . Henderson also compared Gravity the Seducer to the soundtrack to the 2011 film Drive , and praised singer Helen Marnie 's " lightly lilting " vocals . However , he felt that the similarity between several songs — including " Mirage " , " Ace of Hz " and " Ritual " , all written in the key of D minor — left the album feeling " almost barren " .
Michael Hann , writing for The Guardian , rated the album three stars out of five , finding it did not measure up to the band 's earlier work , picking out their earlier single " Destroy Everything You Touch " as a yardstick " that subsequent work will always be judged against " . Hann found that some of Gravity the Seducer 's tracks , particularly " Ritual " , seemed " unfinished and unsatisfactory " . Spin magazine 's Barry Walters rated the album six out of ten , finding that it " lacks the infectious , dark @-@ disco rumble " of Ladytron 's earlier work , noting that it " withhold [ s ] the hooks that previously put the sweet in their bitter " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the band 's home country , the United Kingdom , Gravity the Seducer peaked at number 72 on the UK Albums Chart , spending one week on the chart . This was the band 's highest position on the chart , as their only other charting album was Velocifero , which reached number 75 .
The album 's highest chart position was on the United States ' Heatseekers Albums chart , where it peaked at number two . The album reached 112 on the Billboard 200 , as well as number 27 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and number six on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart .
Gravity the Seducer reached number 50 on the Finnish Albums Chart , spending one week on the chart ; number 90 in the Canadian Albums Chart ; and number four on the Belgian Heatseekers Albums Chart , spending a week on that chart .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ladytron .
= = Gravity the Seducer ( Remixed ) = =
On 29 November 2013 , Ladytron released the remix album Gravity the Seducer ( Remixed ) , a collection of remixes of Gravity the Seducer songs . They also will release an exclusive limited @-@ edition blue vinyl of this remix album on Record Store Day special Black Friday .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Gravity the Seducer album liner notes .
Ladytron – production
Daniel Hunt – production
Barny Barnicott – additional production , engineering , mixing
Alessandro Cortini – additional production
Neil Krug – artwork
Trevor Tarczynski – design
Tim Husom – management
= = Charts = =
|
= Music of Final Fantasy XIII =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy XIII was composed by Masashi Hamauzu . Former regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute any pieces to the soundtrack . Music from the game has been released in several albums . The main soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , was released on four Compact Discs in 2010 by Square Enix , the developers and producers of the game . Selections from the soundtrack have been released on two gramophone record albums , W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII and W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries , both in 2010 by Square Enix . An album of arranged pieces from the soundtrack , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack -PLUS- , was also released by Square Enix in 2010 , as was an album of piano arrangements , Piano Collection Final Fantasy XIII . The theme song for the Japanese version of the game , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , " Because You 're Here " ) , was released as a single by For Life Music in 2009 .
The soundtrack received good reviews from critics , who felt that it was Hamauzu 's best work to date and an excellent mix of material and genres which took the series ' music in a new direction . The " Plus " album received weaker reviews , primarily due to its perceived lack of tracks that were significantly different from those in the original soundtrack album , while " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was considered bland and disappointing . The " Piano " album 's reception was split between critics who felt that the tracks did not deviate enough from the original pieces and those who felt that the straightforward arrangements were sophisticated . Music from the game was played at a live orchestral concert in Stockholm , Sweden , and was added to the permanent rotation of the international Distant Worlds concert series , while tracks from the piano album have been played in concerts in Japan and Paris .
= = Creation and influence = =
Masashi Hamauzu composed the game 's soundtrack . His previous work on the series was as a co @-@ composer for Final Fantasy X and as the main composer for Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . The game was the first main @-@ series Final Fantasy game not to include any compositions by original series composer Nobuo Uematsu ; although he was originally announced to compose the main theme of the game , this role was taken over by Hamauzu after Uematsu signed on to compose the soundtrack to Final Fantasy XIV . Game producer Yoshinori Kitase chose Hamauzu because he felt that Hamauzu would be the best for the job as he was composing an orchestral @-@ based soundtrack then for Dirge of Cerberus and the Final Fantasy XIII team wanted that style for the game . Hamauzu described the soundtrack in the liner notes for the soundtrack album as comprising multiple genres of music so that the player would not get tired of it , while also using several motifs so as to tie the varying pieces together ; particularly in grouping the themes from the Cocoon and Pulse areas in the game . He tried to match each piece and theme to his sense of the narrative and characters involved in the scenes that they would be played in , and feels that being the sole composer for the project allowed him to ensure that the overall direction of the soundtrack was consistent .
Besides some pieces he did for promotional events in 2006 and 2007 , Hamauzu began composing the soundtrack in Autumn 2008 and finished it around one year later . When he began the bulk of the composition , he started by composing the motifs he wanted to use , rather than any particular piece . The first track that he composed was " Blinded by Light " , as one of the promotional pieces ; it was based on the director Motomu Toriyama 's vision of the game as a mixture of fantasy and near @-@ future , as the storyline for the game had not yet been finalized . As the game was intended to be a conscious departure from the staples of previous Final Fantasy games , Hamauzu was not constrained in keeping the music in line with previous soundtracks from the series . Despite this , he did not compose the music specifically to " break from the series ' past " , but rather focused it on the game as it was presented .
The score features some recordings by the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra , arranged by Yoshihisa Hirano , Toshiyuki Oomori and Kunihito Shiina . Hamauzu had previously worked with the orchestra on his album Vielen Dank , released in 2007 . Four songs in the soundtrack include vocals by Mina Sakai , an artist whom Hamauzu works as a producer for . Two of the songs are in English rather than Japanese , and " The Gapra Whitewood " was intended to be as well , but during practice Sakai and Hamauzu changed it to use a fictitious language as they felt her focus on pronouncing the English words was detracting from the melody . The two English tracks were re @-@ recorded for the English version of the game , as the localization team felt that they did not sound natural to native speakers . On three of the pieces from the soundtrack : " Sazh 's Theme , " " Daddy 's Got the Blues " , and " Can 't Catch a Break " , described as jazzy pieces related to the character Sazh , Hamauzu 's compositions were arranged by Toru Tabei , a friend of his , who Hamauzu describes as being more familiar with that style of music .
The theme song for the international version of the game is " My Hands " , from British singer Leona Lewis ' second album Echo ; it was chosen to replace Final Fantasy XIII 's original theme song from the Japanese version , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " by Sayuri Sugawara . Square Enix President Yoichi Wada has stated that it would have been better if the American branch of the company had produced a theme song from scratch , but the lack of staff led to the decision of licensing an existing song instead . Hamauzu , who composed the music for " Kimi ga Iru Kara " , only met Sugawara once , and was not involved in producing the vocal song . He was not involved in the decision to use " My Hands " for the international version .
= = Soundtrack = =
Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing all of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed and produced by Masashi Hamauzu . The soundtrack spans four discs and 85 tracks , covering a duration of 4 : 04 : 06 . It was released on January 27 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10183 ~ 6 . The limited edition of the soundtrack included a bonus disc containing a radio drama written by novelist Jun Eishima . The radio drama does not include any music not already in the album . The album sold 16 @,@ 000 copies the day of its release . It reached # 3 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for nine weeks . The soundtrack incorporates both orchestral and electronic music , sometimes within the same track . Almost two dozen of the tracks include vocal performances to some degree , the most of any Final Fantasy soundtrack to date . It does not include many of the mainstay tracks from previous games in the series such as Uematsu 's " Prelude " and " Main Theme " , and its variation on his " Chocobo " , the only repeat track , is so different as to not credit him as the original composer in the album .
In addition to the full soundtrack CD release , two vinyl record albums have been released by Square Enix , each including a selection of songs from the full soundtrack . The first of these , W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII , was released on February 26 , 2010 , while the second , W / F ： Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries , was released on June 30 , 2010 . W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII is the first vinyl record that Square Enix has ever released . Each album contains eight tracks , four per side . The first album has a total length of 32 : 06 and a catalog number of SE @-@ M0001 , while the second has the catalog number SE @-@ M0002 .
The album received good reviews from critics . Patrick Gann of RPGFan called it an " excellent soundtrack " that exceeded his expectations . He applauded Hamauzu 's use of motifs and repetition of melodies across different tracks for tying together a widely disparate collection of material , and called the mix of orchestral and electronic pieces as " incredible " . He concluded that the work represents Hamauzu 's " masterpiece " , though some of the tracks do not fit well outside of the context of the scene in the game they represent . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online similarly approved of the soundtrack , also highlighting the repetition of themes as well done . He particularly called out the variance of musical styles used in different tracks , from the " jazz fusion " of " Pulse de Chocobo " to the rock music of " Snow 's Theme " . The bonus drama CD was critiqued by Gann as " fun for bonus content " if the listener understood Japanese and as having high production values for a drama CD , but he noted that it did not add any real information to the story of the game .
Track list
Literal translation of the original titles appear in ( parenthesis ) if different
= = Soundtrack Plus = =
Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack PLUS is a soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing a selection of arrangements of musical tracks from the game . It was composed and produced by Masashi Hamauzu , and arranged by Hamauzu , Ryo Yamazaki , Mitsuto Suzuki , Toshiyuki Oomori , and Yoshihisa Hirano . The single @-@ disc soundtrack contains 16 tracks , covering a duration of 50 : 10 . It was released on May 26 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10192 . Only tracks 5 , 9 , and 15 are pieces actually used in the game but not included in the original album . The tracks in the album include pieces made for early previews of the game , modified versions of songs used in the international version of the game rather than the Japanese version that the original soundtrack album was based on , and early versions or arrangements of pieces that were not used in the game — for example , " Hope _ PfNer3 " uses a piano while Hamauzu ended up using a guitar for the final piece .
For the unused versions of songs included in this album , Hamauzu re @-@ recorded and produced them to match the quality of the songs that were eventually used in the original soundtrack . The numbers following the " M " in the title of some pieces refer to the version number of the track , which Hamauzu used to keep track of changes made to pieces during their development , occasionally incrementing them by hundreds for major changes . Hamauzu came up with the idea for the album originally because he wanted to release the English version of " Pulse de Chocobo " as a downloadable song ; when he started adding in promotional tracks and alternative @-@ version tracks he found that he had enough material to release as a full album . Several of the alternate version tracks appeared in the game during specific scenes , or were cut towards the end of development . Hamauzu feels that the album represents how large of an undertaking the Final Fantasy XIII project was , in that even the outtakes were enough to fill an album .
The album reached # 70 on the Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for two weeks . It received a lukewarm review from Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who said that while the music included was " beautiful " and a few specific tracks were " pretty cool " , " anyone hoping for a proper arrangement of this music will be sorely disappointed " . He claimed that there was not much difference between many of the alternate versions of songs and their final versions in the original soundtrack , which meant that in his opinion owners of the original soundtrack would not get much out of the " Plus " album . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version gave a similar review for the album ; he felt that while it included several interesting pieces that could not be found elsewhere , it was in his opinion more of a collector 's item than a stand @-@ alone album and likely not worth the cost for most listeners .
= = Piano Collections = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy XIII is a soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing a selection of piano arrangements of musical tracks from the game . It was composed and arranged by Masashi Hamauzu , and the pieces were performed by Aki Kuroda . Hamauzu and Kuroda had previously worked together when Hamauzu arranged the Final Fantasy X piano soundtrack album , and this previous collaboration made it easy for the two to work together . Hamauzu intended the arrangements to " stay away from recording the same music " on the piano . Though he noted that many of the tracks are similar to the originals , he wanted to " bring out subtle properties of the in @-@ game melodies and making them more distinct , " rather than greatly change the songs . The single @-@ disc soundtrack contains 10 tracks , covering a duration of 45 : 09 . It was released on July 21 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10196 .
Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online reviewed the album as " a sophisticated piano collection " that was enjoyable to listen to , though he noted that the arrangements were " straightforward " rather than ambitious . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version gave a similar review for the album ; he felt that it was an amazing album that , while not as technically difficult or different enough from the source material for some listeners , was still very beautiful and well @-@ arranged . Gann of RPGFan , however , felt disappointed by the album , calling the arrangements " soul @-@ less " and full of " needless grandiosity " . He concluded that the original pieces were too rich and complex to translate well to solo piano arrangements , which left the works without substance as they did not deviate enough from the source material .
= = " Kimi ga Iru Kara " = =
" Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , Because You 're Here ) is the theme song of the Japanese version of Final Fantasy XIII . Sung by Sayuri Sugawara , it was composed by Masashi Hamauzu and had its lyrics written by Sugawara and Nakajima Yukino . The English version of the game used a song by Leona Lewis , " My Hands " , which was not specially written for the game like the Japanese song . " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was released as a single on December 2 , 2009 by For Life Music , and included in addition to the piece five other tracks . These tracks are " Eternal Love " , another song written for Final Fantasy XIII , and " Christmas Again " , a J @-@ Pop song by Sugawara that incorporates some music from 19th @-@ century composer Franz Liszt . The last three tracks are instrumental versions of these three songs . The single has a length of 30 : 04 , and has the catalog number of FLCF @-@ 4311 . A special edition of the single includes a bonus DVD , containing a seven @-@ minute video of a compilation of promotional videos for the game .
" Kimi ga Iru Kara " reached # 11 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for 11 weeks . The single received generally unfavourable reviews from video game music critics . Gann of RPGFan called it " vanilla " and said that the single , especially the headline track , was over @-@ produced and uninteresting . While he did not mind " Eternal Love " as much , he still felt that the CD was his least favorite Final Fantasy theme single . Square Enix Music Online had similar opinions of the release , calling it " bland " . They felt that while " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was better than " My Hands " , and " Eternal Love " better still , the single was disappointing both in the context of Final Fantasy singles and of Sugawara 's previous discography .
= = Legacy = =
Final Fantasy XIII won the 2010 Soundtrack of the Year Golden Joystick Award . Music from Final Fantasy XIII was performed live in concert at the Distant Worlds II - More Music from Final Fantasy concert in Stockholm , Sweden by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra on June 12 , 2010 . The concert is part of the Distant Worlds concert series , the latest of several Final Fantasy concert series , and the tracks from Final Fantasy XIII , " The Promise " and " Fang 's Theme " , have been added to the series ' permanent rotation . The official album for the concert does not include those two tracks . The full Piano Collections Final Fantasy XIII album was played at a concert by Aki Kuroda in Osaka on October 29 , 2010 and in Yokohama on September 3 , 2010 , and selections were played in a concert of Hamauzu 's work in Paris on April 22 , 2011 .
A book of piano sheet music arrangements from the original soundtrack has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . The actual piano sheet music from the Final Fantasy XIII Piano Collection album has been published as a corresponding music book by Yamaha Music Media . Yamaha has additionally published its own sheet music book for piano arrangements from the original soundtrack , as well as a book of piano and vocal sheet music for the vocal tracks on the original soundtrack .
|
= Stanley Marcus =
Harold Stanley Marcus ( April 20 , 1905 – January 22 , 2002 ) was an early president ( 1950 – 1972 ) and later chairman of the board ( 1972 – 1976 ) of the luxury retailer Neiman Marcus in Dallas , Texas , which his father and aunt had founded in 1907 . During his tenure at the company , he also became a published author , writing his memoir Minding the Store and also a regular column in The Dallas Morning News . After Neiman Marcus was sold to Carter Hawley Hale Stores , Marcus initially remained in an advisory capacity to that company , but later began his own consulting business , which continued until his death . He served his local community as an avid patron of the fine arts and as a civic leader . In a chapter titled " Mr. Stanley " — the name by which Marcus was known locally for decades — in his 1953 work Neiman @-@ Marcus , Texas , Frank X. Tolbert called him " Dallas ' most internationally famous citizen " and worthy of being called " the Southwest 's No. 1 businessman @-@ intellectual . "
Marcus introduced many of the innovations for which Neiman @-@ Marcus became known , creating a national award for service in fashion and hosting art exhibitions in the store itself , as well as weekly fashion shows and an annual Fortnight event highlighting a different foreign country for two weeks each year . He established the Neiman @-@ Marcus Christmas Catalogue , which became famous for extravagant " His and Hers " gifts such as airplanes and camels . Marcus prided himself on his staff 's ability to provide service and value for each client , often citing his father 's dictum , " There is never a good sale for Neiman Marcus unless it 's a good buy for the customer . "
He received the Chevalier Award from the French Legion of Honor , was listed in the Houston Chronicle 's list of the 100 most important Texans , and was named by Harvard Business School among the greatest American Business Leaders of the 20th century . The Advertising Hall of Fame notes : " Stanley Marcus was among the most important figures in the history of American retail merchandising and marketing . Through his many innovations , he transformed a local Dallas clothing store into an international brand synonymous with high style , fashion and gracious service . "
= = Personal life and retail career = =
Marcus was born in The Cedars , Dallas , Texas , the son of Herbert Marcus , Sr. , who later became a co @-@ founder of the original Neiman @-@ Marcus store with his sister Carrie and her husband , Al Neiman . Stanley was the first of four sons born to Herbert , Sr. , and his wife , the former Minnie Lichtenstein . The pregnancy indirectly led to the eventual founding of Neiman @-@ Marcus , as Herbert Sr. decided to leave Sanger 's , where he was a buyer of boys ' clothing , when he deemed his raise insufficient to support a family . Returning from two years spent in Atlanta , Georgia , establishing a successful sales @-@ promotion business , the Marcuses and Neimans used the $ 25 @,@ 000 made in the sale of that business to establish their store at the corner of Elm and Murphy . Given that the family 's other option for the money was to invest in the then @-@ unknown Coca @-@ Cola Company , Marcus loved to say that Neiman @-@ Marcus was established " as a result of the bad judgment of its founders . " In his memoir , Marcus recalled his father as " affectionate " and his mother as even @-@ handed in her attention to each of their children , making sure even into their adulthood to give them equivalent gifts and make sure they were praised equally .
One of Stanley Marcus 's first jobs was as a 10 @-@ year @-@ old salesman of Saturday Evening Post , bringing him into the family 's business tradition from a young age . He attended Forest Avenue High School , where he studied debate as well as English with teacher Myra Brown , whom he later credited with much of his early interest in books . He began his university studies at Amherst College , but when traditions preventing Jews from joining clubs or fraternities drastically curtailed his social life , he transferred to Harvard University after the first year . At his new school , he became a member of the historically Jewish fraternity Zeta Beta Tau , later rising to become the group 's president .
While living in Boston and pursuing his chosen major , English literature , Marcus began a lifelong hobby of collecting rare and antique books . To finance his pursuits , he began The Book Collector 's Service Bureau , a mail @-@ order book service , beginning with a letter of introduction sent to 100 homes . The venture proved so successful that for a time Marcus considered entering that line of work full time , concerned that entering the retail business might curtail his freedom of expression in politics and other areas of interest ; his father persuaded him that he would always be granted the liberty of his own views , and pointed out that retailing was more profitable and thus would allow him to amass a large book collection that much sooner .
= = = Early years at Neiman @-@ Marcus = = =
After receiving a B.A. degree from Harvard in 1925 , he began his career at the retailer that same year as a simple stockboy organizing inventory , but upon beginning in sales , quickly outstripped other sales staff . He went back to study at Harvard Business School in 1926 , leaving after one year to participate in a massive expansion of the retail operation in Dallas .
He married the former Mary " Billie " Cantrell in 1932 ; she initially worked in the Neiman @-@ Marcus Sports Shop department until she retired in 1936 after the birth of their first child , Jerrie , followed two years later by twins Richard and Wendy . ( One year after his wife 's 1978 death , he married Linda Robinson , a longtime librarian at the Dallas Public Library , in a marriage that lasted until Stanley Marcus 's own death in 2002 . ) In 1935 the Marcuses commissioned Frank Lloyd Wright to design a home for them on Nonesuch Road , but rejected the eventual design , which included cantilevered steel beams and terraces swathed in mosquito netting . Instead , the couple chose a design by local firm DeWitt & Washburn , whose creation became a Texas Historic Landmark . As of 1937 , Marcus was one of only 22 Texans to earn a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 or more , according to the House Ways and Means Committee ; his father , Herbert , was another , earning $ 75 @,@ 000 as company president while vice president Stanley drew an even $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Marcus was responsible for a number of innovations at the Dallas retailer . He created the annual Neiman @-@ Marcus Award for Distinguished Service in Fashion , beginning in 1938 , which led to the Neiman @-@ Marcus Exposition , a fall fashion show held annually from 1938 to 1970 , then periodically thereafter . His department store was the first American haute couture boutique to introduce weekly fashion shows , and the first to host concurrent art exhibitions at the store itself . In 1939 , he established the annual Christmas Catalogue , which in 1951 offered the first of its extravagant " His & Hers Gifts , " starting with a matching pair of vicuña coats , and going on to include matching bathtubs , a pair of Beechcraft airplanes , " Noah 's Ark " ( including pairs of animals ) , camels , and live tigers .
= = = The war years = = =
For all his professional emphasis on glitz and glamour , he made another , very different mark on the American fashion industry when he was asked to join the War Production Board in Washington , D.C. on December 27 , 1941 , less than three weeks after the United States entered World War II . Ineligible for military service due to his age , he instead helped the war effort by championing the conservation of scarce resources normally devoted to fashion trends . He encouraged men to wear drooping socks ( to save much @-@ needed rubber that would normally be used for elastic ) and devised regulations for the manufacture of women 's and children 's clothing that would enable the nation to divert more textile resources to uniforms and other war @-@ related needs :
In addition to these restrictions , Marcus recommended to the WPB that coats , suits , jackets and dresses be sold separately " to make them go further . " The changes were expected to create a total savings of 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 yards ( 91 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ) of fabric to be used in the war effort .
Conscious of the role of the media in fashion promotion , Marcus prompted the members of the National Retail Dry Goods Association to convince their local press outlets to treat women 's fashions as a serious subject rather than as an object of ridicule . He solicited nationally famous women to proclaim their support of the new standards ; TIME 's report on the WPB quoted author Adela Rogers St. Johns predicting , " The overdressed woman will be as unpatriotically conspicuous as though she wore a Japanese kimono . "
Marcus addressed the fashion press in national meetings , encouraging editors to reassure women that stores would carry adequate supply of attractive styles , in order to prevent shoppers from flooding the stores or hoarding stock . TIME reported on meetings of " 70 fantastic hats , " representing the presence of national magazine editors from Ladies ' Home Journal and Harper 's Bazaar , as well as from newspapers in the urban centers of New York , Boston , and Philadelphia , all complying with the WPB 's instructions for their coverage of women 's and children 's fashions .
His work promoting cooperation with the WPB 's mandates did not still Marcus 's competitive instincts . With the fall of Paris , the traditional fashion capital , New York mayor Fiorello LaGuardia began to declare his city the new leader at every opportunity . To this claim , Marcus retorted in the international press , " New York is finished as a manufacturing center . ... They 're making clothes in Kansas , Philadelphia and Texas now and they won 't give it up . The day is gone when only a New York dress is a good dress . "
Faced with increasing shortages in silk and even new synthetics such as rayon , which seemed likely to create long lines of dissatisfied customers seeking a product in inadequate supply , Marcus created the Neiman Marcus Hosiery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month Club , which sent two pair of stockings in fashionable shades to each female charge @-@ card customer , with no membership fees . In his memoirs Marcus recalled , " Many women opened charge accounts just to become members of the club , and in a short time we had a membership of over 100 @,@ 000 , extending all over the country . "
= = = Taking the helm = = =
In 1950 , with the death of Herbert Marcus , Sr. , Stanley Marcus was elected president and CEO of the company , with Carrie Marcus Neiman as chairman of the board and other family members like Minnie Lichtenstein Marcus and Lawrence Marcus taking on more responsibilities . Neiman died in 1953 , in which year TIME proclaimed that Stanley Marcus 's " combination of showmanship and salesmanship " had been instrumental in increasing the company 's annual revenue from $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 1926 to $ 20 million .
Marcus began yet another Neiman @-@ Marcus tradition , the " International Fortnight , " in 1957 as a way to attract customers in the lull between the fall fashion rush and the Christmas shopping crunch . The idea was inspired by seeing a store in Stockholm , Sweden , that was having a France @-@ themed sales promotion , leading Marcus to propose to the French government a sponsorship of an even more elaborate event in his own store . The initial Fortnight included concurrent events of art , symphonic music , and film at other locations around Dallas , with an Air France jet bringing " writers , painters , government officials , models , and industry leaders . " In the years following , the Fortnight focused on various other countries and added related food service as well as items from the relevant country in every department , ending in 1986 with the Australian Fortnight . Other international traditions introduced at Neiman 's included Dallas ' first espresso bar , brought by Marcus after World War II .
As a retailer , Marcus believed strongly in making his store into a place where everything a customer needed could be found and , if necessary , brought to the customer 's front door . He was said to have helped one customer discover the shoe size of Queen Elizabeth II so as to give the gift of stockings and a pair of shoes , and he ordered that the store stock such items as a set of Steuben plates with the Mexican national crest , " because sooner or later somebody will be going to call on the President of Mexico and need a proper gift . " He personally delivered a fur coat to a St. Louis , Missouri , customer who could not make the trip to Dallas . Another story often recounted is that of a shopper who , in searching for a present for his wife , said that he was not sure what to buy , but that he would know it when he saw it . In response , Marcus inquired about the woman 's clothing sizes and asked the customer to wait briefly . Taking an oversized brandy snifter from a display , Marcus gathered cashmere sweaters of various colors , arranged them in imitation of a pousse @-@ café , topped with a white angora sweater to simulate whipped cream , and in place of a cherry , garnished the concoction with a 10 @-@ karat ruby ring , at a total cost of $ 25 @,@ 350 , which the customer gladly paid . When one customer decided his Christmas purchases were not sufficiently impressive , Marcus helped to arrange a full duplication of the store 's display window , complete with mannequins and lighting , inside the man 's home .
Despite his love of such larger @-@ than @-@ life salesmanship , Marcus also maintained the assertion of his father , Herbert , that " there is no good sale for Neiman @-@ Marcus unless it is a good buy for the customer . " Stanley Marcus would sometimes persuade the buyer to purchase a lower @-@ priced item that he considered more suitable , as when a man shopping for a mink coat for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was personally steered by Marcus toward a $ 295 muskrat coat instead , as being more appropriate to her youth . Marcus also routinely insisted customers would be wiser to buy the top quality of a reasonably priced line rather than scaled @-@ down or second @-@ rate versions of an expensive product .
Marcus continued throughout his tenure to hold tightly to his father 's assurance that he would be able to maintain and act on his political convictions while running the business . He supported the United Nations in its early years , an unpopular position in Dallas for that time . In the early 1950s he began to explore the ramifications of ending the store 's participation in the then @-@ common practice of excluding black customers from shopping in the store , and while his legal advisors cautioned against that step , he offered support for any black entrepreneur looking to establish a quality store and , in 1954 , began to hire black staff in some departments .
Moving into the 1960s , Marcus became ever more convinced that his city and his company needed to take action to promote racial equality , both as a moral issue and to reduce the growing civil unrest . In 1968 , he announced that Neiman @-@ Marcus 's buyers would give preference to companies employing and training significant numbers of minority employees , making his firm one of the first companies in the nation to have such a policy .
= = = Civic leadership = = =
The Marcus family had been among the founders of Dallas ' Temple Emanu @-@ El , a Reform synagogue that is today the largest in the Southwest . Stanley Marcus became a leading figure in the temple in the 1950s and a member of the American Council for Judaism despite being largely a secular Jew who once joked that he was afraid to visit Israel " because he might be converted . "
Marcus was well known for cultivating the arts and for defending even unpopular political causes . He introduced art exhibits at Neiman @-@ Marcus as well as providing corporate sponsorship of artwork elsewhere in the city , and cultivated an extensive private collection . He helped found the Dallas Opera , helped save the Dallas Symphony from a financial crisis , and served as chairman of the board for the Dallas Museum of Fine Art ( now the Dallas Museum of Art ) .
While serving as museum chair , Marcus was once called upon by Fred Florence , then chairman of a major local bank and a fellow Temple Emanu @-@ El leader , to explain his inclusion of " a lot of Communist art " he 'd been told would be included in an upcoming DMFA " Sports in Art " exhibit , co @-@ sponsored by Sports Illustrated and United States Information Agency as a fund @-@ raiser for the 1956 Olympic team . Artists represented in the show included four supposed Communist supporters , Leon Kroll , Yasuo Kuniyoshi , Ben Shahn , and William Zorach . Asking Florence to indicate which pieces were being questioned , Marcus dismissed each claim one by one : " I don 't know how anybody could think hitting a baseball was communist , " Marcus said when shown Shahn 's " The National Pastime . " His response to Zorach 's " Fisherman " was similar , as he shook his head and remarked , " I don 't think too many people think fishing is communist either . " Marcus followed up by going to local newspapers The Dallas Morning News and the Dallas Times @-@ Herald and getting the publishers of both to agree that they would not stand for censorship in the arts .
In organizing a 1952 exhibition of abstract art , Marcus lured local leaders to the show by two means . First , he solicited the donation of art from the collections of David Rockefeller and his brothers , along with those from other noted national business leaders . Second , he requested that the donors personally write letters of invitation to their Dallas colleagues , feeling that the otherwise suspect art would benefit from the imprimatur of respected figures known for their fine taste . His efforts were rewarded by a numerous and appreciative turnout for the show .
Marcus also involved himself in issues of civil rights and social justice . One unusual case involved three male students at W. W. Samuell High School who , in 1966 , were stopped at the school 's front door and ordered to cut their hair in order to be admitted to the school . The young men filed a lawsuit against the Dallas Independent School District , claiming the restriction interfered with their constitutional freedom of expression . Despite not knowing the boys involved , Marcus stepped forward to champion their case before the public , taking out a newspaper ad defending the choice as a simple fashion decision rather than rebellion against authority . Additionally , he offered legal support if needed , noting in a telegram to school board president Lee McShan , Jr . , " I don ’ t like long hair any more than the principal does , but I will fight for the rights of those students to wear hair any way they choose . " Though the case was lost and appealed all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court without success , decades letter the men still appreciated Marcus ' support . Paul Jarvis , one of the plaintiffs , said of Marcus after his death in 2002 : " He was just a nice man and a great contributor to Dallas and to the arts . He wanted to do what was right . "
= = = Presidential connections = = =
Marcus used his public @-@ relations skills once again when Dallas was labeled " City of Hate " following the November 22 , 1963 , assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy . An early supporter of Kennedy 's run for the presidency , Marcus had tolerated the closing of several customers ' accounts when he announced his support for the candidate in the 1960 elections . In fact , he had cautioned that Kennedy 's visit be reconsidered in light of the city 's earlier poor reception of Adlai Stevenson and Vice @-@ President Lyndon Baines Johnson . In Kennedy 's memory , Marcus arranged to have 500 hand @-@ typeset and bound copies printed of Kennedy 's scheduled speech at the Dallas Trade Mart , of which the first copy went to Kennedy 's widow , Jacqueline . The following New Year 's Day , 1964 , Marcus took out a full @-@ page advertorial in The Dallas Morning News titled , " What 's Right With Dallas ? "
The editorial ad – a Neiman @-@ Marcus tradition introduced by his father in the store 's early days – both defended the city against outside critiques and offered more intimate criticisms from one who knew the town and its people well . The message said that Dallas needed to address four areas for community improvement : one , its slum problem ; two , its political extremism ( called " absolutism " in the text ) ; three , too much attention to physical growth at the expense of " quality " in civic endeavors such as " schools , colleges , symphonies , operas , and museums " ; and four , a need to focus less on " civic image " and more on " doing good things and not doing bad things " , which he described as " the best public relations . " In a 2003 article on the 40th anniversary of the assassination , Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times praised the message as " strik [ ing ] a perfect balance " , though he notes the author met not only with support from some , but from canceled accounts and " anti @-@ Semitic attacks " that only increased after an article in Life referenced Marcus 's Jewish heritage .
Following Kennedy 's death , Marcus maintained close ties with Johnson and his administration , being considered for diplomatic posts to France and to the United Nations General Assembly while continuing to run his company and providing the wedding dresses for both the Johnsons ' daughters , personally assisting Luci Johnson in selecting the designer for her own dress and the styles for the bridesmaids ' gowns . After Johnson 's retirement , Marcus 's invitations were among the few the former president and his wife continued to accept . Marcus 's own daughter Wendy joined Mrs. Johnson 's staff for a time in 1963 , working under Mrs. Johnson 's personal secretary , Liz Carpenter .
= = = Stepping down = = =
In 1969 Stanley Marcus recommended to the board of directors that the company merge with Broadway @-@ Hale of California in order to have enough capital to expand . Neiman 's subsequently became a subsidiary of Carter @-@ Hawley Hale , Inc . , and Marcus accepted a position as corporate executive vice president and director of CHH . He retired as Chairman Emeritus in 1975 , turning over the store to his son , Richard C. Marcus .
Despite retiring officially from the company , Marcus continued to be closely involved as an advisor even through the final weeks of his life . He established a sideline as a retailing consultant , maintaining regular business hours in his offices at Crescent Court for more than a decade and offering advice locally to luxury car dealership Sewell Corporation and hotelier Rosewood Corporation as well as internationally to such businessmen as Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed of Harrods . Called on to consult for Amazon.com 's Jeff Bezos , the 94 @-@ year @-@ old businessman recalled arriving in his customary expensive tailored suit to discover 300 casually dressed employees : " I took off my coat , my necktie and my shirt , down to my T @-@ shirt . And then I said , ' Okay . Let ’ s talk . ' I couldn ’ t have planned it better . It broke the ice . I was on stage for two hours . "
= = Legacy = =
In addition to writing a weekly column for The Dallas Morning News for 15 years , Marcus was the author of multiple retailing @-@ oriented books , including Minding the Store : A Memoir ( 1974 ) , the sequel Quest for the Best ( 1979 ) , and His & Hers : The Fantasy World of the Neiman Marcus Catalogue ( 1982 ) He was a close friend of other writers , including Jane Trahey , an author and longtime advertising copywriter who at one time worked for Neiman Marcus , and historian David McCullough . A television presenter for the public broadcasting program American Experience , McCullough said he once asked Stanley Marcus – " one of the wisest men I know " – what single problem or aspect of American life , if given a magic wand , he would change , to which Marcus replied , " I 'd try to do something about television . " When asked why , he explained , " Because " , he said , " If you could do something about television , think how far you could go to solve all the other problems . "
Marcus was an avid art collector , as well as amassing a collection of masks from around the world . In 2002 , the Sotheby 's auction house mounted a sale of works from his estate , calling Marcus " an insightful and forward @-@ looking collector and a generous lender whose contributions to exhibitions helped bring notice to the world of Latin American Art during the 40s , 50s and 60s . " The auction house also noted that Marcus had begun collecting at age five ( influenced by his parents ) , but had found his interest in good design vastly deepened by a 1925 graduation trip to Europe , where he visited a famed international exhibition of decorative arts and thus was introduced to the earliest works of Art Deco . The Marcus collections included significant works by Mexican artists Rufino Tamayo , David Alfaro Siqueiros , Diego Rivera , and Rivera 's lesser @-@ known friend and colleague Antonio Ruíz ; the American sculptor Alexander Calder , and American painter Georgia O 'Keeffe . Marcus was friends with Rivera and Tamayo – playing a major role in bringing one of Tamayo 's murals to the Dallas Museum of Art – and one of the first board members of the O 'Keeffe museum , which honored him at the time of his death with a paid notice in The New York Times that stated " Stanley 's generous support , leadership , enthusiasm , friendship and keen artistic judgment were instrumental in the Museum 's inception and success . We shall miss him greatly . "
Another Marcus contribution to the arts was his own work in the area of photography . Over the course of his adult life , Marcus took thousands of photographs , both of famous and anonymous subjects , which he turned over to granddaughter Allison V. Smith , a professional photographer , upon moving out of his Nonesuch Road home into a smaller residence in the late 1990s . Two years after his death , Smith began making digital scans of the photos and posting them to the sharing site Flickr ; despite the fact that their authorship was not identified , within a year the photographs had drawn 10 @,@ 000 views . For the 100th anniversary of Neiman Marcus , Smith and her mother , Jerrie Marcus Smith , decided to assemble a representative selection of the nearly 5 @,@ 000 images into a book ; titled Reflection of a Man , the 192 @-@ page book was published by Cairn Press in October , 2007 , and accompanied by an exhibit at the Dallas Museum of Art .
Southern Methodist University hosts a Stanley Marcus collection at its DeGolyer Library in Dallas , including photographs , correspondence , and clippings . The library also houses a collection of more than 8 @,@ 000 books donated by Marcus , including 1 @,@ 100 miniature books , many from the press he founded .
= = Awards and honors = =
Inaugural inductee , Retailing Hall of Fame ( 2004 )
First recipient of the Design Patron award , National Design Awards ( 2001 )
Inductee , Advertising Hall of Fame ( 1999 )
Honoree , Linz Award ( 1995 )
Inductee , Texas Business Hall of Fame ( 1984 )
Honorary doctoral degree recipient , North Texas State University ( 1983 )
Honorary Fellow , American Institute of Architects ( 1972 )
Honorary doctoral degree recipient , Southern Methodist University ( 1965 )
Recipient , National Retail Merchants Association gold medal ( 1961 )
New York Fashion Designers Annual Award ( 1958 )
Chevalier Award , French Legion of Honor , presented on March 27 , 1949 , by Henri Bonnet , French Ambassador to the United States , " for eminent services to the cause of French industrial and commercial recovery "
Elected chairman , American Retailing Federation
Listed , " The Tallest Texans " , Houston Chronicle - profiles of 100 key figures in the state 's history
Listed , " 20th Century Great American Business Leaders " , Harvard Business School
= = Additional references = =
Infoplease . Noteworthy Deaths , 2002
" Farewell to the Merchant Prince " , The Dallas Morning News multimedia obituary tribute
Tolbert , Frank X. ( 1953 ) . Neiman Marcus , Texas : the story of the proud Dallas store . New York : Henry Holt .
|
= SMS Brummer =
SMS Brummer was a minelaying light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ; she was the lead ship of her class . Her sister ship was Bremse . Brummer was laid down at AG Vulcan 's shipyard in Stettin in 1915 and launched on 11 December 1915 and completed on 2 April 1916 . Armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in single mounts , she carried 400 mines .
Despite being designed as a minelayer , the German Navy never operated her as such . She and her sister were used to raid a British convoy to Norway in October 1917 . The two cruisers sank two escorting destroyers and nine of the twelve merchant ships of the convoy . The Kaiserliche Marine considered sending the two ships to attack convoys in the Atlantic Ocean , but the difficulties associated with refueling at sea convinced the Germans to abandon the plan . Brummer was included in the list of ships interned at Scapa Flow following the Armistice . On 21 June 1919 , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the scuttling of the fleet . Brummer was successfully scuttled , and unlike most of the other wrecks , she was never raised for scrapping .
= = Construction = =
Brummer was ordered under the contract name " C " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1915 . She was launched on 11 December 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . Completed in less than four months , she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 2 April 1916 . The ship was 140 @.@ 4 meters ( 461 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 6 m ( 20 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 856 t ( 5 @,@ 764 long tons ; 6 @,@ 455 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of 33 @,@ 000 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) steam turbines powered by two coal @-@ fired and four oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) and a range of 5 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 700 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . In service however , the ship reached 34 kn ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts ; two were arranged side by side forward and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 20 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 600 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Brummer also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes in a swivel mount amidships . Designed as a minelayer , she carried 400 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Service = =
Brummer was ready for service with the fleet by May 1916 , though she did not steam with the rest of the High Seas Fleet for the Battle of Jutland at the end of the month . Despite the fact that they had been built as minelaying cruisers , Brummer and Bremse were never used in this capacity . In the autumn of 1917 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the chief of the Admiralstab , decided to supplement the U @-@ boat campaign with surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia . In addition to damaging British shipping , Scheer sought to divert escorts from the Atlantic theater , where his U @-@ boats were concentrated . Brummer , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Leonhardi , and Bremse , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Westerkamp , were selected for the first such operation . Their high speed and large radius of action , coupled with their resemblance to British light cruisers , made them suited to the task . In preparation for the raid , their crews painted the ships dark gray to further camouflage them as British vessels .
Half an hour after dawn on the morning of 17 October , Brummer and Bremse attacked a westbound convoy about 70 nautical miles ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) east of Lerwick . The convoy consisted of twelve merchantmen and was escorted by the destroyers HMS Strongbow and Mary Rose and a pair of armed trawlers . The German ruse worked , and the British destroyers initially thought they were friendly ships . They flashed recognition signals until the Germans opened fire at a range of 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) . Strongbow was quickly destroyed , and as Mary Rose rushed to engage , she too was sunk . The Germans then quickly sank nine of the merchant vessels ; the two trawlers and three merchant ships managed to escape . The British Admiralty was not informed of the attack until Brummer and Bremse were on the return leg of the voyage . Kaiser Wilhelm II celebrated the results of the attack with champagne . The success of the two ships and the commitment of heavier British convoy escorts led Scheer to attempt to attack one of the heavily defended convoys with the entire High Seas Fleet in April 1918 , though this ended without success .
Late in the war , the Admiralstab considered sending Brummer and Bremse on a commerce raiding mission into the Atlantic . They were to operate off the Azores in concert with an oiler . The central Atlantic was out of the normal range of the U @-@ boats , and convoys were therefore lightly defended in the area . The Admiralstab canceled the plan , however , after it was determined that refueling at sea would be too difficult . Another problem was the tendency of the two ships to emit clouds of red sparks when steaming at speeds over 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; this would hamper evading Allied ships at night . Brummer was to have been part of the final sortie of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , but this operation was cancelled due to the mutiny of the High Seas Fleet in Wilhelmshaven , after which Brummer was moved to Sassnitz .
Along with the most modern units of the High Seas Fleet , Brummer and Bremse were included in the ships specified for internment at Scapa Flow by the victorious Allied powers . The ships steamed out of Germany on 21 November 1918 in single file , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . They were met at sea by a combined fleet of 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth later that day , and between 25 and 27 November , they were escorted to Scapa Flow . Upon arrival , all wireless equipment was removed from the ships and the breech blocks of their heavy guns were removed to prevent their use . Crews were reduced to minimum levels .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Brummer sank at 13 : 05 ; she was never raised for scrapping and remains on the bottom of Scapa Flow .
|
= Yugoslav submarine Mališan =
Mališan ( pennant number : P @-@ 901 ) was a CB @-@ class midget submarine in service with the Yugoslav Navy ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslavenska ratna mornarica ; JRM ) . Mališan was laid down in 1943 as CB @-@ 20 for the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . Following the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the unfinished boat was captured by the Germans who handed it to the Navy of the Italian Social Republic . The boat was captured by Yugoslav Partisans in Pula in 1945 and commissioned in the JRM shortly after the war .
The boat was decommissioned at some point in the 1950s after a brief service life . In 1959 , it was handed over to the Technical Museum in Zagreb , where it has been on display ever since . Beginning in 2008 , Mališan underwent restoration of its interior and exterior which included returning its original Italian paint scheme and designation .
= = Design and building = =
Mališan was laid down in 1943 by Caproni , Milan as CB @-@ 20 for service in the Regia Marina ( English : Royal Navy ) . The boat measures 15 m ( 49 ft 3 in ) in length , with a 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) beam and a 2 @.@ 05 – 3 m ( 6 ft 9 in – 9 ft 10 in ) draught . Undewater it displaced 45 tonnes ( 44 long tons ) compared to 35 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 34 @.@ 8 long tons ) when surfaced . Maximum diving depth was 55 m ( 180 ft 5 in ) . The boat 's complement during wartime was made of four crew members , one officer and three seamen , while during peacetime the boat could have been operated by a crew of just two . Armament consisted of two 450 mm ( 18 in ) external torpedo tubes located on the sides of the hull .
Propulsion consisted of a 88 @.@ 4 hp ( 65 @.@ 9 kW ) Isotta Fraschini D 80 diesel engine and a 60 hp ( 45 kW ) Marelli Motore Corrente Contina MG 754 S electric motor , mounted on a single shaft . Maximum speed was 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) surfaced and 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) when underwater . Traveling surfaced at a speed of 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) the boat had a range of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 400 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 – 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 600 mi ) , with the exact figure varying between sources . Traveling underwater at a speed of 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) the boat had a range of 50 – 60 nmi ( 93 – 111 km ; 58 – 69 mi ) .
= = Service history = =
After the Kingdom of Italy surrendered to the Allies on 3 September 1943 , the unfinished CB @-@ 20 was captured by German forces and completed by March 1944 . The boat was then handed over to the Italian Social Republic where it saw service with the Tenth Flotilla performing reconnaissance and landing saboteurs . At some point between September and October 1944 , CB @-@ 20 was relocated to its new home port in Pula , where it was captured by the Partisans on 3 May 1945 . Renamed Mališan ( P @-@ 901 ) , translating as nipper in English , the boat was overhauled at the Uljanik Shipyard and commissioned in 1948 . The Yugoslav Navy used it for training new submariners as well as evaluating the concept of midget submarines for future use , which eventually materialized in the form of the Una @-@ class midget submarines three decades later . Depending on the source , the exact time Mališan was decommissioned differs from the early 1950s to 1957 .
= = Aftermath = =
In 1959 , the boat was donated to the Technical Museum in Zagreb , where it has remained since . It the only known preserved boat of its class . In 2007 , the museum decided to restore the boat , which was beginning to show signs of deterioration . Work started in 2008 , and was focused on restoring the interior by dismantling all removable parts from the command section and the engine room . The removed parts were preserved and restored with a detailed documentation about their state before and after restoration . A custom crane had to be constructed and mounted in order to extract the compressor , electric motor and other equipment weighing more than 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) .
Work on the exterior began in 2009 ; the tail section with the propeller and the torpedo tubes were dismantled and restored . The boat itself was raised by 80 cm ( 31 in ) and placed on new carriers to make it more accessible for visitors from the museum gallery . Work on the exterior also included the restoration of the boat 's original Italian paint scheme and name in favor of its later Yugoslav service . Although the decision was questioned by some , the changes were allegedly carried out because of " greater historical relevance " and a " more reliably documented history under its original name and flag " . The fully restored boat was reopened for the public in early April 2010 .
|
= Ordsall Hall =
Ordsall Hall is a historic house and a former stately home in Ordsall , an area of Salford , in Greater Manchester , England . It dates back more than 750 years , although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century . The most important period of Ordsall Hall 's life was as the family seat of the Radclyffe family , who lived in the house for more than 300 years . The hall was the setting for William Harrison Ainsworth 's 1842 novel Guy Fawkes , written around the plausible although unsubstantiated local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned in the house .
Since its sale by the Radclyffes in 1662 the hall has been put to many uses ; a working men 's club , a school for clergy , and a radio station among them . The house was bought by the old Salford Council in 1959 and opened to the public in 1972 , as a period house and local history museum . The hall is a Grade I listed building . It was closed to the public between 2009 and 2011 during refurbishment , and reopened in May 2011 . Entrance is free .
= = History = =
Ordsall Hall is a formerly moated Tudor mansion , the oldest parts of which were built during the 15th century , although there has been a house on the site for over 750 years . David de Hulton is recorded as the owner of the original hall , in 1251 . The manor of Ordsall came into the possession of the Radclyffe family in about 1335 , but it was not until 1354 that Sir John Radclyffe established his right of inheritance . The manor was described in 1351 as a messuage , 120 acres ( 48 @.@ 6 ha ) of land , 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of meadow and 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of wood .
= = = Radclyffe family home = = =
During the 1340s Sir John Radclyffe campaigned with Edward III in France , distinguishing himself at the battles of Caen , Crècy and Calais . As a reward for his service , the king allowed Sir John to take some Flemish weavers back to his Ordsall estate , where he built cottages for them to live in . English weaving skills at that time were poor , and textiles from Manchester were considered to be of particularly poor quality , so the Flemish weavers were employed in instructing the local weavers . They also started up a silk weaving industry , the foundation for Manchester 's later cotton industry .
The Dutch humanist and theologian Erasmus stayed at Ordsall Hall in 1499 , and described it thus :
... the floors are made of clay and are covered with layers of rushes , constantly replenished , so that the bottom layer remains for 20 years harbouring spittle , vomit , the urine of dogs and men , the dregs of beer , the remains of fish and other nameless filth ...
The original cruck hall was replaced by the present Great Hall in 1512 , after Sir Alexander Radclyffe was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire . The hall is typical of others built at that time in the northwest of England , although it is one of the largest , and is unusual for the period in having no wall fireplace . The hall has an elaborate roof structure , as in the similar Rufford Old Hall . There is a slightly later small room above the large oriel bay , which may be an early addition as at Samlesbury Hall .
Other alterations and additions were made during the 17th century , including a modest brick house added onto the west end in 1639 , perhaps intended as a home for Sir Alexander 's bailiff , as he himself no longer used the hall as his main residence by that time . The house was built at 90 ° to the timber @-@ framed building , to which it was later joined . During the Civil War Sir Alexander , as a Royalist , was imprisoned and suffered financial hardship . Reduced means eventually forced his heir , John Radclyffe , into selling the hall to Colonel John Birch in 1662 , thus ending more than 300 years of his family 's occupation .
= = = Later use = = =
At the time of the 1666 hearth tax survey , Ordsall Hall was the largest house in Salford , with 19 hearths . The Oldfield family of Leftwich , near Northwich , bought the estate at the end of the 17th century , and in 1704 it was sold again , to John Stock , a trustee of Cross Street Chapel . His family were probably the last owners to reside at the hall . The Stocks lived in the hall 's central section , comprising " a large hall , lounge dining room , a chapel , six rooms on a floor , with brewhouse , large courts , stable , etc " , while the two wings were leased tenants from about 1700 . In 1756 the hall was sold to Samuel Hill of Shenstone , Staffordshire . Two years later , on Hill 's death , the house passed to his nephew , Samuel Egerton of Tatton .
The hall remained in occupation until 1871 , the last residents being the descendants of John Markendale , who had taken over the lease of the building in 1814 . The land surrounding the hall was used by the Mather family of cowkeepers and butchers for many years . During the last quarter of the 19th century Ordsall Hall became engulfed " in mean streets and industry " . From 1875 Haworth 's Mill rented the hall and used it as a working men 's club . The Great Hall was converted into a gymnasium after being cleared of the inserted floor and later partitions , and provision was made elsewhere for billiards , a skittle alley , and a bowling green . In 1883 the hall was bought by the Earl Egerton of Tatton , and restored during 1896 – 98 by the Manchester architect Alfred Darybshire at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 ( £ 600 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . The restoration allowed the earl to found a clergy training school at the hall . Provisions for the school included the construction of a church dedicated to St Cyprian in the north forecourt , and a new servants ' wing on the south side . In 1908 the school was moved to Egerton Hall , changing its name to the Manchester Theological College . The men 's social club at Ordsall Hall survived until 1940 . During the Second World War the hall was used as a radio station . In the 1960s the church and servants ' wing built for the clergy school were demolished .
Salford Corporation purchased Ordsall Hall from the executors of the Baron Egerton of Tatton in 1959 . After major restoration work , it was opened to the public in April 1972 , as a period house and local history museum .
In March 2007 the Extraordinary Ordsall Campaign applied for a grant of £ 5 @.@ 1 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund ( HLF ) , to regenerate Ordsall Hall and secure its future . After supporters had raised £ 1 million by September 2008 , the HLF provided the remaining £ 4 @.@ 1 million . Only 40 per cent of the building was then open to the public , but following restoration work further rooms were expected to be opened . The building closed for refurbishment in early 2009 , and re @-@ opened to the public on 15 May 2011 . In 2013 the newly restored building received a Bronze Award in the Small Visitor Attraction category organised by tourist body VisitEngland , one of 320 nominations from across the country .
= = Architecture = =
There are two separate elements to the present @-@ day house : the timber @-@ framed south range built in the 15th century , and the brick west range constructed in 1639 . The hall was originally built around a central quadrangle , but the other wings making up that space are no longer present . Drawing on the earliest description of the house , from 1380 , the Salford City Council describes how it comprised " a hall , five chambers , a kitchen and a chapel . It was associated with two stables , three granges , two shippons , a garner , a dovecote , an orchard and a windmill , together with 80 acres [ 32 @.@ 4 ha ] of arable land and six acres [ 2 @.@ 4 ha ] of meadow . "
Substantial alterations appear to have taken place during the early years of Samuel Egerton 's ownership in the mid @-@ 18th century . The canopy at the dais end of the Great Hall was destroyed – although part of it can still be seen in the north wall – when a floor was inserted and new rooms were formed with lath and plaster partitions . The east wing of the hall was probably demolished at about the same time , but certainly before 1812 , the date of the earliest estate map .
There are believed to have been underground passages leading from the hall into Manchester . One , running under the River Irwell to the Hanging Bridge Hotel at the northern end of Deansgate , was described in 1900 , following the rediscovery of the Hanging Bridge after it had been buried for 200years :
... I was shown a door in Hanging Bridge Hotel cellar where the arches could be seen and a door made up ... it was the entrance to an underground passage under the Irwell , possibly to Ordsall Hall ... the owner had not traversed the passage himself , but the previous owner had , but had to turn back because of bad smells ....
= = Guy Fawkes = =
Harrison Ainsworth , in his 1842 novel Guy Fawkes , wrote about the local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned by Guy Fawkes and Robert Catesby in Ordsall Hall 's Star Chamber . Guy Fawkes is supposed to have escaped capture by the king 's soldiers by way of an underground tunnel from Ordsall Hall to an inn at the cathedral end of Hanging Bridge , at the northern end of present @-@ day Deansgate . There is no firm supporting evidence , but the Radclyffes were prominent Roman Catholics and were acquainted with the Catesby family . The legend is remembered in the name of the modern road that runs to the east of the hall , Guy Fawkes Street .
= = Hauntings = =
Like many old buildings , Ordsall Hall has stories of hauntings . The White Lady who is said to appear in the Great Hall or Star Chamber is popularly believed to be Margaret Radclyffe , who died of a broken heart in 1599 following the death at sea of her twin , Alexander . There are webcams overseeing the areas that are said to be the most haunted . An episode of the television programme Most Haunted was filmed in the hall in 2005 .
|
= Hurricane Hattie =
Hurricane Hattie was the strongest and deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , reaching a peak intensity equivalent to that of a Category 5 hurricane . The ninth tropical storm and seventh hurricane and major hurricane of the season , Hattie originated from an area of low pressure that strengthened into a tropical storm over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 27 . Moving generally northward , the storm quickly became a hurricane and later major hurricane the following day . Hattie then turned westward west of Jamaica and strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . It weakened to Category 4 before making landfall south of Belize City on October 31 . The storm turned southwestward and weakened rapidly over the mountainous terrain of Central America , dissipating on November 1 .
Hattie first affected the southwestern Caribbean , where it produced hurricane @-@ force winds and caused one death on San Andres Island . It was initially forecast to continue north and strike Cuba , prompting evacuations on the island . While turning west , Hattie dropped heavy rainfall of up to 11 @.@ 5 in ( 290 mm ) on Grand Cayman . The country of Belize , at the time known as British Honduras , sustained the worst damage from the hurricane . The former capital , Belize City , was buffeted by strong winds and flooded by a powerful storm surge . The territory governor estimated that 70 % of the buildings in the city had been damaged , leaving more than 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . The destruction was so severe that it prompted the government to relocate inland to a new city , Belmopan . Overall , Hattie caused about $ 60 million in losses and 307 deaths in the territory . Although damage was heavier in Hattie than a hurricane in 1931 that killed 2 @,@ 000 people , the death toll from Hattie was less due to advance warnings . Elsewhere in Central America , Hattie killed 11 people in Guatemala and one in Honduras .
= = Meteorological history = =
For several days toward the end of October 1961 , a low @-@ pressure area persisted in the western Caribbean Sea , north of the Panama Canal Zone . On October 25 , an upper @-@ level anticyclone moved over the low ; the next day , a trough over the western Gulf of Mexico provided favorable outflow for the disturbance . At 0000 UTC on October 27 , a ship nearby reported southerly winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . Later that day , the airport on San Andres Island reported easterly winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The two observations confirmed the presence of a closed wind circulation , centered about 70 miles ( 110 km ) southeast of San Andres , or 155 mi ( 250 km ) east of the Nicaraguan coast ; as a result , the Miami Weather Bureau began issuing advisories on the newly formed Tropical Storm Hattie .
After being classified , Hattie moved steadily northward , passing very near or over San Andres Island . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) and sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , which indicated that Hattie had reached hurricane status . Late on October 28 , a Hurricane Hunters flight encountered a much stronger hurricane , with winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) in a small area near the center . At the time , gale @-@ force winds extended outward 140 mi ( 225 km ) to the northeast and 70 miles ( 115 km ) to the southwest . Early on October 29 , a trough extending from Nicaragua to Florida was expected to allow Hattie to continue northward , based on climatology for similar hurricanes . Later that day , Hattie was forecast to be an imminent threat to the Cayman Islands and western Cuba . Around that time , a strengthening ridge to the north turned the hurricane northwestward , which spared the Greater Antilles but increased the threat to Central America .
With the strengthening ridge to its north , Hattie began restrengthening after retaining the same intensity for about 24 hours . Initially , forecasters at the Miami Weather Bureau predicted the storm to turn northward again . Late on October 29 , the center of the hurricane passed about 90 miles ( 145 km ) southwest of Grand Cayman , at which time the interaction between Hattie and the ridge to its north produced squally winds of around 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) across Florida . Early on October 30 , the Hurricane Hunters confirmed the increase in intensity , reporting winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . The storm 's minimum central pressure continued to drop throughout the day , reaching 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) by 1300 UTC ; a lower pressure of 920 mbar ( 27 inHg ) was computed at 1700 UTC that day , based on a flight @-@ level reading from the Hurricane Hunters . Hattie later curved toward the west @-@ southwest , passing between the Cayman Islands and the Swan Islands . Late on October 30 , Hattie attained peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) about 190 mi ( 310 km ) east of the border of Mexico and British Honduras . This made Hattie the equivalence of a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , making it the latest hurricane on record to reach the status until a reanalysis of the 1932 season revealed that Hurricane Fourteen had a similar intensity on November 5 , six days after Hattie . Additionally , Hattie was the strongest October hurricane in the northwest Caribbean until Hurricane Mitch in 1998 .
Hattie maintained much of its intensity as it continued toward the coast of British Honduras . After moving through several small islands offshore , the hurricane made landfall a short distance south of Belize City on October 31 , with an eyewall of about 25 miles ( 40 km ) in diameter . Based on a post @-@ season analysis , it was determined that Hattie had weakened to winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) before moving ashore . The hurricane deteriorated rapidly over land , dissipating on November 1 as it moved into the mountains of Guatemala . During its dissipation , Tropical Storm Simone was developing off the Pacific coast of Guatemala . There was speculation that Hattie contributed to the development of Simone , and later Tropical Storm Inga after the remnants of Simone merged with nearby disturbed weather .
= = Preparations = =
Upon initiating advisories on Hattie , the Miami Weather Bureau noted the potential for heavy rainfall and flash flooding in the southwestern Caribbean . The advisories recommended for small ships to remain at harbor across the region . Initially , the hurricane was predicted to move near or through the Cayman Islands , Jamaica , and Cuba . As a result , Cuban officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate .
Hurricane Hattie first posed a threat to the Yucatán Peninsula and British Honduras on October 30 when it turned toward the area . Officials at the Miami Weather Bureau warned of the potential for high tides , strong winds , and torrential rainfall . The warnings allowed for extensive evacuations in high @-@ risk areas . Most people in the capital , Belize City , were evacuated or moved to shelters , and a school was operated as a refuge . A hospital in the city was evacuated , and over 75 % of the population of Stann Creek fled to safer locations . After Hattie made landfall , officials in Mexico ordered the closure of ports along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec .
= = Impact = =
Despite predictions for heavy rainfall in the southwestern Caribbean , the hurricane 's movement was more northerly than expected , resulting in less precipitation along the Central American coast than anticipated . In its early developmental stages , Hattie struck San Andrés Island , located offshore eastern Nicaragua , with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and gusts of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . As the hurricane neared the island , the airport was closed due to tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Rough seas and winds damaged private property and two hotels . Many palm tree plantations were devastated . The schooner Admirar , anchored in one of the island 's bays , capsized during the storm . Overall , Hattie resulted in one death , fifteen injuries , and $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1961 USD ) in San Andrés . The hurricane was the fourth on record to strike the island , and of the four was the only to approach from the south .
In the northwestern Caribbean , Hattie passed close to Grand Cayman with heavy rainfall . At least 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 292 mm ) of rain were reported on the island , including 7 @.@ 8 inches ( 198 mm ) in six hours . Winds on Grand Cayman were below hurricane force , and only minor damage occurred due to the rain .
The interaction between Hattie and the ridge of high pressure to its north produced sustained winds of 20 mph ( 35 km / h ) across most of Florida , with a gust of 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) reported at Hillsboro Inlet Light ; the winds caused some beach erosion in the state . The U.S. Weather Bureau issued a small craft warning for the west and east Florida coastlines , as well as northward to Brunswick , Georgia .
Later , Hattie impacted various countries in Central America with flash floods , causing 11 deaths in Guatemala and one fatality in Honduras . The Swan Islands reported wind gusts just below hurricane force , resulting in minor damage and one injury .
= = = British Honduras = = =
Hurricane Hattie moved ashore in British Honduras with a storm tide of up to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) near Belize City , a city of 31 @,@ 000 people located at sea @-@ level ; its only defenses against the storm tide were a small seawall and a strip of swamp lands . The capital experienced high waves and a 10 ft ( 3 m ) storm tide along its waterfront that reached the third story of some buildings . A trained observer estimated winds of over 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , and winds in the territory were unofficially estimated as strong as 200 mph ( 325 km / h ) . When Hattie affected the area , most buildings in Belize City were wooden , and most of this type were destroyed . Offshore , the hurricane heavily damaged 80 % of the Belize Barrier Reef , although the reef recovered after the storm .
High winds caused a power outage , downed trees across the region , and destroyed the roofs of many buildings . Governor Colin Thornley estimated that over 70 % of the buildings in the territory were damaged , and more than 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Some shelters set up before the storm were destroyed in the hurricane . The hurricane destroyed the wall at an insane asylum , which allowed the residents to escape . High waves damaged a prison , prompting officials to institute a " daily parole " program for the inmates . Hattie also flooded the Government House , washing away all records . All of Belize City was coated in a layer of mud and debris , and majority of the city was destroyed or severely damaged , as was nearby Stann Creek . The hurricane left significant crop damage across the region , including $ 2 million in citrus fruits and similar losses to timber , cocoa , and bananas . The year 's production of sugar cane was also heavily damaged . About 70 % of the territory 's mahogany trees were downed , as were most citrus and grapefruit trees . The hurricane damaged several factories and oil rigs in the region . Damage throughout the territory totaled $ 60 million ( 1961 USD ) , and a total of 307 deaths were reported ; more than 100 of the fatalities were in Belize City , including 36 who evacuated to a British administration building that was later destroyed in the storm . The government of British Honduras considered Hurricane Hattie more damaging than a hurricane in 1931 that killed 2 @,@ 000 people ; the lower death toll of Hattie was due to advance warning .
= = Aftermath = =
After Hattie struck , officials in Belize City declared martial law . A manager of United Press International described Belize City as " nothing but a huge pile of matchsticks , " and many roads were either flooded for days or covered with mud . Doctors provided typhoid vaccinations to 12 @,@ 000 residents in two days to prevent the spread of the disease . Due to the high death toll , officials ordered mass cremations to stop additional disease from spreading . At the city 's police station , workers provided fresh water and rice to storm victims . Many residents throughout British Honduras donated supplies to the storm victims , such that an airlines manager described it as " taxing ... manpower and facilities . " One airline allowed donations to be flown to Belize City at no cost . The city 's three newspapers were unable to operate due to lack of power after the storm . By November 5 , Belize City 's post office reopened on a limited basis , and all business initially remained closed . About 4 @,@ 000 homeless residents from Stann Creek were moved by boat to the northern portion of the territory . Many homeless people from the Belize City area set up a tent city on bushland about 16 mi ( 26 km ) inland , which was initially intended to be temporary . In December 1961 , barracks were erected near a Red Cross Hospital to house the homeless in the camp . The site was named Hattieville and became a proper city , with utilities installed in the subsequent decade .
About 200 British soldiers arrived from Jamaica to quell looting and maintain order . At least 20 people were arrested in the day after Hattie struck . The British government sent flights of aid to the territory containing food , clothing , and medical supplies . The House of Commons quickly passed a bill to provide £ 10 @,@ 000 in aid . The Save the Children fund sent £ 1 @,@ 000 to British Honduras , and the Mexican government sent three flights with food and medicine to the territory . Two American destroyers arrived in the country by November 2 , reporting the need for assistance . The USS Antietam remained at port for weeks after the storm with six medical officers and six Marine helicopters . Four other ships sailed to the territory to provide 458 @,@ 000 lb ( 208 @,@ 000 kg ) of food . The United States government allocated about $ 300 @,@ 000 in assistance through the International Development Association . The Canadian government provided C $ 75 @,@ 000 worth of aid , including food , blankets , and medical supplies .
By Hattie 's one year anniversary , private and public workers repaired and rebuilt buildings affected by the storm . New hotels were constructed , and many stores were reopened . Prime Minister George Cadle Price successfully appealed for assistance from the British government , which ultimately provided £ 20 million in loans . In the days after the storm , the government announced plans to relocate the capital of British Honduras farther inland on higher ground . Work on the new capital , Belmopan , was completed in 1970 . On the 44th anniversary of the hurricane in 2005 , the government of Belize unveiled a monument in Belize City to recognize the victims of the hurricane .
Due to the destruction and loss of life attributed to the hurricane , the name Hattie was retired by the World Meteorological Organization and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane .
|
= You 're Mine ( Eternal ) =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey included on her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) . It premiered on February 12 , 2014 , as the third single from the album . It was written and produced by Carey with Rodney Jerkins . An R & B song , the lyrics revolve around the singer reminiscing about a past lover . Critical response to the song was positive : Carey 's breathy vocal style and use of the whistle register at the climax earned praise from critics . It also garnered several comparisons to one of Carey 's previous singles , " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) .
In the United States , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " reached number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , but it experienced greater success on the Dance Club Songs chart , becoming her seventeenth number @-@ one song . Elsewhere , it reached the top 20 in Hungary and on the UK R & B Chart and the top 30 in Spain . Carey co @-@ directed the music video with photographer Indrani , which depicted the singer as a mermaid swimming around the lakes at the El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico . Recording artist Trey Songz appears as a love interest in the video . He also features on the urban remix of the song , performing his verses in the remix video . Carey has performed the song at the BET Honors and during a performance at the Empire State Building .
= = Background and release = =
On December 31 , 2013 , Carey appeared on NBC 's New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly show to perform some songs . Before giving the audience some advice on love for 2014 and prior to singing " The Art of Letting Go " from Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , the singer announced that she would be releasing a new single on February 14 , 2014 , to coincide with Valentine 's Day . On February 12 , Carey released " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " as the album 's third single . The single 's artwork consists of Sweethearts , a brand of sugar candies .
In the United States , the song was released to contemporary , rhythmic , and urban adult contemporary radio stations around the country on February 18 . An urban remix featuring vocals by American recording artist Trey Songz was also made available to download digitally on February 13 . In an interview with MTV News , Carey praised Songz vocal ability , saying that most artists are not able to sing and rap while maintaining " a sound that 's current yet also classic " . Carey further released multiple dances remixes of " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " , including the Jump Smokers Radio Remix , Jump Smokers Extended Remix , and Jermaine Dupri X Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix . Additional remixes by Fedde le Grand , Gregor Salto and Funkin ' Matt , and Chus and Ceballos were released on March 15 .
= = Composition = =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " is an R & B love song written and produced by Carey and Rodney Jerkins . " . The song is composed in the key of D major using common time and a moderately slow feel of 75 beats per minute . Carey employs a breathy vocal style as she sings the lyric " I can 't seem to live without your love " . Lyrically , Carey reminisces about a past lover , singing " I can 't seem to live without your love / Suffocating here by myself / Dying for your touch " . Instrumentation consists of hypnotic , " smooth , steady " piano beat , which slowly builds to a climax with Carey hitting a whistle note for a sustained period of time at the end of the song . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes described the " up @-@ and @-@ down " melodic structure as " captivating " , which causes the listener to be drawn " deep into Carey 's musical abyss " . The urban remix featuring Songz incorporates an enhanced pop feel compared to the original , with additional drums and Auto @-@ Tune on Songz vocals . " You 're Mine " garnered comparisons to one of Carey 's previous singles " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) . While Christina Garibaldi of MTV News and Jamieson Cox of Time simply highlighted that they have similar melodic structures and vocals styles , Alexa Camp of Slant Magazine was critical of the likeness between the two songs , writing that she was disappointed to hear a " retread " of " We Belong Together " following the positively received " retro " first and second singles " # Beautiful " featuring Miguel and " The Art of Letting Go " , respectively .
= = Critical reception = =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " garnered a generally positive response amongst music critics . Christina Garibaldi of MTV News was complimentary of the song , praising Carey 's " impressive " vocal range and specifically drawing attention to the high note that she ends the song with . Garibaldi stated that " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " serves as a reminder as to why Carey is " still the fiercest diva in the game " . Writing for Billboard , Jason Lipshutz noted that the slow structure for the majority of the song could have made it a " sleepy " R & B song , but noted that the " inevitable " high note saves it from becoming so . Jamieson Cox of Time echoed Garibaldi 's sentiments , writing " It 's a gaseous , fluffy ballad that feels like a direct descendant of the song that rang in her mid @-@ career renaissance , 2005 's mega @-@ hit ' We Belong Together ' : plinking piano melodies , a typically fluttering Carey vocal take , and a very similar beat . Only time will tell if ' You 're Mine ( Eternal ) ' can duplicate that song 's record @-@ breaking success " .
Melinda Newman of HitFix questioned if Carey could have achieve success with the song , describing it as " breathless " and too reliant on the singer 's " vocal pyrotechnics " . She continued to write that the song would most probably not achieve any success on the Billboard Hot 100 , but would find " some love " on the adult contemporary and R & B radio stations . Jeff Benjamin of Fuse compared the production of the song to Carey 's previous singles " Always Be My Baby " ( 1995 ) and " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) . He also wrote that the " drawn @-@ out whistle " at the end of the song was " impressive " . Carolyn Menyes for Music Times felt that Songz overshadowed Carey with his vocals on the urban remix . Slant Magazine writer Alexa Camp thought that while Carey 's voice sounded good , Darkchild 's production was " utterly trivial " . She concluded by expressing that the remix featuring Songz was " slightly more interesting " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " spent one week on the UK Singles Chart , debuting at number 87 on February 16 , 2014 , just four days after being released . It fared better on the UK R & B Chart , spending one week at number 16 . In Hungary , the song reached the top twenty , peaking at number 14 , and the top 30 in Spain , reaching number 21 . In the Flanders region of Belgium and in France , the song only managed peaked at number 49 and 96 , respectively . On the Belgium Urban chart , it peaked at number 29 . In Japan , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " reached number 91 .
In the United States , the song peaked at number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , with 32 @,@ 000 digital downloads accounting for 62 % of its charting points . It became Carey 's 46th chart entry since her debut in 1990 ; it was also the her first song since " Obsessed " in 2009 to chart on the Hot 100 which was neither a festive / holiday song nor a collaboration nor a cover song . " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " became her seventeenth number @-@ one song on the Dance Club Songs chart since her 1991 single " Someday " topped the chart , placing her in joint fifth place with Donna Summer for artist with the most number @-@ one songs . At the time , only Janet Jackson , Beyoncé ( 19 each ) , Rihanna ( 22 ) and Madonna ( 43 ) had achieved more . On the R & B charts , it peaked at number 24 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 12 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs chart , number 41 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart , number 15 on the Hot R & B Songs chart. and number 20 on the Adult R & B Songs chart . On the pop charts , it reached number 26 on the Adult Contemporary chart , number 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart. and number 35 on the Rhythmic chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the song has sold 56 @,@ 000 digital downloads as of April 2014 . The song garnered 245 plays across all radio stations in its first day of release .
= = Music video = =
Carey co @-@ directed the music video for " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " with Indo @-@ Canadian photographer Indrani at the El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico . The video premiered on MTV on February 12 , 2014 . Carey explained how she created the concept for the video and the decided to being in Ingrain to direct specific scenes in a radio interview :
I would say it was a directorial collaborative effort . We went to the rainforest and that was interesting . Part of the reason was [ because ] I love Puerto Rico [ – it 's ] one of my favorite places ever and I did one of my favorite videos , ' Honey ' , in Puerto Rico at the El Conquistador hotel . I was involved every step of the way ... I like [ d ] a lot of the shots in the video ... There was a moment where I had to do an additional water sequence with no director , just myself and a camera man with an underwater camera . I was looking at the take at 5 in the morning , [ they 're ] ready to kill me . But if we didn 't have those shots there wouldn 't be anything to cut away to , except me .
Scenes of the music video include Carey sitting beside a river in the forest covered in gold glitter , sitting in front of waterfalls and tropical wildlife , and imitating a mermaid by swimming underwater while wearing an evening gown . The remix video with Songz premiered two days later on Valentine 's Day on BET 's 106 & Park . Songz appears in both versions of the video , whereby he is seen modelling shirtless at a photoshoot , but only performs his verses in the remix video . Carey praised Songz for bringing something artistically different to the videos .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " at the BET Honors in Washington , D.C. on February 8 , 2014 ; the performance aired on February 24 . On February 13 , 2014 , Carey performed at the lighting up of the Empire State Building in pink and red ; she appeared with three couples who won a contest that gave them the opportunity to get married at the top of the building on Valentine 's Day .
= = Track listing = =
Original Digital Download
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " – 3 : 44
Urban Remix Digital Download
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ featuring Trey Songz ] – 4 : 15
Dance Remix Streaming
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jermaine Dupri × Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix ] – 5 : 25
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jermaine Dupri × Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix Edit ] – 3 : 27
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jump Smokers Extended Remix ] – 4 : 07
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jump Smokers Radio Edit ] – 3 : 39
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Fedde le Grand Main Mix ] – 5 : 39
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Gregor Salto and Funkin ' Matt Main Mix ] – 4 : 34
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Chus & Ceballos Remix ] – 7 : 01
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Rapture Studios , Bel Air , CA ; Metrocity Studios , New York , NY ; Jungle City Studios , New York , NY ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , NV .
Mixed at Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , GA
Personnel
Songwriting – Mariah Carey , Rodney Jerkins
Production – Mariah Carey , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins
Recording – Brian Garten , Matt Champlin , Greg Morgan
Assistant recording – Keith Parry , Rob Katz
Mixing – Phil Tan
Assistant mixing – Daniela Rivera
Background vocals – Mariah Carey
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse .
= = Charts = =
|
= Robert Bacher =
Robert Fox Bacher ( August 31 , 1905 – November 18 , 2004 ) was an American nuclear physicist and one of the leaders of the Manhattan Project . Born in Loudonville , Ohio , Bacher obtained his undergraduate degree and doctorate from the University of Michigan , writing his 1930 doctoral thesis under the supervision of Samuel Goudsmit on the Zeeman effect of the hyperfine structure of atomic levels . After graduate work at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , he accepted a job at Columbia University . In 1935 he accepted an offer from Hans Bethe to work with him at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , a university town similar to Ann Arbor , where Bacher and his wife Jean had been raised . At Cornell , Bacher worked with Bethe on his book Nuclear Physics . A : Stationary States of Nuclei ( 1936 ) , the first of three books that would become known as the " Bethe Bible " .
In December 1940 , Bacher joined the Radiation Laboratory at MIT , although he did not immediately cease his research at Cornell into the neutron cross section of cadmium . The Radiation Laboratory was organized into two sections , one for incoming radar signals , and one for outgoing radar signals . Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section . Here he gained valuable experience in administration , coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists , but also those of General Electric and RCA . In 1942 , Bacher was approached by Robert Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project at its new laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . It was at Bacher 's insistence that Los Alamos became a civilian rather than a military laboratory . At Los Alamos , Bacher headed the project 's P ( Physics ) Division , and later its G ( Gadget ) Division . Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer , and the two men discussed the project 's progress on a daily basis .
After the war , Bacher became director of the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies at Cornell . He also served on the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission , the civilian agency that replaced the wartime Manhattan Project , and in 1947 he became one of its inaugural commissioners . He left in 1949 to become head Division of Physics , Mathematics , and Astronomy at Caltech . He was appointed a member of the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) in 1958 . In 1962 , he became Caltech 's vice president and provost . He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970 , and became a professor emeritus in 1976 . He died in 2004 at the age of 99 .
= = Early life and career = =
Bacher was born in Loudonville , Ohio , on August 31 , 1905 , the only child of Harry and Byrl Fox Bacher . In 1908 , the family moved to Ann Arbor , Michigan , where Harry worked as a banker and Byrl as a voice teacher on the University of Michigan faculty . Bacher attended the W. S. Perry School , and later Ann Arbor High School . While there he met Professor Harrison M. Randall , the head of the physics department at the University of Michigan , who encouraged him to study physics .
Bacher entered the University of Michigan , where he joined the Kappa Sigma fraternity and lived in the frat house . He became the house manager in his sophomore year , but moved back home in his junior year to concentrate on physics . At Randall 's suggestion he applied to the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , which he entered in 1926 to study for his doctorate . His fees were paid by his family , but his father had a heart attack and could no longer afford them , so in 1927 Bacher moved back to Ann Arbor , where he lived at home , and attended the University of Michigan . He received a Charles A. Coffin Foundation Fellowship from General Electric .
To build up the theoretical physics department at the University of Michigan , Randall recruited four distinguished young physicists to work at Ann Arbor in 1927 : Otto Laporte , George Uhlenbeck , Samuel Goudsmit , and David M. Dennison . The University of Michigan was no longer a backwater in theoretical physics . Bacher immediately signed up for Goudsmit 's course on atomic structure . With Goudsmit he investigated the Zeeman effect of hyperfine structure of atomic levels , which became the subject of his 1930 PhD thesis .
On May 30 , 1930 , Bacher married Jean Dow . His mother gave them a Ford Model A and the use of the family 's lakeside holiday house , where they entertained guests including Paul Ehrenfest and Enrico Fermi . In 1931 , with a National Research Council Fellowship , he spent a year at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) because Ira Bowen taught there . At Caltech Bacher attended lectures by Robert Oppenheimer , but spent most of his time at the Mt . Wilson Observatory , which had a better library . Bacher decided to create a work listing the energy , coupling constant , parity and electron configurations of all the known atoms and ions , working with Goudsmit back in Ann Arbor . The result was a book , Atomic Energy States as Derived from the Analysis of Optical Spectra ( 1932 ) , which they dedicated to Randall .
In the second year of his National Research Council Fellowship , Bacher moved across the country to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to work with John C. Slater , who had taught Bacher at Harvard . While there , Slater asked him to conduct a seminar on John Chadwick 's recent discovery of the neutron . Reading Chadwick 's paper , he realized that anomalies in then @-@ current theory would be resolved if the spin of the neutron was ½ . This became the subject of a letter he submitted to the Physical Review with visiting scholar Edward Condon . A year later , Bacher became the first to suggest the neutron had a magnetic moment equal to about minus one nuclear magneton , based on the unusually small magnetic moment of nitrogen determined from its hyperfine structure .
Afterwards Bacher returned to the University of Michigan on an Alfred H. Lloyd Fellowship . Jobs were hard to find at this time due to the Great Depression , and in 1934 he accepted a job at Columbia University , where he worked with Isidor Isaac Rabi , Jerrold Zacharias , Jerome Kellogg and Sid Millman . However it was difficult living in New York on his salary , and Jean gave birth to their first child , Martha , in December 1935 . A second child , Andrew , was born in 1938 . Bacher therefore accepted an offer from Hans Bethe to work with him at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York . Ithaca was a university town similar to Ann Arbor , where Bacher and Jean had been raised . At Cornell Bacher worked with Bethe on his book Nuclear Physics . A : Stationary States of Nuclei ( 1936 ) , the first of three books that would become known as the " Bethe Bible " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Radiation Laboratory = = =
In December 1940 Bacher joined the Radiation Laboratory at MIT , but did not immediately cease his research . He reached an arrangement with its director , Lee Alvin DuBridge , to return to Cornell for four days every three weeks until it was completed . He was researching the neutron cross section of cadmium , a topic of interest to Enrico Fermi , who was attempting to build a nuclear reactor , but whose figures did not agree with Bacher 's . Bacher carefully checked his results , and Fermi , convinced of their correctness , urged Bacher to publish them . Bacher submitted a paper to the Physical Review with instructions to withhold publication until after the war , and the paper was not published until 1946 .
DuBridge organized the Radiation Laboratory into two sections , one for incoming radar signals , and one for outgoing radar signals . Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section . Here he gained valuable experience in administration , coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists , but also those of General Electric and RCA . He later recalled :
We quickly concluded that the ultimate discrimination between signals reflected from a target , as opposed to noise from the transmitter , should be done finally on the cathode @-@ ray tube . We had to develop the tubes , and then contract with GE and RCA to work together on producing them . I supervised the contracts myself , visiting GE one week and RCA the next , and the following week we would hold a joint meeting at the Rad Lab in Cambridge . I was getting into contract management . "
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
In 1942 , Bacher and Rabi , the Radiation Laboratory 's assistant director , were approached by Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project at its new laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . They convinced Oppenheimer that the plan for a military laboratory would not work , since a scientific effort would need to be a civilian affair . The plan was modified , and the new laboratory would be a civilian one , run by the University of California under contract from the War Department . Bacher felt that this was his first contribution to the success of the project . He met with Oppenheimer at Los Alamos in April 1943 , but was not convinced that he was needed . Oppenheimer wrote to him that :
You know that I have been extremely eager to have your help in this work . I think perhaps you have not fully realized how much I appreciate your administrative experience and obvious administrative wisdom , nor how aware I am of our need for just this in the present project . Perhaps too you do not evaluate highly enough the fact that you have worked so much in neutron physics , and that you are so well informed about the last year ’ s developments at MIT . These three qualifications make you , in my opinion , very nearly unique . In addition , I want to express in writing my own confidence in your stability and judgement , qualities on which this stormy enterprise puts a very high premium .
Bacher then accepted the job at Los Alamos , moving there in May 1943 to become the head of the Experimental Physics Division ( P Division ) . For his seven group leaders he had John H. Williams , Robert R. Wilson , John H. Manley , Darol K. Froman , Emilio G. Segrè , Bruno B. Rossi and Donald W. Kerst . Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer , and the two men discussed the project 's progress on a daily basis .
In July 1944 , Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory to focus on the problem of building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon , which was necessary because the gun @-@ type design would not work with plutonium . P Division was broken up , and Bacher became the head of the G ( for Gadget ) Division . This much larger division contained eleven groups headed by leaders who included William Higinbotham , Seth Neddermeyer , Edwin McMillan , Luis Alvarez and Otto Frisch .
While George Kistiakowsky 's Explosives Division ( X Division ) developed the explosive lenses , G Division designed the rest of the weapon . There were numerous difficulties to overcome , not the least of which was devising a means of detonating the lenses with the required speed . Robert F. Christy 's solid core design was chosen as the most likely design to succeed .
To coordinate the efforts of the laboratory , Oppenheimer created the " Cowpuncher Committee " , so @-@ called because they were to " ride herd " on the implosion effort and coordinate all the efforts of the laboratory . It included Bacher , along with Samuel Allison , George Kistiakowsky , Deak Parsons , Charles Lauritsen and Hartley Rowe .
Three days before the day the bomb was to be test detonated in the New Mexico desert , Bacher was part of the pit assembly team , which assembled the nuclear capsule ( a cylindrical section of the uranium tamper , containing the plutonium core and initiator ) in an old farmhouse near the Alamogordo testing site . When the capsule was driven to the shot tower and inserted into the spherical tamper , inside the explosive assembly , it stuck . Bacher recognized that expansion of the capsule due to the heat given off by the plutonium core was causing the jam , and that leaving the two parts in contact would equalize temperatures and allow the capsule to be inserted fully . After watching the test , his reaction was merely " Well , it works . "
Bacher was packaging the third core for shipment to Tinian on August 12 at the Ice House at Los Alamos when he received word that the Japanese had initiated surrender negotiations . He had already set G Division the task of designing and building new types of cores and assemblies , and he co @-@ authored a report with Robert Wilson urging the development of Edward Teller 's Super bomb . He served on a committee chaired by Richard Tolman that looked into declassifying documents produced by the Manhattan Project , and one chaired by Manson Benedict that investigated the technical feasibility of international control of nuclear energy . For his services to the Manhattan Project Bacher was awarded the Medal for Merit on January 12 , 1946 .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
= = = Atomic Energy Commission = = =
After the war , Bacher returned to Ithaca to head Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies . He agreed with Bethe that what Cornell needed to become a major player in high energy nuclear physics was a new synchrotron , but first he needed to find somewhere to put it . However , in 1946 Bacher was appointed to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the new United Nations Atomic Energy Commission , along with fellow United States representatives Tolman and Oppenheimer . Bacher therefore had to divide his time between Ithaca and New York City .
In October 1946 David Lilienthal asked Bacher to become one of the inaugural commissioners of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , the civilian agency that was being formed to replace the wartime Manhattan Project . As a Republican , Bacher was easily confirmed by the Senate members of the United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy by an 8 – 0 vote . As he was the only one of the five commissioners who was a scientist — an important factor in his decision to accept the post — he played a leading role in the selection of the Atomic Energy Commission 's influential General Advisory Committee to which nine scientists were appointed : James Conant , Lee DuBridge , Enrico Fermi , Robert Oppenheimer , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Hartley Rowe , Glenn Seaborg , Cyril Smith and Hood Worthington .
Bacher and fellow commissioner Sumner Pike began with an inspection of Los Alamos and the Hanford Site , and conducted an inventory of the fissionable material at Los Alamos with Norris Bradbury , who had succeeded Oppenheimer as its director . He found that only nine atomic bombs had been built in 1946 ; only four would be in 1947 , primarily due to production problems with the reactors at Hanford . These problems were on their way to resolution when Bacher observed the Operation Sandstone nuclear tests at Enewetak Atoll in 1948 as the Atomic Energy Commission 's representative . Bacher 's original two @-@ year term would have expired on January 1 , 1949 , but President Harry Truman convinced him to stay on . Bacher resigned in May 1949 , and this time the President was unable to dissuade him .
Bacher wished to return to academia , but Robert Wilson was now the head of Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies , and Bacher felt that it would be awkward working for someone who was one of his group leaders at Los Alamos . He therefore accepted an offer from Lee DuBridge of the chair of the Division of Physics , Mathematics , and Astronomy at Caltech . However the work at the Atomic Energy Commission was not so easily left behind . Senator Bourke Hickenlooper charged the Commission with mismanagement , specifically cost overruns at Hanford , awarding a scholarship to a communist , and the loss of 289 grams ( 10 @.@ 2 oz ) of uranium from the Argonne National Laboratory . Bacher felt obligated to return to Washington to testify on Lilienthal 's behalf before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy .
Another crisis broke in September 1949 when the Air Force picked up signs of the Soviet Union 's RDS @-@ 1 nuclear test . Bacher joined Oppenheimer , Parsons , General Hoyt Vandenberg , the Atomic Energy Commissioners and a British delegation under William Penney to discuss what to do . The recent devaluation of the British pound had already triggered a financial crisis , and there was concern about how the markets would react to the news . Oppenheimer and Bacher saw the evidence of a nuclear test as conclusive , and Bacher in particular came down strongly on the side of making a public announcement , as the number of people who already knew made a leak almost inevitable . Truman made the announcement a few days later .
= = = Caltech = = =
The division chair that Bacher now occupied at Caltech had been vacant since Robert A. Millikan had retired in 1945 . Although nominally a professorship , it was primarily an administrative post . In 1949 there were 17 professors in the department , of whom nine were physicists , two were astrophysicists , and the remaining six were mathematicians . There were two world class research laboratories funded by the Office of Naval Research , the Cosmic Ray Laboratory that had been founded by Millikan , which was now directed by Carl Anderson , and the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory which was directed by Charles Lauritsen . But there were no facilities for high energy physics ; these would have to be created from scratch .
In moving into high energy physics Bacher had the full support not just of DuBridge , but of Anderson and Lauritsen as well . Lauritsen had already hired Robert Langmuir to begin designing a new 600 MeV synchrotron , and Bacher found a large building to house it that had originally been used for grinding and polishing the Palomar Observatory 's 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @,@ 100 mm ) mirror , but which had been empty since 1948 . He arranged for Atomic Energy Commission and Office of Naval Research grants worth $ 1 million to build it and the other required facilities , and $ 300 @,@ 000 a year to run it .
Facilities were not enough ; Bacher needed physicists . Lauritsen had made a start on this too , by hiring Robert Christy . Bacher hired experimental physicists Alvin V. Tollestrup , Robert M. Walker and Matthew Sands . The physicist that Bacher decided he wanted most , though , was Richard Feynman . To get him , Bacher offered a large salary , and agreed to pay for Feynman 's 1950 – 1951 sabbatical in Brazil . Feynman would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 . In 1955 Bacher hired Murray Gell @-@ Mann , who would win the Nobel Prize in 1969 .
The relatively new field of radio astronomy sparked Bacher 's interest , and he hired John Bolton and Gordon Stanley from the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in 1955 . A grant from the Office of Naval Research allowed Bolton to build the Owens Valley Radio Observatory , which became an important center for the study of quasars .
Caltech did not spell an end to Bacher 's service in Washington . He served two terms as a member of the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) under President Dwight D. Eisenhower , from November 18 , 1953 , to June 30 , 1955 , and from December 9 , 1957 , to December 31 , 1959 . During his first term he testified on behalf of his old friend at the Oppenheimer security hearing in 1954 . During his second , he worked with James L. Fisk and Ernest Lawrence to examine how a Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty could be monitored .
Bacher remained chair of the division of physics , mathematics and astronomy at Caltech until 1962 , when he was appointed as vice president and provost . He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970 at the age of 65 , and became a professor emeritus in 1976 . He still did some research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , and visited Caltech from time to time . In 1983 he was master of ceremonies at Los Alamos for events commemorating the 40th anniversary of the founding of the laboratory in 1943 .
Bacher died on November 18 , 2004 , at a retirement home in Montecito , California . He was survived by his daughter , Martha Bacher Eaton , and son , Andrew Dow Bacher , a nuclear physicist working at Indiana University , his wife Jean having died on May 28 , 1994 . His papers are in the California Institute of Technology Archives .
|
= Final Blackout =
Final Blackout is a dystopic science fiction novel by author L. Ron Hubbard . The novel is set in the future and follows a man known as " the Lieutenant " as he restores order to England after a world war . First published in serialized format in 1940 in the science fiction magazine Astounding Science Fiction , Final Blackout was published in book form in 1948 by The Hadley Publishing Co .. Author Services Inc. published a hardcover edition of the book in 1988 , and in 1989 the Church of Scientology @-@ affiliated organization Bridge Publications said that a film director named Christopher Cain had signed a contract to write and direct a movie version based on the book .
The novel was generally well received by literature critics , and is seen as an early classic of the Golden Age of Science Fiction . It has received positive mention in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and the Daily News of Los Angeles , and has been used in a science @-@ fiction writing class at California State Polytechnic University , Pomona .
= = Publication history = =
The story appeared in print in a 3 @-@ part serialized format , beginning with the April 1940 issue of Astounding Science Fiction . Final Blackout was first published in book form in 1948 by The Hadley Publishing Co. in an edition of 1 @,@ 000 copies and with a new preface by Hubbard . The book was re @-@ released in a hardcover format in 1988 by the Church of Spiritual Technology subsidiary company Author Services Inc .
In 1989 , Young Guns film director Christopher Cain optioned the rights to Final Blackout and developed a script for a possible film @-@ version of the book . The film was not made . According to the Church of Scientology company Bridge Publications , Cain signed a contract to write a screenplay based on the book and to direct the film . " The book is massive in scope and transcends time . It 's a powerful look at the idiocy and futility of war . I look forward to making ' Final Blackout ' into a major movie , " said Cain in a press release put out by Bridge Publications . An audiobook was released by Bridge Publications in 1991 and read by Planet of the Apes actor Roddy McDowall , who also voiced audiobook versions of Hubbard 's novels Battlefield Earth and Fear .
= = Plot = =
Set in the future , the novel follows the rise of a Lieutenant ( known in the book only as " The Lieutenant " ) as he becomes dictator of England after a world war . The Lieutenant leads a ragtag army fighting for survival in a Europe ravaged by 30 years of atomic , biological and conventional warfare . As a result of the most recent war , a form of biological warfare called soldier ’ s sickness has ravaged England , and America was devastated by nuclear war . At the start of the novel , a quarantine placed on England due to the soldier ’ s sickness prevents The Lieutenant from returning to England from his encampment in France . The Lieutenant commands the Fourth Brigade , which is composed of one hundred and sixty @-@ eight soldiers from multiple nations , leading them throughout France in search of food , supplies , arms and ammunition . Soon , Captain Malcolm informs The Lieutenant that all field officers are being recalled to General Headquarters ( G.H.Q. ) with their brigades to report to General Victor , the commanding officer at G.H.Q.
Upon the brigade 's arrival at G.H.Q. , The Lieutenant is informed by General Victor and his adjutant Colonel Smythe that he is to be reassigned and will be stripped of his command . He is confined to his quarters and is told his entire brigade will be broken apart and assimilated into another brigade . Meanwhile , in the barracks at G.H.Q. , the Fourth Brigade learns of crucial news through back channels : a vaccine exists for the soldier 's sickness , and General Victor ’ s plans for their brigade . The men decide to rebel , and break through the defenses of the barracks , free The Lieutenant and kill Captain Malcolm . The Fourth Brigade successfully escapes G.H.Q. in France and begins to make their way to London , along with other soldiers who are dissatisfied with General Victor 's command . A battle ensues between General Victor 's men and The Lieutenant 's troops . The Lieutenant and his expanded Fourth Brigade eventually successfully take control of London and subsequently all of England and Wales .
The Lieutenant 's government runs smoothly for years , until the battleship U.S.S. New York arrives from the U.S. carrying two United States Senators and Captain Johnson , captain of the New York and commander of the U.S. fleet . Under threat from the U.S. battleship , The Lieutenant negotiates terms to transfer power to the Senators ' associates – General Victor and Colonel Smythe . If anything happens to General Victor and Colonel Smythe , the country would be controlled by its officer corps. chaired by the Lieutenants confidant Swinburne . In addition , The Lieutenant requests that immigration of Americans to England be kept to no more than 100 @,@ 000 per month , and demands that a favorable price be set for the purchase of land from their English owners . After these terms are established , The Lieutenant opens fire on General Victor and his men and a battle ensues . General Victor , Colonel Smythe and The Lieutenant and several of his men are killed . Years later The Lieutenant ’ s men still control England , and a flag flies honoring his memory . A memorial plaque at Byward Gate on Tower Hill reads : " When that command remains , no matter what happens to its officer , he has not failed . "
= = Reception = =
Final Blackout is seen as an early classic of the Golden Age of Science Fiction . In his book The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy , Donald H. Tuck described the book as " Hubbard 's masterpiece " . Thomas D. Clareson writes in Understanding Contemporary American Science Fiction that prior to formalizing Dianetics and Scientology , Hubbard was " perhaps best known for Final Blackout " . In his book Scientology : The Now Religion , George Malko writes that Hubbard 's works including Slaves of Sleep , Kingslayer , Typewriter in the Sky , Fear , Death 's Deputy , and Final Blackout " were eagerly welcomed by devoted fans " . In his 1967 book Seekers of Tomorrow : Masters of Modern Science Fiction , Sam Moskowitz writes that the book " ... was a stunning achievement , certainly the most powerful and readable ' warning ' story that had appeared in science fiction to that date . " Moskowitz comments : " The progress of today 's events has made much of Final Blackout prophetic " . Astounding reviewer P. Schuyler Miller described the book as one of the most " memorable " serials the magazine had published , saying it would be a " lasting volume . "
Roland J. Green of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the book " One of the highwater marks of his [ Hubbard 's ] literary career " , and " perhaps the best single novel yet of what the Pentagon once so charmingly christened ' the broken @-@ backed war ' after a nuclear exchange " . Jon Stone of NewsNet5.com described Final Blackout and Fear as " pulp in composition and not great in length , they are straight stories with few or no elements of Hubbard 's other career " , and compared the " pages of battles and tactics " in Final Blackout to Hubbard 's later work Battlefield Earth .
Final Blackout and Fear are often cited by critics as the best examples of Hubbard 's pulp fiction works . Chuck Moss of Daily News of Los Angeles called the book " extremely good science fiction " . The book has been included in the curriculum of a science @-@ fiction writing class at California State Polytechnic University , Pomona . Cal Poly Pomona professor Steve Whaley told The Press @-@ Enterprise that he thinks Hubbard was a " damn good storyteller " . Karl Edward Wagner cited Final Blackout as one of the thirteen best science @-@ fiction horror novels .
|
= Shaun Whalley =
Shaun James Whalley ( born 7 August 1987 ) is an English footballer who plays as a midfielder for Shrewsbury Town . Born in Prescot , Merseyside , Whalley played for Norwich City and Southport as a youth before making his Football League debut with Chester City in 2004 .
After leaving Chester , he spent time in non @-@ League football with Runcorn F.C. Halton and Witton Albion . While on the books at Witton , he spent five weeks on trial with Football League One side Crewe Alexandra but was not offered a contract , so he signed for League Two side Accrington Stanley in 2006 . Whalley spent almost two years with the Lancashire club , but following his release in the summer of 2008 , he returned to non @-@ League , initially with Wrexham . While at Wrexham , he had a short loan spell with Southport where he helped the team to the Conference North play @-@ offs . He subsequently played at Droylsden , where he was part of the team that won the Manchester Premier Cup in 2010 , and Hyde before joining Southport again on a permanent basis in January 2011 . He was signed by Luton Town in the summer of 2013 for an undisclosed fee , and joined AFC Telford United on loan in 2014 . Both Luton and Telford won their respective leagues during the 2013 – 14 season , making Whalley a winner of both the Conference Premier and the Conference North in the same season . He left Luton in May 2015 , later joining Shrewsbury .
Described as an " express @-@ train down the wings " by former team @-@ mate Paul Mullin , Whalley was called up to the Football Association XI standby squad for a game against Hallam , the game taking place to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the club . He is the son of the former Preston North End captain Neil Whalley , who was also a midfielder .
= = Early life = =
Whalley was born and raised in Prescot , Merseyside . As a child , he played football for his local teams until 2001 when he was spotted by Norwich City . He went to play for their academy , where he played for three years before leaving in 2004 . He subsequently returned to Merseyside and joined Southport , where he played several reserve @-@ team matches . In the summer of the same year , Whalley turned professional when he signed for Football League side Chester City .
Whalley 's father , Neil Whalley , was also a professional footballer in the early 1990s . He too played in midfield and made more than 50 appearances for Preston North End , where he was also captain for a period of time .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
With Chester , Whalley played mostly for the youth and reserve teams , but he made his Football League debut for the club in a 0 – 0 draw with Cambridge United on 18 September 2004 , coming on as a substitute for Darryn Stamp . His debut came just one day after he signed a professional contract with Chester ; manager Ian Rush had only included him on the substitutes ' bench as a result of injuries to Daryl Clare and Michael Branch . The following week , he was part of the side that defeated Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough Stadium in the second round of the Football League Trophy . Whalley made three further senior appearances for Chester , all as a substitute , before leaving the club in the summer of 2005 .
In August of that year , Whalley moved into non @-@ League football with Runcorn as one of several new signings for the Northern Premier League outfit . He made his first appearance for the club in the 1 – 1 draw with Frickley Athletic and subsequently established himself as a regular first @-@ team player . Whalley scored his first goal for Runcorn in the 5 – 1 defeat of his hometown club , Prescot Cables and he netted again the following week in the loss to Matlock Town . He went on to play 21 league matches for Runcorn before joining Witton Albion in March 2006 . During his short spell with the club , he scored 6 goals in 18 league appearances .
= = = Accrington Stanley = = =
In September 2006 , while at Witton , Whalley spent five weeks on trial at League One club Crewe Alexandra , but he was not offered a permanent contract . He subsequently joined League Two side Accrington Stanley on loan two months later . Whalley made his debut for the club in the 1 – 2 defeat to Hartlepool United at the Crown Ground . However , two weeks later , he was sent off in the Football League Trophy match against Doncaster Rovers following a high tackle on Theo Streete , although Accrington manager John Coleman felt that the challenge was not deserving of a red card . The subsequent suspension meant that Whalley spent almost a month out of the side before returning in late December in the loss to Bristol Rovers . He made his transfer to Accrington permanent in January 2007 , signing a two @-@ year contract with the club , and the following week he scored a late winner in the 3 – 2 victory over Mansfield Town , his first goal for the team . Whalley remained a first @-@ team regular for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season and retained his place in the starting line @-@ up throughout most of the following season , and scored his first Accrington goal away from the Crown Ground in the 8 – 2 loss at Peterborough United on 15 January 2008 . Whalley made a total of 51 league appearances for Accrington , scoring 5 goals , but in May 2008 , he was one of 10 players released by the club .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
In June 2008 , he moved down a division to join Conference Premier side Wrexham . He scored his first goal for Wrexham on his debut in a 5 – 0 win over Stevenage . Whalley followed it up with another goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Rushden & Diamonds . He scored his third and fourth goals of the month as Wrexham beat Salisbury City 4 – 1 , which proved to be his last game for that club . He then joined Conference North side Southport on loan in February 2009 for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season . Whalley made his Southport debut in the 2 – 0 win over Hyde United at Haig Avenue . He went on to play 13 league matches for the team as they reached the Conference North play @-@ offs , but they were defeated in the semi @-@ finals by Gateshead . During the loan spell , Whalley played in the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Trophy , but he could not prevent Southport losing 3 – 2 on aggregate over two legs against AFC Telford United . In the summer of 2009 , he was released by Wrexham along with eight other out @-@ of @-@ contract players .
In August 2009 , following his release from Wrexham , Whalley returned to the Conference North to join Droylsden . Whalley scored his first two goals for the club as Droylsden beat Northwich Victoria 5 – 1 . He added another goal to his tally , scoring in a 2 – 0 win over league favourites Fleetwood Town , before adding another two goals to his name as Droylsden beat Harrogate Town 5 – 0 . He scored two goals in a match for the third time in the season as Droylsden recorded a 5 – 3 win over Solihull Moors at the Butcher 's Arms Ground . He won Manchester Premier Cup winners medal in his one season at Droylsden before he left at the end of the 2009 – 10 season , having scored a total of 15 goals in 32 league appearances .
= = = Hyde = = =
Whalley joined Hyde on 21 August 2010 after his release from Droylsden . He made his debut just hours after he signed for the Tigers in a 5 – 1 home defeat to Alfreton Town . In just his third appearance for Hyde , he was sent off in a 1 – 0 defeat to Guiseley . Whalley scored his first goal for Hyde in a 2 – 1 home win over Corby Town .
In early October , while still on the books at Hyde , he was called up to the Football Association XI squad alongside teammate Scott Mooney for a game against Hallam FC to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Sheffield @-@ based club . Whalley scored his first cup goal for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Oldham Boro in the Manchester Premier Cup , but less than a week later , he scored an own goal as part of a 3 – 0 away loss to Blyth Spartans , and was then sent off again for two bookable offences against Vauxhall Motors
Whalley scored his first goal of the new year in a 2 – 1 victory over local rivals Stalybridge Celtic . He scored again in the quarter final of the Manchester Premier Cup against his old club Droylsden , which proved to be his last for the club .
= = = Southport = = =
Whalley was released by Hyde in order to join Southport for the second time in January 2011 . He made his debut the following Saturday in a 4 – 0 win over York City , scoring Southport 's second and fourth goals . On 1 February , less than a week later , Whalley scored again in a 2 – 2 draw with Grimsby Town to take his record to three goals in two games , before being sent off for violent conduct on and later receiving a four match ban . On 26 February after missing the best @-@ part of that month through his suspension , he returned , to start in a 2 – 1 loss to Bath City , but he was unable to score a goal . He followed this game up by scoring in his next two , netting in the 3 – 1 win over Histon and then by scoring Southport 's only goal , in a 4 – 1 defeat to Eastbourne Borough . He finished March having scored four goals that month , after adding another two in the latter part , the first in a 4 – 2 defeat to the hands of Barrow and the other coming as @-@ part of a 2 – 2 draw with Rushden & Diamonds .
He opened his goalscoring account for the 2011 – 12 season on the opening day as part of a 2 – 2 draw with Lincoln City . He scored his second of the season in a 3 – 2 win over Telford United . On 15 March 2012 , he signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club . He scored a total of ten goals in all @-@ competitions for Southport in the 2011 – 12 season , helping them to their highest league finish in ten years — 7th in the Conference Premier .
Whalley had a good start to the 2012 – 13 season , scoring two goals in four games , including in a 3 – 3 draw with Alfreton Town . He went on to play in all but three of Southport 's league games , scoring seven further goals and at the end of the season was named the club 's player of the year .
= = = Luton Town = = =
On 1 May 2013 , Whalley was signed by fellow Conference Premier club Luton Town for an undisclosed fee on a two @-@ year contract . He missed a penalty on his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat , coincidentally against former club Southport .
After failing to win a regular starting place in the Luton line @-@ up , Whalley moved on loan on 23 January 2014 to Conference North side AFC Telford United , led by his former Southport manager Liam Watson . He scored five goals in 18 games as Telford won the Conference North title , scoring in the crucial final game of the season . With Luton also winning their league , Whalley had the unique distinction of being awarded both Conference Premier and Conference North winners ' medals in the same season .
Whalley played a more active part in Luton 's return to the Football League , playing in 18 league games , often in the starting XI , and scoring three goals .
On 27 April 2015 , Whalley and team @-@ mate Ricky Miller were both arrested by Bedfordshire Police in connection with an alleged assault following Luton Town 's end of season awards night . Both were released on bail , but were suspended by the club pending a police inquiry . Whalley was not charged due to a lack of evidence . On 18 May 2015 , Whalley left Luton by mutual consent two months before the end of his contract .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
Following his departure from Luton , Whalley joined Shrewsbury Town , recently promoted to League One , on 6 June 2015 . Making only sporadic substitute appearances in the early part of the season , Whalley had to wait until 28 December to make his first league start for the club , scoring a late winning goal in a 2 – 1 away victory over Crewe Alexandra . He scored another late winner away at the then @-@ league @-@ leaders Burton Albion the following month .
= = Style of play = =
Whalley is a winger but can also play as a striker . On his arrival at Southport , manager Liam Watson said " Shaun will fit right into out style of play and with the players we have here " . Whalley 's former team @-@ mate Paul Mullin described him as " an absolute express @-@ train down the wings " , and said that he possessed good ability on the ball .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 8 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Droylsden
Manchester Premier Cup ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Luton Town
Conference Premier : 2013 – 14
AFC Telford United
Conference North : 2013 – 14
|
= Vala Mal Doran =
Vala Mal Doran is a fictional character in the American military science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , a science fiction show about a military team exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices . Played by former Farscape actress Claudia Black , Vala was created by Damian Kindler and Robert C. Cooper as a guest character for the season 8 episode " Prometheus Unbound " ( 2004 ) . Because of the on @-@ screen chemistry between Black 's Vala and Michael Shanks ' character Daniel Jackson , and the character 's popularity with the producers and the audience , Claudia Black became a recurring guest star in season 9 ( 2005 – 2006 ) and joined the main cast in season 10 ( 2006 – 2007 ) .
" Prometheus Unbound " introduces Vala as a sexy and mischievous human with a Goa 'uld background from an unnamed planet . In season 9 , Vala and Daniel set off the arc of the show 's new villain race , the Ori . After giving birth to the Ori 's new leader in season 10 , Vala joins the SG @-@ 1 team to stop the enemy , eventually becoming a permanent member of both SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Command . Claudia Black resumed her role in the 2008 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film Stargate : The Ark of Truth , which finishes the Ori arc . Black also appeared as Vala and her Goa 'uld alter ego Qetesh in the 2008 film Stargate : Continuum . She was , however , not supposed to be returning for the announced third Stargate SG @-@ 1 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film that was scheduled to be filmed in spring 2009 , but abandoned since then . For her portrayal of Vala , Claudia Black was nominated for a 2006 Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actress on Television " , and won a Constellation Award in the category " Best Female Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television " in 2007 .
= = Role in Stargate = =
= = = Character arc = = =
Information about Vala 's past is revealed over the course of several episodes of seasons 8 through 10 of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . " Family Ties " gives insight into Vala 's background with her father Jacek , a con artist who had left her and her mother to pursue his scams . As mentioned in " Flesh and Blood " , Vala also had a stepmother named Adria , whom she held in little regard . Vala became an involuntary host to a Goa 'uld named Qetesh in her adult life , but the Tok 'ra were able to remove the symbiote . At the time of Vala 's first encounter with SG @-@ 1 team member Daniel Jackson in the season 8 episode " Prometheus Unbound " , she has become a thief and a con artist . She attempts to steal the Earth ship Prometheus for her own purposes , but when Daniel evades her sexual advances and thwarts her plans , she escapes .
In the season 9 opener " Avalon " , Vala seeks out Daniel at Stargate Command . Needing his linguistic skills , she uses a Kor mak bracelet to bind them together for a treasure hunt on Earth . The discovery of an Ancient communication device transports Vala 's and Daniel 's minds to a village in a distant galaxy where the local villagers kill Vala in a trial by fire , but a Prior , a servant of a race named the Ori , resurrects her . After Vala 's and Daniel 's safe return to Earth , the removed bracelets cause temporary after @-@ effects that prolong Vala 's stay at Stargate Command . In an attempt to stop the Ori from invading the galaxy in " Beachhead " , Vala goes missing and appears to have died . Vala re @-@ appears in the late season 9 episode " Crusade " and informs SG @-@ 1 via the communication device that she is in the Ori galaxy . The Ori have impregnated her against her will many months before , and Vala saw herself forced to marry a local villager named Tomin to make the pregnancy plausible . When Vala tells SG @-@ 1 about the Ori army approaching , the communication link is severed . Vala is last seen onboard one of the invading Ori battlecruisers in the closing scene of the season 9 finale " Camelot " when she goes into labor .
Season 10 opens with Vala giving birth to a female . The Ori call the rapidly growing child Orici , but Vala gives her the name Adria after her stepmother . Attempts to turn the child away from the Ori remain unsuccessful . Having escaped the Ori , Vala is allowed sanctuary at Stargate Command and joins SG @-@ 1 on several missions , during one of which she comes face @-@ to @-@ face with her fully @-@ grown daughter . Vala 's provisionary acceptance on Earth is only lifted in the eighth episode of the season , " Memento Mori " , in which she is finally made a full member of SG @-@ 1 . Vala meets Tomin again in " Line in the Sand " and tells him the true story behind the Ancients and Ori . A final showdown in the series between Vala and Adria occurs in " Dominion " , which leaves Vala with the loss of her daughter . In " Unending " , the last episode of the series , SG @-@ 1 gets stuck in a time dilation field aboard the Earth ship Odyssey , and a romance between Vala and Daniel finally comes to fruition . Before the time dilation field is reversed after fifty years , erasing all linked memories in the process , Daniel and Vala express their feelings for each other . The Ori story concludes with Adria 's disempowerment and Vala 's and Tomin 's amicable separation in the 2008 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film Stargate : The Ark of Truth . Vala and her alter ego , Qetesh , appear in the alternate @-@ timeline film Stargate : Continuum .
= = = Characterization = = =
Official Stargate sources advertised Vala as a " scheming , unscrupulous , thieving con artist " , " feisty " and " occasionally fickle " , with a " mysterious agenda " and a seemingly " amorous interest in Dr. Daniel Jackson " . Genre magazine TV Zone subtitled Vala as a " thief , arms dealer , mercenary " who , when given an inch , will " take a mile , and whatever else she can get her hands on . " SFX described Vala as a " mischievous minx " , whereas The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune interpreted Vala as " ethically challenged " . Steven Eramo of Starburst gave Vala the attributes " sexy , smart and always resourceful " . Claudia Black characterized early Vala as " sassy " , " intelligent " , " manipulative " , and " mercurial " , but found it " very hard to tell what the real core of Vala is . " Black later described Vala as " a new , weird element " , " irritating " , " very vibrant " , " sort of the hair @-@ pulling variety " , " really infuriating " and " [ hopefully ] funny " . With Vala being a departure from Black 's former Farscape role as Aeryn Sun , Black regarded Vala as a comedic and energetic character with streaks of irreverence and naughtiness who " says everything that everyone else is thinking , but doesn 't dare say " , although both characters share " being damaged goods [ in the beginning ] and on a path to becoming a better person " . Robert C. Cooper thought of Vala as " a bit of a wild card " and " a very sexy character , who isn 't afraid to take whatever she wants in any given situation . " Cooper and Black believed the character had a moral compass to her actions .
= = = Relationships = = =
Claudia Black and Michael Shanks ( Daniel Jackson ) linked their characters ' early relationship to a Spencer Tracy / Katharine Hepburn dynamic of " not so much of tension , but rather constant antagonism " . Despite the concern in early season 9 that their relationship would stagnate and dumb down their characters , Shanks felt Vala brought out a side of Daniel that he had not had the chance to play before , and Black advocated the slow revelation of Vala 's layers of denial . The writers continued to develop the friendship between Vala and Daniel throughout season 10 , aiming not to lose their sexual chemistry . Michael Shanks stated that by " Memento Mori " , " Daniel legitimately cares about Vala and has seen some sort of redemption in her and wants that process to continue . " From Black 's point of view , Daniel offers " an interesting window " into " Vala 's external façade to be playful with people " . He helps Vala grow as a person and forces her to " develop coping mechanisms that allow her to be more adult and learn that it 's OK to be honest and talk how you feel . " Asked about a possible romance between Vala and Daniel before the filming of the series finale , Black predicted that a consummation of the relationship would end badly in terms of both story and on @-@ screen chemistry . When producer Robert C. Cooper presented his preliminary script for the series finale , " Unending " , both Black and Shanks protested his intended story of having Vala and Daniel sleep together without a confrontation . Shanks felt that " [ t ] here 's always been this underlining , keeping [ Vala ] at arms length because of the fear of getting too close . " After Cooper rewrote the scene to increase Vala 's vulnerability to Daniel , and have Daniel truthfully explain his feelings of a relationship , the actors decided to play the confrontation scene as genuinely as possible , with both characters being neither completely in @-@ character nor totally out @-@ of @-@ character .
Describing Vala 's attitude towards bonding with other characters as " in a strange way quite level @-@ headed " and " quite honest " , Black interpreted Vala 's behavior as a reaction to growing attached to people where the relationships never seem to work out . Cooper explained that by Vala 's contacting of Stargate Command about the imminent threat at the end of season 9 , she " has reached a point of honesty with [ the SG @-@ 1 ] characters and possibly herself on a level that she 's never had before . " From the beginning of season 10 , Claudia Black and Amanda Tapping requested a similarly positive camaraderie between their characters as male characters have . Tapping noted Carter 's respect for Vala despite them being at opposite ends in their actions ; Tapping also thought Carter finds Vala amusing rather than annoying . A scene in " Morpheus " that was intended to establish this relationship was cut for time , and until the late season 10 episode " Family Ties " would accommodate this with a shopping scene , the actresses acknowledged their connection through looks and subtle nuances . By joining SG @-@ 1 , Vala also shared a spot with stoic warrior Teal 'c as the only alien members of the team , and actor Christopher Judge ( Teal 'c ) explained that his character 's amusement with Vala contributed to Teal 'c's loosening up . The relationship between Vala and SG @-@ 1 team leader Colonel Cameron Mitchell ( played by Ben Browder ) was rarely emphasized in the series since Black and Browder were well known for formerly starring as star @-@ crossed lovers in the cult sci @-@ fi series Farscape .
According to Black , Vala 's motivation to hide her miraculous pregnancy by marrying the local villager Tomin ( played by Tim Guinee ) in late season 9 stems from " genuinely car [ ing ] for the man . She does something wrong , but she must in order to survive . " Against the audience 's expectation , Vala and Tomin are shown as a seemingly functioning normal couple , and Vala makes several efforts to save him despite his deep indoctrination . Throughout season 10 , Vala has to come to terms with her maternal feelings for Adria ( as adult played by Morena Baccarin ) , well knowing from the beginning that Adria embodies a destructive entity that must be fought . Black believed Vala had to " try her best to connect with her daughter in the hope of finding ways to humanize her " , despite her own lack of maturity . When Vala meets her father Jacek ( Fred Willard ) in " Family Ties " , Vala shows " a slightly more dramatic and vulnerable side " that was new to the audience .
= = Conceptual history = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
Stargate SG @-@ 1 supervising producer Damian Kindler wrote " Prometheus Unbound " as a second @-@ unit bottle episode for the middle of Stargate SG @-@ 1 's season 8 in 2004 . The main cast 's availability was limited , as Richard Dean Anderson had a reduced season schedule , and Amanda Tapping and Christopher Judge filmed " Gemini " in parallel to " Prometheus Unbound " . Kindler therefore centered the episode on Michael Shanks ' character Daniel Jackson and created Vala , a human character from an unnamed planet , as Daniel 's one @-@ episode adversary . Not fully content with Kindler 's conservative approach , producer Robert C. Cooper amplified the character 's cheeky and sexy personality in his own passes of the script . Although Cooper tried to respect Stargate SG @-@ 1 's reputation as a sex @-@ free family show , he was aware that the character 's flirtatiousness might cause a strong audience reaction .
Robert . C. Cooper suggested Australian actress Claudia Black for the role of Vala and contacted her agent two days before the filming of " Prometheus Unbound " began . The Stargate producers had approached Black several times before , but she had always been busy with other projects . At " Prometheus Unbound " ' s casting stage , the actress had just finished dialogue looping sessions for Farscape : The Peacekeeper Wars in Australia . She thought the script of " Prometheus Unbound " was funny and self @-@ contained enough for creative experiments , so she accepted the role and called the episode 's director , Andy Mikita , in advance . He suggested an Out of Sight @-@ kind chemistry for Vala and Daniel , and encouraged the actress to push the character as far as possible . On set , Claudia Black and Michael Shanks decided to make one of their first scenes , a fight sequence , as funny and non @-@ machismo as possible to mirror Daniel 's non @-@ military background . In the meantime , Black tried to transform her day @-@ long jetlag and lack of sleep into humour . When the producers saw the on @-@ screen chemistry between Black and Shanks , they decided to make the character a bigger part of the show .
= = = Development = = =
With actor Richard Dean Anderson 's departure from the show in 2005 , Stargate SG @-@ 1 saw cast changes at the beginning of season 9 . Ben Browder and Beau Bridges joined the main cast as Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Cameron Mitchell and Major General Hank Landry , respectively . At the same time , the producers re @-@ introduced Vala in a six @-@ episode story arc to cover for the maternity leave of SG @-@ 1 regular Amanda Tapping ( Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Samantha Carter ) . The producer intended to use Vala 's unpredictability and wildcard status to break the bigger story arc and to acquaint the audience with the new characters . Claudia Black wished to broaden her horizon in comedic acting and agreed to the recurring role , but declined the producers ' offer of a permanent role for personal reasons .
Because Ben Browder and Claudia Black were well known for formerly starring as star @-@ crossed lovers in the cult sci @-@ fi series Farscape , the Stargate producers refrained from emphasizing the pairing of Mitchell and Vala beyond in @-@ jokes . The producers instead opted to further the comedic chemistry between Claudia Black and Michael Shanks , who linked their characters ' early relationship to a Spencer Tracy / Katharine Hepburn dynamic of " not so much of tension , but rather constant antagonism " . Mirroring Vala 's sexiness in season 8 , " The Powers That Be " writer Martin Gero chose Qetesh , the Egyptian Goddess of Love and Beauty , as a fitting former Goa 'uld identity for Vala . Nevertheless , Black and the producers refrained from portraying the character as too sexually manipulative . A scene from " The Ties That Bind " , which was later cut for time , originally made clear that Wallace Shawn 's character greatly exaggerated the sexual relationship between him and Vala . Claudia Black was brought back into the show for the last two episodes of season 9 , at which time the actress was seven months pregnant . Producer Robert C. Cooper , who wrote and directed " Crusade " , used the circumstances to set the stage for Adria , Vala 's future daughter and the show 's new villain in season 10 .
Claudia Black joined the cast full @-@ time in season 10 . Had Stargate SG @-@ 1 not been picked up for a new season , the producers would have considered the character for a spin @-@ off series . To justify the character in a regular capacity , the producers toned her down and tried to find a suitable balance of sexual tension , fun and friendship . Claudia Black was convinced that Vala 's actual stay with Stargate Command was justified despite the character 's personality . Vala 's renegade qualification to infiltrate the Ori served as a useful complement to the military @-@ oriented SG teams , and Vala had already proven a degree of allegiance through her actions in " Beachhead " , holding off an immediate invasion of the enemy . The writers tested this loyalty through confrontation in the story , and writer Damian Kindler later compared Vala 's character growth in season 10 to smuggler Lando Calrissian from Star Wars , a " former swindler who 's gone legit " . Careful to never have Vala become too earnest , Kindler never saw Vala " as the type of character who should be on the show for five , six , seven years . But definitely the sort of character who could come in for a couple of seasons , spice things up and then move on and come back and forth . " Evolving the relationship between Vala and the other SG @-@ 1 members , the producers also grew comfortable with pairing Browder 's and Black 's characters more often , and even teased ( and misled ) viewers about them " end [ ing ] up in a motel room bed together " in the episode " Memento Mori " , involving underwear , " handcuffs as well as creamy Twinkies " . A scene in the milestone episode " 200 " also parodied the show 's connection to Farscape . In hindsight , Claudia Black would see season 10 as a personal challenge as her baby deprived her of sleep during the filming period . Her relocation to Vancouver and sickness in the family put her on a self @-@ confessed personal and professional low . She nevertheless tried to stay true to her character " and not go for the cheap laugh " .
After a miscarriage scare during the filming of the first direct @-@ to @-@ DVD SG @-@ 1 film , Stargate : The Ark of Truth , Claudia Black 's work on the film Stargate : Continuum was limited on strict doctor 's orders . Although Black considered Continuum " not a Vala @-@ centric piece " as she only " makes a brief appearance " , Stargate producer Joseph Mallozzi thought " she 's got some great , juicy scenes " . Claudia Black mentioned an interest in portraying her character in the future , but Mallozzi rated the chances of her appearing in the planned Stargate Universe spin @-@ off series as " not so good " . Producer Brad Wright announced that Vala would not be returning for the announced third Stargate SG @-@ 1 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film that was scheduled to be filmed in spring 2009 . Claudia Black is the only SG @-@ 1 main cast member besides Corin Nemec ( playing Jonas Quinn between SG @-@ 1 's season 5 and 7 ) and Ben Browder ( playing Cameron Mitchell from season 9 onward ) who never appeared in Stargate Atlantis , although Vala is mentioned by Rodney McKay ( played by David Hewlett ) in the Atlantis season 5 episode " Identity " .
= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =
Claudia Black made her entrance in Stargate SG @-@ 1 in a full @-@ body Kull Warrior costume , not dissimilar to her first appearance as a Peacekeeper in Farscape . For her entrance in season 9 's " Avalon " , however , the costume designers intended her to wear a dress that the producers later deemed too revealing . Leaving the dress for Vala 's appearance as Qetesh in " The Powers That Be " , Vala 's outfit for " Avalon " was switched to a black fetish leather gear which a costume designer described as " a dominatrix outfit " . Black admitted the wildness of her " Avalon " wardrobe was not for her liking . But since it mirrored the attention @-@ seeking personality of the character , and because the character does not spend much time in the same outfit anyway , the actress did not mind wearing it .
Vala started wearing the normal SG team uniform in " Origin " , the third episode of season 9 . Claudia Black was later included in the design process and was given full control over her wardrobe for scenes that required civilian clothes . As such , Black chose Vala 's underwear for the seduction scene in " The Ties That Bind " and her shopping tour outfit in " Family Ties " . The latter episode also showed Vala with seven distinctly different hairstyles and outfits in total . Fearing the lack of seriousness , the producers opposed the make @-@ up department 's decision of having Vala wear curlers , but the scene could not be reshot . Similarly , a scene showing Vala unpacking her hair dryer and curling iron during an offworld mission in " The Quest " was deemed too silly and was trimmed to the basics ; it would have been cut if the footage had allowed it . Due to Black 's pregnancy during the filming of the films , the costume department needed to hide Black 's bump with appropriate dressing .
= = Reception = =
The character of Vala was immediately popular with the Stargate writers , producers and crew . During the filming of " Prometheus Unbound " , people on set responded " very well " to the chemistry between Vala and Daniel . Director Andy Mikita called executive producer Robert C. Cooper during the first lunch break and told him to " hire this gal " , and Cooper thought Vala / Black " was absolutely wonderful . The character really worked out . " Writer Damian Kindler " really loved " what Black brought to the show , believing that " her character , when used properly , is just absolutely wonderful grist for the mill on SG @-@ 1 . " Stargate writer Martin Gero called Vala " so much fun to write , almost too fun . You do kind of get carried away . " Michael Shanks repeatedly stated in interviews that Claudia Black revitalized his interest in acting .
While TV Guide called Vala a " saucy [ and ] bodacious babe who immediately clicked with viewers " , GateWorld 's Darren Sumner and TheScifiWorld 's Gilles Nuytens commented on her " warm reception .. by fans " and her being " an instant hit with fans of the show " . 71 percent of over 8000 GateWorld readers rated Claudia Black 's portrayal of Vala in season 9 as " perfect " . In a later GateWorld poll among over 12000 participants , 51 percent answered that Claudia Black 's joining the main cast was " about time ! " , while 22 percent were concerned or had no opinion . The actress was not as confident about the character 's reception , and Robert C. Cooper advertised Vala 's last season 9 appearance as the return of " a much loved and much hated character . " Vala Mal Doran ranked second ( 25 % ) out of five behind SG @-@ 1 's Cameron Mitchell ( 27 % ) in the viewer @-@ voted 2006 Spacey Awards for " Favourite New TV Character " , and was voted third ( 22 % ) out of five places in the 2007 Spacey Awards for " Favourite Character You Love to Hate " ( 26 % Battlestar Galactica 's Gaius Baltar , 28 % Smallville 's Lex Luthor ) . Per popular demand , Diamond Select Toys included Vala in their third series of Stargate action figures .
The Sun Herald thought of the character as " a thoroughly charming intergalactic thief famed for using her allure to get what she wants " , and Matt Roush of TV Guide called Claudia Black " great fun to watch in [ seasons 8 and 9 ] " . TV Zone 's Stephen Graves believed that Browder and Black 's first post @-@ Farscape encounter in Stargate SG @-@ 1 's " Avalon " was " somewhat underplayed – but Black makes up for this with her sparky , snarky characterization of Vala . " He welcomed the producers ' decision to not cast a carbon copy of Samantha Carter , and thought that Claudia Black 's Vala in her six @-@ episode arc remained " the best thing in the series " . By season 10 's " Memento Mori " , TV Zone 's Anthony Brown felt that " Ben Browder and Claudia Black have ... reached a point where they can play out an amusing take on Misery without you feeling that [ their Farscape characters ] have somehow starbursted onto SG @-@ 1 's Earth " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune called Browder and Black 's interaction in season 10 " great fun ; the rapport they developed on the stellar Farscape was still much in evidence , even though they played radically different characters on SG @-@ 1 . "
Maureen Ryan described the chemistry between Black and Michael Shanks as " sparky " and " one of the most diverting parts of the latter seasons of the show " . According to Ultimate DVD , the scenes between Vala and Daniel as the object of her affection resulted in " some of the freshest and funniest scenes in the show for some time " . In reviewing " Unending " , Anthony Brown called Vala " a character who 's always had a little too much of comic relief [ getting ] torn apart by the nice guy of the team . " SyFy Portal attributed Stargate SG @-@ 1 not going stale after ten years to Black , as she " quite literally steals the show from the existing cast of heroes " . For her portrayal of Vala , Claudia Black was nominated for a Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actress on Television " in 2006 , and won a Constellation Award in the category " Best Female Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television " for the episode " Memento Mori " in 2007 .
|
= Richard Wagner =
Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( / ˈvɑːɡnər / ; German : [ ˈʁiçaʁt ˈvaːɡnɐ ] ; 22 May 1813 – 13 February 1883 ) was a German composer , theatre director , polemicist , and conductor who is primarily known for his operas ( or , as some of his later works were later known , " music dramas " ) . Unlike most opera composers , Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works . Initially establishing his reputation as a composer of works in the romantic vein of Weber and Meyerbeer , Wagner revolutionised opera through his concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk ( " total work of art " ) , by which he sought to synthesise the poetic , visual , musical and dramatic arts , with music subsidiary to drama . He described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852 . Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four @-@ opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen ( The Ring of the Nibelung ) .
His compositions , particularly those of his later period , are notable for their complex textures , rich harmonies and orchestration , and the elaborate use of leitmotifs — musical phrases associated with individual characters , places , ideas or plot elements . His advances in musical language , such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres , greatly influenced the development of classical music . His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music .
Wagner had his own opera house built , the Bayreuth Festspielhaus , which embodied many novel design features . The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed in an annual festival run by his descendants . His thoughts on the relative contributions of music and drama in opera were to change again , and he reintroduced some traditional forms into his last few stage works , including Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg ( The Mastersingers of Nuremberg ) .
Until his final years , Wagner 's life was characterised by political exile , turbulent love affairs , poverty and repeated flight from his creditors . His controversial writings on music , drama and politics have attracted extensive comment since the late 20th century , especially where they express antisemitic sentiments . The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century ; his influence spread beyond composition into conducting , philosophy , literature , the visual arts and theatre .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig , where his family lived at No. 3 , the Brühl ( The House of the Red and White Lions ) in the Jewish quarter . He was baptized at St. Thomas Church . He was the ninth child of Carl Friedrich Wagner , who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service , and his wife , Johanna Rosine ( née Paetz ) , the daughter of a baker . Wagner 's father Carl died of typhus six months after Richard 's birth . Afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carl 's friend , the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer . In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married — although no documentation of this has been found in the Leipzig church registers . She and her family moved to Geyer 's residence in Dresden . Until he was fourteen , Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer . He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father .
Geyer 's love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson , and Wagner took part in his performances . In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel . In late 1820 , Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzel 's school at Possendorf , near Dresden , where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher . He struggled to play a proper scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear . Following Geyer 's death in 1821 , Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule , the boarding school of the Dresdner Kreuzchor , at the expense of Geyer 's brother . At the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Weber 's opera Der Freischütz , which he saw Weber conduct . At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright . His first creative effort , listed in the Wagner @-@ Werk @-@ Verzeichnis ( the standard listing of Wagner 's works ) as WWV 1 , was a tragedy called Leubald . Begun when he was in school in 1826 , the play was strongly influenced by Shakespeare and Goethe . Wagner was determined to set it to music , and persuaded his family to allow him music lessons .
By 1827 , the family had returned to Leipzig . Wagner 's first lessons in harmony were taken during 1828 – 31 with Christian Gottlieb Müller . In January 1828 he first heard Beethoven 's 7th Symphony and then , in March , the same composer 's 9th Symphony ( both at the Gewandhaus ) . Beethoven became a major inspiration , and Wagner wrote a piano transcription of the 9th Symphony . He was also greatly impressed by a performance of Mozart 's Requiem . Wagner 's early piano sonatas and his first attempts at orchestral overtures date from this period .
In 1829 he saw a performance by dramatic soprano Wilhelmine Schröder @-@ Devrient , and she became his ideal of the fusion of drama and music in opera . In Mein Leben , Wagner wrote " When I look back across my entire life I find no event to place beside this in the impression it produced on me , " and claimed that the " profoundly human and ecstatic performance of this incomparable artist " kindled in him an " almost demonic fire . "
In 1831 , Wagner enrolled at the Leipzig University , where he became a member of the Saxon student fraternity . He took composition lessons with the Thomaskantor Theodor Weinlig . Weinlig was so impressed with Wagner 's musical ability that he refused any payment for his lessons . He arranged for his pupil 's Piano Sonata in B @-@ flat major ( which was consequently dedicated to him ) to be published as Wagner 's Op. 1 . A year later , Wagner composed his Symphony in C major , a Beethovenesque work performed in Prague in 1832 and at the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1833 . He then began to work on an opera , Die Hochzeit ( The Wedding ) , which he never completed .
= = = Early career and marriage ( 1833 – 42 ) = = =
In 1833 , Wagner 's brother Albert managed to obtain for him a position as choir master at the theatre in Würzburg . In the same year , at the age of 20 , Wagner composed his first complete opera , Die Feen ( The Fairies ) . This work , which imitated the style of Weber , went unproduced until half a century later , when it was premiered in Munich shortly after the composer 's death in 1883 .
Having returned to Leipzig in 1834 , Wagner held a brief appointment as musical director at the opera house in Magdeburg during which he wrote Das Liebesverbot ( The Ban on Love ) , based on Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure . This was staged at Magdeburg in 1836 but closed before the second performance ; this , together with the financial collapse of the theatre company employing him , left the composer with serious money problems . Wagner had fallen for one of the leading ladies at Magdeburg , the actress Christine Wilhelmine " Minna " Planer . After the disaster of Das Liebesverbot , he followed her to Königsberg where she helped him to get an engagement at the theatre . The two married in Tragheim Church on 24 November 1836 . In May 1837 , Minna left Wagner for another man ; this was but the first débâcle of a troubled marriage . In June 1837 , Wagner moved to Riga ( then in the Russian Empire ) , where he became music director of the local opera ; having in this capacity engaged Minna 's sister Amalie ( also a singer ) for the theatre , he presently resumed relations with Minna during 1838 .
By 1839 , the couple had amassed such large debts that they fled Riga to avoid their creditors ; debt would plague Wagner for most of his life . Initially they took a stormy sea passage to London , from which Wagner drew the inspiration for Der fliegende Holländer ( The Flying Dutchman ) , with a plot based on a sketch by Heinrich Heine . The Wagners settled in Paris in September 1839 and stayed there until 1842 . Richard made a scant living by writing articles and arranging operas by other composers , largely on behalf of the Schlesinger publishing house . He also completed during this stay his third and fourth operas Rienzi and Der fliegende Holländer .
= = = Dresden ( 1842 – 49 ) = = =
Wagner had completed Rienzi in 1840 . With the strong support of Giacomo Meyerbeer , it was accepted for performance by the Dresden Court Theatre ( Hofoper ) in the Kingdom of Saxony and in 1842 , Wagner moved to Dresden . His relief at returning to Germany was recorded in his " Autobiographic Sketch " of 1842 , where he wrote that , en route from Paris , " For the first time I saw the Rhine — with hot tears in my eyes , I , poor artist , swore eternal fidelity to my German fatherland . " Rienzi was staged to considerable acclaim on 20 October .
Wagner lived in Dresden for the next six years , eventually being appointed the Royal Saxon Court Conductor . During this period , he staged there Der fliegende Holländer ( 2 January 1843 ) and Tannhäuser ( 19 October 1845 ) , the first two of his three middle @-@ period operas . Wagner also mixed with artistic circles in Dresden , including the composer Ferdinand Hiller and the architect Gottfried Semper .
Wagner 's involvement in left @-@ wing politics abruptly ended his welcome in Dresden . Wagner was active among socialist German nationalists there , regularly receiving such guests as the conductor and radical editor August Röckel and the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin . He was also influenced by the ideas of Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon and Ludwig Feuerbach . Widespread discontent came to a head in 1849 , when the unsuccessful May Uprising in Dresden broke out , in which Wagner played a minor supporting role . Warrants were issued for the revolutionaries ' arrest . Wagner had to flee , first visiting Paris and then settling in Zürich where he at first took refuge with a friend , Alexander Müller .
= = = In exile : Switzerland ( 1849 – 58 ) = = =
Wagner was to spend the next twelve years in exile from Germany . He had completed Lohengrin , the last of his middle @-@ period operas , before the Dresden uprising , and now wrote desperately to his friend Franz Liszt to have it staged in his absence . Liszt conducted the premiere in Weimar in August 1850 .
Nevertheless , Wagner was in grim personal straits , isolated from the German musical world and without any regular income . In 1850 , Julie , the wife of his friend Karl Ritter , began to pay him a small pension which she maintained until 1859 . With help from her friend Jessie Laussot , this was to have been augmented to an annual sum of 3 @,@ 000 Thalers per year ; but this plan was abandoned when Wagner began an affair with Mme. Laussot . Wagner even planned an elopement with her in 1850 , which her husband prevented . Meanwhile , Wagner 's wife Minna , who had disliked the operas he had written after Rienzi , was falling into a deepening depression . Wagner fell victim to ill @-@ health , according to Ernest Newman " largely a matter of overwrought nerves " , which made it difficult for him to continue writing .
Wagner 's primary published output during his first years in Zürich was a set of essays . In " The Artwork of the Future " ( 1849 ) , he described a vision of opera as Gesamtkunstwerk ( " total work of art " ) , in which the various arts such as music , song , dance , poetry , visual arts and stagecraft were unified . " Judaism in Music " ( 1850 ) was the first of Wagner 's writings to feature antisemitic views . In this polemic Wagner argued , frequently using traditional antisemitic abuse , that Jews had no connection to the German spirit , and were thus capable of producing only shallow and artificial music . According to him , they composed music to achieve popularity and , thereby , financial success , as opposed to creating genuine works of art .
In " Opera and Drama " ( 1851 ) , Wagner described the aesthetics of drama that he was using to create the Ring operas . Before leaving Dresden , Wagner had drafted a scenario that eventually became the four @-@ opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen . He initially wrote the libretto for a single opera , Siegfrieds Tod ( Siegfried 's Death ) , in 1848 . After arriving in Zürich , he expanded the story with the opera Der junge Siegfried ( Young Siegfried ) , which explored the hero 's background . He completed the text of the cycle by writing the libretti for Die Walküre ( The Valkyrie ) and Das Rheingold ( The Rhine Gold ) and revising the other libretti to agree with his new concept , completing them in 1852 . The concept of opera expressed in " Opera and Drama " and in other essays effectively renounced the operas he had previously written , up to and including Lohengrin . Partly in an attempt to explain his change of views , Wagner published in 1851 the autobiographical " A Communication to My Friends " . This contained his first public announcement of what was to become the Ring cycle :
I shall never write an Opera more . As I have no wish to invent an arbitrary title for my works , I will call them Dramas ...
I propose to produce my myth in three complete dramas , preceded by a lengthy Prelude ( Vorspiel ) . ...
At a specially @-@ appointed Festival , I propose , some future time , to produce those three Dramas with their Prelude , in the course of three days and a fore @-@ evening [ emphasis in original ] .
Wagner began composing the music for Das Rheingold between November 1853 and September 1854 , following it immediately with Die Walküre ( written between June 1854 and March 1856 ) . He began work on the third Ring opera , which he now called simply Siegfried , probably in September 1856 , but by June 1857 he had completed only the first two acts . He decided to put the work aside to concentrate on a new idea : Tristan und Isolde , based on the Arthurian love story Tristan and Iseult .
One source of inspiration for Tristan und Isolde was the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer , notably his The World as Will and Representation , to which Wagner had been introduced in 1854 by his poet friend Georg Herwegh . Wagner later called this the most important event of his life . His personal circumstances certainly made him an easy convert to what he understood to be Schopenhauer 's philosophy , a deeply pessimistic view of the human condition . He remained an adherent of Schopenhauer for the rest of his life .
One of Schopenhauer 's doctrines was that music held a supreme role in the arts as a direct expression of the world 's essence , namely , blind , impulsive will . This doctrine contradicted Wagner 's view , expressed in " Opera and Drama " , that the music in opera had to be subservient to the drama . Wagner scholars have argued that Schopenhauer 's influence caused Wagner to assign a more commanding role to music in his later operas , including the latter half of the Ring cycle , which he had yet to compose . Aspects of Schopenhauerian doctrine found their way into Wagner 's subsequent libretti .
A second source of inspiration was Wagner 's infatuation with the poet @-@ writer Mathilde Wesendonck , the wife of the silk merchant Otto Wesendonck . Wagner met the Wesendoncks , who were both great admirers of his music , in Zürich in 1852 . From May 1853 onwards Wesendonck made several loans to Wagner to finance his household expenses in Zürich , and in 1857 placed a cottage on his estate at Wagner 's disposal , which became known as the Asyl ( " asylum " or " place of rest " ) . During this period , Wagner 's growing passion for his patron 's wife inspired him to put aside work on the Ring cycle ( which was not resumed for the next twelve years ) and begin work on Tristan . While planning the opera , Wagner composed the Wesendonck Lieder , five songs for voice and piano , setting poems by Mathilde . Two of these settings are explicitly subtitled by Wagner as " studies for Tristan und Isolde " .
Amongst the conducting engagements that Wagner undertook for revenue during this period , he gave several concerts in 1855 with the London Philharmonic Society , including one before Queen Victoria . The Queen enjoyed his Tannhäuser overture and spoke with Wagner after the concert , writing of him in her diary that he was " short , very quiet , wears spectacles & has a very finely @-@ developed forehead , a hooked nose & projecting chin . "
= = = In exile : Venice and Paris ( 1858 – 62 ) = = =
Wagner 's uneasy affair with Mathilde collapsed in 1858 , when Minna intercepted a letter to Mathilde from him . After the resulting confrontation with Minna , Wagner left Zürich alone , bound for Venice , where he rented an apartment in the Palazzo Giustinian , while Minna returned to Germany . Wagner 's attitude to Minna had changed ; the editor of his correspondence with her , John Burk , has said that she was to him " an invalid , to be treated with kindness and consideration , but , except at a distance , [ was ] a menace to his peace of mind . " Wagner continued his correspondence with Mathilde and his friendship with her husband Otto , who maintained his financial support of the composer . In an 1859 letter to Mathilde , Wagner wrote , half @-@ satirically , of Tristan : " Child ! This Tristan is turning into something terrible . This final act ! ! ! — I fear the opera will be banned ... only mediocre performances can save me ! Perfectly good ones will be bound to drive people mad . "
In November 1859 , Wagner once again moved to Paris to oversee production of a new revision of Tannhäuser , staged thanks to the efforts of Princess Pauline von Metternich , whose husband was the Austrian ambassador in Paris . The performances of the Paris Tannhäuser in 1861 were a notable fiasco . This was partly a consequence of the conservative tastes of the Jockey Club , which organised demonstrations in the theatre to protest at the presentation of the ballet feature in act 1 ( instead of its traditional location in the second act ) ; but the opportunity was also exploited by those who wanted to use the occasion as a veiled political protest against the pro @-@ Austrian policies of Napoleon III . The work was withdrawn after the third performance and Wagner left Paris soon after . He had sought a reconciliation with Minna during this Paris visit , and although she joined him there , the reunion was not successful and they again parted from each other when Wagner left .
= = = Return and resurgence ( 1862 – 71 ) = = =
The political ban that had been placed on Wagner in Germany after he had fled Dresden was fully lifted in 1862 . The composer settled in Biebrich , on the Rhine near Wiesbaden in Hesse . Here Minna visited him for the last time : they parted irrevocably , though Wagner continued to give financial support to her while she lived in Dresden until her death in 1866 .
In Biebrich , Wagner at last began work on Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , his only mature comedy . Wagner wrote a first draft of the libretto in 1845 , and he had resolved to develop it during a visit he had made to Venice with the Wesendoncks in 1860 , where he was inspired by Titian 's painting The Assumption of the Virgin . Throughout this period ( 1861 – 64 ) Wagner sought to have Tristan und Isolde produced in Vienna . Despite numerous rehearsals , the opera remained unperformed , and gained a reputation as being " impossible " to sing , which added to Wagner 's financial problems .
Wagner 's fortunes took a dramatic upturn in 1864 , when King Ludwig II succeeded to the throne of Bavaria at the age of 18 . The young king , an ardent admirer of Wagner 's operas , had the composer brought to Munich . The King , who was homosexual , expressed in his correspondence a passionate personal adoration for the composer , and Wagner in his responses had no scruples about counterfeiting a similar atmosphere . Ludwig settled Wagner 's considerable debts , and proposed to stage Tristan , Die Meistersinger , the Ring , and the other operas Wagner planned . Wagner also began to dictate his autobiography , Mein Leben , at the King 's request . Wagner noted that his rescue by Ludwig coincided with news of the death of his earlier mentor ( but later supposed enemy ) Giacomo Meyerbeer , and regretted that " this operatic master , who had done me so much harm , should not have lived to see this day . "
After grave difficulties in rehearsal , Tristan und Isolde premiered at the National Theatre Munich on 10 June 1865 , the first Wagner opera premiere in almost 15 years . ( The premiere had been scheduled for 15 May , but was delayed by bailiffs acting for Wagner 's creditors , and also because the Isolde , Malvina Schnorr von Carolsfeld , was hoarse and needed time to recover . ) The conductor of this premiere was Hans von Bülow , whose wife , Cosima , had given birth in April that year to a daughter , named Isolde , a child not of Bülow but of Wagner .
Cosima was 24 years younger than Wagner and was herself illegitimate , the daughter of the Countess Marie d 'Agoult , who had left her husband for Franz Liszt . Liszt initially disapproved of his daughter 's involvement with Wagner , though nevertheless the two men were friends . The indiscreet affair scandalised Munich , and Wagner also fell into disfavour with many leading members of the court , who were suspicious of his influence on the King . In December 1865 , Ludwig was finally forced to ask the composer to leave Munich . He apparently also toyed with the idea of abdicating to follow his hero into exile , but Wagner quickly dissuaded him .
Ludwig installed Wagner at the Villa Tribschen , beside Switzerland 's Lake Lucerne . Die Meistersinger was completed at Tribschen in 1867 , and premiered in Munich on 21 June the following year . At Ludwig 's insistence , " special previews " of the first two works of the Ring , Das Rheingold and Die Walküre , were performed at Munich in 1869 and 1870 , but Wagner retained his dream , first expressed in " A Communication to My Friends " , to present the first complete cycle at a special festival with a new , dedicated , opera house .
Minna had died of a heart attack on 25 January 1866 in Dresden . Wagner did not attend the funeral . Following Minna 's death Cosima wrote to Hans von Bülow on a number of occasions asking him to grant her a divorce , but Bülow refused to concede this . He only consented after she had two more children with Wagner ; another daughter , named Eva , after the heroine of Meistersinger , and a son Siegfried , named for the hero of the Ring . The divorce was finally sanctioned , after delays in the legal process , by a Berlin court on 18 July 1870 . Richard and Cosima 's wedding took place on 25 August 1870 . On Christmas Day of that year , Wagner arranged a surprise performance ( its premiere ) of the Siegfried Idyll for Cosima 's birthday . The marriage to Cosima lasted to the end of Wagner 's life .
Wagner , settled into his new @-@ found domesticity , turned his energies towards completing the Ring cycle . He had not abandoned polemics : he republished his 1850 pamphlet " Judaism in Music " , originally issued under a pseudonym , under his own name in 1869 . He extended the introduction , and wrote a lengthy additional final section . The publication led to several public protests at early performances of Die Meistersinger in Vienna and Mannheim .
= = = Bayreuth ( 1871 – 76 ) = = =
In 1871 , Wagner decided to move to Bayreuth , which was to be the location of his new opera house . The town council donated a large plot of land — the " Green Hill " — as a site for the theatre . The Wagners moved to the town the following year , and the foundation stone for the Bayreuth Festspielhaus ( " Festival Theatre " ) was laid . Wagner initially announced the first Bayreuth Festival , at which for the first time the Ring cycle would be presented complete , for 1873 , but since Ludwig had declined to finance the project , the start of building was delayed and the proposed date for the festival was deferred . To raise funds for the construction , " Wagner societies " were formed in several cities , and Wagner began touring Germany conducting concerts . By the spring of 1873 , only a third of the required funds had been raised ; further pleas to Ludwig were initially ignored , but early in 1874 , with the project on the verge of collapse , the King relented and provided a loan . The full building programme included the family home , " Wahnfried " , into which Wagner , with Cosima and the children , moved from their temporary accommodation on 18 April 1874 . The theatre was completed in 1875 , and the festival scheduled for the following year . Commenting on the struggle to finish the building , Wagner remarked to Cosima : " Each stone is red with my blood and yours " .
For the design of the Festspielhaus , Wagner appropriated some of the ideas of his former colleague , Gottfried Semper , which he had previously solicited for a proposed new opera house at Munich . Wagner was responsible for several theatrical innovations at Bayreuth ; these include darkening the auditorium during performances , and placing the orchestra in a pit out of view of the audience .
The Festspielhaus finally opened on 13 August 1876 with Das Rheingold , at last taking its place as the first evening of the complete Ring cycle ; the 1876 Bayreuth Festival therefore saw the premiere of the complete cycle , performed as a sequence as the composer had intended . The 1876 Festival consisted of three full Ring cycles ( under the baton of Hans Richter ) . At the end , critical reactions ranged between that of the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg , who thought the work " divinely composed " , and that of the French newspaper Le Figaro , which called the music " the dream of a lunatic " . Amongst the disillusioned were Wagner 's friend and disciple Friedrich Nietzsche , who , having published his eulogistic essay " Richard Wagner in Bayreuth " before the festival as part of his Untimely Meditations , was bitterly disappointed by what he saw as Wagner 's pandering to increasingly exclusivist German nationalism ; his breach with Wagner began at this time . The festival firmly established Wagner as an artist of European , and indeed world , importance : attendees included Kaiser Wilhelm I , the Emperor Pedro II of Brazil , Anton Bruckner , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky .
Wagner was far from satisfied with the Festival ; Cosima recorded that months later , his attitude towards the productions was " Never again , never again ! " Moreover , the festival finished with a deficit of about 150 @,@ 000 marks . The expenses of Bayreuth and of Wahnfried meant that Wagner still sought additional sources of income by conducting or taking on commissions such as the Centennial March for America , for which he received $ 5000 .
= = = Last years ( 1876 – 83 ) = = =
Following the first Bayreuth Festival , Wagner began work on Parsifal , his final opera . The composition took four years , much of which Wagner spent in Italy for health reasons . From 1876 to 1878 Wagner also embarked on the last of his documented emotional liaisons , this time with Judith Gautier , whom he had met at the 1876 Festival . Wagner was also much troubled by problems of financing Parsifal , and by the prospect of the work being performed by other theatres than Bayreuth . He was once again assisted by the liberality of King Ludwig , but was still forced by his personal financial situation in 1877 to sell the rights of several of his unpublished works ( including the Siegfried Idyll ) to the publisher Schott .
Wagner wrote a number of articles in his later years , often on political topics , and often reactionary in tone , repudiating some of his earlier , more liberal , views . These include " Religion and Art " ( 1880 ) and " Heroism and Christianity " ( 1881 ) , which were printed in the journal Bayreuther Blätter , published by his supporter Hans von Wolzogen . Wagner 's sudden interest in Christianity at this period , which infuses Parsifal , was contemporary with his increasing alignment with German nationalism , and required on his part , and the part of his associates , " the rewriting of some recent Wagnerian history " , so as to represent , for example , the Ring as a work reflecting Christian ideals . Many of these later articles , including " What is German ? " ( 1878 , but based on a draft written in the 1860s ) , repeated Wagner 's antisemitic preoccupations .
Wagner completed Parsifal in January 1882 , and a second Bayreuth Festival was held for the new opera , which premiered on 26 May . Wagner was by this time extremely ill , having suffered a series of increasingly severe angina attacks . During the sixteenth and final performance of Parsifal on 29 August , he entered the pit unseen during act 3 , took the baton from conductor Hermann Levi , and led the performance to its conclusion .
After the festival , the Wagner family journeyed to Venice for the winter . Wagner died of a heart attack at the age of 69 on 13 February 1883 at Ca ' Vendramin Calergi , a 16th @-@ century palazzo on the Grand Canal . The legend that the attack was prompted by argument with Cosima over Wagner 's supposedly amorous interest in the singer Carrie Pringle , who had been a Flower @-@ maiden in Parsifal at Bayreuth , is without credible evidence . After a funerary gondola bore Wagner 's remains over the Grand Canal , his body was taken to Germany where it was buried in the garden of the Villa Wahnfried in Bayreuth .
= = Works = =
Wagner 's musical output is listed by the Wagner @-@ Werk @-@ Verzeichnis ( WWV ) as comprising 113 works , including fragments and projects .
= = = Operas = = =
Wagner 's operatic works are his primary artistic legacy . Unlike most opera composers , who generally left the task of writing the libretto ( the text and lyrics ) to others , Wagner wrote his own libretti , which he referred to as " poems " .
From 1849 onwards , he urged a new concept of opera often referred to as " music drama " ( although he later rejected this term ) , in which all musical , poetic and dramatic elements were to be fused together — the Gesamtkunstwerk . Wagner developed a compositional style in which the importance of the orchestra is equal to that of the singers . The orchestra 's dramatic role in the later operas includes the use of leitmotifs , musical phrases that can be interpreted as announcing specific characters , locales , and plot elements ; their complex interweaving and evolution illuminates the progression of the drama . These operas are still , despite Wagner 's reservations , referred to by many writers as " music dramas " .
= = = = Early works ( to 1842 ) = = = =
Wagner 's earliest attempts at opera were often uncompleted . Abandoned works include a pastoral opera based on Goethe 's Die Laune des Verliebten ( The Infatuated Lover 's Caprice ) , written at the age of 17 , Die Hochzeit ( The Wedding ) , on which Wagner worked in 1832 , and the singspiel Männerlist größer als Frauenlist ( Men are More Cunning than Women , 1837 – 38 ) . Die Feen ( The Fairies , 1833 ) was unperformed in the composer 's lifetime and Das Liebesverbot ( The Ban on Love , 1836 ) was withdrawn after its first performance . Rienzi ( 1842 ) was Wagner 's first opera to be successfully staged . The compositional style of these early works was conventional — the relatively more sophisticated Rienzi showing the clear influence of Grand Opera à la Spontini and Meyerbeer — and did not exhibit the innovations that would mark Wagner 's place in musical history . Later in life , Wagner said that he did not consider these works to be part of his oeuvre ; none of them has ever been performed at the Bayreuth Festival , and they have been performed only rarely in the last hundred years ( although the overture to Rienzi is an occasional concert piece ) . Die Feen , Das Liebesverbot and Rienzi were performed at both Leipzig and Bayreuth in 2013 to mark the composer 's bicentenary .
= = = = " Romantic operas " ( 1843 – 51 ) = = = =
Wagner 's middle stage output began with Der fliegende Holländer ( The Flying Dutchman , 1843 ) , followed by Tannhäuser ( 1845 ) and Lohengrin ( 1850 ) . These three operas are sometimes referred to as Wagner 's " romantic operas " . They reinforced the reputation , among the public in Germany and beyond , that Wagner had begun to establish with Rienzi . Although distancing himself from the style of these operas from 1849 onwards , he nevertheless reworked both Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser on several occasions . These three operas are considered to represent a significant developmental stage in Wagner 's musical and operatic maturity as regards thematic handling , portrayal of emotions and orchestration . They are the earliest works included in the Bayreuth canon , the mature operas that Cosima staged at the Bayreuth Festival after Wagner 's death in accordance with his wishes . All three ( including the differing versions of Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser ) continue to be regularly performed throughout the world , and have been frequently recorded . They were also the operas by which his fame spread during his lifetime .
= = = = " Music dramas " ( 1851 – 82 ) = = = =
= = = = = Starting the Ring = = = = =
Wagner 's late dramas are considered his masterpieces . Der Ring des Nibelungen , commonly referred to as the Ring or " Ring cycle " , is a set of four operas based loosely on figures and elements of Germanic mythology — particularly from the later Norse mythology — notably the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Volsunga Saga , and the Middle High German Nibelungenlied . Wagner specifically developed the libretti for these operas according to his interpretation of Stabreim , highly alliterative rhyming verse @-@ pairs used in old Germanic poetry . They were also influenced by Wagner 's concepts of ancient Greek drama , in which tetralogies were a component of Athenian festivals , and which he had amply discussed in his essay " Oper und Drama " .
The first two components of the Ring cycle were Das Rheingold ( The Rhinegold ) , which was completed in 1854 , and Die Walküre ( The Valkyrie ) , which was finished in 1856 . In Das Rheingold , with its " relentlessly talky ' realism ' [ and ] the absence of lyrical ' numbers ' " , Wagner came very close to the musical ideals of his 1849 – 51 essays . Die Walküre , which contains what is virtually a traditional aria ( Siegmund 's Winterstürme in the first act ) , and the quasi @-@ choral appearance of the Valkyries themselves , shows more " operatic " traits , but has been assessed by Barry Millington as " the music drama that most satisfactorily embodies the theoretical principles of ' Oper und Drama ' ... A thoroughgoing synthesis of poetry and music is achieved without any notable sacrifice in musical expression . "
= = = = = Tristan und Isolde and Die Meistersinger = = = = =
While composing the opera Siegfried , the third part of the Ring cycle , Wagner interrupted work on it and between 1857 and 1864 wrote the tragic love story Tristan und Isolde and his only mature comedy Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg ( The Mastersingers of Nuremberg ) , two works that are also part of the regular operatic canon .
Tristan is often granted a special place in musical history ; many see it as the beginning of the move away from conventional harmony and tonality and consider that it lays the groundwork for the direction of classical music in the 20th century . Wagner felt that his musico @-@ dramatical theories were most perfectly realised in this work with its use of " the art of transition " between dramatic elements and the balance achieved between vocal and orchestral lines . Completed in 1859 , the work was given its first performance in Munich , conducted by Bülow , in June 1865 .
Die Meistersinger was originally conceived by Wagner in 1845 as a sort of comic pendant to Tannhäuser . Like Tristan , it was premiered in Munich under the baton of Bülow , on 21 June 1868 , and became an immediate success . Barry Millington describes Meistersinger as " a rich , perceptive music drama widely admired for its warm humanity " ; but because of its strong German nationalist overtones , it is also cited by some as an example of Wagner 's reactionary politics and antisemitism .
= = = = = Completing the Ring = = = = =
When Wagner returned to writing the music for the last act of Siegfried and for Götterdämmerung ( Twilight of the Gods ) , as the final part of the Ring , his style had changed once more to something more recognisable as " operatic " than the aural world of Rheingold and Walküre , though it was still thoroughly stamped with his own originality as a composer and suffused with leitmotifs . This was in part because the libretti of the four Ring operas had been written in reverse order , so that the book for Götterdämmerung was conceived more " traditionally " than that of Rheingold ; still , the self @-@ imposed strictures of the Gesamtkunstwerk had become relaxed . The differences also result from Wagner 's development as a composer during the period in which he wrote Tristan , Meistersinger and the Paris version of Tannhäuser . From act 3 of Siegfried onwards , the Ring becomes more chromatic melodically , more complex harmonically and more developmental in its treatment of leitmotifs .
Wagner took 26 years from writing the first draft of a libretto in 1848 until he completed Götterdämmerung in 1874 . The Ring takes about 15 hours to perform and is the only undertaking of such size to be regularly presented on the world 's stages .
= = = = = Parsifal = = = = =
Wagner 's final opera , Parsifal ( 1882 ) , which was his only work written especially for his Bayreuth Festspielhaus and which is described in the score as a " Bühnenweihfestspiel " ( " festival play for the consecration of the stage " ) , has a storyline suggested by elements of the legend of the Holy Grail . It also carries elements of Buddhist renunciation suggested by Wagner 's readings of Schopenhauer . Wagner described it to Cosima as his " last card " . It remains controversial because of its treatment of Christianity , its eroticism , and its expression , as perceived by some commentators , of German nationalism and antisemitism . Despite the composer 's own description of the opera to King Ludwig as " this most Christian of works " , Ulrike Kienzle has commented that " Wagner 's turn to Christian mythology , upon which the imagery and spiritual contents of Parsifal rest , is idiosyncratic and contradicts Christian dogma in many ways . " Musically the opera has been held to represent a continuing development of the composer 's style , and Barry Millington describes it as " a diaphanous score of unearthly beauty and refinement " .
= = = Non @-@ operatic music = = =
Apart from his operas , Wagner composed relatively few pieces of music . These include a symphony in C major ( written at the age of 19 ) , the Faust Overture ( the only completed part of an intended symphony on the subject ) , some overtures , and choral and piano pieces . His most commonly performed work that is not an extract from an opera is the Siegfried Idyll for chamber orchestra , which has several motifs in common with the Ring cycle . The Wesendonck Lieder are also often performed , either in the original piano version , or with orchestral accompaniment . More rarely performed are the American Centennial March ( 1876 ) , and Das Liebesmahl der Apostel ( The Love Feast of the Apostles ) , a piece for male choruses and orchestra composed in 1843 for the city of Dresden .
After completing Parsifal , Wagner expressed his intention to turn to the writing of symphonies , and several sketches dating from the late 1870s and early 1880s have been identified as work towards this end . The overtures and certain orchestral passages from Wagner 's middle and late @-@ stage operas are commonly played as concert pieces . For most of these , Wagner wrote or rewrote short passages to ensure musical coherence . The " Bridal Chorus " from Lohengrin is frequently played as the bride 's processional wedding march in English @-@ speaking countries .
= = = Prose writings = = =
Wagner was an extremely prolific writer , authoring numerous books , poems , and articles , as well as voluminous correspondence . His writings covered a wide range of topics , including autobiography , politics , philosophy , and detailed analyses of his own operas .
Wagner planned for a collected edition of his publications as early as 1865 ; he believed that such an edition would help the world understand his intellectual development and artistic aims . The first such edition was published between 1871 and 1883 , but was doctored to suppress or alter articles that were an embarrassment to him ( e.g. those praising Meyerbeer ) , or by altering dates on some articles to reinforce Wagner 's own account of his progress . Wagner 's autobiography Mein Leben was originally published for close friends only in a very small edition ( 15 – 18 copies per volume ) in four volumes between 1870 and 1880 . The first public edition ( with many passages suppressed by Cosima ) appeared in 1911 ; the first attempt at a full edition ( in German ) appeared in 1963 .
There have been modern complete or partial editions of Wagner 's writings , including a centennial edition in German edited by Dieter Borchmeyer ( which , however , omitted the essay " Das Judenthum in der Musik " and Mein Leben ) . The English translations of Wagner 's prose in eight volumes by W. Ashton Ellis ( 1892 – 99 ) are still in print and commonly used , despite their deficiencies . A complete edition of Wagner 's correspondence , estimated to amount to between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 items , is still under way under the supervision of the Institute for Music Research at the University of Würzburg . As of November 2014 , 21 volumes have appeared , covering the period to 1870 .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Influence on music = = =
Wagner 's later musical style introduced new ideas in harmony , melodic process ( leitmotif ) and operatic structure . Notably from Tristan und Isolde onwards , he explored the limits of the traditional tonal system , which gave keys and chords their identity , pointing the way to atonality in the 20th century . Some music historians date the beginning of modern classical music to the first notes of Tristan , which include the so @-@ called Tristan chord .
Wagner inspired great devotion . For a long period , many composers were inclined to align themselves with or against Wagner 's music . Anton Bruckner and Hugo Wolf were greatly indebted to him , as were César Franck , Henri Duparc , Ernest Chausson , Jules Massenet , Richard Strauss , Alexander von Zemlinsky , Hans Pfitzner and numerous others . Gustav Mahler was devoted to Wagner and his music ; aged 15 , he sought him out on his 1875 visit to Vienna , became a renowned Wagner conductor , and his compositions are seen by Richard Taruskin as extending Wagner 's " maximalization " of " the temporal and the sonorous " in music to the world of the symphony . The harmonic revolutions of Claude Debussy and Arnold Schoenberg ( both of whose oeuvres contain examples of tonal and atonal modernism ) have often been traced back to Tristan and Parsifal . The Italian form of operatic realism known as verismo owed much to the Wagnerian concept of musical form .
Wagner made a major contribution to the principles and practice of conducting . His essay " About Conducting " ( 1869 ) advanced Hector Berlioz 's technique of conducting and claimed that conducting was a means by which a musical work could be re @-@ interpreted , rather than simply a mechanism for achieving orchestral unison . He exemplified this approach in his own conducting , which was significantly more flexible than the disciplined approach of Felix Mendelssohn ; in his view this also justified practices that would today be frowned upon , such as the rewriting of scores . Wilhelm Furtwängler felt that Wagner and Bülow , through their interpretative approach , inspired a whole new generation of conductors ( including Furtwängler himself ) .
Amongst those claiming inspiration from Wagner 's music are the German band Rammstein , and the electronic composer Klaus Schulze , whose 1975 album Timewind consists of two 30 @-@ minute tracks , Bayreuth Return and Wahnfried 1883 . Joey DeMaio of the band Manowar has described Wagner as " The father of heavy metal " . The Slovenian group Laibach created the 2009 suite VolksWagner , using material from Wagner 's operas . Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound recording technique was , it has been claimed , heavily influenced by Wagner .
= = = Influence on literature , philosophy and the visual arts = = =
Wagner 's influence on literature and philosophy is significant . Millington has commented :
[ Wagner 's ] protean abundance meant that he could inspire the use of literary motif in many a novel employing interior monologue ; ... the Symbolists saw him as a mystic hierophant ; the Decadents found many a frisson in his work .
Friedrich Nietzsche was a member of Wagner 's inner circle during the early 1870s , and his first published work , The Birth of Tragedy , proposed Wagner 's music as the Dionysian " rebirth " of European culture in opposition to Apollonian rationalist " decadence " . Nietzsche broke with Wagner following the first Bayreuth Festival , believing that Wagner 's final phase represented a pandering to Christian pieties and a surrender to the new German Reich . Nietzsche expressed his displeasure with the later Wagner in " The Case of Wagner " and " Nietzsche contra Wagner " .
Charles Baudelaire , Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine worshipped Wagner . Édouard Dujardin , whose influential novel Les Lauriers sont coupés is in the form of an interior monologue inspired by Wagnerian music , founded a journal dedicated to Wagner , La Revue Wagnérienne , to which J. K. Huysmans and Téodor de Wyzewa contributed . In a list of major cultural figures influenced by Wagner , Bryan Magee includes D. H. Lawrence , Aubrey Beardsley , Romain Rolland , Gérard de Nerval , Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , Rainer Maria Rilke and numerous others .
In the 20th century , W. H. Auden once called Wagner " perhaps the greatest genius that ever lived " , while Thomas Mann and Marcel Proust were heavily influenced by him and discussed Wagner in their novels . He is also discussed in some of the works of James Joyce . Wagnerian themes inhabit T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land , which contains lines from Tristan und Isolde and Götterdämmerung and Verlaine 's poem on Parsifal .
Many of Wagner 's concepts , including his speculation about dreams , predated their investigation by Sigmund Freud . Wagner had publicly analysed the Oedipus myth before Freud was born in terms of its psychological significance , insisting that incestuous desires are natural and normal , and perceptively exhibiting the relationship between sexuality and anxiety . Georg Groddeck considered the Ring as the first manual of psychoanalysis .
= = = Influence on cinema = = =
Wagner 's concept of the use of leitmotifs and the integrated musical expression which they can enable has influenced many 20th and 21st century film scores . The critic Theodor Adorno has noted that the Wagnerian leitmotif " leads directly to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily " . Amongst film scores citing Wagnerian themes are Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now , which features a version of the Ride of the Valkyries , Trevor Jones 's soundtrack to John Boorman 's film Excalibur , and the 2011 films A Dangerous Method ( dir . David Cronenberg ) and Melancholia ( dir . Lars von Trier ) . Hans @-@ Jürgen Syberberg 's 1977 film Hitler : A Film from Germany 's visual style and set design are strongly inspired by Der Ring des Nibelungen , musical excerpts from which are frequently used in the film 's soundtrack .
= = = Opponents and supporters = = =
Not all reaction to Wagner was positive . For a time , German musical life divided into two factions , supporters of Wagner and supporters of Johannes Brahms ; the latter , with the support of the powerful critic Eduard Hanslick ( of whom Beckmesser in Meistersinger is in part a caricature ) championed traditional forms and led the conservative front against Wagnerian innovations . They were supported by the conservative leanings of some German music schools , including the conservatories at Leipzig under Ignaz Moscheles and at Cologne under the direction of Ferdinand Hiller . Another Wagner detractor was the French composer Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan , who wrote to Hiller after attending Wagner 's Paris concert on 25 January 1860 at which Wagner conducted the overtures to Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser , the preludes to Lohengrin and Tristan und Isolde , and six other extracts from Tannhäuser and Lohengrin : " I had imagined that I was going to meet music of an innovative kind but was astonished to find a pale imitation of Berlioz ... I do not like all the music of Berlioz while appreciating his marvellous understanding of certain instrumental effects ... but here he was imitated and caricatured ... Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . "
Even those who , like Debussy , opposed Wagner ( " this old poisoner " ) could not deny his influence . Indeed , Debussy was one of many composers , including Tchaikovsky , who felt the need to break with Wagner precisely because his influence was so unmistakable and overwhelming . " Golliwogg 's Cakewalk " from Debussy 's Children 's Corner piano suite contains a deliberately tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek quotation from the opening bars of Tristan . Others who proved resistant to Wagner 's operas included Gioachino Rossini , who said " Wagner has wonderful moments , and dreadful quarters of an hour . " In the 20th century Wagner 's music was parodied by Paul Hindemith and Hanns Eisler , among others .
Wagner 's followers ( known as Wagnerians or Wagnerites ) have formed many societies dedicated to Wagner 's life and work .
= = = Film and stage portrayals = = =
Wagner has been the subject of many biographical films . The earliest was a silent film made by Carl Froelich in 1913 and featured in the title role the composer Giuseppe Becce , who also wrote the score for the film ( as Wagner 's music , still in copyright , was not available ) . Amongst other film portrayals of Wagner are : Alan Badel in Magic Fire ( 1955 ) ; Lyndon Brook in Song Without End ( 1960 ) ; Trevor Howard in Ludwig ( 1972 ) ; Paul Nicholas in Lisztomania ( 1975 ) ; and Richard Burton in Wagner ( 1983 ) .
Jonathan Harvey 's opera Wagner Dream ( 2007 ) intertwines the events surrounding Wagner 's death with the story of Wagner 's uncompleted opera outline Die Sieger ( The Victors ) .
= = = Bayreuth Festival = = =
Since Wagner 's death , the Bayreuth Festival , which has become an annual event , has been successively directed by his widow , his son Siegfried , the latter 's widow Winifred Wagner , their two sons Wieland and Wolfgang Wagner , and , presently , two of the composer 's great @-@ granddaughters , Eva Wagner @-@ Pasquier and Katharina Wagner . Since 1973 , the festival has been overseen by the Richard @-@ Wagner @-@ Stiftung ( Richard Wagner Foundation ) , the members of which include a number of Wagner 's descendants .
= = Controversies = =
Wagner 's operas , writings , politics , beliefs and unorthodox lifestyle made him a controversial figure during his lifetime . Following his death , debate about his ideas and their interpretation , particularly in Germany during the 20th century , has continued .
= = = Racism and antisemitism = = =
Wagner 's writings on Jews , including Jewishness in Music , corresponded to some existing trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century ; however , despite his very public views on these themes , throughout his life Wagner had Jewish friends , colleagues and supporters . There have been frequent suggestions that antisemitic stereotypes are represented in Wagner 's operas . The characters of Mime in the Ring , Sixtus Beckmesser in Die Meistersinger , and Klingsor in Parsifal are sometimes claimed as Jewish representations , though they are not identified as such in the librettos of these operas . The topic of Wagner and the Jews is further complicated by allegations , which may have been credited by Wagner , that he himself was of Jewish ancestry , via his supposed father Geyer .
Some biographers have noted that Wagner in his final years developed interest in the racialist philosophy of Arthur de Gobineau , notably Gobineau 's belief that Western society was doomed because of miscegenation between " superior " and " inferior " races . According to Robert Gutman , this theme is reflected in the opera Parsifal . Other biographers ( such as Lucy Beckett ) believe that this is not true , as the original drafts of the story date back to 1857 and Wagner had completed the libretto for Parsifal by 1877 ; but he displayed no significant interest in Gobineau until 1880 .
= = = Other interpretations = = =
Wagner 's ideas are amenable to socialist interpretations ; many of his ideas on art were being formulated at the time of his revolutionary inclinations in the 1840s . Thus , for example , George Bernard Shaw wrote in The Perfect Wagnerite ( 1883 ) :
[ Wagner 's ] picture of Niblunghome under the reign of Alberic is a poetic vision of unregulated industrial capitalism as it was made known in Germany in the middle of the 19th century by Engels 's book The Condition of the Working Class in England .
Left @-@ wing interpretations of Wagner also inform the writings of Theodor Adorno among other Wagner critics . Walter Benjamin gave Wagner as an example of " bourgeois false consciousness " , alienating art from its social context .
The writer Robert Donington has produced a detailed , if controversial , Jungian interpretation of the Ring cycle , described as " an approach to Wagner by way of his symbols " , which , for example , sees the character of the goddess Fricka as part of her husband Wotan 's " inner femininity " . Millington notes that Jean @-@ Jacques Nattiez has also applied psychoanalytical techniques in an evaluation of Wagner 's life and works .
= = = Nazi appropriation = = =
Adolf Hitler was an admirer of Wagner 's music and saw in his operas an embodiment of his own vision of the German nation ; in a 1922 speech he claimed that Wagner 's works glorified " the heroic Teutonic nature ... Greatness lies in the heroic . " Hitler visited Bayreuth frequently from 1923 onwards and attended the productions at the theatre . There continues to be debate about the extent to which Wagner 's views might have influenced Nazi thinking . Houston Stewart Chamberlain ( 1855 – 1927 ) , who married Wagner 's daughter Eva in 1908 but never met Wagner , was the author of the racist book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century , approved by the Nazi movement . Chamberlain met Hitler on a number of occasions between 1923 and 1927 in Bayreuth , but cannot credibly be regarded as a conduit of Wagner 's own views . The Nazis used those parts of Wagner 's thought that were useful for propaganda and ignored or suppressed the rest .
While Bayreuth presented a useful front for Nazi culture , and Wagner 's music was used at many Nazi events , the Nazi hierarchy as a whole did not share Hitler 's enthusiasm for Wagner 's operas and resented attending these lengthy epics at Hitler 's insistence .
Guido Fackler has researched evidence that indicates that it is possible that Wagner 's music was used at the Dachau concentration camp in 1933 – 34 to " reeducate " political prisoners by exposure to " national music " . There seems to be no evidence to support claims , sometimes made , that his music was played at Nazi death camps during the Second World War .
Because of the associations of Wagner with antisemitism and Nazism , the performance of his music in the State of Israel has been a source of controversy .
= = = Operas = = =
Richard Wagner Opera , Richard Wagner operas , Wagner interviews , CDs , DVDs , Wagner calendar , Bayreuth Festival
Wagner Operas , site featuring photographs , video , MIDI files , scores , libretti , and commentary
RWagner.net , contains libretti of his operas , with English translations
Wagner website , assortment of articles on Wagner and his operas
Wilhelm Richard Wagner site by Stanford University
The Wagnerian , Richard Wagner news , operas , reviews , articles .
= = = Writings = = =
The Wagner Library . English translations of Wagner 's prose works , including some of Wagner 's more notable essays .
Works by Richard Wagner at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Richard Wagner at Internet Archive
Works by Richard Wagner at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks )
= = = Scores = = =
Free scores by Richard Wagner in the Choral Public Domain Library ( ChoralWiki )
Free scores by Wagner at the International Music Score Library Project
= = = Other = = =
Richard Wagner material in the BBC Radio 3 archives
The National Archive of the Richard Wagner Foundation
Richard Wagner Museum in the country manor Triebschen beside Lucerne , Switzerland where he and Cosima lived and worked from 1866 to 1872 .
|
= Dunster Castle =
Dunster Castle is a former motte and bailey castle , now a country house , in the village of Dunster , Somerset , England . The castle lies on the top of a steep hill called the Tor , and has been fortified since the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period . After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century , William de Mohun constructed a timber castle on the site as part of the pacification of Somerset . A stone shell keep was built on the motte by the start of the 12th century , and the castle survived a siege during the early years of the Anarchy . At the end of the 14th century the de Mohuns sold the castle to the Luttrell family , who continued to occupy the property until the late 20th century .
The castle was expanded several times by the Luttrell family during the 17th and 18th centuries ; they built a large manor house within the Lower Ward of the castle in 1617 , and this was extensively modernised , first during the 1680s and then during the 1760s . The medieval castle walls were mostly destroyed following the siege of Dunster Castle at the end of the English Civil War , when Parliament ordered the defences to be slighted to prevent their further use . In the 1860s and 1870s , the architect Anthony Salvin was employed to remodel the castle to fit Victorian tastes ; this work extensively changed the appearance of Dunster to make it appear more Gothic and Picturesque .
Following the death of Alexander Luttrell in 1944 , the family was unable to afford the death duties on his estate . The castle and surrounding lands were sold off to a property firm , the family continuing to live in the castle as tenants . The Luttrells bought back the castle in 1954 , but in 1976 Colonel Walter Luttrell gave Dunster Castle and most of its contents to the National Trust , which operates it as a tourist attraction . It is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th to 12th centuries = = =
Dunster Castle was positioned on a steep , 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) high hill , sometimes called the Tor , overlooking the village of Dunster in Somerset . During the early medieval period the sea reached the base of the hill , close to the mouth of the River Avill , offering a natural defence and making the village an inland port . Several Iron Age hillforts were built close to Dunster , including Bat 's Castle , Black Ball Camp and Grabbist Hill , but the earliest evidence of a fortification at Dunster was an Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh . This was built on the summit of the hill and was possibly intended to protect the region against sea @-@ borne raiders ; by the mid @-@ 11th century it was controlled by a local nobleman called Aelfric .
In 1066 the Normans invaded south @-@ east England , defeating the English forces at the battle of Hastings : in the aftermath of the victory , William the Conqueror entrusted the conquest of the south @-@ west of England to his half @-@ brother Robert of Mortain . Expecting stiff resistance , Robert marched west into Somerset , supported by forces under Walter of Douai , who entered from the north ; a third force , under the command of William de Mohun , landed by sea along the Somerset coast . William had been granted 68 manors in the region and by 1086 had established a castle at Dunster ; this would form both the caput , or principal castle , for his new lands , and help guard the coast against the threat of any fresh sea @-@ borne attack , as well as controlling the coastal road running from Somerset to Gloucestershire . This first castle was a motte and bailey design , built upon the former Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh ; the top of the Tor was scarped to form the motte , or Upper Ward , and an area below shaped to form the bailey , or Lower Ward .
Somerset became more stable in the aftermath of the post @-@ invasion period and the unsuccessful 1068 rebellion against Norman rule . It was common in the period for the Normans to build religious houses to accompany major castles , and accordingly William de Mohun endowed a Benedictine priory at Dunster in 1090 , along with its parent abbey at Bath . The River Avill was important for trade ; the region around Dunster was rich with fisheries and vineyards , and Dunster Castle prospered . Stone fortifications were built on the site during the early 12th century , probably forming a shell keep around the top of the motte .
In the late 1130s England began to descend into a period of civil war known as the Anarchy , during which the supporters of King Stephen fought with those of the Empress Matilda for control of the kingdom . William de Mohun 's eldest son , also called William , was a noted supporter of Matilda , and Dunster was considered one of her faction 's strongest castles in the south @-@ west . In 1138 forces loyal to Stephen besieged the castle ; a siege castle was built nearby , but all trace of it has been lost . William successfully held the castle and was made the Earl of Somerset by the grateful Empress . Chroniclers subsequently complained of the way in which he subsequently raided and controlled the region by force during the war , causing much destruction . In the aftermath of the conflict , William 's son , another William , inherited the castle after a short period of royal ownership under Henry II . William appears to have insisted that his tenants agree to help repair and maintain the castle walls as part of their feudal service .
= = = 13th to 17th centuries = = =
In the 13th century the Lower Ward was rebuilt in stone by Reynold Mohun ; this was paid for in part by Reynold commuting his tenants ' ongoing duty to repair the castle walls into a single , one @-@ off financial payment to their lord , and partially through his marriage to a rich local heiress . A survey of the castle in 1266 described the Upper Ward on the top of the motte as containing a hall with a buttery , a pantry , a kitchen , a bakehouse , the chapel of Saint Stephen and a knight 's hall , guarded by three towers . The Lower Ward included a granary , two towers and a gatehouse ; one of the towers , called the Fleming Tower , was used as a prison . The castle stables lay outside the defences , further down the slope . By the end of the 13th century some of the castle 's roofing had been covered in lead , while other parts still used wooden shingles .
In 1330 Sir John de Mohun inherited the castle ; John , although a notable knight , was childless and fell into considerable debt . His wife Joan took over the running of their estates , and when John died in 1376 she agreed to sell the castle to Lady Elizabeth Luttrell , the leading member of another major Norman family , for 5 @,@ 000 marks , with the castle to transfer to Elizabeth on Joan 's death . At some point during this period additional stone buildings were constructed along the Lower Ward , on the side of the current mansion , and records suggest that a ditch , or moat , may have existed around the base of the Tor in the 14th century .
Joan outlived Elizabeth , and in the event Sir Hugh Luttrell , who was Henry V 's seneschal in Normandy , finally took over the castle on Joan 's death in 1404 . The castle had suffered from a lack of investment during the final years of the Mohan 's ownership , and Luttrell repaired and extended the castle at a cost of £ 252 , constructing the Great Gatehouse and a barbican between 1419 and 1424 . The new entrance lay at right @-@ angles to the old and was three storeys high , built of imported Bristol red sandstone , and contained extensive apartments ; it formed a grand , if ill @-@ defended , ceremonial route into the castle . The castle was reroofed with Cornish stone tiles . By the 15th century the sea had receded , and the Luttrells created a deer park for the castle at Marshwood . Such a park would have been highly prestigious and allowed the Luttrells to engage in hunting , providing the castle with a supply of venison as well as generating income .
During the 15th century , England was divided by the prolonged period of civil war called the Wars of the Roses : the Luttrells were supporters of the House of Lancaster . In 1461 , Sir James Luttrell died following the Lancastrian defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans , and his family were deprived of their estates by the Yorkist Edward IV . The castle was given to the Herberts , but the Luttrells regained it on the accession of the Lancastarian Henry VII in 1485 , when Dunster was restored to James ' son , Sir Hugh Luttrell . Hugh repaired the castle chapel and in the early 16th century his son , Sir Andrew Luttrell , built a new wall on the east side of the castle . Andrew 's son Sir John Luttrell , who inherited the castle , was a famous soldier , diplomat , and courtier under Henry VIII and Edward VI , serving in France and in Scotland during the conflicts of the Rough Wooing . In In 1542 the antiquarian John Leland reported the castle keep and buildings to be considerable disrepair , with the exception of the chapel , and after Sir John 's death the castle was leased out for several years , first by his daughter , Mary , and then under his brother , Thomas .
By the time George Luttrell inherited the castle in 1571 , it was dilapidated , with the family preferring to live in their house , now known as Court House , at East Quantoxhead . In 1617 George employed the architect William Arnold , to create a new house in the Lower Ward of the castle . Arnold was an important architect in the south @-@ west of England , and had managed the building of nearby Montacute and Cranborne House . The redesign expanded on some of the existing buildings and walls to create a 16th @-@ century Jacobean mansion with a symmetrical front and square towers , set within the older castle walls and overlooked by the keep above . The building was decorated in the latest styles , including ornamental plaster ceilings . The project ran almost three times over budget , costing Luttrell more than £ 1 @,@ 200 .
= = = = English Civil War and the Restoration = = = =
In the 1640s the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament . Thomas Luttrell , George 's eldest son , initially supported Parliament and after the outbreak of war William Russell , the Duke of Bedford and Parliamentary commander in Devon and Somerset , ordered him to increase the garrison at Dunster to resist a potential Royalist attack . The Royalist commander William Seymour , the Duke of Somerset , attacked the castle in 1642 but was driven back by the garrison , led by Thomas ' wife , Jane . The war in the south @-@ west turned in favour of the King , and on 7 June 1643 the Royalists mustered forces to attack the castle again : this time Luttrell surrendered , switching sides to support the Royalists until his death the following February . Colonel Wyndham was appointed the Royalist governor of the castle . The young Prince Charles , the later Charles II , stayed at the castle in May 1645 .
During 1645 the Royalist military cause largely collapsed , and Colonel Robert Blake led a Parliamentary force against Dunster in October . In November Blake began his siege of the castle , setting up his artillery in Dunster village and starting to dig tunnels to plant mines beneath the walls . The castle was briefly relieved by reinforcements in February 1646 , but the siege was resumed and by April the Royalists situation was untenable – an honourable surrender was negotiated and a Parliamentary garrison installed . After the end of the Second English Civil War in 1649 , however , Parliament decided to deliberately destroy , or slight , the defences of castles in key Royalist areas , including the south @-@ west . In the case of Dunster , Thomas 's son George Luttrell was able to convince the authorities to destroy only the medieval defensive walls , rather than the entire castle , leaving Dunster damaged from the recent siege but still habitable ; the walls were demolished over 12 days in August 1650 by a team of 300 workmen . The only parts of the medieval walls to survive were the Great Gatehouse and the bases of the two towers in the Lower Ward .
George Luttrell died without children , and Dunster Castle passed to his brother Francis , who survived the political turmoil of both the Commonwealth years and the Restoration of Charles II to power in 1660 . Francis ' heir , another Francis , married a wealthy heiress worth £ 2 @,@ 500 a year ( £ 331 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) and with this income set about modernising the castle during the 1680s , in particular building a grand staircase in the latest style . Francis was a colonel in the local militia and in 1688 backed William of Orange 's attempt to oust James II ; when William landed in Devon , Francis mustered a number of companies of infantry at Dunster on 19 November to support him , which formed the basis for the later Green Howards regiment . During this period the castle still kept an armoury of 43 muskets . Francis died heavily in debt in 1690 , and his widow Mary moved the contents of the castle to London , where they were destroyed in a fire in 1696 .
= = = 18th century = = =
At the start of the 18th century the Luttrells and Dunster Castle faced many financial challenges . Francis 's son Alexander , inherited the castle when he came of age in 1704 , but it was still mostly empty and carried large debts with it . Alexander died young in 1711 and his widow , Dorothy , spent almost twenty years paying off the debts . Dorothy built a new chapel , designed by Sir James Thornhill in white Portland stone , on the rear of the mansion at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( £ 178 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) ; few records of this remain , but the interior probably resembled that of the chapel at Wimpole Hall . A safer , if less grand , approach road to the castle was created , called the New Way , and the remains of the Upper Ward on top of the motte were flattened to be used as a bowling green , complete with an octagonal summer house . Dorothy 's son , Alexander Luttrell , took over the castle in 1726 but ran up new debts , and the castle was handed over into the control of a receiver .
Henry Fownes Luttrell , who married Margaret , Alexander 's daughter , and took the Luttrell name , moved to Dunster in 1747 . The couple redesigned and redecorated the castle in a Rococo style , including the extensive use of the recently invented and highly fashionable wallpaper . Henry Luttrell raised the ground height of the Lower Ward between 1764 and 1765 to extend the New Way all around to the front of his mansion , adding additional ornamental towers onto the inside of the Great Gatehouse in the process . A folly , Conygar Tower , was constructed by architect Richard Phelps to improve the view from the castle , and a larger park of 141 hectares ( 348 acres ) was built just to the south of the castle , requiring the eviction of a number of tenant farmers .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Henry 's son , John , inherited the castle in 1780 , but when his son , also called John , inherited in 1816 he chose to live in London instead , opening up Dunster Castle to the public . By 1845 the castle appeared to visitors to be past its prime : with only two of John 's sisters living there and no horses or hunting dogs left in the castle grounds , the remaining servants had little to do . John 's brother Henry inherited in 1857 , but he too lived in London rather than at Dunster .
George Luttrell inherited the castle in 1867 and began an extensive modernisation , backed by the considerable income from the Dunster estates – in a period of agricultural boom in England , the estates were producing £ 22 @,@ 000 in revenue a year ( £ 1 @.@ 49 million at 2010 prices ) . It was fashionable during the mid @-@ Victorian period to remodel existing castles to produce what was felt to be a more consistent Gothic or sometimes Picturesque appearance and George , a keen historian , decided to follow this trend at Dunster ; in the process , he also hoped to accommodate the larger household and facilities required for a 19th @-@ century landowner : by 1881 , the castle required 15 " living @-@ in " servants alone . He employed Anthony Salvin , a noted architect then most famous for his work at Alnwick Castle , to carry out the work between 1868 and 1872 at a total cost of £ 25 @,@ 350 ( equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 76 million in 2010 ) . The work included the construction of an underground reservoir , holding 40 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 180 @,@ 000 l ; 48 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water to provide running water for the castle and village .
Salvin aimed to create a castle that would appear to have grown up organically over time , but still appeal to Victorian aesthetic taste . Accordingly , a large , square tower was built on the west side of the castle and another smaller tower on the east , both creating additional space but also making the castle deliberately asymmetrical . The 18th @-@ century chapel at the rear was demolished and replaced with another tower , alongside a modern conservatory . A variety of windows in the styles of different historical periods were inserted in the walls , while modern Victorian technology , including gas lighting @-@ supported by a gas plant in the basement @-@ central heating and new kitchens were installed within the castle . The roof of the Great Gatehouse was raised to create a more uniform sequence of battlements , and a large hall for gatherings of the local farmers installed . A new wing of servants ' quarters and offices were sunk into the hill , spread over two floors leading away from the main part of the mansion .
Internally , Salvin knocked through existing rooms to create the Outer Hall , a new gallery on the first floor , a billiard room , a new library and a drawing room . Much of the wooden 17th @-@ century panelling in the parlour and the hall had to be stripped out as part of the renovations . As part of his work , Salvin appears to have used a number of rolled wrought @-@ iron beams to span the resulting structural gaps in the building , an advanced use of that technology for the time . The house was refurnished with newly bought 16th and 17th @-@ century artwork , two brass Italian cannons and a stuffed polar bear .
Alexander Luttrell , who inherited Dunster Castle in 1910 , chose to live at East Quantoxhead instead , and it was left empty until his son Geoffrey reoccupied the castle in 1920 , redecorating some of the rooms in a contemporary style and building a polo ground alongside the castle . The castle and the surrounding countryside at this time was very popular with the Luttrells for fox hunting and shooting . During the Second World War the castle was used as a convalescent home for injured naval and American officers between 1943 and 1944 .
Alexander died in 1944 , and the death duties proved crippling to Geoffrey . In 1949 he sold the castle and 3 @,@ 480 hectares ( 8 @,@ 600 acres ) of the lands to the Ashdale Property Company , retaining a tenancy of the castle for himself . The Crown Estate bought the estate from Ashdale and sold the castle back to Geoffrey in 1954 . His son Colonel Walter Luttrell lived away from Dunster , and following the death of his mother – the last Luttrell to live in the property – gave the castle and most of its contents to the National Trust in 1976 .
= = Today = =
Dunster Castle is operated by the National Trust as a tourist attraction . Little remains of the medieval castle except for the Great Gatehouse and the remains of several towers in the Lower Ward ; the heart of the modern castle today is the much altered 17th @-@ century manor house . The key features of the castle include the original 13th @-@ century gates and several pieces of art , including a Tudor copy of Hans Eworth 's famous allegorical portrait of Sir John Luttrell , and a sequence of leather tapestries showing scenes from the story of Antony and Cleopatra . The castle also holds a piano that once belonged to the composer Vivian Ellis . The gardens surrounding the castle cover approximately 6 hectares ( 15 acres ) and include the National Plant Collection of Strawberry Trees ; the wider parkland beyond totals 277 hectares ( 680 acres ) . The gardens and parkland are listed , Grade II * , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
Just to the south of the castle is the restored 18th @-@ century castle watermill . In 2010 the castle received 128 @,@ 242 visitors . Dunster Castle has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Ancient Monument . The castle has required continuing maintenance work , in particular to its roof , itself an important historical feature . Efforts have been made to gradually redecorate the castle in a period style , using reproductions of original wallpapers and materials . The National Trust installed solar panels behind the battlements on the roof in 2008 to provide electricity and make the premises more environmentally friendly . This was the first time the National Trust have taken this approach to a Grade I listed building , and it is expected to save 1 @,@ 714 kg ( 3 @,@ 778 lb ) of carbon a year . In 2015 , the National Trust announced plans to make the 19th @-@ century reservoir open to the public .
|
= Crackdown =
Crackdown is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Realtime Worlds and distributed by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 . It was released in North America on February 20 , 2007 , and worldwide by February 23 , 2007 . Crackdown was conceived by Realtime Worlds ' founder , David Jones , who also created Grand Theft Auto and Lemmings .
Set in the fictional Pacific City , the player controls a biologically enhanced Agent , tasked with defeating three crime lords and their organized crime syndicates . The Agent 's abilities improve by defeating both crime lords and their supporters , as well as by completing optional activities , such as street races and scavenger hunts . The gameplay is nonlinear : instead of following a rigid mission sequence , players are free to select the approach to completing their missions and activities . The game features a two @-@ player cooperative play mode via Xbox Live .
Crackdown , initially planned for release on the original Xbox console , was envisioned as a vast world in which players could experiment and explore freely . Microsoft Game Studios bundled specifically marked copies of Crackdown with an access code to the multiplayer test version of the much @-@ anticipated Halo 3 Beta . The game sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in its first six months of release . It received critical acclaim and has garnered several awards for its innovative gameplay . A sequel , Crackdown 2 , was released in July 2010 by Ruffian Games without Jones ' input , and a third title is planned for Xbox One in 2016 , with support from Jones .
= = Plot = =
Crackdown takes place in the fictional metropolis of Pacific City , whose several districts and areas are divided among four islands . The city is controlled by three crime organizations : Los Muertos ( which means " the dead ones " in Spanish ) , of Central American origin ; an Eastern European gang , the Volk ( Russian for " Wolf " ) ; and the formerly above @-@ board Shai @-@ Gen Corporation , from East Asia . Normally , a police @-@ like organization called the Peacekeepers kept the city under control ; their forces , however , were overwhelmed by the sudden rise in crime . The city , therefore , sought additional help from " the Agency " , an organization that , in addition to outfitting and supporting Peacekeepers , has used advanced surgical and cybernetic technology to create supersoldiers known as " Agents " . The Agency is based out of a former hotel in the very centre of the city . The player takes on the role of one of their Agents , and is tasked with systematically bringing down all three organized gangs , while keeping both the populace and Peacekeepers safe . The Agent 's actions are continuously monitored by the Agency , and its Director ( voiced by Michael McConnohie ) provides continuous reports to him of his progress .
Throughout the game , the player roams Pacific City , systematically eliminating the leaders and subordinates of the three gangs . Upon defeating the gangs ' Kingpins and generals , the Agent must put down a final riot by the remaining gang members in the area which after completion will cause that city to be almost crime free . Once all three gangs are fully exterminated , in the closing cutscene of the game , the Director reveals to the Agent that there was an ulterior motive for the Agency 's actions : the Agency had secretly empowered the three gangs in the first place to instill fear in Pacific City 's residents , thus creating a need for the Agency to control the city , and acceptance in the populace when they did take over . The Agency Director 's comments suggest that the Agency will replicate this plan in other cities across the globe to create a New World Order .
= = Gameplay = =
Crackdown is a third @-@ person shooter set in a sandbox environment , akin to Mercenaries : Playground of Destruction . After selecting one of the predefined Agent characters , the player is assigned to defeat the Kingpin of each gang , though there is no precise approach to do this , leaving players to select their preferred method . While the player may face the Kingpin and his bodyguards at any time , they can improve their chances of taking out the Kingpin by facing and defeating the various Generals responsible for certain aspects of the Kingpin 's offense and defense , removing them from play . For example , by eliminating a gang 's weapon dealer , gang members will no longer be as heavily armed or will fire fewer shots to conserve ammunition ; assassinating the gang recruitment officer similarly reduces the size of the Kingpin 's protective force . It is at the player 's discretion whether to kill the Generals or skip them entirely before facing the Kingpin . However , the gangs cannot be completely eradicated from the city without tracking down and killing all Generals and Kingpins .
Much like other sandbox games , the player uses melee attacks , guns , and explosives to fight the opposing forces , and can run , climb buildings , jump across rooftops , or use vehicles to navigate the city . Crackdown features a series of character @-@ based skills that can be upgraded to increase specific traits that can be used in combat , driving , or on @-@ foot agility . These skills include : " Agility " , which increases the Agent 's ability to jump , run , and swim ; " Driving " , affecting how well he can handle a vehicle ; " Explosives " , which affects the power and range of explosive weapons ; " Strength " that increases the Agent 's strength , namely by increasing his ability to lift and throw , as well as how hard he can strike an opponent ; and " Firearms " , which improves the character 's aptitude with weapons . Crackdown 's skills make few concessions to realism : character abilities are similar to those of comic book superheroes or cartoon characters . This concept is further highlighted by the ink @-@ like outlines drawn around in @-@ game characters .
Skills are usually improved by gaining experience orbs , which are released from defeated enemies . The type of orb released varies , depending on how the player dispatched the foe ; for instance , killing an enemy with a gun will earn Firearms orbs , while running them over with a vehicle earns Driving orbs . More powerful enemies release more experience orbs . However , Agility orbs are awarded differently : they can be earned by either climbing buildings and seeking them on rooftops , or by killing an enemy from a high altitude . The player can also compete in " rooftop races " — a race through a series of waypoints across the rooftops of Pacific City — or car races to gain Agility and Driving orbs , respectively . A few special orbs , well @-@ hidden , increase all character abilities when found . A final way to collect orbs is by earning Xbox Live Achievements , which rewards the player with orbs from every skill category . Each skill has five levels — beginning with zero stars , and ending with four — with a numeric gauge on the display to indicate how close the player is to the next level . Should the character die , or injure civilians or Agency peacekeepers , their experience gain will be slowed , making it temporarily harder to improve the character 's traits .
The entirety of Pacific City may be explored from the start of the game , allowing the player to locate the hideouts of each General and Kingpin , which can be made easier by accessing supply points scattered around the city . Once a supply point is unlocked , the player has the option of returning there to travel to any other supply point , restock on weapons and ammunition , or drop off newly acquired weapons , to permanently add them to their weapon selection . Should the player die , they can respawn at any open supply point . While exploring , the player is likely to come across enemy resistance , with their aggressiveness based on how badly the player has damaged that particular gang recently . If the player is too aggressive against the non @-@ gang residents of Pacific City , including the Peacekeepers , they are flagged as rogue , and Agency hit squads are dispatched to take them down .
Crackdown features an online two @-@ player cooperative play mode that allows drop @-@ in play . Both players may explore the city freely , with the other player 's position noted on the HUD map . Players can fight alongside each other , and also inflict friendly @-@ fire damage . The state of the city , including which Generals and Kingpins remain , is determined by the host player 's progress . Both players are credited with the defeat of a General or Kingpin in the game — which will affect the state of the guest 's progress — but are required to obtain supply points and gain experience independently . Co @-@ op players can race against each other in both rooftop and road races , should they both choose to participate .
= = Development = =
Crackdown was envisioned to exceed the gameplay of Grand Theft Auto , giving the player " toys " to create their own in @-@ game moments that could be verbally shared with others . The entire playfield was to be open at the start , requiring the need to create a progression for the player , while still allowing for experimentation . Realtime Worlds had hired a number of former Grand Theft Auto developers who experimented with refining the game 's sandbox element . " It was a big part of the idea to just let people do things " , Realtime Worlds producer Phil Wilson said about the gameplay ; " testers would do things we were completely blown away by " . Dave Jones , CEO of Realtime Worlds , described the concept of the game as " How do we reward somebody for just having fun ? " They had initially planned to have 200 Xbox Live Achievements for the game towards this purpose , exceeded the then @-@ current cap of 50 set by Microsoft , and pressured Microsoft to lift the cap . Microsoft subsequently increased the maximum number of Achievements in a game to 80 . Through playtesting , the team noticed that many players performed certain out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way actions , such as climbing to the top of the Agency Tower . They created in @-@ game content to reward the player for performing these actions ; for example , they created a special rendering procedure for the clouds during the in @-@ game day / night cycle . The renderer would behave differently each day , and could only be viewed from atop the Agency Tower . An initial fear of Jones ' was that in the early part of the game , when the Agent is underpowered , the player may not realize the potential of the game and would not complete it ; " People weren 't quite sure , because at that level , you 're kind of like most characters in most other games " . Jones also expressed concern that " This game does not look good in screenshots " . They took two major steps to overcome this . First , the demo for the game on Xbox Marketplace allowed for accelerated growth of the player 's abilities . Second , the full game included five in @-@ game movies that would be presented early on to the player that would give them a taste for what a fully powered character could do .
Wilson stated that development of the game began in 2002 with a target release in 2005 on the original Xbox . Nine people were involved in the initial development for twelve months with plans to expand to 35 during full development . By February 2004 , they were able to provide a playable demo , but recognized there were still several challenges with the game 's progression . For example , the team introduced " skills for kills " where skill points were only rewarded for killing foes instead of allowing the player to gain them by less risky opportunities . They also included the frequent reporting of the player 's current chance of success for a player of defeating a Kingpin to prevent the player from being frustrated by trying to fight Kingpins beyond their level .
By 2004 , Microsoft brought the team the Xbox 360 hardware and suggested moving the game to that system , with a release date in the spring of 2006 . By November 2004 , the whole of Pacific City was in place , and cooperative mode was possible . However , in January 2005 they switched to the Renderware 4 engine , which caused many problems and was considered a " gross mistake " by Wilson . Microsoft was able to provide additional programmers to help during 2006 to correct the problems , just in time to create a demo for the 2006 E3 Convention . Wilson admitted that when Crackdown was first unveiled , the team thought the game was too early to debut . " By the time we got to the end of pre @-@ production we were woefully understaffed and over budget " , Wilson commented .
Microsoft found that by October 2006 , the game had fallen into the bottom 30 percent in test player reaction of all games currently in testing , and the bottom 50 percent in interest , though the numbers improved after a month . To help the struggling game , Microsoft decided to package the Halo 3 multiplayer trial with the game . " It was a great boost " , said Wilson . Jones also was positive about the tie @-@ in with the Halo 3 trial ; " We kind of knew Crackdown would need as much help as it could get to get into players ' hands ... Like we 've always said : It 's a game player 's game . It 's not something that 's going to sell in screenshot . So [ the Halo 3 beta ] was good " .
Pacific City within the game consists of 495 " city blocks " which the player could travel among , according to Microsoft Game Studios ' Jami Johns . Each block had to be tested separately , so Microsoft Game Studios designed a software tool to track issues when the game was in testing . For example , the tool was able to identify blocks where the performance dropped or the game crashed , allowing the developers to redesign the area to remove the issues . A further tool was used for the " seams " between city blocks , and included a screenshot just prior to any problem , which significantly reduced the debugging time for the game ; this tool was further used with Forza Motorsport 2 . However , the team had found some bugs during testing that actually worked well as game mechanics without throwing off the game balance . For example , the ability to drive the Agency SUV up a vertical wall when the player has maxed out his driving skill was originally a bug within the game .
= = = Promotion = = =
A Crackdown demo was released via Xbox Live Marketplace on January 23 , 2007 . It was originally dated for January 18 , 2007 , but was delayed due to Microsoft 's certification process . This demo includes both single player and co @-@ op play , but does not allow for jump @-@ in co @-@ op as seen in Gears of War . Silver account members received the demo one week later . The demo lasts for , at most , one hour , with a timer starting when either the player trains a skill to the second level , has eliminated two of the gang Generals , or has been playing for a half @-@ hour . At that point , a 30 @-@ minute timer will start , after which the demo automatically ends . During the demo , in @-@ game skills can be trained up to the highest level , and this occurs at an accelerated rate in order to give players an example of higher @-@ level abilities . The Crackdown demo quickly broke download records for Microsoft 's Xbox Live Marketplace by becoming the most downloaded demo over a 24 @-@ hour period and a seven @-@ day ( week @-@ long ) period . In the week after its release , the Crackdown demo was the second most played Xbox Live game after Gears of War . The demo went on to become the most downloaded and most played overall by March 2007 .
Every pre @-@ ordered and specially marked copy of Crackdown included an invitation to the beta test of the highly anticipated Halo 3 . The Crackdown game disc was required to download and launch the Halo 3 beta through the in @-@ game menus . On April 10 , 2007 , Bungie announced that the beta would become available for download for those that own this copy of Crackdown on May 16 , 2007 . This beta was playable for three weeks from when it was downloadable .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
On February 19 , 2007 , a free downloadable pack was made available for the game . The pack includes four new playable male agents , three of whom have unique , upgradable headgear . A free update was released on May 11 , 2007 , which allows the player to reset gangs , makes it easier to find orbs , improves stunt ring visibility , enhances targeting and camera angles when driving , and provides several other minor fixes . This update also includes a new ground strike attack .
Two packs of downloadable content were released on May 10 , 2007 . The " Free @-@ For @-@ All " pack , which is available free , adds a mode called " Keys to the City " to the main menu . It allows the player to impound any vehicle and store it at the Agency and allows the player to enter a " Keys to the City " mode that allows them to alter the Agent 's statistics or create several items , and other effects , but disables progress within the game . " Gettin ' Busy " bonus pack , introduces new vehicles and weapons , new side missions , and street racing . As of September 6 , 2007 , the " Gettin ' Busy " pack has been purchased from Xbox Live around 200 @,@ 000 times .
The May 2007 title update and downloadable content were linked to a glitch which reset a number of players ' saved games when they played the game 's co @-@ operative mode . The developers apologized for the glitch and offered a temporary workaround , however , saved games already lost to the glitch were not recoverable . On May 16 , 2007 , a further title update was released , resolving the issue , in addition to fixing issues with access to the Halo 3 beta .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The main theme of the game is ' Paradise Bird Theory ' by DJ Krush .
Crackdown features over 100 tracks of electronica and sample @-@ based music by a number of independent and video game musicians , including Amon Tobin , Atlas Plug , Celldweller and Hybrid . Music supervisor Peter Davenport was in charge of selecting the music for the game , a task that took three years to complete . Davenport was allowed to select music from any source given the premise and missions within the game , and worked with the audio leads at Realtime Worlds to shape the full soundtrack , keeping it to a " dark and ominous " vibe , rather than " super high energy " .
= = Reception = =
Crackdown was critically acclaimed by game critics who praised the open @-@ world approach . Reviewers commented highly on the graphics of the game , both in its detailed city and large draw distances , and the cel @-@ like shading of the characters ; 1UP said that " it 's just better to let a game approach reality on its own aesthetic terms than to go hyperrealistic " . X @-@ Play stated , " It 's an absolute blast to play , and arguably one of the finest superhero games made thus far " , and IGN stated , " Overall the thrill of jumping like a mutant kangaroo from rooftop to rooftop is unrivaled ! " The co @-@ op play feature over Xbox Live was well received ; Eurogamer wrote , " Being able to pick and leap into any of your friends ' or even complete strangers ' cities is likely to keep that buzz going though " , and 1UP agreed , remarking " That it represents the best , if not the first , online multiplayer sandbox game on a console is just gravy " . Reviews did critique the lack of any appreciable story within the game , and how short the core game itself may be ; IGN argued " Crackdown won 't last that long , it 's uneven , and the story and the music are weak sauce " .
Crackdown was not expected to be a good game , due to it being tied to the anticipated Halo 3 multiplayer beta . However , the game surpassed many expectations ; in his review , GameSpy 's Gabe Graziani asked readers the rhetorical question ; " Notice that I didn 't mention the Halo 3 beta offer during this whole article ? That 's because it 's completely irrelevant when looking at Crackdown , it 's a solid game that delivers exactly what it promises : a giant sandbox to blow the crap out of " .
The game was named the 2007 BAFTA " Best Action and Adventure Game " and " Best Use of Audio " . and also won the " Best Debut " award at the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards . The game received the Innovation Award at the 2007 Develop Awards , held by Develop magazine . Game Informer listed it as one of the top 50 games of 2007 , citing its unique experience and several other elements . They listed the agents as the number eight top heroes of 2007 and climbing the tallest building in the city as the number nine top moment of 2007 .
= = = Sales = = =
Crackdown premiered to very strong sales . During the week of its worldwide release of February 22 , 2007 , it was the top selling Xbox 360 game in North America , Japan , and the UK . The game was the top selling game in North America for the month of February 2007 , selling 427 @,@ 000 units . Ultimately , by the end of 2007 , the game sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The game is not sold in Germany due to the USK 's decision not to rate the game ; according to GameSpot , this was due to pending legislation at the time to create criminal penalties for games that included " cruel violence on humans or human @-@ looking characters " .
= = Sequels = =
Wilson and lead designer Billy Thomson had previously confirmed that Crackdown was designed from the outset to be a long @-@ running series of games , stating that sequels for the game are very likely to be produced , especially if Crackdown performed well commercially . However , during the Industry All Stars event in September 2007 , Wilson confirmed that Realtime Worlds was not working on a sequel to the game , saying " Microsoft was a little late in stepping up to the plate to ask for Crackdown 2 , and by then we had already started working on bigger , better things " . However , then @-@ corporate vice president of Microsoft Game Studios , Shane Kim , stated that Microsoft still holds the intellectual property rights for Crackdown and that a Crackdown sequel was still a possibility . Realtime Studios manager Colin MacDonald clarified that if they have the resources after completion of APB , they could approach Microsoft to discuss a sequel .
At Microsoft 's E3 conference on June 1 , 2009 , it was announced that Crackdown 2 was at that point of time being developed by a Scottish studio ( Ruffian Games ) formed by members of the Realtime Worlds team . Along with the announcement , an accompanying trailer was released . Crackdown 2 was released on July 6 , 2010 in the U.S. and Canada and on July 9 throughout the rest of the world .
A third title in the series , Crackdown 3 , was announced at Microsoft 's press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 in June 2014 ( under the name Crackdown ) as an Xbox One exclusive under development at Reagent Games and Cloudgine , both run by Dave Jones . The game was then formally revealed in August 2015 .
|
= Battle of Muong Khoua =
The Battle of Muong Khoua took place between April 13 and May 18 , 1953 , in northern Laos during the French Indochina War . A garrison of a dozen French and 300 Laotian troops occupied a fortified outpost in the hills above the village of Muong Khoua , across the border from Điện Biên Phủ . Muong Khoua was among the last French outposts in northern Laos following the decision of the French High Command to string several isolated garrisons through the region in order to buy time to fortify the major Laotian cities against Việt Minh attack .
Many of these garrisons were given orders by radio to dig in and fight the approaching Việt Minh forces . Following the fall of a satellite strong point at Sop @-@ Nao , the troops at Muong Khoua under Captain Teullier resisted a Việt Minh siege force for thirty @-@ six days while supported by air @-@ dropped supplies and air strikes . The small French force repelled several direct attacks and endured a series of artillery bombardments . Two of the three strong points of the outpost eventually fell in the early morning of May 18 , and by midday the French force lay defeated .
Four soldiers — two French and two Laotian — reached another French position 50 miles ( 80 km ) away after six days of travel through the jungle , however no one else escaped . The resistance of the French garrison became a popular rallying cry for French troops in Indochina as well serving as a precursor to French and Việt Minh strategies at the decisive Battle of Điện Biên Phủ the following year .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Việt Minh in Laos = = =
In early 1953 , the Việt Minh under Võ Nguyên Giáp commenced an invasion of Laos to exert additional pressure on Paris and on the French forces stationed in Indochina . In the area of Muong Khoua were the Việt Minh 312th , 308th , and 316th divisions , whose long supply lines were maintained by a veritable army of 200 @,@ 000 porters . The French command — headed then by Raoul Salan — ordered the establishment of a series of French outposts in northern Laos to resist the Việt Minh invading forces for as long as possible to buy time for the fortification of Luang Prabang and Vientiane , the capital cities of Laos . The King of Laos , Sisavang Vong , remained in Luang Prabang , which added greater impetus to French efforts . The terrain of northern Laos , and the local climate , isolated many of the outposts with a night @-@ time fog known as crachin , thick jungle , a lack of roads , and steep terrain . Each outpost was given a certain number of days to withstand Việt Minh forces , including Muong Khoua which was issued orders on April 13 to hold for fourteen days — until April 27 .
Muong Khoua , together with its satellite outpost Sop @-@ Nao , was under the command of Captain Teullier , with the satellite outpost being overseen by Lieutenant Grézy . Muong Khoua was situated at the confluence of the rivers Nam Pak and Nam Hou , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Điện Biên Phủ , and approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the south @-@ west of the Black River in Vietnam . The outpost itself consisted of three separate strongholds , referred to as the Mousetrap , Pi and Alpha , situated on three hills to the west , south @-@ south @-@ east , and south @-@ south @-@ west of the confluence of the Nam Hou and Nam Pak . Each was roughly 220 yards ( 200 m ) from the other , forming a triangle . The village of Muong Khoua itself lay at the western foot of the Mousetrap , protected from the river by a large sandbank , and straddling the road to Phong Saly , another French outpost 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the north .
= = = Sop @-@ Nao = = =
Sop @-@ Nao lay 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the east of Muong Khoua , along the path of the Việt Minh advance , roughly 20 miles ( 32 km ) south @-@ west of Điện Biên Phủ and only a few miles from the Vietnam @-@ Laos border , 75 miles ( 121 km ) south of the T 'ai Highlands . Grézy , in command of the Sop @-@ Nao garrison , led a reinforced platoon . On the evening of April 3 , a Viet Minh battalion entered Laos near Điện Biên Phủ and Na San and reached Sap @-@ Nao .
Finding themselves surrounded by the Viet Minh , the French at Sop @-@ Nao stood for six days while in radio contact with Teullier at the main strong point . The survivors , following authorisation from the French captain , retreated during the night of April 9 / 10 along a round @-@ about route following the assumption by Grézy that the Viet Minh had laid ambushes along the most direct path . The French hacked a new path through the jungle until they reached Laotian tribesmen on April 11 , who warned them of Viet Minh units following them . The French attempted to turn for Phong @-@ Saly to the north and met an allied convoy travelling down the Nam Hou in canoes . The two forces combined and sailed down the river towards Muong Khoua .
On April 12 , the convoy ran into a Viet Minh ambush 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the Muong Khoua strong point . Using a barrier of floating tree trunks , the Viet Minh attacked the convoy with machine guns and mortars , destroying the first canoe . The remaining French and Laotian troops returned fire and , with the assistance of forces from Muong Khoua who had heard the firing , routed the Viet Minh troops , who left behind 13 dead and four wounded . The French themselves suffered seven missing , one dead , and one wounded . The remainder joined the French at Muong Khoua , with the canoes and the convoy ’ s equipment incorporated into the defence . Meanwhile , the Viet Minh ’ s 910th Battalion of the 148th Regional Regiment of the 312th Division and a heavy mortar company from the 316th Division drew near .
= = Battle = =
= = = Siege = = =
While the French troops from Sop @-@ Nao were making their way via canoe to the mother strong point , Teullier and his forces were feeling what one chronicler referred to as l 'asphyxie par le vide ( “ choking @-@ off by creating a void ” ) , the result of a Viet Minh presence in the area . The local villagers no longer spoke to the French , when they had previously been communicative , and the population began leaving ; both the farms and the markets were deserted . The French viewed this as an indicator of imminent enemy attack . Furthermore , the thick jungle and steep slopes isolated the French strong points from all but river and airborne supply . The Viet Minh , on the other hand , were adequately supplied by over 200 @,@ 000 porters , or coolies . Referred to officially as a " relatively small " force , the 300 Chasseurs Laotiens and " handful " of French NCOs and two officers were equipped with three 81 @-@ mm and two 60 @-@ mm mortars and two machine guns . They were ordered on April 13 to hold for fourteen days by Colonel Boucher de Crévecoeur , who promised air support .
At 23 : 00 hours that evening , April 13 , mortar shells began landing on the slopes of position Alpha . These bombardments would take place every night , and the Viet Minh launched their first direct assault , which failed and left Viet Minh 22 dead . This defeat prompted a reversion to previous tactics of slowly " gnawing away " at the French outpost , and Giap ordered the 312th to leave some forces behind to continue a siege while the remainder of the division moved on . Meanwhile , overhead , French B @-@ 26s bombed Viet Minh positions , and cargo planes dropped supplies , Luciole ( firefly ) flares , and ammunition on the French positions . This " air bridge " enabled the garrison to survive , and fourteen days later on April 27 it was still intact ; the French High Command dropped a Legion of Honor for Teullier and several Croix de Guerres for his men . Teullier and a small group left the Mousetrap to deliver the relevant decorations to Pi and Alpha , although movement between the positions was extremely difficult .
What was possible , however , was a small patrol through the village of Muong Khoua , which had been by now deserted . These French patrols served as an early warning system and an ambush for Viet Minh assaults during the crachin @-@ dominated night . This pattern continued into May . Meanwhile , other French forces had liberated Xieng Khouang and reached a position 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Muong Khoua . On May 17 , the French patrol deployed to the Muong Khoua village overheard barking dogs — one of which yelped — alerting the French to an impending Viet Minh attack . By 23 : 00 , the Viet Minh were visible in the fog , and the patrol returned to the Mousetrap . Teullier issued an alert via radio .
A bombardment from Soviet Russian 120 @-@ mm mortars , 57 @-@ mm recoilless rifles , and phosphorus grenades began at 00 : 30 on May 18 . Teullier instructed his radio operator , Sergeant René Novak , to request air @-@ dropped flares and air support , while mortar fire landed on Alpha and the Mousetrap , but not Pi , where Grézy was in command . Pi continued to support the other two areas of the outpost with its own mortar fire .
By 01 : 10 hours , the western flank of the Mousetrap had fallen to Viet Minh bombardment . By 01 : 30 , the garrison was informed that weather conditions prevented air support , and by 02 : 30 the Viet Minh forces launched successive assault waves which overran Teullier and his men , including attacks which flanked the position using the nearby sandbanks . At the same time , Alpha was overrun by Viet Minh forces , and by 03 : 50 no more firing was heard from the Mousetrap . Alpha survived the remainder of the night and was seen fighting by French aircraft at 09 : 00 that morning . C @-@ 47 transport aircraft returned to resume supply drops , however by 12 : 00 the Tricolor and the Laotian flag had been removed from Pi ’ s command bunker .
= = = Survivors = = =
On May 22 , four days after the fall of the Muong Khoua garrison , three of its soldiers — the garrison radio operator Novak and two Laotians — reached the only remaining French outpost in northern Laos , Phong Saly . Bernard Fall recorded in Street Without Joy : " he was only twenty @-@ five years old , but he looked fifty ; he kept on walking like an automaton to the centre of the post before he was stopped by some of the men staring at him as at a ghost . " Novak and the two other soldiers had spent the four days moving through the jungle of Laos following the defeat of their unit . Two days later , Sergeant Pierre Blondeau also arrived at the outpost . His account detailed 57 hours spent hiding from the Viet Minh before a three @-@ day march without food or navigational aids and then encountering native tribesmen who provided food and a pony , with which he reached the French forces .
= = Aftermath = =
The Vietnamese and French media had awarded considerable attention to the conflict , and newspapers worldwide had covered the battle . Bernard Fall made note of the significance of the battle as " epic " in both his 1961 Street Without Joy and 1967 Hell in a Very Small Place . The British newspaper The Times began covering the conflict on April 23 , reporting the retreat from Sop Nao to Muong Khoua . However , despite correctly identifying half of the Viet Minh attacking force , it rated the garrison at the mother strong point as numbering 1 @,@ 000 . The battle received scant attention before the garrison fell , however after that garrison was defeated the coverage remained positive at the thought of French survivors and speculative on the future of the French military presence and new commander , Henri Navarre . The French High Command released an assessment of the defeat at Muong Khoua in Communique No. 14 , stating " During the night of May 17 to 18 , the post of Muong Khoua , which had victoriously resisted since the beginning of the Viet Minh offensive , succumbed under the overwhelming mass of assailants . "
In January 1954 , Muong Khoua was re @-@ occupied by Laotian forces , which were subsequently overrun once more by the 316th Division of the Viet Minh . The Laotian commander , who lived in the village itself with his wife , was killed in his home before the attack . Battalions of the French Foreign Legion and Laotian forces suffered losses covering the retreat of garrison survivors . The area of Muong Khoua later became a critical supply route across Dien Bien Phu for the Viet Minh and by 1963 was the site of a construction project for the proposed Route 19 .
The French would use the lessons learned at Muong Khoua and those of the 1952 Battle of Na San in their defence plans at Điện Biên Phủ , while the Viet Minh in turn would employ similar tactics of encirclement and strangulation there . The importance of an air bridge to maintain supply lines , strong artillery support to stave off human @-@ wave Viet Minh attacks , and the need for isolated emplacements to mutually support each other , were also important tactics taken on board by the French from both conflicts . The disappearance of local civiliain populations previously friendly towards the French , which served as a precursor to Viet Minh attack , was also remembered by the Điện Biên Phủ troops . For the Viet Minh , their abilities to isolated and smother individual strongpoints while maintaining hidden artillery and support weapon emplacements out of the reach of French airstrikes and artillery were honed at both battles , as were their practicies of using human @-@ wave attacks .
|
= On Your Mark =
Ghibli Experimental Theater On Your Mark ( ジブリ実験劇場 On Your Mark , Jiburi Jikkengekijō On Yua Māku ) is an animated music video created by Studio Ghibli for the song " On Your Mark " by the Japanese rock duo Chage & Aska . The song was released in 1994 as part of the single " Heart " . In 1995 , Hayao Miyazaki wrote and directed the short film for the song as a side @-@ project after having writer 's block with Princess Mononoke . The anime music video is non @-@ linear , providing multiple reiterations and alternate scenes to depict the events . The music video added sound effects to the audio track , but contains no dialogue . Miyazaki purposely misinterpreted the lyrics to present his vision of a world where the surface becomes inhospitable and humans live in an underground city . He made the video cryptic to evoke creative interpretations among viewers .
The music video follows two policemen who raid a religious cult and find an angelic being only to have her taken away and confined to a laboratory . Haunted by the fate of the " angel " , the two men formulate a plan and break into the laboratory . Fleeing in an armored truck the three plummet into an abyss after trying to force past a police aircraft along a narrow suspended roadway . After a montage of the previous scenes , the armored truck suddenly rockets into an apartment complex , allowing their escape . The three escape to the surface , ignoring the radiation and danger signs , emerging near an encased nuclear reactor . The two men set the " angel " free and she flies off into the sky .
The music video was well @-@ received and praised for its animation and attention to detail . It premiered as a short before Studio Ghibli 's Whisper of the Heart and has since been released on Laserdisc and DVD as part of All Things Ghibli Special Short Short . It has not been released outside Japan .
= = Synopsis = =
The video begins with shots of a vacant village , overgrown with weeds , and the concrete sarcophagus of a covered @-@ over nuclear reactor in the background . As the music begins , the scene changes to a sci @-@ fi @-@ style nighttime military @-@ style police raid on a cult . Futuristic flying troop transports crash through the windows of a tower topped by gigantic neon @-@ lit eyes and occupied by armed defenders . The policemen exchange gunfire and grenades with cultists whose hoods depict an enormous eye . The victorious police begin to sort through the bodies of the cultists , two policemen find what appears to be a girl , lying unconscious , with large feathered wings on her back .
The scene changes again , now to bright daylight and blue sky . Two men are driving an old Alfa Romeo Giulietta Spider passo corto down an empty road . As one of the men helps the girl up , she spreads her wings and he holds her hands while she gains confidence . With a nudge she is airborne , but she seems hesitant and afraid as he lets go .
The scene changes back to the discovery of the girl in the tower and the identity of the two men are revealed to be the same from the previous sequence . The two men carefully carry her out and offer her something to drink , and are encouraged when she sips . A team of scientists wearing radiation suits arrive and quickly take the girl away after placing her into a container .
The two men are haunted by the fate the girl will suffer and formulate a plan to rescue her . They break into the laboratory and free her from confinement , but the lab 's alarms are triggered . The three escape in an armored truck and drive along a narrow suspended roadway over what appears to be a domed city built in a crater . Police hovercrafts are in pursuit , and one of them comes very low to the roadway to block the fugitives ' truck . The roadway collapses when the protagonists try to force their way through , sending the truck plummeting . The winged girl refuses to let go of the hands of her rescuers , and the three of them fall into the abyss .
A brief montage of previous shots follows : the discovery of the girl , the girl flying through a blue sky , the two men rescuing the girl from the laboratory and stealing the truck , the truck plummeting amidst the wreckage of the roadway . But this time , inexplicably , the truck fires stabilizing thrusters and makes a short flight into the side of an apartment building . After their escape , the three are seen in an old Alfa Romeo Giulietta Spider passo corto racing through a dark tunnel underneath signs which bear radiation symbols and read ( in kanji ) " Beware Of Sunlight " and " Survival Not Guaranteed " , then finally they emerge into daylight . They drive past nuclear cooling towers and a sign which reads " Extreme Danger " and continue down the road .
One of the men helps the girl up , she spreads her wings and gives them a grateful smile ; he kisses her hand , and the other winks in farewell . Soon , she is gone drifting upward into the sky . Briefly , a major urban cityscape is seen beyond the trees . From a bird 's @-@ eye view , we see the shape of the car veering off the road and slowing to a stop in the grass .
= = Production = =
The production of the music video began because Miyazaki was suffering from writer 's block on Princess Mononoke and needed another project to distract him . Miyazaki wrote and directed the music video for " On Your Mark " , although the song was previously released in 1994 as part of the single " Heart " . Despite the popularity of the work , Toshio Suzuki told Helen McCarthy , the British author of numerous anime reference books , that Studio Ghibli had not given " 100 percent " focus to the music video .
In the production of the music video , Miyazaki experimented with using computer animation to supplement traditional hand drawn cell @-@ animation . At the time Studio Ghibli did not have its own computer department and the work was outsourced to CG Production Company Links , under supervision of Hideki Nakano . Techniques learned in the experimentation for On Your Mark were later adopted for the creation of Princess Mononoke . Animation director was Masashi Andō . Long time Miyazaki collaborator Michiyo Yasuda was in charge of colour selection . Backgrounds were created by Kazuo Oga . Yōji Takeshige made his debut as Art Director . There is no dialogue in the music video and the two policemen are loosely modeled after Chage and Aska .
= = Analysis = =
The deliberately non @-@ linear , enigmatic and cryptic style of the music video was intended to stimulate the imaginations of its viewers and their interpretations of the music video . " Miyazaki offered an interpretation of the angel as " Hope " and to protect hope could paradoxically mean " to let it go where no @-@ one can touch it " . Dani Cavallaro , an author of books related to anime , reflected on this by proposing that hope retains its purity and authenticity when it is ephemeral , evanescent and elusive . Hope may cause exertion and possibly pain , but denying hope is to deny the feasibility or and vision it provides . Miyazaki said that in the music video 's setting , humans live in an underground city after the surface of the Earth has been contaminated with radiation , creating a sanctuary for nature . Miyazaki did not find this believable , though , as humanity would suffer on the surface instead . Miyazaki intentionally misinterpreted the lyrics to reflect upon the vision of a world filled with disease and radiation and people 's reactions to that world . Cryptically , he implied the two policemen might not be able to return to their old life , but offered no reason as to why .
Cavallaro noted that the lyrics of the song include " ryuukou no kaze " , which translates to " flu " and is also an idiom for " the flu of fashion . " The author further interpreted it as " I always feel the urge to make a fresh start " suggesting this could be the " bleak acceptance of the ideological and economic codes that mold our lives in accordance with the imperative of planned obsolescence , or as a hopeful embracing of the genuine prospects of renewal and change . " Cavallaro suggested that despite the feminine appearance of the " angel " , it could be of a " preternatural order " , making gender or sex distinctions irrelevant . Miyazaki referred to the angelic creature as " tori no hito " or " a bird 's person " which is the nickname of Nausicaä from his Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind manga and film . Cavallaro noted another visual correspondence to Only Yesterday with the oppressive urban environment and the freedom of open spaces .
During their April 1999 lecture series on manga , anime and the works of Miyazaki at the University of Dallas , Pamela Gossin , Professor of Arts and Humanities , and guest instructor Marc Hairston , research scientist in the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences , discussed On Your Mark in their lecture , " In the Coda On Your Mark and Nausicaa , and drew parallels to the Nausicaä story , its titular character and its conclusion . Gossin and Hairston interpreted the release of the winged girl at the end of the video as Miyazaki setting free his character in a manner reminiscent of William Shakespeare 's symbolic liberation of his characters , through Prospero 's release of his servant Ariel in his play The Tempest . The final volume of the Nausicaä manga was released in January 1995 . Miyazaki started creating On Your Mark that same month .
McCarthy highlighted similarities to different works and real life found throughout the film , remarking that the opening city sequence could be an homage to Akira or Blade Runner and the attack on the religious cult could be a reflection of the Aum Shinrikyo movement . Nausicaa.net stated the production occurred prior to the police raid following the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in March 1995 . McCarthy also noted that the film 's scientists ' decontamination gear look like the hero of Porco Rosso and the rescue scene is reminiscent of Princess Leia in Star Wars . The encased or " box " structure in the film is an homage to the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant which was entombed in concrete following the Chernobyl disaster .
Miyazaki scholar Seiji Kanō observed that the urban settings have a China Town style and resemble the cityscapes of Mamoru Oshii 's Ghost in the Shell animated film adaptation , in production at the time . While Miyazaki has been non @-@ committal about the nature of his winged entity in On your Mark , Kanō noted that the manga Seraphim : 266 @,@ 613 @,@ 336 Wings , an unfinished collaborative effort by Oshii and Satoshi Kon , with its Angel Disease theme , was still serialized in Animage at the time Miyazaki was creating On Your Mark in 1995 .
= = Reception = =
The music video was well received . Dr. Patrick Collins , a science writer called it , " the most perfect short science fantasy film I 've ever seen . " McCarter of EX Magazine praised the film 's attention to detail that brought the world to life . THEM anime praised the music video and went so far as to justify the purchase of Ghibli ga Ippai Special Short Short for this music video .
= = Releases = =
The music video was released theatrically with Whisper of the Heart on July 15 , 1995 . Chage & Aska also used the film in concerts . The first official screening took place at their fan club concert , held at the Makuhari Messe in Chiba , on June 29 , 1995 . Beginning July 5 , 1995 , the video was shown for the performance of the song during the Super Best 3 Mission Impossible tour . Featuring the same melody but different lyrics than On Your Mark , Castles in the Air was included on the English @-@ language album One Voice : The Songs of Chage & Aska . Because of popular demand , On Your Mark was re @-@ released separately in Japan on VHS and Laserdisc , on July 25 , 1997 . On November 15 , 2005 , the film was released on the All Things Ghibli Special Short Short DVD with the video set to play the original " On Your Mark " or " Castles in the Air " songs . After Aska ( Shigeaki Miyazaki ) of the musical duo Chage and Aska was arrested for drug possession , Walt Disney Studios Japan removed On Your Mark from the upcoming DVD / Blu @-@ ray box set containing Hayao Miyazaki 's works and ceased shipments of All Things Ghibli Special Short Short . On October 27 , 2014 , Studio Ghibli 's Toshio Suzuki announced on the company 's web page that they had re @-@ considered the situation and would be sending out Blu @-@ ray discs to purchasers of the Hayao Miyazaki box set , as long as they could provide proof of purchase .
|
= Amanita nothofagi =
Amanita nothofagi is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family . Endemic to New Zealand , the species was first described by mycologist Greta Stevenson in 1962 . The fruit bodies have dark brown caps that are up to 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter and covered with patches of soft greyish @-@ brown scales or warts . The gills underneath the cap are crowded together , free from attachment to the stem , and white , becoming tinged with yellow in age . The stem of the mushroom is 4 – 14 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and has a ring . The spore print is white , and individual spores are spherical to ellipsoid , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 7 @.@ 5 – 9 micrometres . The mushroom may be confused with another New Zealand species , A. australis , but can be distinguished by certain characteristics . Amanita nothofagi is a mycorrhizal species , and grows in association with native New Zealand trees such as Southern Beech .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described as new to science by New Zealand mycologist Greta Stevenson who collected specimens in the mid @-@ 1950s , in Nelson and Cape Farewell . She published a description of the mushroom in the Royal Botanic Garden 's journal Kew Bulletin in 1962 , the second part of a five @-@ part series of articles describing the mushroom flora of the country . The specific epithet nothofagi refers to Nothofagus , the genus of Southern beeches with which the species is often associated . Amanita authority Rodham Tulloss uses the common name " southern beech Amanita " , while Geoff Ridley suggests " charcoal flycap " .
Stevenson classified Amanita nothofagi in the section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita , but Ridley considered it better placed in section Validae because of its " subglobose basidiospores , a clavate or occasionally abruptly bulbous stipe base , with sparse bands or a rim of volva material . "
= = Description = =
The cap of A. nothofagi is initially convex , later becoming flattened with a central depression , with radial grooves on the margin , reaching diameters of 30 – 130 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) . The colour is variable , ranging from buff to dark grey to greyish @-@ sepia , with radial streaks of dusky brownish grey . The cap surface is sticky when young or wet , but dries out with age . The remnants of the volva form small to large , irregularly shaped , felted patches , that are dull greyish @-@ sepia to sepia , and sometimes scab @-@ like . The gills are crowded closely together , and free from attachment to the stem . They are white to cream @-@ coloured , 6 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) have somewhat truncated ends .
The stem is 40 – 140 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) high , 5 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and tapers slightly at the top . It is hollow and has a bulbous base measuring 10 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The stem surface above the level of the ring is white , sparsely covered with woolly or fuzzy tufts , occasionally breaking into transverse bands ; below the ring the stem surface is smooth or occasionally breaks into bands or fibrillose scales . It is whitish , buff or greyish @-@ sepia streaked with grey . The stem base may or may not have a band or rim of buff to greyish @-@ sepia volval remnants . The ring is membranous , grooved , whitish , buff , and greyish @-@ sepia or lavender @-@ grey . It first hangs freely before later sticking to the stem , often tearing and adhering to the edge of the cap . The flesh of the cap is white or stained mouse @-@ grey under the central part , occasionally with a grey line above the gills ; the stem flesh is white to pale buff .
The spore print is white . The spores are typically 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 7 @.@ 5 – 9 µm , spherical to broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid , and thin @-@ walled . Under a microscope , the spores appear hyaline ( translucent ) , and are amyloid — meaning they will turn bluish @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are 30 @.@ 5 – 57 by 8 – 16 µm , four @-@ spored , and not clamped at the base . The margin cells of the gills are plentiful , spherical , club @-@ shaped or swollen spherically at the tip , hyaline , and measure 13 – 58 by 8 – 33 µm . The cap cuticle consists of a 130 – 220 µm wide , strongly gelatinised suprapellis ( upper layer ) and a dense , non @-@ gelatinised subpellis ( lower layer ) . The volval remnants on the cap are made of abundant spherical , elliptic and club @-@ shaped cells that are 21 – 119 by 14 @.@ 5 – 115 µm , intermixed with hyphae 4 – 9 µm wide and pale umber in colour , and either arranged irregularly , or with a vertical orientation .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita nothofagi mushrooms can be confused with A. australis if the warts have been washed off and the colour has been bleached . A reliable method to distinguish the two is to check for the presence of clamp connections at the bases of the basidia , which are present in A. australis and absent from A. nothofagi . Ridley notes that the type collection was made with a dark grey specimen , and later collectors who found browner specimens have had difficulty in correctly identifying the species . Paler specimens resemble A. excelsa , which led some to incorrectly believe that the species occurs in New Zealand . Amanita luteofusca is also similar in appearance , spore size , amyloid reaction , and lack of clamp connections in the basidia . It is distinguished from A. nothofagi largely on the basis of colour — it is a greyish @-@ brown to yellowish @-@ grey brown that fades to pinkish @-@ buff as it gets older . Tulloss suggests that the resemblance of a number of species from Australasia and Chile which lack brightly coloured fruit bodies and share similar greyish to brownish rings and volvas may indicate that they share Gondwanan ancestors .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Amanita nothofagi grow solitarily or in scattered groups . Like all Amanita mushrooms , it is mycorrhizal , and grows in close association with Southern Beech ( genus Nothofagus ) ( including New Zealand Red Beech , Silver beech , New Zealand Black Beech , and Hard Beech ) , Manuka , and Kānuka . Found on both the North and South islands of New Zealand , it is the most common of the country 's endemic Amanita species .
|
= Tasselled wobbegong =
The tasselled wobbegong ( Eucrossorhinus dasypogon ) is a species of carpet shark in the family Orectolobidae and the only member of its genus . It inhabits shallow coral reefs off northern Australia , New Guinea , and adjacent islands . Reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , this species has a broad and flattened body and head . Its most distinctive trait is a fringe of branching dermal flaps around its head , which extends onto its chin . The fringe , along with its complex color pattern of small blotches and reticulations , enable it to camouflage itself against the reef environment .
During the day , the solitary tasselled wobbegong can generally be found lying inside caves or under ledges with its tail curled . Individual sharks tend to remain within a local area and have favored resting spots . While resting , it opportunistically ambushes nearby fishes and invertebrates , and also lures in prey by waving its tail to mimic the appearance of a small fish . At night , it emerges and actively forages for food . This species is aplacental viviparous , though little is known of its life history . The tasselled wobbegong has been reported to bite humans unprovoked ; attacks may result from people accidentally disturbing the shark or being misperceived as prey . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Near Threatened , as outside of Australia it is threatened by fisheries and habitat degradation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker originally described the tasselled wobbegong in an 1867 volume of Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles . His account was based on two Indonesian specimens , one caught off Waigeo and the other off Aru . He gave it the name dasypogon , from the Greek dasys ( " hairy " ) and pogon ( " beard " ) , and assigned it to the genus Crossorhinus ( a synonym of Orectolobus ) . In 1908 , Charles Tate Regan created the new genus Eucrossorhinus for this species , derived from the Greek eu ( " good " ) , krossoi ( " tassel " ) and rhinos ( " nose " ) . Regan subsequently reconsidered the main trait he used to separate Eucrossorhinus ( the spacing of the fourth and fifth gill slits ) and synonymized it with Orectolobus . Later authors have placed the tasselled wobbegong either in its own genus or in Orectolobus . Other common names for this species are bearded wobbegong and Ogilby 's wobbegong .
Morphological studies have been inconclusive about the evolutionary relationships of the tasselled wobbegong , but overall have gauged it to be among the more derived wobbegong ( Orectolobidae ) species . A 2009 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found otherwise , that this species was in fact basal to all other wobbegongs except the northern wobbegong ( O. wardi ) . This result supports the synonymization of Eucrossorhinus with Orectolobus . Molecular clock estimation placed the speciation of the tasselled wobbegong at 11 – 6 Ma , coinciding with a period of significant geological rearrangement and the formation of coral reef habitats in the region .
= = Description = =
The tasselled wobbegong is a very broad , moderately flattened shark . The head is wider than long , with a distinctive fringe of branching dermal lobes running almost continuously from the snout tip to the origins of the pectoral fins , including a " beard " on the chin . The nostrils bear long , branching barbels , and have grooves surrounding them and connecting them to the mouth . There are tubercles above the eyes but not elsewhere , and behind the eyes are larger spiracles . The large mouth is positioned ahead of the eyes , almost at the end of the head . There are furrows on the lower jaw extending from the mouth corners and along the jaw median . There are 23 – 26 upper and 19 lower tooth rows ; each tooth has a single slender , pointed cusp . The three upper and two lower rows of symphysial ( central ) teeth are especially long and fang @-@ like . The five pairs of gill slits are short .
The pectoral and pelvic fins are large and rounded . The dorsal fins are short @-@ based and fairly tall ; the first is slightly larger than the second and originates over the latter quarter of the pelvic fin bases . Behind the pelvic fins , the body rapidly tapers to the short caudal peduncle . The anal fin originates behind the midpoint of the second dorsal fin and is no more than half its size . The caudal fin is short , with no lower lobe and an upper lobe bearing a strong ventral notch near the tip . This species has a mosaic @-@ like dorsal color pattern consisting of numerous small , dark blotches and lines on a gray- or yellow @-@ brown background ; there may also be darker bands . The pattern extends to the underside of the tail and the ventral pectoral and pelvic fin margins . The ventral surface is otherwise white . The tasselled wobbegong is reliably known to reach a length of 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) . Most authors consider an older record of a 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) long individual to be erroneous .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the tasselled wobbegong encompasses the continental shelf of northern Australia from Ningaloo Reef in the west to Bundaberg in the east , as well as New Guinea , Waigeo , and the Aru Islands . Additional records from Malaysia are unconfirmed . This common bottom @-@ dweller inhabits coral reefs , perhaps exclusively , in both inshore and offshore waters from the intertidal zone to around 50 m ( 160 ft ) deep . It is most often encountered in reef channels and faces , or atop coral heads .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Considered the most specialized member of its family , the tasselled wobbegong 's ornate coloration and complex dermal fringe grants it excellent camouflage , while it is probably a slower swimmer than related species . It is solitary and spends most of the day lying motionless inside caves or under ledges with its tail curled up . Individual sharks have a small home range , containing several preferred resting spots that are used repeatedly . This species becomes more active at night , swimming onto the reef to hunt .
The tasselled wobbegong feeds on bony and cartilaginous fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods . Its capacious mouth allows sizeable prey to be swallowed , with one documented case of a 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long individual consuming a 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long brownbanded bamboo shark ( Chiloscyllium punctatum ) . During daytime , this species is an opportunistic ambush predator . It preys upon schooling nocturnal fishes such as squirrelfishes , soldierfishes , and sweepers that often shelter in the same cave . Tiny fishes and crustaceans have been seen settling atop the resting wobbegong 's head , attracting larger fishes that are in turn attacked by the wobbegong . Observations in captivity have further revealed that this species seems to engage in active luring behavior . When it perceives food nearby , it begins to slowly wave its tail back and forth ; its caudal fin resembles a small fish , complete with a dark eyespot at the base . The shark typically rests with its head elevated , which places it within striking distance of any prey drawn by its tail .
The tapeworm Parachristianella monomegacantha is a known parasite of the tasselled wobbegong . This species has been observed being attended by cleaner shrimp ( Leander urocaridella , Stenopus hispidus ) and bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) . Reproduction is presumably aplacental viviparous like other wobbegongs , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . There is a report of mating being observed inside a cave at night . Newborns measure approximately 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Size at sexual maturity is uncertain ; one recorded male was found to be adult at 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
With several records of apparently unprovoked attacks on people , the tasselled wobbegong has a reputation beyond other wobbegongs for aggressive behavior . Gilbert Whitley even wrote in 1940 that it " attacks and generally kills the natives " of Papua New Guinea . Though Whitley 's claim is questionable , this species is certainly capable of inflicting severe wounds . Conversely , the tasselled wobbegong is also an ecotourism attraction and many divers have approached it without incident . Given this shark 's cryptic appearance and poor vision , humans should exercise caution to avoid accidentally harassing it or causing it to mistake a hand or foot for prey . This species adapts well to captivity and is occasionally found in the home aquarium trade .
The tasselled wobbegong has little economic value , though its attractive skin is occasionally used for leather . In Australian waters , it is not fished and faces minimal threats . However , elsewhere in its range it may be negatively affected by extensive fishery activity and habitat degradation from pollution , blast fishing , and coral removal . Because of these concerns , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened .
|
= Sad Wings of Destiny =
Sad Wings of Destiny is the second album by the English heavy metal group Judas Priest , released in 1976 . It is considered the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image , and songs from it such as " Victim of Changes " and " The Ripper " have since become live standards . It is the only album to feature drummer Alan Moore .
Noted for its riff @-@ driven heavy metal sound and the wide range of Rob Halford 's vocals , the album displays a wide variety of styles , moods , and textures , inspired by an array of groups such as Queen , Deep Purple , and Black Sabbath . The centrepiece " Victim of Changes " is an eight @-@ minute track featuring heavy riffing trading off with high @-@ pitched vocals , extended guitar leads , and a slow , moody breakdown toward the end . " Tyrant " and " The Ripper " are short , dense , high @-@ powered rockers with many parts and changes . Riffs and solos dominate " Genocide " , " Island of Domination " , and " Deceiver " , and the band finds more laid @-@ back moments in the crooning piano @-@ backed " Epitaph " and the moody " Dreamer Deceiver " .
Sad Wings of Destiny had a positive reception but weak sales as it was released just as punk rock was dominating the spotlight in the UK . The band recorded their first two albums with the independent Gull label under tight budgets ; after living off a single meal per day while working side jobs to support themselves , the group grew frustrated with the financial situation and signed with CBS Records for their next album , Sin After Sin ( 1977 ) . Breaking their contract resulted in the rights to Sad Wings of Destiny and its demo recordings falling into Gull 's hands .
= = Background = =
Judas Priest formed in 1969 in industrial West Bromwich , Birmingham . Co @-@ founder Al Atkins chose the band 's name , wanting one similar to Black Sabbath 's . The bands were contemporaries and were both from Birmingham , though Judas Priest failed to find significant audience until Black Sabbath began to fade from the spotlight . The band 's guitarists Glenn Tipton and K. K. Downing have said the heavy riffing and complexity of the song arrangements were inspired by the factories of Birmingham .
By the time Judas Priest 's first album , Rocka Rolla , was released in 1974 , there had been so many lineup changes that no original member remained . The first album displayed a mix of styles from a wide variety of influences ; the band found the performance and production disappointing . The band gigged occasionally through 1975 , at times sharing the stage with bands such as Pink Fairies and UFO . Drummer John Hinch left the band for reasons that are disputed and was replaced with Alan Moore in October 1975 , who had drummed in an early incarnation of the band .
The band performed the " Dreamer Deceiver " – " Deceiver " pair on BBC Two 's The Old Grey Whistle Test the year before the songs appeared on Sad Wings of Destiny . The band had yet to develop the studs @-@ and @-@ leather image that was to become their trademark ; instead , they wore contemporary mid @-@ 1970s fashions , including high @-@ heeled boots and frilled shirts , and a long @-@ haired Halford donned a pink satin top which he later said he borrowed from his sister . By 1976 , the band 's singer Rob Halford joked that fans should burn their copies of Rocka Rolla .
Finances were tight : the record label Gull provided a recording budget of £ 2000 for each of the band 's first two albums . During the recording of Sad Wings of Destiny , band members restricted themselves to one meal a day , and several took on part @-@ time work : Tipton as a gardener , Downing in a factory , and Hill driving a delivery van . The group went into the studio with the intention of making an album that mixed straight @-@ ahead rock with a progressive edge .
= = Production = =
Recording took place over two weeks in November and December 1975 at Rockfield Studios in Wales with producers Jeffrey Calvert and Gereint " Max West " Hughes , and Chris Tsangarides as co @-@ engineer . Calvert and Hughes were the main members of the pop group Typically Tropical who topped the UK charts in 1975 with " Barbados " , Gull 's first hit . The band stayed sober during the recording sessions , which lasted from 3 : 00 pm until 3 : 00 am . Mixing took a week at Morgan Studios in London .
David Howells of Gull records commissioned Patrick Woodroffe to provide the cover art , a piece called Fallen Angel depicting a struggling , grounded angel surrounded by flames and wearing a devil 's three @-@ pronged cross , which was the band 's symbol . Halford posed Christ @-@ like on the reverse , and Gothic fonts adorned the front and back .
= = Songs = =
" Victim of Changes "
The nearly eight @-@ minute " Victim of Changes " displays a wide dynamic range in rhythm , texture , and mood , with heavy riffing , a melodic ballad section , and extended guitar leads . An almost classical @-@ sounding twin @-@ guitar introduction leads to the violent main riff . The lyrics tell of a woman whose hard @-@ drinking results in losing her man to another woman . Inspired by Led Zeppelin 's " Black Dog " , the heavy riff alternates with a cappella passages , Halford breaking into screaming falsettos during the slow break and dramatic conclusion of the song .
The track began as two songs : " Whiskey Woman " was an early Priest song by Downing and Atkins that the band chose not to include on the first album , though it had long been a crowd @-@ pleasing opener at live shows and featured on early demo recordings . To this the band wove in the slow " Red Light Lady " , a song Halford brought with him from his previous band , Hiroshima .
" The Ripper "
A busy , chugging , riff @-@ heavy rocker , " The Ripper " features arrangements inspired by Queen – particularly in the high @-@ pitched layered opening vocals and classical @-@ tinged twin guitars . The lyrics of the Tipton @-@ penned track are from the point of view of Victorian serial killer Jack the Ripper .
" Dreamer Deceiver "
A slow ballad with crooning vocals and screaming lead soloing , the song serves as introduction to the heavy " Deceiver " which follows it . Atkins originally received partial credit for both tracks , but disclaimed involvement in them ; later releases removed his credit .
" Deceiver "
A heavy song with a chugging riff presaging the technical style of speed metal , " Deceiver " features energetic soloing and a heavy , Black Sabbath @-@ like break with soaring , high @-@ pitched vocals , climaxing in a repetitive acoustic closing .
" Prelude "
" Prelude " is short baroque instrumental primarily in the E ♭ Aeolian mode , alternating between the tonic and dominant , and is arranged for keyboards , guitars , and tom @-@ tom drums . Despite the title , " Prelude " is musically unrelated to the following track , " Tyrant " .
" Tyrant "
A short track full of many parts and tempo changes , Halford has said " Tyrant " expresses his " aversion towards any form of control " .
" Genocide "
A forward @-@ looking , riff @-@ heavy rocker , bearing the influence of heavy rockers such as the Deep Purple tracks " Woman from Tokyo " and " Burn " . Halford expressed hope that the song 's " strong and graphic " lyrics would " be provocative and somewhat controversial and to stimulate people " . The phrase " sin after sin " from the lyrics to " Genocide " provided the title to the band 's next album .
" Epitaph "
A quiet track with piano backing and Queen @-@ like layered vocals , Halford said the lyrics to " Epitaph " express frustration at a lack of place for the young or old in modern cities .
" Island of Domination "
The side @-@ closing " Island of Domination " is a heavy rocker with a complex riff in a style reminiscent of Black Sabbath . Downing described the lyrics as personal to Halford , joking of their having " probably a few innuendoes " .
= = Release , reception and legacy = =
Sad Wings of Destiny was released 23 March 1976 , and the same month " The Ripper " appeared as a single backed with " Island of Domination " . The album was initially published and distributed by Janus Records in the United States .
The album had little commercial success at first and had difficulty getting noticed due to critical competition from the rise of punk rock . The band supported the album with a headlining tour of the UK from 6 April to 20 June 1976 . The album peaked at 48 in the UK , and was awarded a gold record in 1989 . In Rolling Stone Kris Nicholson gave the album a positive review , comparing it favourably to Deep Purple 's Machine Head of 1972 . Sad Wings of Destiny arrived as heavy metal began to reinvigorate itself — the same year saw the release of Rising from Ritchie Blackmore 's Rainbow and Virgin Killer from Scorpions .
The band had grown dissatisfied with Gull ; the tight finances led Moore to leave the band a second time — this time permanently . The album caught the attention of CBS Records , and with the help of new manager David Hemmings , the band signed with CBS and received a £ 60 @,@ 000 budget for their next record , Sin After Sin ( 1977 ) . Downing described the disappointed feelings the group had over Gull 's management influenced the dark themes that appeared on Sad Wings of Destiny . The signing required breaking their contract with Gull , resulting in the rights to the first two albums and all related recordings — including demos — becoming property of Gull . Gull periodically repackaged and re @-@ released the material from these albums , such as on the 1981 double album Hero , Hero . For the most part , the band was to abandon the progressive rock elements of their first two albums for a more straight @-@ ahead heavy rock sound ; the band revisited these prog elements in 2008 on the album Nostradamus .
Fans , critics , and the band have come to see Sad Wings of Destiny as the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image . Martin Popoff cites the album 's " reinvention " of the heavy metal genre . The technical dexterity and operatic vocals pointed toward trends in heavy metal that later in the decade New Wave of British Heavy Metal bands such as Iron Maiden were to follow , and the album 's dark themes reappeared in the 1980s American thrash metal , such as in the music of Slayer and Metallica . An early sign of the band 's influence was that Van Halen included " Victim of Changes " in their sets before achieving fame . Dave Mustaine of Megadeth relates that a brother @-@ in @-@ law punched him in the face for listening to Sad Wings of Destiny ; Mustaine called this a turning point , where he chose heavy metal as a career as " revenge " .
" Victim of Changes " , " The Ripper " , " Tyrant " , and " Genocide " — with an extended introduction — appear on the band 's first live album , Unleashed in the East ( 1979 ) . During the Sad Wings sessions , Howells encouraged the band to work on a heavy metal cover of " Diamonds & Rust " by folk singer Joan Baez , but it did not appear on the album . The band had a hit in the UK with a re @-@ recording of the cover version the following year , after they had moved to CBS Records . Gull released the version from the Sad Wings sessions in 1978 on the compilation album The Best of Judas Priest .
Judas Priest 's 1990 album Painkiller features a winged figure Halford has described as a futuristic version of the Fallen Angel from the Sad Wings of Destiny cover . The band 's 2005 album Angel of Retribution — with Halford again in the band — revives the Fallen Angel again : the cover concept has the angel rise and seek retribution , and the song " Judas Rising " has him cast off his gloom and rise in optimism .
After Halford left the group in the 1990s , Tim Owens was hired to replace him after auditioning " Victim of Changes " and " The Ripper " . Downing and Tipton thereafter nicknamed Owens " The Ripper " . Judas Priest 's original singer Al Atkins recorded a version of " Victim of Changes " for his album Victim of Changes of 1998 . Judas Priest frequently performed the song " Mother Sun " during the Sad Wings era , but never recorded it . The ballad , with its Queen @-@ like vocals , has survived only in poor @-@ quality bootleg recordings . In 2014 Swedish metal band Portrait released a cover version on a 2014 CD single .
= = Track listing = =
The Sad Wings of Destiny disc of the seventeen @-@ disc Complete Albums Collection in 2012 puts the Side B tracks before those from " Side A " . " Prelude " did not appear on some pressings .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Band = = =
The band and production staff of Sad Wings of Destiny were :
Rob Halford – vocals
K. K. Downing – guitar
Glenn Tipton – guitar , piano
Ian Hill – bass guitar
Alan Moore – drums
= = = Production = = =
Produced by Jeffrey Calvert , Max West , and Judas Priest
Engineered by Jeffrey Calvert , Max West , and Chris Tsangarides
Cover concept by Neil French ; painting by Patrick Woodroffe
Art direction by John Pasche
Band photographs by Lorentz Gullachsen and Alan Johnson
|
= Garland Rivers =
Garland A. Rivers ( born November 3 , 1964 ) is a former professional American football defensive back who was drafted in the 1987 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played briefly for the Chicago Bears in the 1987 NFL season after having starred as an All @-@ American for the Michigan Wolverines football team for whom he set the single @-@ game tackles record as a sophomore . This record still stands . After returning to the University of Michigan to complete his bachelor 's degree , he returned to professional football for several seasons in the Arena Football League . However , before returning to professional football he became embroiled in a scandal involving sports agents engaging amateur athletes .
= = College career = =
After attending Canton McKinley High School , where they won the 1981 Ohio High School Athletic Association football championships , he went to the University of Michigan where he became the only freshman varsity letter winner on the football team in 1983 . Rivers , who wore # 13 as a Wolverine , started 32 consecutive games until a shoulder injury caused him to end the streak . He posted six interceptions in his Michigan career , including one for a touchdown . Another one during the same season was a game saving interception in the 1986 Fiesta Bowl in a 27 – 23 victory over the Nebraska Cornhuskers football team . Rivers started 12 of the 13 games his senior season for the Big Ten Conference champions and was one of three All @-@ Americans ( along with Jumbo Elliott & Jim Harbaugh ) that season as the team went 11 – 2 and was invited to the Rose Bowl . Rivers once had 17 tackles and an assist as a sophomore defensive back in a game against the 1984 National Champion Brigham Young Cougars football team in the 1984 Holiday Bowl . 17 tackles continues to stand alone as a school single game record .
His college athletic career was not without controversy . He was named by Michigan Football coach and Michigan Wolverines athletic director Bo Schembechler as one of two players ( the other being Robert Perryman ) who had transgressed National Collegiate Athletic Association rules in violation of their amateur status . According to Schembechler , both players had signed contracts and accepted loans from agents before their college eligibility expired . Schembechler testified in a Federal District Court case involving charges of mail fraud and racketeering against Norby Walters and Lloyd Bloom . According to Schembechler , Rivers had denied having entered into an agreement before the team 's 1986 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season had ended in a meeting with him , but confessed in a Federal Bureau of Investigation meeting . Because the investigation occurred late in the Spring academic term at Michigan , River 's athletic scholarship in the form tuition and room and board had already been fully paid by the University . However , when Rivers returned to Michigan in 1988 to complete his degree , the university did not provide a scholarship for which he would have otherwise been eligible .
= = Professional career = =
Rivers was drafted by the Detroit Lions of the National Football League with the eighth pick of the fourth round ( 92nd overall ) of the 1987 NFL Draft . He played briefly for the Chicago Bears under Mike Ditka in 1987 . The Bears went 11 – 4 that season and qualified for the 1987 @-@ 88 NFL playoffs that season .
Garland Rivers played for several years in the Arena Football League as a wide receiver and linebacker . He mostly played on defense . He played for the Albany Firebirds for 1990 and 1991 . The Firebirds qualified for the 4 @-@ team 1991 AFL playoffs as the # 4 seed and lost to the # 1 seed Detroit Drive in the first round . Then , he played for the Arizona Rattlers in 1992 and 1993 . The Rattlers qualified for 8 @-@ team the 1993 AFL playoffs as the # 4 seed and advanced to the second round before losing to the # 1 seed Detroit Drive .
Rivers has coached at Timken , McKinley and GlenOak . As of 2012 , he worked for Indian River School .
= = Family = =
Rivers was inducted into the Stark High School Hall of Fame in 2012 . His son Jewone Snow , by Linda Snow , is a form McKinley Bulldogs ( class of 2010 ) football standout . Snow is the sister of Percy Snow and Eric Snow , who were also standout athletes for McKinley . Jewone went to college at West Virginia where he joined the football team . Rivers is the father of three sons and two daughters .
|
= TAM Airlines Flight 3054 =
TAM Airlines Flight 3054 ( JJ3054 / TAM3054 ) was an Airbus A320 @-@ 233 , registration PR @-@ MBK , on a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Porto Alegre to São Paulo , Brazil . On July 17 , 2007 , the Airbus A320 , overran runway 35L at São Paulo during heavy rain and crashed into a nearby TAM Express warehouse adjacent to a Shell filling station . All 187 passengers and crew aboard Airbus A320 died , along with 12 people on the ground . It surpassed Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 as the deadliest air disaster in Brazilian territory , and remains the deadliest aviation accident involving an Airbus A320 proper worldwide . It was also the deadliest accident involving an aircraft of the A320 family at the time , which was later surpassed by the bombing of Metrojet Flight 9268 , an A321 @-@ 231 , which crashed in Egypt in October 2015 with 224 fatalities .
The accident was investigated by the Brazilian Air Force 's Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( Portuguese : Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos ( CENIPA ) ) , with a final report issued in September 2009 . CENIPA concluded that the accident was caused by errors committed by the pilots on the flight to São Paulo .
= = Aircraft and crew = =
The aircraft serving Flight 3054 was an Airbus A320 @-@ 233 , serial number 789 , registration PR @-@ MBK , powered by two IAE V2500 @-@ 533 engines . It was built in February 1998 and first entered service in March flying for TACA Peru as N454TA , later serving in the fleet of Pacific Airlines as VN @-@ A168 . The aircraft was owned by Pegasus Aviation before entering service with TAM in January 2007 . As of April 20 , 2007 , the aircraft had flown almost 21 @,@ 000 hours over 10 @,@ 000 cycles .
The aircraft was dispatched with the thrust reverser ( a mechanical device to help slow the airplane down on landing ) on the number 2 ( right @-@ side ) engine deactivated , as it had jammed . TAM said in a statement that a fault in a reverser " does not jeopardize landings " , and that no mechanical problem had been recorded on July 16 , the day before the accident . It was reported that the aircraft had no difficulty braking on the same runway a day before the fatal accident . The deactivated thrust reverser on the number 2 engine was confirmed by Airbus on July 25 .
The flight was under the command of an experienced cockpit crew , consisting of Captain Henrique Stefanini Di Sacco ( 53 ) and Co @-@ Pilot Kleyber Lima ( 54 ) . Both pilots had been flying for over 30 years . The captain had accrued nearly 13 @,@ 700 flight hours throughout his career and the co @-@ pilot had almost 14 @,@ 800 hours of flying experience .
= = Flight chronology = =
The plane departed from Salgado Filho International Airport in Porto Alegre at 17 : 16 local time ( 20 : 16 UTC ) . At 18 : 50 local time ( 21 : 50 UTC ) , the flight made its landing at Congonhas @-@ São Paulo Airport .
= = Crash = =
Flight 3054 was cleared to land at Congonhas ' 35L runway . Reviews by government officials of the surveillance videos showed that despite the aircraft touching down at the normal touch @-@ down point on the runway , it did not slow down normally , crossing the far end of the runway at around 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) . The aircraft , bearing to the left , continued off the end of the runway . The runway is elevated above the surrounding area , and the aircraft 's momentum carried it over the traffic on the adjacent Avenida Washington Luís , a major thoroughfare . After clearing the road , the aircraft exploded on impact with a four @-@ story TAM Express facility , resulting in a large fire , and killing everybody on board instantly . The TAM Express building contained offices and a warehouse , and was located adjacent to a Shell gas station .
The runway had recently been resurfaced , but it did not yet have water @-@ channeling grooves cut into it to reduce the danger of hydroplaning .
Flight Data Recorder ( FDR ) information recovered after the crash and released by Brazilian authorities showed that immediately prior to touchdown , both thrust levers were in CL ( or " climb " ) position , with engine power being governed by the flight computer 's autothrottle system . Two seconds prior to touchdown , an aural warning , " retard , retard , " was issued by the flight 's computer system , advising the pilots to " retard " the thrust lever to the recommended idle or reverse thrust lever position . This would disengage the aircraft 's autothrottle system , with engine power then being governed directly by the thrust lever 's position .
At the moment of touchdown , the spoiler lever was in the " ARMED " position . According to the system logic of the A320 's flight controls , in order for the spoilers to automatically deploy upon touchdown not only must the spoiler lever be in the " ARMED " position , but both thrust levers must be at or close to the " idle " position . The FDR transcript shows that immediately after the warning , the flight computer recorded the left thrust lever being retarded to the rear @-@ most position , activating the thrust reverser on the left engine , while the right thrust lever ( controlling the engine with the disabled thrust reverser ) remained in the CL position . One theory put forth by CENIPA is that the pilots may not have noticed that the right engine remained at CL because the Airbus autothrottle system , unlike other aircraft manufacturers , does not automatically move the levers when the autothrust controller changes engine settings . Therefore , the pilots may have thought that the right engine was at idle power without realizing that Airbus autothrust logic dictates that , when one or more of the thrust levers is pulled to the idle position , the autothrust is automatically disengaged . Thus , when the pilot pulled the left engine thrust lever to idle , it disconnected the autothrust system and the computer did not retard the right engine power to idle . Since the right engine thrust lever was still in the " climb " detent at that time , the right engine accelerated to climb power while the left engine deployed its thrust reverser . The resulting asymmetric thrust condition resulted in a loss of control and a crash ensued . The A320 's spoilers did not deploy during the landing run , as the right thrust lever was above the " idle " setting required for automatic spoiler deployment .
= = Congonhas = =
Aviation safety in Brazil had been under increased scrutiny following the mid @-@ air collision in September 2006 over the Amazon of Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 and an Embraer Legacy 600 ( see Brazil 's 2006 @-@ 2007 aviation crisis ) . Congonhas was singled out for having safety issues relating to operations in wet weather due to its location and runway characteristics for the traffic it serves .
The 35L runway at Congonhas is 1 @,@ 940 metres ( 6 @,@ 360 ft ) long . Congonhas ' counterpart in Rio de Janeiro , the Santos Dumont Airport , has an even shorter runway , at 1 @,@ 323 m ( 4 @,@ 341 ft ) . Both airports receive the same type of traffic — ranging from small private planes to Boeing 737s and A320s . Many variables affect the landing distance of an aircraft , such as approach speed , weight and the presence of either a tailwind or a headwind . For an Airbus A320 , a speed of just 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) higher than normal can result in as much as a 25 % increase in the runway length needed to stop an aircraft . Wet weather can also significantly reduce the braking performance of aircraft , leading to an increase in the minimum runway length requirement .
Pilots have called Congonhas airport the " aircraft carrier , " because of the runway 's short length and because pilots are told to go @-@ around if they overshoot the first 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of runway .
In February 2007 , a Brazilian judge briefly banned flights using Fokker 100 , Boeing 737 @-@ 700 and Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft in and out of the airport . The Airbus A320 was not among the aircraft banned , due to its manufacturer @-@ stated braking distance being shorter than those of the banned aircraft . Pilots had complained that water had been accumulating on the runway , reducing aircraft braking performance and occasionally causing planes to hydroplane . The judge claimed the runway needed to be 388 metres ( 1 @,@ 273 ft ) longer for these aircraft to operate safely . At the time , a spokeswoman from Brazil 's National Civil Aviation Agency claimed " The safety conditions of the runway and the airport as a whole are adequate . " TAM also objected to the decision , with a spokesman stating " If the injunction stands , it will cause total chaos , " claiming over 10 @,@ 000 passengers per day would be inconvenienced . The airport authorities appealed the decision , resulting in it being overturned the following day . An appeals court overruled the ban on the three types of planes , saying it was too harsh as it would have severe economic ramifications and that there were not enough safety concerns to prevent the planes from landing and taking off from the airport . " The runway was reopened because of popular pressure , " Gianfranco Beting , an aviation consultant , said in a TV interview .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The airport reopened on July 19 , 2007 using an alternative runway .
Many flights , including all OceanAir and BRA Transportes Aéreos , were transferred to Guarulhos International Airport , the major airport in São Paulo , due to the closure of the main runway at Congonhas and the ongoing investigation of the accident .
On July 20 , Presidency Chief of Staff Dilma Rousseff announced plans to significantly reduce the number of flights operating at Congonhas . The plan included banning , within 60 days , all connection , stopover , charter , and international flights and the reduction in the number of private jets . The airport would only operate direct flights to certain cities in Brazil . The plan also called for a study of the expansion of São Paulo 's two current airports and the construction of a third airport in the metropolitan area .
State crime scene investigators terminated the search for remains on July 28 , 2007 ; as of that date , 114 bodies recovered from the site had been identified by the São Paulo Medical Examiner 's Office as those of passengers .
= = Investigation = =
The investigation was carried out by Brazil 's Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos , CENIPA ) . Data from the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) were downloaded by the National Transportation Safety Board in the United States commencing July 20 and 23 respectively . Based on preliminary data from the FDR , on July 25 Airbus cautioned A320 operators to ensure that both thrust levers are set to idle during flare . The transcript of the CVR was released on August 1 . It shows that the pilots were aware of the wet runway conditions and the deactivated thrust reverser . The pilots ' comments suggest that the spoilers did not deploy and that they were unable to slow the aircraft . Crew error has not been ruled out .
An investigation by the Brazilian Public Safety Ministry released in November 2008 concluded that the pilots mistakenly retarded only the left engine to idle , because the right one had no thrust reverser working when in fact it was necessary to retard both engines in order for the spoilers to work . They also said that the National Civil Aviation Agency should have closed the airport on the night the plane landed because of heavy rains ; that Congonhas airport authorities shared the blame because its runway had not been properly constructed with grooves to drain away excess rainwater , contributing to the crash ; that the plane 's manufacturer , Airbus , should have provided alarms warning the pilots that the braking system was failing ; and that TAM failed to properly train its pilots , who did not act correctly in the emergency .
= = = Final report = = =
In September 2009 , more than two years after the accident , CENIPA announced the results of official investigations . The report shows that one of the thrust levers , which control engines , was in position to accelerate when it should be in idle , but it was not proved if there was mechanical or human failure as the cause of the accident .
The report suggests two hypotheses for the accident . In the first , there was a flaw in the power control of the plane 's engines , which would have kept one of the thrust levers into acceleration , regardless of their actual position . In such circumstances , there was mechanical failure of the aircraft . In the second hypothesis , the pilot has performed a procedure different from that provided in the manual , and put the thrust lever in an irregular position , a configuration of human error for the accident .
In addition to the positions of the thrust levers , the report points to several factors that may have contributed to the accident , such as a high volume of rain on the day , with the formation of puddles on the runway , as well as the absence of grooving . The report does not blame the length of the runway for the accident .
= = Response = =
After the crash , President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ordered three days of national mourning .
During the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro , the Brazilian athletes wore a black armband in remembrance of the victims . The flags of all participating countries were flown at half mast on July 18 . Matches involving a Brazilian athlete or team started with a minute of silence .
All matches of the Campeonato Brasileiro 2007 started with a minute of silence , while all players wore black armbands . Brazilian Formula One driver Felipe Massa had a black stripe on top of his helmet during the 2007 European Grand Prix , to commemorate the victims . Rubens Barrichello also had stripes on his helmet , and the two Red Bull Racing drivers David Coulthard and Mark Webber had small Brazilian flags on their helmets referring to the accident .
More than 5 @,@ 000 Brazilians marched to the crash site on July 29 , 2007 , blaming their government 's failure to invest in airport infrastructure for the crash . Many of the protesters also demanded the ousting of President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva .
= = Legal action = =
On November 19 , 2008 , the police investigation was completed using 13 @,@ 600 pages , which took 16 months of research to be produced , during which 336 people were heard . For federal prosecutors , the former director of ANAC Denise Abreu and then flight safety officer of the company , Marco Aurelio dos Santos de Miranda , should be convicted of attempt on air transport security in willful mode . In March 2006 , Denise Abreu took over the management of air services of the newly established National Civil Aviation Agency ( ANAC ) . The investigation of the accident with the Airbus TAM , which killed 199 people in Congonhas , revealed that in February 2007 , the São Paulo federal judge Cecilia Marcondes , who saw action restricting the landing planes in Congonhas on rainy days , received Denise Abreu one of ANAC document like a standard , but it was only a technical study . According to the complaint , the study presented as standard guarantee , in theory , security in landing operations at Congonhas airport in São Paulo . The study indicated that takeoffs and landings were forbidden in Congonhas case the track was with a water depth greater than 3 mm . After the accident with the plane of TAM in July 2007 it revealed that the study was not a standard and thus there was no obligation to follow it . According to the testimony of federal judge Cecilia Marcondes to the Federal Public Ministry , the document was fundamental to the Federal Court to release the runway for takeoffs and landings of all equipment .
In 2011 , the Brazilian Federal Public Ministry ( Ministério Público Federal — MPF ) laid criminal charges against Denise Abreu , the director of the Brazilian National Civil Aviation Agency ( ANAC ) at the time of the disaster , as well as two former TAM directors — Marco Aurélio dos Santos de Miranda , director of flight safety , and Alberto Fajerman , vice president of operations . They were accused of neglecting air transport safety by allowing the aircraft to land in heavy rain on the notoriously short recently resurfaced runway before cutting of grooves to channel away excess rainwater . The trial began in São Paulo in 2013 . In 2014 , MPF withdrew the charges against Fajerman , for lack of evidence . A second charge against Abreu of " documentary falsehood " was dismissed in November , 2014 . As of March 2015 , no judgement had been handed down on the other charges .
In 2014 , TAM 's insurer Itaú Seguros , the company responsible for paying compensation for the tragedy , launched a lawsuit in Brazil against Airbus for R $ 350 million ( US $ 156 @.@ 2 million ) , according to Folha de S. Paulo . Attorneys representing Airbus responded in a Brazilian court filing that Airbus accepts no responsibility , laying the blame for the disaster with the cockpit crew , the airline and the poor state of the runway .
= = Notable passengers = =
Among the passengers were :
Júlio Redecker ( aged 51 ) , a Brazilian Social Democracy Party federal politician , member and leader of the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil .
Paulo Rogério Amoretty Souza ( aged 61 ) , former chairman of the football team Sport Club Internacional and attorney for Sport Club Corinthians Paulista .
= = Dramatization = =
Mayday ( Also known as Air Crash Investigation in the UK , Australia , New Zealand and Asia and Air Emergency or Air Disasters in the United States ) produced a one @-@ hour docudrama about the crash . The episode was entitled " Deadly Reputation " due to the poor reputation the airport ( and specifically the runway ) has among pilots .
= = Gallery = =
|
= Ian Johnson with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Ian Johnson was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 . Bradman ’ s men went undefeated in their 34 matches ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
An off spinner , Johnson was a member of Bradman ’ s first @-@ choice team , playing in four of the five Tests before being dropped for the final match . However , he was not prominent in the Tests , taking seven wickets at a bowling average of 61 @.@ 00 . Among the frontline bowlers who played in four or more Tests , Johnson had the worst average by a factor of almost two and took the least number of wickets . Johnson had little impact with the bat , scoring 51 runs at a batting average of 10 @.@ 20 , but took five catches in the slips .
Johnson had more success in the tour matches , taking 85 wickets at 18 @.@ 37 in all first @-@ class fixtures . This ranked him third among the Australians in the wicket @-@ taking and fifth in the averages . He bowled more overs than everyone but Bill Johnston , allowing Bradman to ease the workload on pace spearheads Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , and conserve their energy for the Tests . Johnson 's most successful match with the ball was against Gloucestershire , in which he took match figures of 11 / 100 . He was also more prolific with the bat outside the Tests , scoring 543 runs at 30 @.@ 16 , with a top @-@ score of 113 not out against Somerset . He also made 80 against a Marylebone Cricket Club team that consisted almost entirely of Test players . Johnson was prominent in the field , taking 23 catches , the most by a non @-@ wicket @-@ keeper on tour .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the opening match of the tour , which was usually against Worcestershire . Johnson had been a regular member of the Australian Test team since World War II , and was selected in Bradman 's full @-@ strength team .
Worcestershire elected to bat first , and Johnson took 3 / 52 from 23 overs , the most bowled by any Australian , cleaning up the lower order as Australia removed the hosts for 233 . When Australia batted , Johnson came in at No. 10 and made an unbeaten 12 as Australia declared their innings closed at 8 / 462 . Australia dismissed the hosts for 212 to complete victory by an innings and 17 runs . Johnson took the last three wickets to end with 3 / 75 from 13 @.@ 3 overs ; he was the most uneconomical bowler among those who sent down more than 18 deliveries .
Johnson played a major role in the next match against Leicestershire . He made six at No. 8 as Australia batted first and scored 448 . Johnson came on with the hosts at 3 / 74 and took two quick wickets in the space of five runs , beginning a collapse that led to Leicestershire being all out for 130 . He ended with 2 / 50 from 23 overs . Australia enforced the follow on , and Johnson broke through their top and middle order . The hosts reached 0 / 45 before Johnson took the first five wickets to reduce them to 5 / 88 . Leicestershire progressed to 5 / 113 before Johnson took two more wickets in the space of four balls . He ended with 7 / 42 from 21 overs , his best first @-@ class innings figures , as the home team were dismissed for 147 , handing Australia victory by an innings and 171 runs .
The Australians proceeded to play Yorkshire , on a damp pitch conducive to slower bowling . Johnson was rested as Australia came closest to losing a match for the whole tour . Australia were 6 / 31 in pursuit of 60 for victory , before scraping home by four wickets .
Johnson returned in the next match against Surrey at The Oval in London , where Australia won the toss and batted first . Batting at No. 6 , Johnson came in at 4 / 444 and put on 99 runs with vice @-@ captain and fellow South Melbournian Lindsay Hassett , before falling for 46 ; Australia were eventually bowled out for 632 . Johnson then took five wickets to help cut down Surrey 's first innings . The hosts reached 2 / 40 before Johnson claimed three middle order wickets to reduce them to 6 / 66 . He later removed the final batsmen to end with 5 / 53 from 18 @.@ 2 overs . Surrey were bowled out for 141 and forced to follow on and Johnson took 3 / 40 in the second innings as the home team made 195 to cede victory to Australia by an innings . Johnson removed captain Errol Holmes and Stuart Surridge in both innings .
Johnson was rested for the next match against Cambridge University , which Australia won by an innings . In the following match against Essex , Johnson returned as Australia won the toss and batted first and went on to score 721 , a world record for the most number of first @-@ class runs in one day ’ s play . He came in at 6 / 664 and was unable to join in the high scoring , making only nine as the lower order folded quickly , none of the four bowlers reaching double figures . Australia subsequently proceeded to victory by an innings and 451 runs , their biggest winning margin for the tour . Johnson was not required to bowl in the first innings as the pacemen dismissed the hosts for 83 in 36 @.@ 5 overs . In the second innings , Johnson was given an opportunity and took four of the first six wickets to fall , reducing Essex to 6 / 46 . The home side added 131 for the next wicket before Johnson removed their captain and top @-@ scorer Tom Pearce for 71 ; he added another wicket as Essex were out for 187 . Johnson finished with 6 / 37 from 21 overs . Johnson was rested for the next match against Oxford University , which resulted in another innings victory .
The eighth match of the season was against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . Having been a regular member of the Test team since the end of World War II , and having taken 29 wickets at 12 @.@ 03 in his four games on tour , Johnson was selected along with fellow spinner Colin McCool , a leg spinner . This meant that Australia 's first @-@ choice team was the same as in the opening match against Worcestershire . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team lined up for Australia in the First Test , with the top six batsmen in the same position . It was a chance for both sides to gain a psychological advantage over the players who would oppose them in the Tests . Australia won the toss and batted first and Johnson came in at 5 / 343 to join former South Melbourne and Victorian team @-@ mate and fellow Royal Australian Air Force fighter pilot Keith Miller . The pair put on 165 before Miller fell on the second morning , quickly followed by Johnson at 8 / 512 , trapped leg before wicket by off spinner Jim Laker for 80 , but not before Johnson had hit him for three sixes . Bradman 's men went on to amass 552 . Johnson was the least successful and most uneconomical Australian in the first innings , taking 0 / 43 from 12 overs as the hosts made 189 . Bradman enforced the follow on and Johnson had a better return on the second attempt . The hosts reached 3 / 128 when Johnson caused a middle @-@ order collapse . He had New Zealand Test batsman Martin Donnelly stumped by Don Tallon , before trapping English Test batsman Len Hutton leg before wicket five runs later . He then removed Ken Cranston to leave the MCC at 6 / 159 . Johnson ended with 3 / 37 and caught Denis Compton from the pace bowling of Ray Lindwall as Australia bowled out the home side for 205 to win by an innings , .
The MCC match was followed by Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour , which against Lancashire . Johnson had little to do in the match . After the first day was washed out , he was promoted to No. 4 and made only five in the first innings . He took 0 / 16 from eight overs in the first innings and neither batted nor bowled in the second innings as the match ended in a draw .
In the following match against Nottinghamshire , Johnson took 1 / 26 and made a duck in the first innings as the hosts batted first . He claimed 3 / 78 in the second innings as the match was drawn . In the next game against Hampshire , Australia had another scare . On a drying pitch , Johnson took 2 / 35 as Australia removed the hosts for 195 . He then made two as Australia were dismissed for 117 , the first time they had conceded a first innings lead on the tour . In the second innings , he took 0 / 13 in four overs as Hassett 's opening bowlers took all the wickets ; Hampshire were bowled out for 103 to leave Australia a target of 182 in 175 minutes . Johnson was promoted to No. 3 and came to the crease almost immediately when Sid Barnes fell before Australia had scored . Johnson hit out , striking three sixes and seven fours , making 74 in the partnership of 105 with Bill Brown . Johnson fell for 74 , but Hassett came in and guided Australia to an eight @-@ wicket win without further loss . The final match before the First Test was against Sussex . Johnson was neither required to bowl nor bat in the first innings . The pacemen dismissed the hosts for 86 in 46 @.@ 4 overs before Australia declared at 5 / 549 in reply . Johnson registered 0 / 37 from 11 overs as Sussex fell for 138 to seal another innings victory for Australia .
= = First Test = =
Although his four matches since the MCC fixture had yielded only six wickets at 34 @.@ 16 , Johnson was selected in the team for the First Test at Trent Bridge . McCool , the other spinner in the MCC and Worcestershire matches , had played in only one match since the MCC game , in which he was wicketless . McCool ’ s omission was the only change from those two matches . Bill Johnston , who bowled left arm pace and orthodox spin was included in the team at the last minute in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket , following the arrival of rain . Johnston had taken match figures of 10 / 40 and 11 / 117 against Yorkshire and Hampshire respectively , both on rain @-@ affected wickets .
English captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . Pundits believed the pitch would be ideal for batting after giving some assistance to the fast bowlers in the first hour . Australia 's pacemen reduced England to 8 / 74 before finishing them off for 165 . Johnson was only given five overs and took 0 / 19 as the pacemen efficiently cut down the English batsmen in 79 overs .
During the innings , Bill Edrich was on four when he edged Ray Lindwall to Johnson at first slip . Johnson got both hands to the ball above his head , but dropped it . However , the dropped catch was not costly , as Edrich was dismissed for 18 .
On the third day , Australia reached 5 / 305 when Johnson came in to bat . He made 21 with three fours , including an edge over the slips cordon , before being bowled by Laker . Johnson hit the ball onto his foot , which deflected it back into his stumps . This left Australia at 6 / 338 but the lower order continued to contribute and pushed the total to 509 , giving the tourists a 344 @-@ run lead .
England began their second innings on the third afternoon . Late in the day , after scoring 13 in 43 minutes , Edrich was caught behind by Don Tallon after attempting a cut shot from Johnson ’ s bowling . Edrich did not read the arm ball , which went straight on and took the outside edge , leaving England at 2 / 39 . Denis Compton came in and he ran down the pitch before the first ball was bowled ; he had to quickly block the ball on the run . He then survived a confident lbw appeal from the bowling of Johnson when he was on eight . Compton appeared resigned to his fate and ready to walk , but umpire Frank Chester declined the appeal . During this passage of play , Johnson extracted a substantial amount of spin from the surface . England closed the day at 2 / 121 .
The light was again poor on the fourth day , but England did not appeal against it . Yardley wanted to bat now in poor visibility to erase the deficit and build a lead , to force Australia to chase a target on an erratic surface if a shower came later and turned the pitch into a sticky wicket . Bradman thought that rain might come , so he utilised Toshack and Johnson to bowl defensive leg theory so England would not be in the lead should a sticky wicket arise . As the umpires were obliged to not call off play unless the light was so poor as to endanger the batsman , the lack of pace of Johnson and Toshack forced play to continue as they posed no physical threat to the batsmen .
In his first over at the start of the day , Johnson extracted sharp turn from one delivery that pitched outside off stump ; not expecting much spin , Compton did not play a shot and was hit on the pads , but the umpire rejected the loud appeal for lbw . Otherwise , Len Hutton and Compton progressed steadily , although Johnson and Toshack were able to make the ball deviate regularly .
Soon after reaching his century during the afternoon , Compton edged to the slips from the bowling of Miller , but Johnson spilled the catch . Compton went on to make 184 and England were eventually out for 441 on the final day . Johnson sent down 42 overs for a return of 1 / 66 . He had the best economy rate of 1 @.@ 57 runs per over , ahead of Toshack 's 1 @.@ 81 ; Bradman used both in a defensive manner . This left Australia a target of 98 , which they reached with eight wickets to spare .
Between Tests , Johnson played in the match against Northamptonshire , which started the day after the First Test . He took three middle @-@ order wickets and ended with 3 / 13 from 13 overs , the most economical figures among the Australians in the first innings , as the hosts were out for 119 . He made only four in the bat and took 1 / 46 in the second innings as Australia cruised to an innings victory . After playing in seven consecutive matches comprising 21 days of cricket between 22 May and 18 June , Johnson was rested for the second match between Tests , which was a draw against Yorkshire .
= = Second Test = =
Australia opted to field an unchanged team for the Second Test at Lord 's and elected to bat first after winning the toss . Johnson came in at 5 / 216 on the first afternoon and struggled to score , making only four of the 30 runs added during his stay at the crease before falling at 7 / 246 , caught behind from the bowling of Bill Edrich . However , Australia 's lower order wagged and they eventually took the score to 350 on the second morning .
After lunch , Hutton rocked onto the front foot , played outside a Johnson off break and was bowled for 20 to leave England at 2 / 32 . The English opener had been uncertain against Johnson 's spin and played forward too early at a slower ball , which went between a gap between his bat and pad . Later in the afternoon , Denis Compton and captain Norman Yardley played Johnson cautiously but safely ; in particular , Yardley repeatedly driving a series of overpitched balls from Johnson for runs . Johnson took the last two wickets to fall on the second day , having Alec Coxon caught and bowled for 19 and Laker caught behind for 28 after the pair had put on 41 . England were out early on the third morning for 215 . Johnson ended with 3 / 72 , having sent down 35 overs , the most by any Australian .
The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings just after noon on the third day . Australia batted strongly and on the fourth day , Johnson came in at 6 / 445 , with Australia already ahead by 580 . He made nine before his partner Ray Lindwall was stumped , which prompted Bradman to declare at 7 / 460 . This left England a victory target of 596 , which would require a world record run chase .
Further showers forced a rain break immediately after England started their runchase and breathed extra life into the pitch . When the players returned , Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen .
Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42 — England 's highest opening partnership of the series — before the former edged Lindwall to Johnson in the slips and was out for 13 . Soon after , Edrich edged to Johnson low down in the cordon and England were 2 / 52 . Edrich decided to stand his ground after the catch was taken , thinking he may have hit a bump ball into the ground , but the umpire thought otherwise and ruled him out . Johnson had little else to do as the pacemen made steady progress on a seaming pitch . He bowled only two overs for three runs as England fell for 186 , handing Australia victory by 409 runs and a 2 – 0 series lead .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Test . Johnson was rested as Australia completed a ten @-@ wicket win .
Johnson returned for the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test . Australia batted first and reached 7 / 774 declared , its highest score of the tour , which underpinned a victory by an innings and 363 runs . Johnson made 27 , after coming in at 6 / 669 and playing a supporting role in a 105 @-@ run partnership with Sam Loxton , who made 159 not out . Acting captain Hassett declared without further addition to the score after Johnson fell at 7 / 774 . Johnson played a leading role with the ball , taking his only ten @-@ wicket match haul for the tour . After the hosts ’ openers had put on 74 , Johnson removed both in quick succession to leave Gloucestershire at 2 / 79 . He later took the last three wickets as Gloucestershire collapsed from 6 / 257 to be all out for 269 . Johnson had totalled 6 / 68 from 31 @.@ 4 overs . Hassett elected to enforce the follow on and the home side reached 2 / 72 before Johnson took five of the last eight wickets to help end the innings for 132 . Johnson ended with 5 / 32 from 17 @.@ 1 overs for a match total of 11 / 100 . Johnson took his 50th wicket for the tour during the fixture and was on 57 by the end of the game , the 18th of 31 first @-@ class matches on the tour .
= = Third Test = =
The teams reassembled at Old Trafford for the Third Test . Australia dropped Bill Brown , their reserve opener , who had batted out of position in the middle order and scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three Test innings . Brown was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton ; the move had an unexpected impact on Johnson 's playing role during the Test .
Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . England consolidated their innings after falling to 2 / 28 . The hosts were content to score slowly and regroup , and Johnson ’ s first ten overs before lunch yielded only seven runs . However , when Johnson was bowling his second spell after lunch , Jack Crapp hit three driven boundaries in quick succession . Crapp was eager to use his feet to get to the pitch of Johnson ’ s deliveries , and subsequently dealt with the spin fairly comfortably , whereas many of his compatriots stood in their crease and found matters much more difficult . Crapp 's counter @-@ attack prompted Bradman to take the second new ball and remove Johnson with the score at 2 / 96 . England then lost three quick wickets to the pacemen to be 5 / 119 . Soon after , Yardley lofted Ernie Toshack — who was bowling leg theory — into the on @-@ side and Johnson caught him for 22 at forward square leg to leave England at 6 / 141 . Soon after , Compton , the last of the specialist batsmen , nearly departed when he leaned forward to a leg @-@ side delivery from Johnson . He overbalanced and stumbled forwards , and Tallon removed the bails . There were no television replays to assist the umpires in those days , and although the attempted stumping appeared close to the naked eye , the benefit of the doubt was given to the batsman and the appeal rejected .
On the second morning , English tail @-@ ender Dick Pollard came to the crease and pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Australian opener Sid Barnes , who was standing at short leg . Barnes stood closer than most in this position — almost on the edge of the cut strip — and was unable to evade the ball . He " dropped like a fallen tree " , and had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination . England eventually reached 363 after Johnson had sent down 38 overs and conceded 77 runs without success . With Barnes injured and Brown dropped , Arthur Morris was the only opener available , so Johnson was deployed as his makeshift partner . He had never opened at Test level , but had once batted at No. 3 when used as a nightwatchman after the fall of the first wicket late on a day ’ s play . Journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O ’ Reilly criticised the use of Johnson as an opener , as vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach , traits that were typical of an opener . Johnson made only one , exposing Bradman to the new ball . Although Australia struggled , they eventually avoided the follow on and ended on 221 .
England came out for their second innings , and with Bradman predominantly reliant on his seamers , Johnson bowled only seven overs on the third afternoon as the hosts closed at 3 / 174 from 69 overs . Late in the day , Johnson dropped Washbrook in the slips cordon from the bowling of Toshack when the batsman was on 80 . Washbrook reached stumps unbeaten on 85 , and Johnson 's miss only cost five runs , as the fourth day was washed out and England declared without further batting after rain delayed the start on the final day . Johnson ended with 0 / 16 from seven overs .
Play began after the tea break , and Australia needed to score 317 in the last session if they wanted victory . The pitch played very slowly due to the excess moisture , which meant the ball slowed significantly upon hitting the ground surface . As Australia were not looking to chase the runs , there was no need for run @-@ saving fieldsmen , so Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions . In the first half hour , Australia showed little attacking intent and scored only six runs . Jack Young replaced Pollard and Johnson immediately swept him for four , before edging the next ball to Crapp and falling for six to leave Australia at 1 / 10 . Australia batted for another two hours without further loss , to reach 1 / 92 from 61 overs before the match was finally ended after a series of periodic rain interruptions . Johnson had an unhappy game , scoring only seven runs in two innings , dropping a catch and taking match figures of 0 / 93 .
After the Test , Johnson was rested for Australia ’ s victory over Middlesex by ten wickets ; it was their only county match between Tests .
= = Fourth Test = =
The teams headed to Headingley for the Fourth Test with Barnes still unfit . Australia made two changes for the Test . Middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey came in for Barnes , while Ron Saggers replaced Don Tallon — who had a finger injury — behind the stumps . Brown was not recalled to open with Morris ; instead , Hassett was promoted from the middle @-@ order to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order . Australia thus jettisoned the experiment of opening the batting with Johnson , who had managed only one and six in the previous Test .
England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch that was predicted to be unhelpful for fast bowling . Thirty minutes before tea , England brought up their 150 without loss , and continued unhindered after two brief interruptions due to rain . Up to this point , the Australian bowling had been loose and inaccurate . Bradman brought on Johnson , who had delivered only three overs so far , the rest of the proceedings having been through fast bowlers . Seeking to stem the flow of runs , Bradman gave Johnson a ring field with no slip . Johnson bowled two consecutive maidens , but Washbrook was scoring freely at the other end , so Bradman called for the new ball and brought back the fast bowlers . Johnson was still wicketless when England closed the day at 2 / 268 . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton accused Australia of going " progressively downhill " and regarded their performance as their worst day of bowling since World War II , citing the proliferation of full tosses .
The next morning , England progressed strongly . Nightwatchman Alec Bedser hit three consecutive fours from Toshack , prompting Bradman to replace him with Johnson . Bedser surveyed Johnson 's wares for one over before hitting him into the leg side three times in the next , yielding a six and two fours . Bradman responded by removing Johnson from the attack . When the off spinner came back , Edrich hit him for another six to reach 96 . However , Johnson soon had his revenge . England reached 2 / 423 when Bedser was out caught and bowled by Johnson , patting the ball back to the bowler when he could have hit it decisively . His on @-@ drive was intercepted by the bowler , who dived across the pitch to his right @-@ hand side to complete the catch . This ended a 155 @-@ run third @-@ wicket partnership . Edrich attempted to pull a Johnson long hop to the leg side , targeting the large gap between square leg and mid @-@ on , but only ballooned the ball to Morris , who completed the catch diving forwards at wide mid @-@ on . This came only three runs after Bedser 's dismissal and left the score at 4 / 426 . Johnson 's two wickets brought two new batsmen were to the crease and precipitated a collapse that saw England dismissed for 496 . Johnson ended with 2 / 89 from 33 overs and was the least economical of the frontline bowlers except Toshack , who broke down with a knee injury .
On the third afternoon , Johnson came to the crease at 5 / 294 in Australia 's first innings when Harvey departed for 112 , but he made only 10 before falling at 6 / 329 . Lindwall replaced him and made 77 as Australia 's tail pushed the score to 458 on the fourth morning , reducing the deficit to 38 . In the second innings , the English batsmen continued to attack Johnson . Given Johnson 's lack of economy in the first innings , Bradman declined to use him for the entirety of the first session of the fourth day . When Johnson was introduced after lunch , he was targeted , and Washbrook and Hutton both lofted him for sixes in quick succession , prompting Bradman to remove him from the attack . When Johnson returned , Hutton again hit him in the air , but this time Bradman took a running catch to dismiss the batsman for 57 , leaving England at 2 / 129 . Edrich and Compton came in and were initially pinned down , but after 45 minutes , Compton charged Johnson and heaved a delivery to the leg side for a boundary . Bradman promptly took the new ball as England reached 2 / 209 at tea . After the break , England continued to target Johnson . Edrich hit Johnson for three consecutive fours before lofting a fourth into the crowd for six . Compton took risks against Johnson , successfully cutting against the spin several times , and Bradman was forced to use a well @-@ spread field to cut down the fast scoring off Johnson . England reached 2 / 232 before collapsing to be 8 / 362 at the end of the day , but Johnson was not responsible for any of these wickets .
England batted on for five minutes on the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 8 / 365 . Johnson ended with 1 / 85 from 21 overs and was the most uneconomical of the Australian bowlers , conceding runs at a rate of 4 @.@ 04 per over while the others averaged 3 @.@ 26 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley the right to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket , make it more likely to spin and therefore more difficult for Australia to bat on .
This left Australia a target of 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever run @-@ chase to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , but they scored the runs with 15 minutes to spare and seven wickets in hand , sealing the series 3 – 0 .
After bowling 54 overs at Headingley , Johnson was rested as Australia defeated Derbyshire by an innings in a match that started the day after the Fourth Test . He bowled the most overs upon his return in the following match against Glamorgan , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . Johnson sent down 28 @.@ 4 overs and took 3 / 58 as the hosts were bowled out for 197 ; Australia reached 3 / 215 when the weather ended the match .
Johnson was the most economical Australian in the first innings of the game against Warwickshire . He took 3 / 29 from 22 @.@ 3 overs as the hosts fell for 138 , before making an unbeaten 13 at No. 9 as Australia struggled to 254 in reply . He was given a solitary maiden over in the second innings before Australia won by nine wickets . Australia then faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . Johnson came to the crease at 6 / 202 after Bradman ’ s men had suffered a middle @-@ order collapse of 3 / 8 . He made 48 as the Australian lower order wagged to push the score to 321 . Johnson was given a light bowling load in the first innings , sending down only five overs , but he removed three of the last four wickets to end with 3 / 5 as the hosts fell for 130 . He did not bat in the second innings and took 1 / 30 as the home side managed to hang on with seven wickets down . In the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings , Johnson came in at 7 / 212 and made 44 to help Australia recover to 282 and took 1 / 2 from three overs as the hosts reached 5 / 73 when rain ended the match after the first day .
= = Fifth Test = =
Australia travelled to The Oval for the Fifth Test . After taking only seven wickets at 61 @.@ 00 in the four Tests , and being severely attacked in the previous match at Headingley , Johnson was dropped in favour of leg spinner Doug Ring . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . England were dismissed for 52 in 42 @.@ 1 overs on the first afternoon with Ring not required to bowl , as the pacemen made light work of the hosts . Ring was economical in the second innings , taking 1 / 44 from 28 overs as Australia sealed the series 4 – 0 with another innings victory .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Johnson returned and made 15 of 361 as Australia batted first against Kent . Johnson was not asked to bowl as the first four bowlers used cut down the hosts ' first innings for 51 in just 23 overs . It was a similar tale in the second innings after Australia enforced the follow on . The pacemen did the early damage and Johnson bowled only briefly , sending down 4 @.@ 5 overs and removing the last two batsmen to end with 2 / 15 as the hosts fell for 124 in 32 @.@ 5 overs to seal another Australian victory by an innings in two days . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England , Johnson did not bat before Australia declared at 5 / 610 against a team featuring eight Test players . When the tourists bowled , Johnson took three consecutive wickets to reduce the hosts from 1 / 76 to 4 / 121 . He ended with 4 / 60 from 23 overs as the Gentlemen made 245 . Johnson 's victims included Donnelly , future England opener Reg Simpson and former England captain Walter Robins . Bradman enforced the follow on , and Johnson took the last three wickets to end with 3 / 69 from 28 @.@ 5 overs , including the scalps of Robins and Test player Freddie Brown . This completed another innings victory for the tourists . Johnson broke through for his first century of the tour in the next match against Somerset . Australia batted first and Johnson came in at No. 6 with the score at 4 / 306 to join Ron Hamence , who was also looking for his first ton of the season . The pair put on 195 runs , before Hamence fell at the closest possible point to his century , stumped for 99 . Miller came out and helped Johnson add another 59 before Australia declared at 5 / 560 , with the latter undefeated on 113 . Following his innings , Johnson only bowled 10 overs in taking 1 / 19 for the match . The hosts were bowled out twice for a combined total of 186 from a sum of just 81 @.@ 3 overs as Australia enforced the follow on and won by an innings and 374 runs . Johnson was rested for the fixture against the South of England . Australia declared at 7 / 522 and bowled out the hosts for 298 when rain ended the match .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last Australian tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted only six current Test players be allowed to play for the hosts . After his opponents complied with the demand , Bradman fielded a full @-@ strength team , the only difference from the Fifth Test team being Johnson ’ s return at the expense of Ring . The bowlers skittled the hosts for 177 and Johnson took 3 / 45 , his victims being Donnelly , Yardley and former Test batsman Laurie Fishlock . Johnson also caught Brown and Laker from the bowling of Lindwall . Johnson made 38 as Australia declared at 8 / 469 in reply . The hosts were 2 / 75 in their second innings when the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays . Johnson took both wickets , — the batsman being Hutton and Fishlock — ending with 2 / 12 .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . Johnson made a duck in Australia 's first innings of 236 in the first match . He then bowled a total of 17 overs and took 3 / 26 as Australia won by an innings . In the second match , Johnson took 3 / 26 from 20 @.@ 2 overs in the first innings as Scotland made 178 . He was promoted to No. 5 and came in at 3 / 96 to hit 95 as Australia reached 6 / 407 declared . In the second innings , Johnson was unable to add a wicket in his final opportunity for the tour , taking 0 / 6 from three overs . However , when it became clear Australia was in an unassailable position , Bradman allowed wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon to bowl , and he took 2 / 15 . In the meantime , Johnson deputised with the gloves and he completed a stumping from the leg spin of Ring as Australia finished the tour with another innings victory .
= = Role = =
An off spinner , Johnson was a member of Bradman ’ s first @-@ choice team , playing in four of the five Tests before being dropped for the final rubber . He also played in the matches against Worcestershire , the MCC and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , where Australia selected their strongest possible team . However , Johnson was not prominent in the Test success , taking seven wickets at 61 @.@ 00 , his best result being 3 / 72 in the first innings of the Second Test . Among the five frontline bowlers used in four or more Tests , Lindwall , Miller , Toshack , Johnston and Johnson , the last had the worst average by a factor of almost two ; Toshack averaged 33 @.@ 09 and the others less than 23 @.@ 50 . Lindwall and Johnston took 27 wickets each , while Miller and Toshack took 13 and 11 respectively . Johnson ’ s economy rate was the second worst of the quintet and his strike rate of 156 @.@ 86 was more than twice as bad as the others , with the exception of Toshack ( 94 @.@ 46 ) . Johnson also had little impact with the bat , scoring 51 runs at 10 @.@ 20 , but he did take five catches in the slips .
Johnson had more success in the tour matches , taking 85 wickets at 18 @.@ 37 in all first @-@ class matches . This placed him third in the wicket @-@ taking and fifth in the averages among the Australians . In the first @-@ class matches excluding the Tests , Johnson was the leading wicket @-@ taker . He bowled more overs than anyone but Johnston , allowing Bradman to ease the workload on his pace spearheads Lindwall and Miller , allowing them to conserve energy ahead of the Tests . Johnson 's most successful game with the ball was against Gloucestershire , which yielded match figures of 11 / 100 . Like his bowling , Johnson ’ s batting was also more successful outside of the Tests , scoring 543 runs at 30 @.@ 16 in 22 innings , with a top @-@ score of 113 not out against Somerset and an 80 against a MCC team that consisted almost entirely of Test players . Johnson usually batted at No. 7 or No. 8 , although he was notably used as a makeshift opener in the Third Test and scored an aggressive 74 at No. 3 in the run @-@ chase against Hampshire.N- Johnson was prominent in the field , taking 23 catches , the most by a non @-@ wicket @-@ keeper on tour . He usually fielded in the slips .
Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack noted that while Johnson had started the tour well , he was not as effective in English conditions as on his home pitches in Australia .
[ Johnson ] was not so troublesome to batsmen in Tests as when at home , principally because of the difference in pace of the pitches and his inability to bowl round the wicket , an almost essential part in the make @-@ up of an off @-@ spinner in England . False expectation against Johnson in Australia usually cost a batsman his wicket , but on slower English pitches there was time to change a stroke and still keep the ball out of the stumps , even though beaten by flight .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
|
= Decisions ( song ) =
" Decisions " is a song by Israeli record producer Borgore featuring American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was independently released through online music stores on July 10 , 2012 with its accompanying remixes extended play ( EP ) ; it was released as a stand @-@ alone track on February 8 , 2013 . Cyrus ' inclusion on the song was initially not publicized , with the intention for of it making its own impact separate from her reputation , although Cyrus later confirmed the collaboration . " Decisions " is a dubstep track that lyrically discusses the general desire for wealth and success , frequently mentioned as " bitches love cake " during the track .
Upon its release , the track received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated Cyrus ' inclusion and its diversity from her earlier works , but were ambivalent towards its overall production . An accompanying music video for the song was filmed in Los Angeles , California and was released on November 1 , 2012 . The following month , Borgore and Cyrus performed the track at the Music Box in Los Angeles ; Cyrus ' provocative clothing and dancing with a stripper garnered media attention . The original version failed to chart on any national record charts , although the parody " Hunger Games " by TheBajanCanadian peaked at number 38 on the U.S. Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Background and composition = =
In 2012 , Borgore stated that an extended play ( EP ) and studio album were under development , the latter of which he tentatively planned to release in 2013 . After the release of her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) , Cyrus originally announced plans to focus on her film career , effectively putting her musical endeavors on hiatus . She was also confirmed as a primary voice actress in the feature film Hotel Transylvania , but dropped out of the project to coordinate a musical comeback in 2012 . She had first hinted at developing a new sound after collaborating with hip hop recording artists Pharrell Williams and Tyler , the Creator .
When discussing his collaboration with Cyrus , Borgore stated that " you have to understand that I grew up in Israel , and the whole Hannah Montana thing , I 've never seen it . I 've heard about this , but the Miley Cyrus persona you might have in America I don 't have . " Her involvement with " Decisions " was originally not publicly acknowledged in an attempt to " make a tune together that we 're super happy about and just see people 's real opinion about this . " However , Cyrus unexpectedly tweeted " Yo check out Decisions me & @ borgore new track " in August 2012 , which Borgore commented was " super cool [ that ] she did it the way she did it " . He added that he was impressed with her vocal abilities , elaborating that " I thought she was made up more to be a star , but she was pretty phenomenal behind the booth . "
" Decisions " is marked a musical departure from Cyrus ' earlier catalog and following the increasingly popular trend towards dance music . Lyrically , Borgore stated that " the very literal meaning of the song is how much girls love eating cake but the subliminal message is how people are attracted to money and power , and in order to succeed in life you need to work hard and attract those people that are there for the right reasons " . The line " bitches love cake " is repeatedly heard throughout the track ; Andy Hermann from DJZ interpreted the term " bitches " to be referring to " all superficial groupies who feed off of the success , beauty , and wealth of others . "
Borgore performed " Decisions " at the Music Box in Los Angeles on December 10 , 2012 . He had previously announced an appearance from a special guest , which was later revealed to be Cyrus . Jocelyn Vena from MTV News described it as " what might be one of her most risqué performances " , having worn sexually @-@ suggestive clothing and provocatively danced with a topless woman . In December 2013 , TheBajanCanadian released a parody of " Decisions " , renamed " Kings of the Hunger Games " , to the iTunes Store . Its lyrics are reworked to reference The Hunger Games film series . The song charted at number 38 on the U.S. Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs component chart to the flagship Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 5 @,@ 000 copies during the week of January 3 , 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Decisions " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated Cyrus ' inclusion and its diversity from her earlier works , but were ambivalent towards its overall production . Writing for Gurl , Jessica Sager spoke favorably of Cyrus ' background vocal delivery , and called it " a far cry from " Party in the U.S.A. " , but it ’ s still pretty awesome . " Jenna Hally Rubenstein from MTV Buzzworthy shared a similar sentiment ; despite being disappointed with Cyrus ' limited appearance on the track , Rubenstein complimented that " cool element of melodic lushness " that her voice provided . Matt Oliver of OC Weekly opined that " having [ Cyrus ] sing on a dubstep track is impressive " , and felt that it did not come across in the " pop gimmick " fashion that Justin Bieber 's EDM @-@ inspired track " As Long as You Love Me " appeared to .
Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush called the overall track " catchy " and described the cake metaphor mentioned throughout the song to be " hilarious " . However , Kia Makarechi from The Huffington Post provided a more mixed review of " Decisions " , feeling that it was " neither particularly inventive nor that cathartic " . Writing for YourEDM , Elliot Sachs was disappointed that Cyrus ' vocals came across as " faint and minuscule in comparison to all the brouhaha that is going on at the same time . " In February 2014 , Chris Wood from YourEDM noted that " Decisions " became an " interesting pivot point " in Borgore 's career , which " pushed [ him ] into the early stages of a pop icon within electronic music scene " .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Decisions " was directed by Christian Lamb , and was filmed at Beacher 's Madhouse in Los Angeles , California . The final product was premiered through Borgore 's YouTube channel on November 1 , 2012 . The clip begins with in Venice Beach , where Borgore is seen bringing a large cake to an upscale party in Hollywood . Several people are seen dressed in costumes and throwing pieces of cake at one another , while Cyrus is later revealed to have been hiding in the cake . She also makes out with her then @-@ fiancé Liam Hemsworth , who appears dressed as a unicorn . Borgore 's ex @-@ girlfriend , pornographic actress Jessie Andrews , is also featured in the video . Nate Jones from Popdust though that its entire concept was " very confusing " , but said he " still wouldn ’ t mind hanging out in it for a while . Hillary Buss from Entertainment Weekly was surprised that Cyrus was involved in the project , stating that " if you had told me five years ago that Miley Cyrus would one day be featured on an Israeli DJ ’ s dubstep track , I would have scoffed and replied , ' Hannah Montana ? Are you serious ? Also , what ’ s dubstep ? ' "
= = Track listings = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift =
Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift is an expansion pack for Valve Software 's science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game Half @-@ Life . The game was developed by Gearbox Software with Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Entertainment on June 12 , 2001 ( it was originally set for release in Spring ) . Blue Shift is the second expansion for Half @-@ Life , originally intended as part of a Dreamcast version of the original game . Although the Dreamcast port was later cancelled , the PC version continued development and was released as a standalone product . The game was released on Steam on August 24 , 2005 .
As with Gearbox 's previous expansion pack Opposing Force , Blue Shift returns to the setting and events of the original game , but portrays the story through the eyes of another person . The protagonist in Blue Shift is a security guard , Barney Calhoun , employed by the Black Mesa Research Facility . After a scientific mishap causes Black Mesa to be invaded by aliens , Calhoun must fight his way to safety . The game received mostly positive reception . Many reviewers were critical of the short length of the game and the lack of new content , although the inclusion of a High Definition pack that upgraded the models and textures in both Blue Shift and the preceding Half @-@ Life games was praised .
= = Gameplay = =
As an expansion pack for Half @-@ Life , Blue Shift is a first @-@ person shooter . The overall gameplay of Blue Shift does not significantly differ from that of Half @-@ Life : players are required to navigate through the game 's levels , fight hostile non @-@ player characters and solve a variety of puzzles to advance . The game continues Half @-@ Life 's methods of an unbroken narrative . The player sees everything through the first person perspective of the protagonist and remains in control of the player character for almost all of the game . Story events are conveyed through the use of scripted sequences rather than cut scenes . Progress through the game 's world is continuous ; although the game is divided up into chapters , the only significant pauses are when the game needs to load the next part of an environment .
The player battles through the game alone , but is occasionally assisted by friendly non @-@ player characters . Security guards and scientists will occasionally help the player in reaching new areas and convey relevant plot information . Blue Shift also includes a substantial section dedicated to keeping a major character in the story safe from enemy characters , and escorting him to a specific location . A selection of enemies from Half @-@ Life populate the game , including alien creatures such as headcrabs and Vortigaunts . The player also encounters human opponents in the form of a detachment of US Marines who have been sent to eliminate the alien threat and silence any witnesses . Blue Shift does not elaborate on the storyline in Opposing Force , the preceding expansion pack , and no enemy characters or weapons introduced in it appear in the game . The player is instead given access to a limited selection of Half @-@ Life 's original weaponry .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Blue Shift is set in the same location and time frame as that of Half @-@ Life , taking place at a remote New Mexico laboratory called the Black Mesa Research Facility . In Half @-@ Life , the player takes on the role of Gordon Freeman , a scientist involved in an accident that opens an inter @-@ dimensional portal to the borderworld of Xen , allowing the alien creatures of Xen to attack the facility . The player guides Freeman in an attempt to escape the facility and close the portal , ultimately traveling to Xen to do so . As in Opposing Force , Blue Shift shows the events of Half @-@ Life from the perspective of a different protagonist . The player assumes the role of Barney Calhoun , a security guard working near the labs where the accident takes place . Calhoun is responsible for the preservation of equipment and materials and the welfare of research personnel , and after the accident turns Black Mesa into a warzone , he must work with Dr. Rosenberg , a high @-@ ranking scientist involved in the experiment , to evacuate the facility .
= = = Plot = = =
Blue Shift begins in a similar manner to Half @-@ Life , as Barney Calhoun rides a train through the Black Mesa facility to reach his place of work . After reporting for duty , Calhoun is instructed to assist in maintenance on a malfunctioning elevator . As Calhoun finishes repairs , however , Freeman 's experiment takes place and results in a " resonance cascade " , causing massive damage to the facility and teleporting alien creatures into the base . The elevator is badly damaged and fails , sending Calhoun plummeting into the depths of Black Mesa .
Calhoun regains consciousness at the bottom of the shaft and begins to fight his way to the surface to escape . Emerging near Black Mesa 's classification yards , Calhoun learns that Dr. Rosenberg and his colleagues plan to escape the facility using teleportation technology . After freeing Rosenberg from the captivity of the US Marines detachment sent to silence the facility , Calhoun escorts him to a decommissioned prototype teleportation laboratory , where several Black Mesa employees have already gathered . Rosenberg then teleports Calhoun to the Xen border world to calibrate research equipment needed to pinpoint a teleport destination outside of Black Mesa . Upon his return , Rosenberg informs Calhoun that the teleporter 's battery power has been exhausted , and contact has been lost with a team sent to acquire a new power cell .
Calhoun travels to the power generators on a lower level to find a fresh power cell while firefights rage between the Marines and the forces of Xen . After returning with a new power cell , Calhoun assists Rosenberg in evacuating the few surviving personnel through the teleporter . Calhoun is the last to enter the portal and as he does so , Marines breach the laboratory and fire on him , causing the teleporter to explode . As a result of the teleporter 's destruction , Calhoun enters a " harmonic reflux " , causing him to be rapidly teleported to a variety of locations in Xen and Black Mesa . At one location , he witnesses Freeman 's capture by Marines mid @-@ way through Half @-@ Life , before eventually stabilizing at the intended teleport location with Rosenberg at the outskirts of Black Mesa , where they then escape the facility in a company SUV .
= = Development = =
A second Half @-@ Life expansion pack , revolving around a security guard in the facility , was first announced in the second quarter of 2000 as part of an upcoming Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life , under the working title Half @-@ Life : Guard Duty . Although the main Dreamcast port was to be developed by Captivation Digital Laboratories , the new expansion was to be developed by Gearbox Software , the same studio who developed Opposing Force . Publisher Sierra Entertainment later officially announced the expansion on August 30 , 2000 , revealing the name as Blue Shift . As with Opposing Force , the name Blue Shift has a double meaning , referring to both the blue shift light phenomenon , and the name of the shift that the protagonist is assigned to . The Dreamcast version of the game was set to include higher detail models and textures that were double the polygon count of Valve Software 's original Half @-@ Life models . At the European Computer Trade Show in September 2000 , information about Blue Shift 's story and development direction was revealed , along with a release date of November 1 , 2000 , for the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life . The game was delayed by Sierra to ensure the " high expectations of consumers " were met , anticipating release by the end of the year . Further media , gameplay and story information was released in the following weeks and months . Despite this , the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life still did not emerge , and speculation in May 2001 suggested the game would be cancelled . On June 16 , 2001 , Sierra terminated development on the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life , citing " changing market conditions " in a press release . GamePro magazine , however , received and published a 2 @-@ page review of the game . A late stage build of the Dreamcast version was eventually leaked to the Internet , featuring essentially complete versions of both Half @-@ Life and Blue Shift .
Although the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life was cancelled , Blue Shift persevered . Prior to the cancellation of the Dreamcast version , Sierra announced on March 29 , 2001 , that Blue Shift would be released for PC as well . The game would be released as a standalone expansion pack , a product that does not require the original Half @-@ Life to run . The new models developed for the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life would also be included in the PC version as the Half @-@ Life High Definition pack . In addition , Gearbox announced that the High Definition pack would not be exclusive for Blue Shift , but could be applied to both Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force as well . At the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2001 , Gearbox announced that development of Blue Shift had been completed , and exhibited a playable version of the end product . The game was released on June 12 , 2001 .
Blue Shift and the High Definition pack were initially absent from the launch of Valve 's content delivery system Steam in September 2003 , despite the presence of both Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force on the system . The game was released on Steam on August 29 , 2005 along with the High Definition Pack . Blue Shift was also published as part of Sierra 's Half @-@ Life : Generation compilation in 2002 , and as part of Valve Software and Electronic Arts ' Half Life 1 : Anthology on September 26 , 2005 .
= = Critical reception = =
Blue Shift received a mixed reaction from critics , holding overall scores of 67 @.@ 40 % and 71 / 100 on the review aggregator sites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . The game has sold around 800 @,@ 000 copies at retail ( this figure does not include later sales on Steam ) . In a review for IGN , critic Tal Blevins noted that Blue Shift 's gameplay " is pretty much what we 've come to expect out of Half @-@ Life " by blending action and puzzle solving , stating that the latter " were all logical and well done , although some of the jumping puzzles were frustrating " . Though IGN praised the game for maintaining the " epic " feel of the original , Blevins was critical of the relatively short length of the game . GameSpot reviewer Greg Kasavin agreed with many of IGN 's criticisms , stating that " it 's not that the game is easy so much that it 's extremely short " and that Blue Shift " doesn 't amount to much on its own terms " . In addition , Kasavin described the graphical enhancements brought about by the High Definition pack as " helpful " , but noted that " they still don 't make Half @-@ Life look like a new game — nor are many of the changes themselves very noticeable " .
Other reviews echoed complaints about the similarity of Blue Shift to previous games . GameSpy 's reviewer Jamie Madigan stated that " what really pulls the game down is the ' more of the same ' factor " . Although writing that the game " feels like just a few more levels for the original game " , he noted that this is what Blue Shift was designed to be , given its origins as an add @-@ on for a Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life . Madigan described the single @-@ player campaign as " decent " and commented that the High Definition pack made the game " worthy of consideration " . Eurogamer echoed criticism on the game 's length ; reviewer Tom Bradwell commented that " although I 'm hard pressed to criticize what you get , the complete absence of everything we 've learnt from the likes of Counter @-@ Strike and everything since is frankly bizarre " . Bradwell did , however , criticize the game 's artificial intelligence and the occasional bug that caused a player to get stuck on a wall . PC Zone 's Mark Hill was more lenient in his comments , praising the game 's artificial intelligence as " intelligent as you could hope an AI enemy to be " . In addition , Hill praised the game for showing more activity in the base , noting that " a whole world goes on around you , with people eating at a cantina and scientists doing their laundry . The complex is more alive than ever before " . Hill also praised the focus " on a greater interaction with scientists as proper people rather than the two or three models that were cloned throughout the facility who kept repeating the same phrases " , describing this as Blue Shift 's " greatest achievement " . PC Zone 's review closed by commenting that " as a Dreamcast extra it works perfectly , but as a standalone PC title there 's not nearly enough to it . "
|
= Charles Allen Thomas =
Charles Allen Thomas ( February 15 , 1900 – March 29 , 1982 ) was a noted American chemist and businessman , and an important figure in the Manhattan Project . He held over 100 patents .
A graduate of Transylvania College and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Thomas worked as a research chemist at General Motors as part of a team researching antiknock agents . This led to the development of tetraethyllead , which was widely used in motor fuels for many decades until its toxicity led to its prohibition . In 1926 , he and Carroll A. " Ted " Hochwalt co @-@ founded Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , with Thomas as president of the company . It was acquired by Monsanto in 1936 , and Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto , rising to become its president in 1950 , and chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965 . He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers , and developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride , which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions , publishing a book on the subject in 1941 .
From 1943 to 1945 , he coordinated Manhattan Project work on plutonium purification and production . He also coordinated development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the triggers of atomic weapons in the Manhattan Project 's Dayton Project , part of which was conducted on the estate of his wife 's family . Shortly before the war ended , he took over the management of the Clinton Laboratories in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Monsanto pulled out of Oak Ridge in December 1947 , but became the operator of the Mound Laboratories in 1948 . Secretary of State Dean Acheson appointed Thomas to serve on a 1946 panel to appraise international atomic inspection , which culminated in the Acheson – Lilienthal Report . In 1953 he was appointed as a consultant to the National Security Council , and served as U.S. Representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission .
= = Early life = =
Charles Allen Thomas was born on a farm in Scott County , Kentucky , the son of a Disciples of Christ minister , Charles Allen , and his wife Frances Carrick Thomas . His father died when he was six months old , and he and his mother went to live with his grandmother in Lexington , Kentucky , just across the street from Transylvania College . While living on the farm he was home schooled by his mother and grandmother . After moving to Lexington he attended Hamilton College 's preparatory school , and then Morton High School . When he was 16 , he entered Transylvania College , which awarded him his Bachelor of Arts ( AB ) degree in 1920 . During World War I , he served in the Student Army Training Corps , and for a time was a rifle instructor at Camp Perry . He then entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , from which he received a Master of Science ( MS ) degree , majoring in chemistry , in 1924 . To help pay for his tuition , he worked as a professional singer , and for a time he considered a career as a vocalist . His singing voice was described by his son as a high baritone .
In 1923 Charles F. Kettering and Carroll A. " Ted " Hochwalt recruited Thomas to work as a research chemist at General Motors ( GM ) . There , he worked with Thomas Midgley , Jr . , as part of Kettering 's team researching antiknock agents . This led to the development of tetraethyllead , which was used in motor fuels for many years before being banned in most parts of the world as a poison . At General Motors , Thomas also worked on a process for extracting bromine from sea water , and with Midgely on making synthetic rubber from isoprene . Thomas left General Motors in 1924 for a job as a research chemist , a joint venture between GM and Esso to make and sell tetraethyllead gasoline additives .
Thomas married Margaret Stoddard Talbott , the sister of Harold E. Talbott , Jr. on September 25 , 1926 . They had four children : Charles Allen Thomas III , Margaret Talbott , Frances Carrick , and Katharine Tudor . That year , he and Hochwalt co @-@ founded Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , with Thomas as president of the company . The company carried out research for various companies , looking into such diverse subjects as a fire extinguisher that would not freeze in unheated buildings , and a means to speed up the aging of whiskey . Their work attracted the attention of Edgar Monsanto Queeny , the chairman of Monsanto , who bought Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories for $ 1 @.@ 4 million in Monsanto stock in 1936 . Queeny moved Thomas to St Louis , Missouri , where he became director of Central Research , while Hochwalt remained in Dayton to work on Acrilan , Monsanto 's acrylic fiber .
Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto , becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942 , vice president in 1943 , executive vice president in 1947 , president in 1950 , and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965 . He subsequently served as chairman of Monsanto 's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968 . He retired in 1970 . In this time , Monsanto 's annual sales grew from $ 34 million to $ 1 @.@ 9 billion , and its expenditure on research from $ 6 @.@ 2 million to 101 @.@ 4 million . He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers . In studying the chemical reactions between alkenes and dienes , particularly in the presence of an aluminium chloride catalyst , he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride , which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions , including cracking , polymerization and dehydrogenation . This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In December 1942 , during World War II , Thomas joined the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) as the Deputy Chief of its Division 8 , which was responsible for propellants , explosives and the like . Early in 1943 , he travelled to the East with Richard Tolman , a member of the NDRC , and James B. Conant , the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC , to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive . Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas 's background . Thomas was then invited to a meeting in Washington DC with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and , as he discovered when he got there , Conant .
Groves and Conant were hoping to harness his industrial expertise for the benefit of the project . They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer , at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto . Instead he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos , the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , Radiation laboratory in Berkeley , and Ames Laboratory in Iowa . Monsanto 's Central Research Department began to conduct research on behalf of the Manhattan Project as part of the Manhattan Project 's Dayton Project , some of which was conducted on the estate of his wife 's family .
Initially , there were concerns about the purity of plutonium , an element about which little was known , but Thomas was able to report to Groves and Conant in June 1944 that techniques had been developed that would yield highly pure plutonium , and that the problem was solved . Unfortunately , experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos on reactor @-@ produced plutonium showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 , which has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 , making it unsuitable for use in the Thin Man gun @-@ type nuclear weapon design .
Thomas attended a series of crisis meetings in Chicago with Connant , Groves , Arthur Compton , Kenneth Nichols and Enrico Fermi . It was agreed that the isotopes could not be separated , so high @-@ purity plutonium would not be required . Thomas therefore decided to disband his plutonium purification team . The Los Alamos laboratory then turned to the technologically much more difficult task of building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon .
Monsanto was already working on a key component of the device . In April 1943 , Robert Serber had proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission , the chain reaction inside the bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources were radium @-@ beryllium and polonium @-@ beryllium . The later was chosen as it had a 140 @-@ day half life , which made it intense enough to be useful but long @-@ lived enough to be stockpiled . Thomas brought in Monsanto to work on the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the urchin detonators .
Thomas established the project in the Runnymede Playhouse on the grounds of his wife 's family estate in a wealthy residential section of Oakwood , a suburb of Dayton . He promised the Oakwood City Council that he would return the Runnymede Playhouse building intact after the war , but he was unable to keep this promise because the building became so badly contaminated with radioactivity . The facility , also known as Dayton Unit IV , was in use for nuclear work until 1949 when Mound Laboratories opened in Miamisburg , Ohio . The Playhouse was dismantled in 1950 , and buried in Oak Ridge , Tennessee .
Thomas was one of a number of scientists who watched their work come to fruition on July 16 , 1945 , at the Trinity nuclear test . For his work on the project , he received the Medal for Merit from the president Harry S. Truman in 1946 . On May 2 , 1945 , Groves and Thomas agreed that Monsanto would take over the running of the Clinton laboratories at Oak Ridge , Tennessee from July 1 , 1945 . Thomas brought in some 60 new staff from Dayton to help run the Clinton Laboratories , and he persuaded Eugene Wigner to come from Chicago to work on new reactor designs . Under Wigner , the Laboratories made a pioneering study of Wigner 's disease , the swelling and distortion of the graphite used as a moderator in reactors due the neutron bombardment produced in a reactor . Thomas became frustrated with restrictions on spending and the uncertainty about the future of the laboratory . In May 1947 , he decided not to renew the contract with the Atomic Energy Commission to operate the Clinton Laboratories on a month @-@ to @-@ month basis while a new operator was found . Union Carbide took over the contract in December 1947 . Monsanto was , however , given the contract to operate the new Mound Laboratories in early 1948 .
= = Later life = =
In 1946 Secretary of State Dean Acheson appointed Thomas to serve on a panel with Robert Oppenheimer , David Lilienthal , Chester I. Barnard and Harry Winne to appraise international atomic inspection , culminating in the Acheson – Lilienthal Report . In 1951 Truman appointed Thomas to the Science Advisory Committee , an eleven @-@ man committee of prominent scientists to advise on defense planning . In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed him a scientific consultant to the National Security Council , and he was the U.S. Representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . In the wake of the Sputnik crisis , Thomas was part of a group that persuaded Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy to establish DARPA .
Thomas served as a trustee of the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Universities Research Association , a curator of Transylvania College , chairman of the board of trustees of Washington University , a member of the Corporation that runs MIT , and the chairman of the board of directors of the Washington University Medical Center . He was also member of the board of directors of several companies , including Chemstrand Corporation , Southwestern Bell , St. Louis Union Trust , the First National Bank in St. Louis , the Central Institute for the Deaf , Metropolitan Life Insurance , RAND Corporation and the Civic Center Redevelopment Corporation of St. Louis . He was involved with organizations including the Boy Scouts of America , Radio Free Europe and the St Louis Research Council .
Thomas was elected to the National Academy of Sciences at age forty @-@ eight and was one of the founding members of the National Academy of Engineering . He was also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In addition , he received over 100 patents , the Industrial Research Institute Medal in 1947 , the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal in 1948 , the Missouri Award for Distinguished Service in Engineering in 1952 , the Society of Chemical Industry 's Perkin Medal in 1953 , the American Chemical Society Priestley Medal in 1955 , the Societe de Chimie Industrielle Palladium Medal in 1963 , the American Academy of Achievement Gold Plate Award in 1965 , and the St. Louis Globe @-@ Democrat Man of the Year award in 1966 .
Thomas was concerned that the United States did not spend enough money on basic research . To this end he donated $ 600 @,@ 000 to Washington University in St. Louis as an endowment for a chair , the Charles Allen Thomas Professor of Chemistry . He rejected the notion large corporations as being driven solely or mainly by greed . In a 1952 speech he enjoined his fellow businessmen to " remember that our businesses and their profits are only a means to an end , a means toward making Americans happier and America a stronger and more unified nation . "
In retirement , Thomas spent much of his time managing Magnolia Plantation , a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) family farm near Albany , Georgia , where he employed a staff of 50 and grew peanuts , pecans , soybeans , corn and timber . His first wife died in 1975 , and he married Margaret Chandler Porter in 1980 . He died at his farm on March 29 , 1982 . He was survived by his second wife and four children . His papers are collected at Washington University .
|
= Amino acid =
Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds containing amine ( -NH2 ) and carboxylic acid ( -COOH ) functional groups , usually along with a side @-@ chain ( R group ) specific to each amino acid . The key elements of an amino acid are carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and nitrogen , though other elements are found in the side @-@ chains of certain amino acids . About 500 amino acids are known ( though only 20 appear in the genetic code ) and can be classified in many ways . They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups ' locations as alpha- ( α- ) , beta- ( β- ) , gamma- ( γ- ) or delta- ( δ- ) amino acids ; other categories relate to polarity , pH level , and side @-@ chain group type ( aliphatic , acyclic , aromatic , containing hydroxyl or sulfur , etc . ) . In the form of proteins , amino acids comprise the second @-@ largest component ( water is the largest ) of human muscles , cells and other tissues . Outside proteins , amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis .
In biochemistry , amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first ( alpha- ) carbon atom have particular importance . They are known as 2- , alpha- , or α @-@ amino acids ( generic formula H2NCHRCOOH in most cases , where R is an organic substituent known as a " side @-@ chain " ) ; often the term " amino acid " is used to refer specifically to these . They include the 23 proteinogenic ( " protein @-@ building " ) amino acids , which combine into peptide chains ( " polypeptides " ) to form the building @-@ blocks of a vast array of proteins . These are all L @-@ stereoisomers ( " left @-@ handed " isomers ) , although a few D @-@ amino acids ( " right @-@ handed " ) occur in bacterial envelopes , as a neuromodulator ( D @-@ serine ) , and in some antibiotics . Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as " standard " amino acids . The other three ( " non @-@ standard " or " non @-@ canonical " ) are selenocysteine ( present in many noneukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archea and one bacterium ) and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons ; for example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element . Codon – tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to " expand " the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids .
Many important proteinogenic and non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids also play critical non @-@ protein roles within the body . For example , in the human brain , glutamate ( standard glutamic acid ) and gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( " GABA " , non @-@ standard gamma @-@ amino acid ) are , respectively , the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters ; hydroxyproline ( a major component of the connective tissue collagen ) is synthesised from proline ; the standard amino acid glycine is used to synthesise porphyrins used in red blood cells ; and the non @-@ standard carnitine is used in lipid transport .
Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called " essential " for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food . Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions . Essential amino acids may also differ between species .
Because of their biological significance , amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements , fertilizers , and food technology . Industrial uses include the production of drugs , biodegradable plastics , and chiral catalysts .
= = History = =
The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century . In 1806 , French chemists Louis @-@ Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine , the first amino acid to be discovered . Cystine was discovered in 1810 , although its monomer , cysteine , remained undiscovered until 1884 . Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820 . The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose , who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth .
Usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898 . Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis . In 1902 , Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister proposed that proteins are the result of the formation of bonds between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another , in a linear structure that Fischer termed " peptide " .
= = General structure = =
In the structure shown at the top of the page , R represents a side @-@ chain specific to each amino acid . The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group ( which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group ) is called the α – carbon . Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids . These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines , which used to be often referred to as " imino acids " .
= = = Isomerism = = =
The alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature , but only when occurring in the L @-@ isomer . The alpha carbon is a chiral carbon atom , with the exception of glycine which has two indistinguishable hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon . Therefore , all alpha amino acids but glycine can exist in either of two enantiomers , called L or D amino acids , which are mirror images of each other ( see also Chirality ) . While L @-@ amino acids represent all of the amino acids found in proteins during translation in the ribosome , D @-@ amino acids are found in some proteins produced by enzyme posttranslational modifications after translation and translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum , as in exotic sea @-@ dwelling organisms such as cone snails . They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria , and D @-@ serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain . D @-@ amino acids are used in racemic crystallography to create centrosymmetric crystals , which ( depending on the protein ) may allow for easier and more robust protein structure determination . The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can , in theory , be synthesized ( D @-@ glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory ; L @-@ glyceraldehyde is levorotatory ) . In alternative fashion , the ( S ) and ( R ) designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry . Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are ( S ) at the α carbon , with cysteine being ( R ) and glycine non @-@ chiral . Cysteine has its side @-@ chain in the same geometric position as the other amino acids , but the R / S terminology is reversed because of the higher atomic number of sulfur compared to the carboxyl oxygen gives the side @-@ chain a higher priority , whereas the atoms in most other side @-@ chains give them lower priority .
= = = Side chains = = =
In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α – carbon ( such as lysine , shown to the right ) the carbons are labeled in order as α , β , γ , δ , and so on . In some amino acids , the amine group is attached to the β or γ @-@ carbon , and these are therefore referred to as beta or gamma amino acids .
Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side @-@ chain into four groups . The side @-@ chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base , and a hydrophile if the side @-@ chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar . The chemical structures of the 22 standard amino acids , along with their chemical properties , are described more fully in the article on these proteinogenic amino acids .
The phrase " branched @-@ chain amino acids " or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side @-@ chains that are non @-@ linear ; these are leucine , isoleucine , and valine . Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side @-@ group links to the α @-@ amino group and , thus , is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position . In chemical terms , proline is , therefore , an imino acid , since it lacks a primary amino group , although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature , and may also be called an " N @-@ alkylated alpha @-@ amino acid " .
= = = Zwitterions = = =
The α @-@ carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid , meaning that it releases a hydron ( such as a proton ) at moderate pH values . In other words , carboxylic acid groups ( − CO2H ) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates ( − CO2 − ) . The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group ( mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2 @.@ 2 , see the table of amino acid structures above ) . In a complementary fashion , the α @-@ amine of amino acids is a weak base , meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values . In other words , α @-@ amino groups ( NH2 − ) can be protonated to become positive α @-@ ammonium groups ( + NH3 − ) . The positively charged α @-@ ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α @-@ ammonium group ( mean for the 20 common α @-@ amino acids is about 9 @.@ 4 ) .
Because all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups , they share amphiprotic properties . Below pH 2 @.@ 2 , the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α @-@ ammonium ion ( net charge + 1 ) , and above pH 9 @.@ 4 , a negative carboxylate and neutral α @-@ amino group ( net charge − 1 ) . But at pH between 2 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 4 , an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α @-@ ammonium group , as shown in structure ( 2 ) on the right , so has net zero charge . This molecular state is known as a zwitterion , from the German Zwitter meaning hermaphrodite or hybrid . The fully neutral form ( structure ( 1 ) on the right ) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range ( less than 1 part in 107 ) . Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase , and crystallize with salt @-@ like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines .
= = = Isoelectric point = = =
The variation in titration curves when the amino acids are grouped by category can be seen here . With the exception of tyrosine , using titration to differentiate between hydrophobic amino acids is problematic .
At pH values between the two pKa values , the zwitterion predominates , but coexists in dynamic equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions . At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values , the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance , so that average net charge of all forms present is zero . This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI , so pI |
= ½ ( pKa1 + pKa2 ) . The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values , so have different isoelectric points . For amino acids with charged side @-@ chains , the pKa of the side @-@ chain is involved . Thus for Asp , Glu with negative side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKa1 + pKaR ) , where pKaR is the side @-@ chain pKa . Cysteine also has potentially negative side @-@ chain with pKaR |
= 8 @.@ 14 , so pI should be calculated as for Asp and Glu , even though the side @-@ chain is not significantly charged at neutral pH . For His , Lys , and Arg with positive side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKaR + pKa2 ) . Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point , although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids . Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point and some amino acids ( in particular , with non @-@ polar side @-@ chains ) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point .
= = Occurrence and functions in biochemistry = =
= = = Proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Amino acids are the structural units ( monomers ) that make up proteins . They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins . These polymers are linear and unbranched , with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids . The process of making proteins is called translation and involves the step @-@ by @-@ step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome . The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template , which is a RNA copy of one of the organism 's genes .
Twenty @-@ two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids . Of these , 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code . The remaining 2 , selenocysteine and pyrrolysine , are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms . Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element , which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon . Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane . It is coded for with the codon UAG , which is normally a stop codon in other organisms . This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence .
= = = Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids , there are many other amino acids that are called non @-@ proteinogenic . Those either are not found in proteins ( for example carnitine , GABA ) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery ( for example , hydroxyproline and selenomethionine ) .
Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post @-@ translational modification , which is modification after translation during protein synthesis . These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein ; for example , the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations , and the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues . Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A , through modification of a lysine residue . Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein , e.g. , the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane .
Some non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins . Examples include lanthionine , 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid , dehydroalanine , and the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid . Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example , ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle , part of amino acid catabolism ( see below ) . A rare exception to the dominance of α @-@ amino acids in biology is the β @-@ amino acid beta alanine ( 3 @-@ aminopropanoic acid ) , which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid ( vitamin B5 ) , a component of coenzyme A.
= = = D @-@ amino acid natural abundance = = =
D @-@ isomers are uncommon in live organisms . For instance , gramicidin is a polypeptide made up from mixture of D- and L @-@ amino acids . Other compounds containing D @-@ amino acids are tyrocidine and valinomycin . These compounds disrupt bacterial cell walls , particularly in Gram @-@ positive bacteria . Only 837 D @-@ amino acids were found in Swiss @-@ Prot database ( 187 million amino acids analysed ) .
= = = Non @-@ standard amino acids = = =
The 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called standard or canonical amino acids . The others are called non @-@ standard or non @-@ canonical . Most of the non @-@ standard amino acids are also non @-@ proteinogenic ( i.e. they cannot be used to build proteins ) , but three of them are proteinogenic , as they can be used to build proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code .
The three non @-@ standard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine ( present in many non @-@ eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archaea and one bacterium ) , and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . For example , 25 human proteins include selenocysteine ( Sec ) in their primary structure , and the structurally characterized enzymes ( selenoenzymes ) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons . For example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element .
= = = In human nutrition = = =
When taken up into the human body from the diet , the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase ; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle . The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle . Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis . Of the 20 standard amino acids , nine ( His , Ile , Leu , Lys , Met , Phe , Thr , Trp and Val ) , are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth , so they must be obtained from food . In addition , cysteine , taurine , tyrosine , and arginine are considered semiessential amino @-@ acids in children ( though taurine is not technically an amino acid ) , because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed . The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual , so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids . Dietary exposure to the non @-@ standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases , including ALS .
= = = Non @-@ protein functions = = =
In humans , non @-@ protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates , such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( GABA ) . Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules , for example :
Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin .
Tyrosine ( and its precursor phenylalanine ) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine , epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines .
Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans . In plants , it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids , which are important in plant metabolism .
Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme .
Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide .
Ornithine and S @-@ adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines .
Aspartate , glycine , and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides .
However , not all of the functions of other abundant non @-@ standard amino acids are known .
Some non @-@ standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants . For example , canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes , and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata ( sword bean ) . This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing . The non @-@ protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume , in particular Leucaena leucocephala . This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants .
= = Uses in industry = =
Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry , but their main use is as additives to animal feed . This is necessary , since many of the bulk components of these feeds , such as soybeans , either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids : lysine , methionine , threonine , and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds . In this industry , amino acids are also used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from supplements , which may be required to improve the health or production of these animals .
The food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids , in particular , glutamic acid , which is used as a flavor enhancer , and aspartame ( aspartyl @-@ phenylalanine @-@ 1 @-@ methyl ester ) as a low @-@ calorie artificial sweetener . Similar technology to that used for animal nutrition is employed in the human nutrition industry to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies , such as anemia , by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation .
The chelating ability of amino acids has been used in fertilizers for agriculture to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies , such as iron chlorosis . These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and improving the overall health of the plants . The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics .
Similarly , some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry . They include 5 @-@ HTP ( 5 @-@ hydroxytryptophan ) used for experimental treatment of depression , L @-@ DOPA ( L @-@ dihydroxyphenylalanine ) for Parkinson 's treatment , and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness .
= = = Expanded genetic code = = =
Since 2001 , 40 non @-@ natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon ( recoding ) and a corresponding transfer @-@ RNA : aminoacyl – tRNA @-@ synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins .
= = = Nullomers = = =
Nullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid , however in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another , for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine . This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome . This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer @-@ fighting drugs and to prevent cross @-@ contamination of DNA samples from crime @-@ scene investigations .
= = = Chemical building blocks = = =
Amino acids are important as low @-@ cost feedstocks . These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building @-@ blocks .
Amino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts , e.g. , for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions , although no commercial applications exist .
= = = Biodegradable plastics = = =
Amino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers . These materials have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants . These polymers include polypeptides , polyamides , polyesters , polysulfides , and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains or bonded as side @-@ chains . These modifications alter the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers . An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate , a water @-@ soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture . Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions , polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti @-@ scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor . In addition , the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates .
= = Reactions = =
As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group , these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups . These include nucleophilic addition , amide bond formation , and imine formation for the amine group , and esterification , amide bond formation , and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group . The combination of these functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal @-@ amino acid chelates . The multiple side @-@ chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions . The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side @-@ chains and are , therefore , different between the various types of amino acid .
= = = Chemical synthesis = = =
Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids . One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α @-@ carbon of a carboxylic acid . Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid . In alternative fashion , the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia , this produces an α @-@ amino nitrile as an intermediate . Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields a α @-@ amino acid . Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids , whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids . Likewise , using ketones , instead of aldehydes , gives α , α @-@ disubstituted amino acids . The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α @-@ amino acids as products , but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed .
At the current time , the most @-@ adopted method is an automated synthesis on a solid support ( e.g. , polystyrene beads ) , using protecting groups ( e.g. , Fmoc and t @-@ Boc ) and activating groups ( e.g. , DCC and DIC ) .
= = = Peptide bond formation = = =
As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds , one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage . This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins . This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water . In cells , this reaction does not occur directly ; instead , the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond . As a result of this mechanism , all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N @-@ terminus and moving toward their C @-@ terminus .
However , not all peptide bonds are formed in this way . In a few cases , peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes . For example , the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress . This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids . In the first step , gamma @-@ glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side @-@ chain carboxyl of the glutamate ( the gamma carbon of this side @-@ chain ) and the amino group of the cysteine . This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione .
In chemistry , peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions . One of the most @-@ used in solid @-@ phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units . These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain , which is attached to a solid resin support . The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids ( using combinatorial chemistry ) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high @-@ throughput screening .
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
In plants , nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate , formed from alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion . In order to form other amino acids , the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha @-@ keto carboxylic acid . For example , aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and aspartate . Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis , too .
Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids . For example , homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S @-@ adenosyl methionine , while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline .
Microorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids . For example , some microbes make 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine , which is a sulfide @-@ bridged derivative of alanine . Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin . However , in plants , 1 @-@ aminocyclopropane @-@ 1 @-@ carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene .
= = = Catabolism = = =
Amino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters , since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized . Degradation of an amino acid , occurring in the liver and kidneys , often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate , forming glutamate . This process involves transaminases , often the same as those used in amination during synthesis . In many vertebrates , the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea . However , amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead . For example , serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia . After removal of one or more amino groups , the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids , or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle , as detailed in image at right .
= = Physicochemical properties of amino acids = =
The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties . Important factors are charge , hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity , size , and functional groups . These properties are important for protein structure and protein – protein interactions . The water @-@ soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues ( Leu , Ile , Val , Phe , and Trp ) buried in the middle of the protein , whereas hydrophilic side @-@ chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent . ( Note that in biochemistry , a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide , protein or nucleic acid . ) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer . In the case part @-@ way between these two extremes , some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane . In similar fashion , proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate , while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine . There are different hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues .
Some amino acids have special properties such as cysteine , that can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues , proline that forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone , and glycine that is more flexible than other amino acids .
Many proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications , when additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acids in proteins . Some modifications can produce hydrophobic lipoproteins , or hydrophilic glycoproteins . These type of modification allow the reversible targeting of a protein to a membrane . For example , the addition and removal of the fatty acid palmitic acid to cysteine residues in some signaling proteins causes the proteins to attach and then detach from cell membranes .
= = = Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties = = =
Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons :
In addition to the specific amino acid codes , placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue . They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs . The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases .
Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa , but is less standard .
In addition , many non @-@ standard amino acids have a specific code . For example , several peptide drugs , such as Bortezomib and MG132 , are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups , which have specific codes . Bortezomib is Pyz @-@ Phe @-@ boroLeu , and MG132 is Z @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ al . To aid in the analysis of protein structure , photo @-@ reactive amino acid analogs are available . These include photoleucine ( pLeu ) and photomethionine ( pMet ) .
|
= Adaptation ( film ) =
Adaptation ( stylized as Adaptation . , with the period included ) is a 2002 American comedy metafilm directed by Spike Jonze and written by Charlie Kaufman . The film is based on Susan Orlean 's non @-@ fiction book The Orchid Thief , with numerous self @-@ referential events added . The film stars Nicolas Cage as Charlie and Donald Kaufman , and Meryl Streep as Susan Orlean , Chris Cooper as John Laroche , with Cara Seymour , Brian Cox , Tilda Swinton , Ron Livingston and Maggie Gyllenhaal in supporting roles .
Though the film is billed as an adaptation of The Orchid Thief , its primary narrative focus is Charlie Kaufman 's struggle to adapt The Orchid Thief into a film , while dramatizing the events of the book in parallel . Adaptation also adds a number of fictitious elements , including Kaufman 's twin brother ( also credited as a writer for the film ) and a romance between Orlean and Laroche , and culminates in completely invented events including fictional versions of Orlean and Laroche three years after the events related in The Orchid Thief , Kaufman and his fictional twin brother .
The film had been in development as far back as 1994 . Jonathan Demme brought the project to Columbia Pictures with Kaufman writing the script . Kaufman experienced writer 's block and did not know what to think of The Orchid Thief . Finally he wrote a script based on his experience of adapting the book into a screenplay . Jonze signed to direct , and filming was finished in June 2001 . Adaptation received awards at the 75th Academy Awards , 60th Golden Globe Awards and 56th British Academy Film Awards . Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , while Kaufman won the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay .
= = Plot = =
The self @-@ loathing Charlie Kaufman is hired to write the screenplay for The Orchid Thief . Kaufman is going through depression and is not happy that his twin brother , Donald , has moved into his house and is taking advantage of him . Donald decides to become a screenwriter like Charlie and attends one of Robert McKee 's famous seminars .
Charlie , who rejects formulaic script writing , wants to ensure that his script is a faithful adaptation of The Orchid Thief . However , he comes to realize that the book does not have a usable narrative and that it is impossible to turn into a film , leaving him with a serious case of writer 's block . Already well over his deadline with Columbia Pictures , and despairing at writing his script with self @-@ reference , Charlie travels to New York to discuss the screenplay with Orlean directly . Unable to face her and with the surprising news that Donald 's spec script for a clichéd psychological thriller , called The 3 , is selling for six or seven figures , Kaufman resorts to attending McKee 's seminar in New York and asks him for advice . Charlie ends up asking Donald to join him in New York to assist with the story structure .
Donald pretends to be Charlie and interviews Orlean , but is suspicious of her account of the events of her book because she acts as though she is lying . He and his brother Charlie follow Orlean to Florida where she meets Laroche , the orchid @-@ stealing protagonist of Orlean 's book and her secret lover . It is revealed that the Seminole wanted the ghost orchid in order to manufacture a drug that causes fascination ; Laroche introduces this drug to Orlean . After Laroche and Orlean catch Charlie observing them taking the drug and having sex , she decides that Charlie must die .
Orlean forces Charlie at gunpoint to drive to the swamp , where she intends to kill him . Charlie and Donald escape and hide in the swamp , where they resolve their differences and Charlie 's problems with women . Laroche accidentally shoots Donald . Fleeing , Charlie and Donald drive off but crash into a ranger 's truck ; Donald dies in the accident . Charlie runs off into the swamp to hide but is spotted by Laroche . However , Laroche is killed by an alligator before being able to kill Charlie .
Orlean is arrested . Charlie makes up with his mother , tells his former love interest Amelia that he is still in love with her , and finishes the script . It ends with Charlie in a voice @-@ over announcing the script is finished and that he wants Gérard Depardieu to portray him in the film .
= = Cast = =
Nicolas Cage as Charlie Kaufman / Donald Kaufman
Meryl Streep as Susan Orlean
Chris Cooper as John Laroche
Cara Seymour as Amelia Kavan
Brian Cox as Robert McKee
Tilda Swinton as Valerie Thomas
Ron Livingston as Marty Bowen
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Caroline Cunningham
Judy Greer as Alice
Stephen Tobolowsky ( deleted scenes ) as Ranger Steve Neely
Bob Yerkes as Charles Darwin
Jim Beaver as Ranger Tony
Tom Hanks was originally set for the double role of Charlie and Donald Kaufman . Variety reviewed the film as if Donald were a real person . Cage took the role for a $ 5 million salary , and wore a fatsuit during filming .
Streep expressed strong interest in the role of Susan Orlean before being cast , and took a salary cut in recognition of the film 's budget . John Turturro was approached to portray John Laroche . Cooper strongly considered turning down Laroche , but accepted it after his wife urged him to . Albert Finney , Christopher Plummer , Terence Stamp and Michael Caine were considered for the role of Robert McKee , but McKee personally suggested Brian Cox to filmmakers .
Litefoot and Jay Tavare have small roles as Seminole . John Cusack , Catherine Keener , John Malkovich , Lance Acord and Spike Jonze have uncredited cameos as themselves in scenes where Charlie Kaufman is on the set of Being John Malkovich , which he also wrote . Additional cameos include Doug Jones as Augustus Margary , director Curtis Hanson as Orlean 's husband , and David O. Russell as a New Yorker journalist .
= = Production = =
The idea to do a film adaptation of Susan Orlean 's The Orchid Thief dates back to 1994 . Fox 2000 purchased the film rights in 1997 , eventually selling them to Jonathan Demme , who set the project at Columbia Pictures . Charlie Kaufman was hired to write the script , but struggled with the adaptation and writer 's block . Kaufman eventually created a script of his experience in adaptation , exaggerating events , and creating a fictional brother named Donald Kaufman . Kaufman put Donald Kaufman 's name on the script and dedicated the film to the fictional character . By September 1999 , Kaufman had written two drafts of the script ; he turned in a third draft in November 2000 .
Kaufman explained ,
The idea of how to write the film didn 't come to me until quite late . It was the only idea I had , I liked it , and I knew there was no way it would be approved if I pitched it . So I just wrote it and never told the people I was writing it for . I only told Spike Jonze , as we were making Being John Malkovich and he saw how frustrated I was . Had he said I was crazy , I don 't know what I would have done .
In addition Kaufman stated , " I really thought I was ending my career by turning that in ! "
Adaptation went on fast track in April 2000 , with Kaufman making some revisions . Scott Brake of IGN gave the script a positive review in June 2000 , as did Drew " Moriarty " McWeeny of Ain 't It Cool News in October . Columbia Pictures committed to North America distribution only after Intermedia came aboard to finance the film in exchange for international distribution rights . Filming started in late March 2001 in Los Angeles , and finished by June . The " evolution " fantasy sequence was created by Digital Domain , while Skywalker Sound was responsible for the audio mixing of Adaptation . The makeup effects ( the Nicolas Cage double , Chris Cooper 's teeth , and the alligator attack ) were the handiwork of Makeup Effects Designer Tony Gardner ( designer ) , and his effects company Alterian , Inc .
= = Release = =
Columbia Pictures had at one point announced a late 2001 theatrical release date . Adaptation opened on December 6 , 2002 in the United States for a limited release . The film was released nationwide on February 14 , 2003 , earning $ 1 @,@ 130 @,@ 480 in its opening weekend in 672 theaters . Adaptation. went on to gross $ 22 @.@ 5 million in North America and $ 10 @.@ 3 million in foreign countries , coming at a total of $ 32 @.@ 8 million .
= = = Home media = = =
Adaptation was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in September 2012 . The DVD is compatible with region code 4 and includes special features such as the behind the scenes featurette titled How To Shoot In A Swamp and talent profiles .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a 91 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 198 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Dizzyingly original , the loopy , multi @-@ layered Adaptation is both funny and thought @-@ provoking . " On Metacritic , the film holds a score of 83 out of 100 , based on 40 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film a perfect four star rating , believing that the film " leaves you breathless with curiosity , as it teases itself with the directions it might take . To watch the film is to be actively involved in the challenge of its creation . " He later added the film to his " Great Movies " collection . At the end of 2009 , Ebert named the film one of the best of the decade . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film a four star rating , and praised Kaufman 's writing , stating " Screenwriting this smart , inventive , passionate and rip @-@ roaringly funny is a rare species . So all praise to Charlie Kaufman , working with director Spike Jonze to create the most original and outrageous film comedy since the two first teamed on Being John Malkovich , in 1999 . " Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote , " This is epic , funny , tragic , demanding , strange , original , boldly sincere filmmaking . And the climax , the portion that either sinks the entire movie or self @-@ critically explains how so many others derail , is bananas . " David Ansen of Newsweek felt Meryl Streep had not " been this much fun to watch in years " , while Mike Clark of USA Today gave a largely negative review , mainly criticizing the ending : " Too smart to ignore but a little too smugly superior to like , this could be a movie that ends up slapping its target audience in the face by shooting itself in the foot . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Chris Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , while Nicolas Cage ( Actor in a Leading Role ) and Streep ( Supporting Actress ) were nominated . Charlie and Donald Kaufman were nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay . Cooper and Streep won their respective categories at the 60th Golden Globe Awards . Spike Jonze , Cage and Kaufman were nominated for awards while Adaptation was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . Cage , Cooper and Streep received nominations at the 56th British Academy Film Awards , with Kaufman winning Best Adapted Screenplay . The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
In a 2005 survey , the Writers Guild of America named Kaufman 's screenplay for Adaptation the 77th best movie screenplay ever written .
|
= Wilhelmina FitzClarence , Countess of Munster =
Wilhelmina FitzClarence , Countess of Munster ( née Kennedy @-@ Erskine ; 27 June 1830 – 9 October 1906 ) was a British peeress and novelist . Her mother , Lady Augusta FitzClarence , was an illegitimate daughter of William IV of the United Kingdom ; Wilhelmina , also known as Mina , was born the day after William 's succession as monarch . She travelled as a young girl throughout Europe , visiting the courts of France and Hanover . In 1855 , Mina married her first cousin William FitzClarence , 2nd Earl of Munster ; they would have nine children , including the 3rd and 4th Earls of Munster .
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton . Later in life , Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer . In 1889 , she released her first novel , Dorinda ; a second , A Scotch Earl , followed two years later . The year 1896 saw the publication of Ghostly Tales , a collection of tales on the supernatural which have largely been forgotten today . Lady Munster also produced an autobiography entitled My Memories and Miscellanies , which was released in 1904 . She died two years later .
= = Family and early life = =
Wilhelmina " Mina " Kennedy @-@ Erskine was born on 27 June 1830 in Dun House , Montrose , Scotland . She was the second child of the Hon. John Kennedy @-@ Erskine and his wife Lady Augusta FitzClarence , an illegitimate daughter of William IV ( who became monarch the day before Mina 's birth ) . Her father , the second son of the 13th Earl of Cassilis , was a captain with the 16th Lancers and an equerry to King William before dying in 1831 at the age of 28 . Her paternal grandmother , Anne Watts , was a descendant of the Schuyler family , the Van Cortlandt family ( including Stephanus Van Cortlandt ) , and the Delancey family of British North America .
Mina lived with her widowed mother and two siblings in a " charming brick house " on the River Thames called Railshead , which was next door to a house owned by her paternal grandparents . King William visited the family often and was quite fond of Mina ; on one occasion , he visited to comfort his daughter when three- or four @-@ year @-@ old Mina nearly died of a " very dangerous brain fever " . The Kennedy @-@ Erskines also often visited Windsor Castle during the king 's reign .
Five years after Kennedy @-@ Erskine 's death , Lady Augusta married Lord Frederick Gordon @-@ Hallyburton , a decision that displeased her first husband 's parents . The decision led to Lady Augusta 's departure from Railshead . In 1837 she became State Housekeeper at Kensington Palace after the death of her sister , Lady De L 'Isle . Mina lived there until she married . She and her sister Millicent enjoyed music and had a particular love for the Italian soprano Marietta Alboni . The sisters ' Italian singing @-@ master secretly arranged for a meeting with Alboni , but the encounter did not go well ; the singer discovered that they were the daughters of the " housekeeper " , and , assuming that they were not ladies , departed soon after .
In the late 1840s , Mina travelled through Europe with her family so that they might " learn languages and finish [ their ] education " . The trip started in 1847 , when Mina journeyed to Dresden due to her mother 's desire for her daughters to learn German . From 1847 to 1849 , she and her family lived in Paris near the Arc de Triomphe , and were kindly received by the French Royal Family headed by Louis Philippe I and Queen Marie Amalie . They left soon after the king and queen 's fall from power , as the city had suddenly become unsafe for those of their rank . In 1850 , they visited the court of Hanover and were received by Ernest Augustus I of Hanover and his family ; later that year , they returned to Kensington Palace and Mina and Millicent came out in society .
= = Marriage = =
Mina married her full first cousin William FitzClarence , 2nd Earl of Munster at Wemyss Castle on 17 April 1855 in a double wedding in which her sister Millicent married James Hay Erskine Wemyss . Like Mina , FitzClarence was a grandchild of William IV ; at a young age , he had succeeded his father the 1st Earl , who served as a governor of Windsor Castle and constable of the Round Tower until his suicide in 1842 . The FitzClarences travelled to Hamburg immediately after the wedding , visiting local schlosses and the family of Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein ( who later married The Princess Helena ) . Their first child , Edward , was born within a year . The couple would have nine children , four of whom outlived their mother :
Edward , Viscount FitzClarence ( 29 March 1856 – 1870 )
Hon. Lionel Frederick Archibald ( 24 July 1857 – 24 March 1863 )
Geoffrey FitzClarence , 3rd Earl of Munster ( 18 July 1859 – 2 February 1902 ) ; died without issue
Hon. Arthur Falkland Manners ( 18 October 1860 – 1861 )
Aubrey FitzClarence , 4th Earl of Munster ( 7 June 1862 – 1 January 1928 ) ; died without issue
Hon. William George ( 17 September 1864 – 4 October 1899 ) ; married Charlotte Elizabeth Williams
Hon. Harold Edward ( 15 November 1870 – 28 August 1926 ) ; married Frances Isabel Eleanor Keppel ; their son was the 5th Earl of Munster
Lady Lillian Adelaide Katherine Mary ( 10 December 1873 – 15 July 1948 ) ; married Captain William Arthur Boyd
Lady Dorothea Augusta ( 5 May 1876 – 1942 ) ; married Major Chandos Brydges Lee @-@ Warner
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton . According to an article in contemporary women 's magazine The Lady 's Realm , the Countess lived a very quiet life . In 1897 , the magazine reported that she had lived in retirement in Brighton for the past thirty @-@ five years . Her attachment to the city , the article suggested , was due to childhood memories of visiting there with King William . The article also stated that because Lord Munster 's health was failing , the Countess was living in " comparative seclusion " , though her lifestyle was also attributed to a love of a " quiet , literary , and artistic life " . She died on 9 October 1906 , having been widowed five years .
= = Literary career = =
Later in life , Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer , writing under the title the Countess of Munster . At the age of nearly sixty , she published two novels ; her first , Dorinda , in 1889 , and her second , A Scotch Earl , in 1891 . The plot of Dorinda centred on a young woman who eventually kills herself after stealing works of art from her friends . Oscar Wilde noted Munster 's skill in writing Dorinda ; he compared the " exceedingly clever " novel 's eponymous heroine to " a sort of well @-@ born " Becky Sharp , and praised the author 's ability " to draw ... in a few sentences the most lifelike portraits of social types and social exceptions " . In 1888 , an article by Munster about ballad singing appeared in The Woman 's World , a Victorian women 's magazine edited by Wilde . A Scotch Earl , which centred on a vulgar Scottish nobleman named Lord Invergordon , was less well received by contemporaries . The Spectator published a critical review soon after its publication which suggested that the novel 's showering of " contempt upon the society of wealth and rank " was close to Republicanism or Socialism . The review criticised A Scotch Earl for lacking " any merits of construction or style " , and added that Lady Munster was " not and never will be a capable novelist " .
In 1896 , Munster released Ghostly Tales , a collection of stories " written in a manner similar to accounts of true hauntings " . Lady 's Realm considered her stories to be based on fact . A positive review of Ghostly Tales was published in the Saturday Review in 1897 , in which the stories were described as " entertaining and dramatic " , but it was noted that not all were based on supernatural events . Hugh Lamb included the Countess 's " surprisingly grim " story " The Tyburn Ghost " in his 1979 edited volume Tales from a Gas @-@ Lit Graveyard . He wrote at the time that Lady Munster 's works had been " completely overlooked by bibliophiles and anthologists since her death " . Lamb deemed this regrettable , as he considered Ghostly Tales " possibly her best work " and one of the " truly representative collections of Victorian ghost stories " . Lamb also included another of her stories , " The Page @-@ Boy 's Ghost " , in a 1988 anthology . However , modern author and editor Douglas A. Anderson has called the Countess 's stories " standard , melodramatic fare " , which are " perfectly forgettable " .
In 1904 , Lady Munster produced an autobiography entitled My Memories and Miscellanies . In its foreword , she explained that " some valued friends " convinced her to write it , despite her reluctance , because her " long life " had witnessed " not a few interesting events " . The book was called her " chief work " in The Manchester Guardian at the time of her death in 1906 . The Countess wrote the entire book by memory , and expressed regret that she had given up her journal writing as a young girl after someone else improperly read it . The autobiography included several recounted sightings of the female ghost " Green Jean " at Wemyss Castle ; Lady Munster claimed that several members of her family , including Millicent , saw the ghost while staying there .
= = Ancestry = =
|
= Asexuality =
Asexuality is the lack of sexual attraction to anyone , or low or absent interest in or desire for sexual activity . It may be considered the lack of a sexual orientation , or one of the variations thereof , alongside heterosexuality , homosexuality and bisexuality . It may also be an umbrella term used to categorize a broader spectrum of various asexual sub @-@ identities . A study in 2004 placed the prevalence of asexuality at 1 % in the British population .
Asexuality is distinct from abstention from sexual activity and from celibacy , which are behavioral and generally motivated by factors such as an individual 's personal or religious beliefs . Sexual orientation , unlike sexual behavior , is believed to be " enduring " . Some asexual people engage in sexual activity despite lacking sexual attraction or a desire for sex , due to a variety of reasons , such as a desire to pleasure themselves or romantic partners , or a desire to have children .
Acceptance of asexuality as a sexual orientation and field of scientific research is still relatively new , as a growing body of research from both sociological and psychological perspectives has begun to develop . While some researchers assert that asexuality is a sexual orientation , other researchers disagree .
Various asexual communities have started to form since the advent of the World Wide Web and social media . The most prolific and well @-@ known of these communities is the Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) , which was founded in 2001 by David Jay .
= = Definition , identity and relationships = =
Asexuality is sometimes referred to as " ace " or " the ace community " by researchers or asexual and LGBT people . Because there is significant variation among people who identify as asexual , asexuality can encompass broad definitions . Researchers generally define asexuality as the lack of sexual attraction or the lack of sexual interest , but their definitions vary ; they may use the term " to refer to individuals with low or absent sexual desire or attractions , low or absent sexual behaviors , exclusively romantic non @-@ sexual partnerships , or a combination of both absent sexual desires and behaviors . "
The Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) defines an asexual as " someone who does not experience sexual attraction " and stated , " [ a ] nother small minority will think of themselves as asexual for a brief period of time while exploring and questioning their own sexuality " and that " [ t ] here is no litmus test to determine if someone is asexual . Asexuality is like any other identity – at its core , it 's just a word that people use to help figure themselves out . If at any point someone finds the word asexual useful to describe themselves , we encourage them to use it for as long as it makes sense to do so . "
Asexual people , though lacking sexual attraction to any gender , might engage in purely romantic relationships , while others might not . There are asexual @-@ identified individuals who report that they feel sexual attraction but not the inclination to act on it because they have no true desire or need to engage in sexual or non @-@ sexual activity ( cuddling , hand @-@ holding , etc . ) , while other asexuals engage in cuddling or other non @-@ sexual physical activity . Some asexuals participate in sexual activity out of curiosity . Some may masturbate as a solitary form of release , while others do not feel a need to do so .
With regard to sexual activity in particular , the need or desire for masturbation is commonly referred to as sex drive by asexuals and they disassociate it from sexual attraction and being sexual ; asexuals who masturbate generally consider it to be a normal product of the human body and not a sign of latent sexuality , and may not even find it pleasurable . Some asexual men are unable to get an erection and sexual activity by attempting penetration is impossible for them . Asexuals also differ in their feelings toward performing sex acts : some are indifferent and may have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner ; others are more strongly averse to the idea , though they do not typically dislike people for having sex .
Concerning romantic or emotional aspects of sexual orientation or sexual identity , asexuals may identify as heterosexual , lesbian , gay , bisexual , queer , or by the following terms to indicate that they associate with the romantic , rather than sexual , aspects of sexual orientation :
aromantic ; lack of romantic attraction towards anyone
biromantic ; as opposed to bisexual
heteroromantic ; as opposed to heterosexual
homoromantic ; as opposed to homosexual
panromantic ; as opposed to pansexual
People may also identify as a gray @-@ A ( such as a gray @-@ romantic , demiromantic , demisexual or semisexual ) because they feel that they are between being aromantic and non @-@ aromantic , or between asexuality and sexual attraction . While the term gray @-@ A may cover anyone who occasionally feels romantic or sexual attraction , demisexuals or semisexuals experience sexual attraction only as a secondary component , feeling sexual attraction once a reasonably stable or large emotional connection has been created .
= = Research = =
= = = Prevalence = = =
Asexuality is not a new aspect of human sexuality , but it is relatively new to public discourse . SE Smith of The Guardian is not sure asexuality has actually increased , rather leaning towards the belief that it is simply more visible . In the mid @-@ twentieth century , Alfred Kinsey rated individuals from 0 to 6 according to their sexual orientation from heterosexual to homosexual , known as the Kinsey scale . He also included a category he called " X " for individuals with " no socio @-@ sexual contacts or reactions " ; in modern times , this is categorized as representing asexuality . Kinsey labeled 1 @.@ 5 % of the adult male population as X. In his second book , Sexual Behavior in the Human Female , he reported this breakdown of individuals who are X : unmarried females |
= 14 – 19 % , married females =
1 – 3 % , previously married females |
= 5 – 8 % , unmarried males =
3 – 4 % , married males |
= 0 % , and previously married males =
1 – 2 % .
Further empirical data about an asexual demographic appeared in 1994 , when a research team in the United Kingdom carried out a comprehensive survey of 18 @,@ 876 British residents , spurred by the need for sexual information in the wake of the AIDS pandemic . The survey included a question on sexual attraction , to which 1 @.@ 05 % of the respondents replied that they had " never felt sexually attracted to anyone at all " . The study of this phenomenon was continued by the Canadian sexuality researcher Anthony Bogaert in 2004 , who explored the asexual demographic in a series of studies . Bogaert believed that the 1 % figure was not an accurate reflection of the likely much larger percentage of the population that could be identified as asexual , noting that 30 % of people contacted for the initial survey chose not to participate in the survey . Since less sexually experienced people are more likely to refuse to participate in studies about sexuality , and asexuals tend to be less sexually experienced than sexuals , it is likely that asexuals were under @-@ represented in the responding participants . The same study found the number of homosexuals and bisexuals combined to be about 1 @.@ 1 % of the population , which is much smaller than other studies indicate .
In contrast to Bogaert 's suggestion in 2004 of a higher percentage , a study by Aicken et al . , published in 2013 , suggests that , based on Natsal @-@ 2 data from 2000 @-@ 2001 , the prevalence of asexuality in Britain is only 0 @.@ 4 % for people between the ages of 16 @-@ 44 . This percentage indicates a decrease from the 0 @.@ 9 % figure determined from the Natsal @-@ 1 data collected on the same age @-@ range a decade earlier . Bogaert also found a similar decline between the Natsal @-@ 1 and Natsal @-@ 2 data . Aicken , Mercer , and Cassell also found some evidence of ethnic differences among respondents who had not experienced sexual attraction ; both men and women of Indian and Pakistani origin had a higher likelihood of reporting a lack of sexual attraction . Muslims were also more likely to report this lack of attraction than respondents from Christian religions .
= = = Sexual orientation , mental health and etiology = = =
There is significant debate over whether or not asexuality is a sexual orientation . It has been compared and equated with hypoactive sexual desire disorder ( HSDD ) , in that both imply a general lack of sexual attraction to anyone ; HSDD has been used to medicalize asexuality , but asexuality is generally not considered a disorder or a sexual dysfunction ( such as anorgasmia , anhedonia , etc . ) , because it does not necessarily define someone as having a medical problem or problems relating to others socially . Unlike people with HSDD , asexual people normally do not experience " marked distress " and " interpersonal difficulty " concerning feelings about their sexuality , or generally a lack of sexual arousal ; asexuality is considered the lack or absence of sexual attraction as a life @-@ enduring characteristic . One study found that , compared to HSDD subjects , asexuals reported lower levels of sexual desire , sexual experience , sex @-@ related distress and depressive symptoms . Researchers Richards and Barker report that asexuals do not have disproportionate rates of alexithymia , depression , or personality disorders . Some people , however , may identify as asexual even if their non @-@ sexual state is explained by one or more of the aforementioned disorders .
The first study that gave empirical data about asexuals was published in 1983 by Paula Nurius , concerning the relationship between sexual orientation and mental health . 689 subjects — most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes — were given several surveys , including four clinical well @-@ being scales . Results showed that asexuals were more likely to have low self @-@ esteem and more likely to be depressed than members of other sexual orientations ; 25 @.@ 88 % of heterosexuals , 26 @.@ 54 % bisexuals ( called " ambisexuals " ) , 29 @.@ 88 % of homosexuals , and 33 @.@ 57 % of asexuals were reported to have problems with self @-@ esteem . A similar trend existed for depression . Nurius did not believe that firm conclusions can be drawn from this for a variety of reasons .
In a 2013 study , Yule et al. looked into mental health variances between Caucasian heterosexuals , homosexuals , bisexuals , and asexuals . The results of 203 male and 603 female participants were included in the findings . Yule et al. found that asexual male participants were more likely to report having a mood disorder than other males , particularly in comparison to the heterosexual participants . The same was found for female asexual participants over their heterosexual counterparts ; however , non @-@ asexual , non @-@ heterosexual females had the highest rates . Asexual participants of both sexes were more likely to have anxiety disorders than heterosexual and non @-@ heterosexual participants , as were they more likely than heterosexual participants to report having had recent suicidal feelings . Yule et al. hypothesised that some of these differences may be due to discrimination and other societal factors .
With regard to sexual orientation categories , asexuality may be argued as not being a meaningful category to add to the continuum , and instead argued as the lack of a sexual orientation or sexuality . Other arguments propose that asexuality is the denial of one 's natural sexuality , and that it is a disorder caused by shame of sexuality , anxiety or sexual abuse , sometimes basing this belief on asexuals who masturbate or occasionally engage in sexual activity simply to please a romantic partner . Within the context of sexual orientation identity politics , asexuality may pragmatically fulfill the political function of a sexual orientation identity category .
The suggestion that asexuality is a sexual dysfunction is controversial among the asexual community . Those who identify as asexual usually prefer it to be recognized as a sexual orientation . Various scholars state that asexuality is a sexual orientation , as some asexuals are unable to masturbate even though they reportedly have a normal sex drive , and that there are variations of sexual preferences , arguing that asexuality ought to be included as well . They state that asexuals do not choose to have no sexual desire , and generally start to find out their differences in sexual behaviors around adolescence . Because of these facts coming to light , it is argued that asexuality is much more than a behavioral choice , and is not something that can be cured like a disorder .
Etiology in this context is without implication of disease , disorder , or abnormality . Research on the etiology of sexual orientation when applied to asexuality has the definitional problem of sexual orientation not consistently being defined by researchers as including asexuality . Sexual orientation is defined as " enduring " and resistant to change , proving to be generally impervious to interventions intended to change it . While heterosexuality , homosexuality and bisexuality are usually , but not always , determined during the early years of preadolescent life , it is not known when asexuality is determined . " It is unclear whether these characteristics [ viz . , " lacking interest in or desire for sex " ] are thought to be lifelong , or if they may be acquired . " Some studies have suggested that asexuality is linked to biological factors that are determined prenatally or in early childhood . These studies report that asexuals are shorter on average , more likely to be non @-@ right @-@ handed , and have more older brothers ( known as the fraternal birth order effect ) . Correlations with handedness and birth order have also been reported for male homosexuality , possibly indicating that it has a similar origin .
Non @-@ measurement in some areas of sexual orientation is accepted by the American Psychological Association , the American Psychiatric Association , and the National Association of Social Workers : " [ S ] imply to document that a phenomenon occurs , case studies and non @-@ probability samples are often adequate ... Some groups are sufficiently few in number – relative to the entire population – that locating them with probability sampling is extremely expensive or practically impossible . In the latter cases , the use of non @-@ probability samples is often appropriate . " In determining etiologies , when asexuals are a small percentage of a large society , asexuals with a given etiology will compose an even smaller percentage , so that etiological information is available only from some individuals , generally not randomly selected .
= = = Sexual activity and sexuality = = =
While some asexuals masturbate as a solitary form of release or have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner , others do not ( see above ) . The Kinsey Institute sponsored another small survey on the topic in 2007 , which found that self @-@ identified asexuals " reported significantly less desire for sex with a partner , lower sexual arousability , and lower sexual excitation but did not differ consistently from non @-@ asexuals in their sexual inhibition scores or their desire to masturbate " .
A 1977 paper titled Asexual and Autoerotic Women : Two Invisible Groups , by Myra T. Johnson , may be the first paper explicitly devoted to asexuality in humans . Johnson defines asexuals as those men and women " who , regardless of physical or emotional condition , actual sexual history , and marital status or ideological orientation , seem to prefer not to engage in sexual activity . " She contrasts autoerotic women with asexual women : " The asexual woman ... has no sexual desires at all [ but ] the autoerotic woman ... recognizes such desires but prefers to satisfy them alone . " Johnson 's evidence is mostly letters to the editor found in women 's magazines written by asexual / autoerotic women . She portrays them as invisible , " oppressed by a consensus that they are nonexistent , " and left behind by both the sexual revolution and the feminist movement . Society either ignores or denies their existence or insists they must be ascetic for religious reasons , neurotic , or asexual for political reasons .
In a study published in 1979 in Advances in the Study of Affect , vol . 5 , and in another article using the same data and published in 1980 in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Michael D. Storms of the University of Kansas outlined his own reimagining of the Kinsey scale . Whereas Kinsey measured sexual orientation based on a combination of actual sexual behavior and fantasizing and eroticism , Storms only used fantasizing and eroticism . Storms , however , placed hetero @-@ eroticism and homo @-@ eroticism on separate axes rather than at two ends of a single scale ; this allows for a distinction between bisexuality ( exhibiting both hetero- and homo @-@ eroticism in degrees comparable to hetero- or homosexuals , respectively ) and asexuality ( exhibiting a level of homo @-@ eroticism comparable to a heterosexual and a level of hetero @-@ eroticism comparable to a homosexual , namely , little to none ) . Storms conjectured that many researchers following Kinsey 's model could be mis @-@ categorizing asexual subjects as bisexual , because both were simply defined by a lack of preference for gender in sexual partners .
In a 1983 study by Paula Nurius , which included 689 subjects ( most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes ) , the two @-@ dimensional fantasizing and eroticism scale was used to measure sexual orientation . Based on the results , respondents were given a score ranging from 0 to 100 for hetero @-@ eroticism and from 0 to 100 for homo @-@ eroticism . Respondents who scored lower than 10 on both were labeled " asexual . " This consisted of 5 % of the males and 10 % of the females . Results showed that asexuals reported much lower frequency and desired frequency of a variety of sexual activities including having multiple partners , anal sexual activities , having sexual encounters in a variety of locations , and autoerotic activities .
In some other sexually reproducing species , a portion of animals exhibit no sexual interest in either sex , and could be considered asexual . Rodent studies use the label duds for rodents which express no sexual interest . A series of studies on ram mating preferences found that 12 @.@ 5 % showed no interest in mating with either sex ; the researchers termed these animals asexual . The asexual rams did not differ from sexual rams in measured hormone levels .
= = = Feminist research = = =
A 2010 paper written by Karli June Cerankowski and Megan Milks , titled New Orientations : Asexuality and Its Implications for Theory and Practice , suggests that asexuality may be somewhat of a question in itself for the studies of gender and sexuality . Cerankowski and Milks have suggested that asexuality raises many more questions than it resolves , such as how a person could abstain from having sex , which is generally accepted by society to be the most basic of instincts . The article also states that society has deemed " [ LGBT and ] female sexuality as empowered or repressed . The asexual movement challenges that assumption by challenging many of the basic tenets of pro @-@ sex feminism [ in which it is ] already defined as repressive or anti @-@ sex sexualities . " In addition to accepting self @-@ identification as asexual , the Asexual Visibility and Education Network has formulated asexuality as a biologically @-@ determined orientation . This formula , if dissected scientifically and proven , would support researcher Simon LeVay 's blind study of the hypothalamus in gay men , women , and straight men , which indicates that there is a biological difference between straight men and gay men .
In 2014 , Cerankowski and Milks edited and published Asexualities : Feminist and Queer Perspectives , a collection of essays intended to explore the politics of asexuality from a feminist and queer perspective . It is broken into the introduction and then six parts : Theorizing Asexuality : New Orientations ; The Politics of Asexuality ; Visualizing Asexuality in Media Culture ; Asexuality and Masculinity ; Health , Disability , and Medicalization ; and Reading Asexually : Asexual Literary Theory . Each part contains two to three papers on a given aspect of asexuality research . One such paper is written by Ela Przybylo , another name that is becoming common in asexual scholarly literature . Her article , with regard to the Cerankowski and Milks anthology , focuses on accounts by self @-@ identified male asexuals , with a particular focus on the pressures men experience towards having sex in dominant Western discourse and media . Three men living in Southern Ontario , Canada , were interviewed in 2011 , and Przybylo admits that the small sample @-@ size means that her findings cannot be generalized to a greater population in terms of representation , and that they are " exploratory and provisional , " especially in a field that is still lacking in theorizations . All three interviewees addressed being affected by the stereotype that men have to enjoy and want sex in order to be " real men . "
Another of Przybylo 's articles , Asexuality and the feminist politics of ' not doing it ' , was published in 2011 , and takes a feminist lens to scientific writings on asexuality . She argues that asexuality is made possible only through the Western context of " sexual , coital , and heterosexual imperatives " . She addresses earlier works by Dana Densmore , Valerie Solanas , and Breanne Fahs , who argued for " asexuality and celibacy " as radical feminist political strategies against patriarchy . While Przybylo does make some distinctions between asexuality and celibacy , she considers blurring the lines between the two to be productive for a feminist understanding of the topic . In 2013 , " Producing Facts : Empirical Asexuality and the Scientific Study of Sex . " was published in Feminism & Psychology . In it , Przybylo distinguishes between two different stages of asexual research - that of the late 1970s to the early 1990s , which often included a very limited understanding of asexuality , and the more recent revisiting of the subject which she says began with Bogaert 's 2004 study ( see above ) and has popularized the subject and made it more " culturally visible " . In this article , Przybylo once again asserts the understanding of asexuality as a cultural phenomenon , and continues to be critical of its scientific study .
CJ DeLuzio Chasin states in Reconsidering Asexuality and Its Radical Potential that academic research on asexuality " has positioned asexuality in line with essentialist discourses of sexual orientation " which is troublesome as it creates a binary between asexuals and persons who have been subjected to psychiatric intervention for disorders such as Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder . Chasin says that this binary implies that all asexuals experience a lifelong ( hence , enduring ) lack of sexual attraction , that all non @-@ asexuals who experience a lack of sexual desire experience distress over it , and that it pathologizes asexuals who do experience such distress . As Chasin says such diagnoses as HSDD act to medicalize and govern women 's sexuality , the article aims to " unpack " problematic definitions of asexuality that are harmful to both asexuals and women alike . Chasin states that asexuality has the power to challenge commonplace discourse of the naturalness of sexuality , but that the unquestioned acceptance of its current definition does not allow for this . Chasin also argues there and elsewhere in Making Sense in and of the Asexual Community : Navigating Relationships and Identities in a Context of Resistance that is important to interrogate why someone might be distressed about low sexual desire . Chasin further argues that clinicians have an ethical obligation to avoid treating low sexual desire per se as pathological , and to discuss asexuality as a viable possibility ( where relevant ) with clients presenting clinically with low sexual desire .
= = = Bogaert 's psychological work and theories = = =
In a 2015 volume of The Journal of Sex Research , Bogaert argued that understanding asexuality is of key importance to understanding sexuality in general . For his work , Bogaert defines asexuality as " a lack of lustful inclinations / feelings directed toward others , " a definition that he argues is relatively new in light of recent theory and empirical work on sexual orientation . This definition of asexuality also makes clear this distinction between behavior and desire , for both asexuality and celibacy , although Bogaert also notes that there is some evidence of reduced sexual activity for those who fit this definition . He further distinguishes between desire for others and desire for sexual stimulation , the latter of which is not always absent for those who identify as asexual , although he acknowledges that other theorists define asexuality differently and that further research needs to be done on the " complex relationship between attraction and desire " . Another distinction is made between romantic and sexual attraction , and he draws on work from developmental psychology , which suggests that romantic systems derive from attachment theory while sexual systems " primarily reside in different brain structures " .
Concurrent with Bogaert 's suggestion that understanding asexuality will lead to a better understanding of sexuality overall , he discusses the topic of asexual masturbation to theorize on asexuals and " ' target @-@ oriented ' paraphilia , in which there is an inversion , reversal , or disconnection between the self and the typical target / object of sexual interest / attraction " ( such as attraction to oneself , labelled " automonosexualism " ) .
In an earlier 2006 article , Bogaert acknowledges that a distinction between behavior and attraction has been accepted into recent conceptualizations of sexual orientation , which aids in positioning asexuality as such . He adds that , by this framework , " ( subjective ) sexual attraction is the psychological core of sexual orientation " , and also addresses that there may be " some skepticism in [ both ] the academic and clinical communities " about classifying asexuality as a sexual orientation , and that it raises two objections to such a classification : First , he suggests that there could be an issue with self @-@ reporting ( i.e. , " a ' perceived ' or ' reported ' lack of attraction , " particularly for definitions of sexual orientation that consider physical arousal over subjective attraction ) , and , second , he raises the issue of overlap between absent and very low sexual desire , as those with an extremely low desire may still have an " underlying sexual orientation " despite potentially identifying as asexual .
= = Community = =
A community of self @-@ identified asexuals coalesced in the early 21st century , aided by the popularity of online communities . Elizabeth Abbott , author of A History of Celibacy , acknowledges a difference between asexuality and celibacy , and posits that there has always been an asexual element in the population but that asexual people kept a low profile . While the failure to consummate marriage was seen as " an insult to the sacrament of marriage " in medieval Europe , and has sometimes been used as grounds for divorce or to rule a marriage void , asexuality , unlike homosexuality , has never been illegal , and asexual people have usually been able to " fly under the radar " . However , in the 21st century , the anonymity of online communication and general popularity of social networking online has facilitated the formation of a community built around a common asexual identity .
The Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) is an organization founded by American asexuality activist David Jay in 2001 that focuses on asexuality issues . Its stated goals are " creating public acceptance and discussion of asexuality and facilitating the growth of an asexual community " . Communities such as AVEN can be beneficial to those in search of answers to solve a crisis of identity with regard to their possible asexuality . Individuals go through a series of emotional processes that end with their identifying with the asexual community . They first realize that their sexual attractions differ from those of most of society . This difference leads to questioning whether the way they feel is acceptable , and possible reasons for why they feel this way . Pathological beliefs tend to follow , in which , in some cases , they may seek medical help because they feel they have a disease . Self @-@ understanding is usually reached when they find a definition that matches their feelings . Asexuality communities provide support and information that allows newly identified asexuals to move from self @-@ clarification to identifying on a communal level , which can be empowering , because they now have something to associate with , which gives normality to this overall socially @-@ isolating situation .
At this time , asexual organizations and other Internet resources play a key role in informing people about asexuality . The lack of research makes it difficult for doctors to understand the causation . Like with any sexual orientation , most people who are asexual are self @-@ identified . This can be a problem when asexuality is mistaken for an intimacy or relationship problem or for other symptoms that do not define asexuality . There is also a significant population that either does not understand or does not believe in asexuality , which adds to the importance of these organizations to inform the general population ; however , due to the lack of scientific fact on the subject , what these groups promote as information is often questioned .
On June 29 , 2014 , AVEN organised the second International Asexuality Conference , as an affiliate WorldPride event in Toronto . The event , which was attended by around 250 people , was the largest gathering of asexuals to date . The conference included presentations , discussions , and workshops on topics such as research on asexuality , asexual relationships , and intersecting identities .
= = = Symbols = = =
In 2009 , AVEN members participated in the first asexual entry into an American pride parade when they walked in the San Francisco Pride Parade . In August 2010 , after a period of debate over having an asexual flag and how to set up a system to create one , and contacting as many asexual communities as possible , a flag was announced as the asexual pride flag by one of the teams involved . The final flag had been a popular candidate and had previously seen use in online forums outside of AVEN . The final vote was held on a survey system outside of AVEN where the main flag creation efforts were organized . The flag colors have been used in artwork and referenced in articles about the sexuality .
= = Discrimination and legal protections = =
A 2012 study published in Group Processes & Intergroup Relations reports there is more prejudice , dehumanization and discrimination toward asexuals than toward other sexual minorities , such as gay men , lesbians and bisexuals . Both homosexual and heterosexual people thought of asexuals as not only cold , but also animalistic and unrestrained . Asexual activist , author , and blogger Julie Decker has observed that sexual harassment and violence , such as corrective rape , commonly victimizes the asexual community . However , a different study found little evidence of serious discrimination against asexuals because of their asexuality . Sociologist Mark Karrigan sees a middle ground , claiming that while asexuals do often experience discrimination , it is not of a phobic nature but " more about marginalization because people genuinely don 't understand asexuality . "
Asexuals also face prejudice from within the LGBT community . Upon coming out as asexual , activist Sara Beth Brooks was told by many LGBT people that asexuals are mistaken in their self @-@ identification and seek undeserved attention within the social justice movement .
In some jurisdictions , asexuals have legal protections . While Brazil bans since 1999 whatever pathologization or attempted treatment of sexual orientation by mental health professionals through the national ethical code , the U.S. state of New York has labeled asexuals as a protected class . However , asexuality does not typically attract the attention of the public or major scrutiny ; therefore , it has not been the subject of legislation as much as other sexual orientations have .
= = In the media = =
Asexual representation in the media is limited and rarely openly acknowledged or confirmed by creators or authors . Asexuality as a sexual identity , rather than as a biological entity , became more widely discussed in the media in the beginning of the 21st century . Before , sexuality in general was not questioned ; it was often assumed , and little research had been conducted , thus susceptible to social influence , including media portrayal .
|
= Charles R. Apted =
Charles Robert Apted ( June 18 , 1873 – June 5 , 1941 ) was for 39 years a Harvard University official in various capacities , for much of that time chief of the Harvard Yard police ( " Harvard Cop No. 1 " , the Boston Globe called him ) and su per in tend ent of Harvard buildings . His Boston Globe obituary called him " both feared and beloved by under grad u ates during three university pres i den tial administrations " .
He gained national prominence in 1915 , when he identified deranged former Harvard German instructor and wife @-@ poisoner Eric Muenter as the dynamite @-@ wielding intruder who had shot J. P. Morgan , Jr. and bombed the US Senate .
= = Background = =
Apted was born in Boston of English @-@ immigrant parents , and worked for a time in insurance . He married Eva C. Hunt on June 16 , 1898 .
He was elected to the Cambridge , Massachusetts " common council " in 1914 , and to the city council ( under a new city charter ) in 1915 or 1916 . In his first three years in office he was " chairman of every social event of the city council " , and was for many years grand chancellor of the Knights of Pythias .
= = Harvard career = =
He began at Harvard in 1902 as a clerk in the office of the Supervisor of Caretaking . " Old Harvard grads remember him for the sympathetic help he gave some of the poorer students [ when ] he had charge of the Furniture Loan Department " , said The New York Times . By 1921 he was Supervisor of Caretaking ( later Su per in tend ent of Buildings ) himself , and by his retirement in 1941 four hundred Harvard staff were under his supervision , including twenty @-@ two " yard cops " .
His duties included oversight of the Harvard Police Patrol . In this capacity he was " both guardian and disciplinarian " , keeping student misbehavior under control within Harvard 's confines — " His cry of ' Break it up ' as he headed for the focal point of any riot or disturbance became famous in the annals of the College " — and extricated his " boys " from trouble with authorities outside the school 's gates . " With police forces for miles around ' Charlie 's ' word was as good as bail " , according to the The Harvard Crimson . The " mild @-@ mannered , bespectacled " Apted also protected students in trouble — especially those from prominent families — from publicity ; in 1932 the City Council criticized him for refusing to reveal the names of participants in a riot , which had grown from the serenading of Radcliffe women to trash fires and an assault on a police station .
In 1933 it was into his hands that the so @-@ called Sacred Cod — the emblem of the Com mon wealth of Mas sa chu setts " codnapped " days earlier from the Mas sa chu setts State House — was delivered by two young men at a late @-@ night rendezvous , to which he had been directed by a mysterious telephone call . Following his " single @-@ handed recovery of the emblem ... after both city and state police had been baffled at every turn " , the Crimson reported that he had been " advanced to the rank of Colonel in the Yard Police " , adding that his rise been " meteoric . Ranked as Captain a year ago , he was advanced to the title of Major as a result of his work in the famous Memorial Hall clapper case last spring . " ( The " ranks " were unofficial , bestowed by the student body as a sign of affection . )
When Harvard athletes were suspected in the March 1934 disappearance of Yale 's " ugly bulldog mascot " , Handsome Dan , Yale officials asked Apted to find the animal . He delivered it some days later to Yale 's New Haven , Connecticut campus , though not before the Lampoon took photographs of the canine licking the boots of the John Harvard statue , which had been smeared with hamburger . ( " Dog licks man " , a Crimson headline read . )
More serious matters investigated by Apted , over the years , included Prohibition @-@ era bootlegging , illegal gambling , a rash of defacements of donors ' portraits , death threats against Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell during his involvement in the Sacco @-@ Vanzetti case , and the theft of thousands of Harvard library books by a former graduate student . In an extortion racket smashed in 1938 , two " young and good looking " girls ( " one being a blonde and the other a redhead " ) lured their freshman victims to a Brighton , Mas sa chu setts apartment , then demanded " financial assistance " in return for not alleging to Harvard officials that im pro pri e ties had ensued .
In 1915 a " Frank Holt " was subdued by a butler armed with a lump of coal after shooting financier J. P. Morgan , Jr. at Morgan 's Glen Cove , New York home . Dynamite was found in the assailant 's coat , and he quickly confessed to planting the bomb which had wrecked a United States Senate reception room the day before . Soon a tip was received in Cambridge pointing out a resemblance between " Holt " and Eric Muenter , a Harvard German instructor who had disappeared in 1906 after poisoning his pregnant wife with arsenic @-@ laced " beef tea " ; Apted ( who had lived near Muenter in Cambridge ) was dispatched to New York , where he identified Muenter , who soon after committed suicide . " The newspapers had a field day with Morgan , the Capitol , Harvard and murder all in one story , " the Crimson wrote years later .
= = Retirement = =
Though not a Harvard graduate , Apted felt " as much like one as all the Lowells and Quincys and Adamses and Kirklands together " , and was an honorary member of the class of 1906 after enrolling in two architecture courses that year . " The list of students with whom ' Charlie ' was acquainted reads like a Who 's Who , " said the Crimson . " Franklin Roosevelt , for instance , and ' all his damn kids . ' Then there is Leverett Saltonstall , Felix Frankfurter , Robert Benchley , Arthur Holcombe , Joe Kennedy , Archy Davison , and [ Harvard President ] ' Jim ' Conant " ( whom Apted once called " a good boy " ) . " The world would be surprised if they knew , as I do , the various stunts pulled at Harvard by some of the biggest men in the country , " he said .
A 1940 dinner in his honor — " in Harvard 's paneled old Memorial Hall [ at which ] 600 Harvard men dined and wined him [ and ] the Harvard Glee Club sang ' Behold the Lord High Executioner ' " ( though with Executioner changed to Protector ) — was reported in Time magazine 's Education section and The New York Times . Scheduled speakers included Mas sa chu setts Governor Leverett Saltonstall , Attorney General Paul A. Dever , Harvard Presidents Conant and ( emeritus ) A. Lawrence Lowell , as well as a senator , two judges , and the mayor of Cambridge .
Apted died June 5 , 1941 . His front @-@ page Boston Globe obituary said ,
Long after the memories of other college officials had dimmed into the past , Harvard men remembered " Col. " Apted . He was both feared and beloved by under grad u ates during three university pres i den tial ad min i stra tions , and he was the subject of more class day anecdotes , probably , than even such other traditional Harvard characters as Profs . Charles Townsend Copeland and George Lyman Kittredge .
|
= Erin McLeod =
Erin Katrina McLeod ( born February 26 , 1983 ) is a Canadian soccer player , Olympic bronze medalist and visual artist . A veteran goalkeeper for the Canada women 's national soccer team , she also plays for FC Rosengård in the Damallsvenskan , the highest division of women 's football in Sweden . She first appeared for the Canada women 's national soccer team at the 2002 Algarve Cup and has since made 115 appearances for the team . In 2012 , as part of the Canadian Soccer Association 's Centennial Celebration , she was honoured on the All @-@ Time Canada XI women 's team .
McLeod has represented Canada in three FIFA Women 's World Cups : 2007 in China , 2011 in Germany and 2015 in Canada . She has played in two Olympic tournaments : 2008 in Beijing and 2012 in London where she helped Canada win the bronze medal . Before joining FC Rosengård in 2015 , she played professional soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps , Washington Freedom , Dalsjöfors GoIF , Chicago Red Stars , and Houston Dash . She played collegiate soccer for the Southern Methodist University Mustangs as well as the Penn State Nittany Lions where she set several all @-@ time records .
McLeod 's most notable and controversial appearance came during the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In the semi @-@ final match against the United States on August 6 , the referee ruled that McLeod had broken the six @-@ second handling rule in the 76th minute , when Canada was leading 3 – 2 . A free kick was given to the United States which resulted in a penalty being called on Canadian player Marie @-@ Ève Nault after the ball struck her in the arm . The United States was given a penalty kick , which McLeod did not save . The United States ultimately won the game in overtime , eliminating Canada 's chance for the gold medal .
McLeod has suffered three ACL injuries to her right knee . The most recent occurred on March 23 , 2016 while playing for FC Rosengård and will keep her out of the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro .
= = Early life = =
Born to Cheryl and Doug McLeod in St. Albert , Alberta , a city near Edmonton , Erin was raised with her younger sister , Cara , and older sister , Megan . As a young girl , McLeod fell in love with hockey and the Edmonton Oilers . At the age of five , her family moved to Calgary , where she channeled her obsession into soccer . She quickly climbed the local soccer ranks and found herself a midfielder on a Calgary select team . At the age of 12 , the goalkeeper on the team was injured and she stepped up for the spot . She has been a goalkeeper ever since .
McLeod 's father , Doug , was an oil engineer , a job that required him to move around frequently . In 1997 , when McLeod was 14 , she and her family moved to Jakarta , Indonesia , where she spent both grades 9 and 10 . While in Jakarta , McLeod captained the under @-@ 15 Jakarta all @-@ stars as the only girl on the team . She was able to greatly improve her game by playing with boys . Unfortunately , she grew too old for the all @-@ star team the following year and was left to play on the high school team with many girls who had never played soccer before .
During the May 1998 riots in Indonesia , McLeod , then 15 , and her family were forced to evacuate due to the impending danger . The main airport in Jakarta was too dangerous at the time and they were forced to fly out from a smaller airport , passing a long line of tanks on the way there . She noted that it " opened up [ her ] eyes to what 's going on in the world " and that she didn 't " know poverty like they do . " McLeod and her family eventually returned to their home in Indonesia , where she remained for another year .
While in Indonesia , McLeod was plagued by body image issues and developed an eating disorder . She was heavier than many girls at her high school , and would often skip meals and exercise more instead . Her family eventually hired a nutritionist to help .
In the summer of 1999 , before McLeod entered grade 11 , she made the decision to move back to Calgary to live with her grandmother , leaving her parents and younger sister behind in Jakarta . After making the move back to Canada , McLeod caught the attention of Canadian under @-@ 19 coach Ian Bridge and reached her dream of representing Canada on the international stage .
= = = College = = =
= = = = SMU Mustangs , 2001 – 2002 = = = =
McLeod attended Southern Methodist University and played for the Mustangs in the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) for the 2001 and 2002 seasons . In her rookie season , she made 84 saves and allowed 25 goals , ending the year off with a 14 – 4 – 0 record and six shutouts . She recorded a 1 @.@ 36 goals against average ( GAA ) for the season . In 2002 , she made 85 saves and allowed 23 goals in 18 games . She ended the season with a 9 – 5 – 4 record and four shutouts , making 4 @.@ 72 saves per game and recording a 1 @.@ 19 goals against average ( GAA ) .
During her career at SMU , McLeod played 38 games , starting 18 . She had a career record of 23 – 9 – 4 , with 10 shutouts , 4 @.@ 45 saves per game , and a 0 @.@ 779 save percentage . She made 169 saves in the 3390 minutes she played for the Mustangs .
McLeod was named to the All @-@ WAC Tournament Team in 2001 and the Academic All @-@ WAC Team in 2002 . She received First Team All @-@ WAC Honours and NSCAA All @-@ Region Honours in both 2001 and 2002 .
= = = = Penn State Nittany Lions , 2004 – 2005 = = = =
Following her role on the bench for the Canadian national team at the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup , McLeod starting looking at other schools , wanting something different . After fellow Canadian international Carmelina Moscato told McLeod that Pennsylvania State University was looking for a goalkeeper , McLeod transferred to the school and played for the Nittany Lions for the 2004 and 2005 seasons while majoring in creative advertising .
McLeod quickly took over the starting goalkeeper position for the 2004 season . Although a shoulder injury nagged her all season , she appeared in 21 of 23 games , playing a total of 1885 minutes . She led the Big Ten Conference in shutouts with 11 total for the season and ranked second in the nation in goals against average ( GAA ) at 0 @.@ 43 . McLeod allowed 9 goals and recorded 56 saves for the entire season . She earned third team NSCAA All @-@ America honours , first team All @-@ Big Ten honours , and first team All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region honours for 2004 , becoming the second goalkeeper to earn All @-@ America honors for the Nittany Lions .
In 2005 , McLeod once again was the star goalkeeper for the team , appearing in 24 of the 25 games of the season . She played a total of 2 @,@ 187 minutes , allowing 20 goals and recording 85 saves for the entire season . She helped the Nittany Lions go undefeated in the regular season and become one of the few teams in NCAA history to finish the season undefeated and not win a national championship . She earned first team NSCAA All @-@ American honours , first team All @-@ Big Ten honours , first team All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region honours , third team ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ America honours , and Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year for 2005 . The same year , she was named a M.A.C. Hermann Trophy semi @-@ finalist .
= = = = = Penn State statistics = = = = =
Updated through 2016 @-@ 06 @-@ 16
= = = = = Penn State all @-@ time records = = = = =
McLeod 's record 11 shutouts in 21 games during the 2004 season rank second all @-@ time at Penn State as of June 2016 . Her 0 @.@ 957 winning percentage during the 2005 season is ranked first of all @-@ time , while her winning percentage in 2004 of 0 @.@ 875 is ranked second at the school . In 2004 , her 0 @.@ 43 goals against average ( GAA ) ranked second best of all @-@ time . The same year , she also posted the fewest goals allowed in one season . As of June 2016 , she still holds the all @-@ time career record for highest winning percentage ( 0 @.@ 92 ) , fewest goals against average ( 0 @.@ 64 ) , and consecutive shutout minutes ( 857 : 24 ) .
= = Club career = =
= = = Vancouver Whitecaps , 2004 – 2006 = = =
McLeod played with the Vancouver Whitecaps in the W @-@ League in 2004 and 2006 . While playing for the Whitecaps , the team never lost a game and she helped bring in the club 's first championship victory in 2004 . In the championship game , she made two saves in the penalty shootout and scored the game @-@ winning penalty kick . In 2006 , she helped the Whitecaps win a second W @-@ League title after securing a shutout in the final against Ottawa Fury .
= = = Washington Freedom , 2009 – 2010 = = =
On April 16 , 2009 , the Washington Freedom announced they had signed McLeod as a post @-@ International Draft discovery claim for the inaugural season of Women 's Professional Soccer league . Though it was intended that McLeod would be the team 's starting goalkeeper , visa issues kept her unavailable for the first five matches of the regular season . She made her first appearance for the team on May 17 , 2009 and was the starting goalkeeper in all fifteen of her appearances . The Freedom finished in third place during the regular season with a 8 – 7 – 5 record earning a berth to the playoffs . The team was defeated 2 – 1 by eventual champions Sky Blue FC in the first round .
McLeod returned as the starting goalkeeper for the Freedom during the 2010 WPS season . She made fourteen appearances for the team before she suffered a season @-@ ending right ACL injury in the 84th minute of a match against FC Gold Pride on July 24 , 2010 . The Freedom finished in fourth place during the regular season with a 8 – 9 – 7 record , earning a spot in the playoffs . The team was defeated 1 – 0 in overtime by the Philadelphia Independence in the first round . Following the 2010 season , the Washington Freedom was purchased by Dan Borislow who renamed the team magicJack and relocated it to Boca Raton , Florida . McLeod remained on the roster following the team 's ownership change until her contract was terminated on March 9 , 2011 .
= = = Dalsjöfors GoIF , 2011 = = =
McLeod signed with Swedish team Dalsjöfors GoIF in the Damallsvenskan for the 2011 season . Though the season ran from April 9 to October 15 , McLeod didn 't make an appearance for the team until August 13 , following her return from national team duties at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup . She started all ten of her appearances for the team , winning one game on October 8 . The team finished in last place in the regular season and were relegated to a lower division for the following season .
= = = Chicago Red Stars , 2013 = = =
In January 2013 , McLeod joined the Chicago Red Stars in the new National Women 's Soccer League as part of the NWSL Player Allocation , which distributed national team players from the United States , Canada , and Mexico . She started in net for the league 's first @-@ ever game on April 14 , 2013 against the Seattle Reign . The game ended in a 1 – 1 draw .
McLeod started all sixteen of her appearances for the Red Stars and ended the season with a 1 – 2 win over FC Kansas City on August 18 . For the 2013 NWSL season , she ranked seventh in the league for number of saves with 64 and fifth for number of clean sheets with four . Her save percentage for the season was 70 % , saving 64 of the 92 shots on goal .
= = = Houston Dash , 2014 – 2015 = = =
In January 2014 , McLeod was traded to expansion team Houston Dash for Canadian international Melissa Tancredi , who had been newly allocated to the Dash as part of the 2014 NWSL Player Allocation . McLeod was named captain of the team for the 2014 NWSL Season on April 8 after a vote by her teammates .
McLeod was the starting goalkeeper in the team 's league debut against the Portland Thorns on April 13 , 2014 . She allowed one goal , leading to the first loss of the season for the Dash . She made twenty appearances for the team during the 2014 season , starting nineteen . She ranked second in the league for number of saves with 83 and ended the season with a save percentage of 69 % .
In 2015 , Ella Masar took over as the Houston Dash captain because of McLeod 's expected time away for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . Due to her national team duties , McLeod made 11 appearances in 20 regular season games . Despite playing in half of the games during the 2015 season , she ranked third in the league for number of saves with 60 , ending the season with a save percentage of 81 % . McLeod stated that she was playing some of the best soccer in her career during the 2015 season , and was there in the final push to get the Dash into the playoffs , just falling short in fifth place . She played her last game with the Dash on September 6 , 2015 in a match against the Chicago Red Stars that ended in a 1 – 1 draw . She ended her two years with the Houston Dash with a 7 – 18 – 6 record .
= = = FC Rosengård , 2016 = = =
Following the 2015 NWSL season , McLeod was released by the Dash in order to pursue a chance to play in the UEFA Women 's Champions League . It was announced in February 2016 that she had signed with Swedish team , FC Rosengård , along with her wife , Ella Masar . McLeod made her debut for the team in the final of the Super Cup on March 16 , 2016 , where FC Rosengård won 2 – 1 . Though she was noticeably nervous , she made a number of saves and showed good reflexes . She made one other appearance on March 23 , 2016 , playing 13 minutes before she was forced to leave the game due to a knee injury . It was later revealed that McLeod had suffered a third right ACL injury .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth national teams , 2000 – 2002 = = =
In May 2000 , McLeod was 1 of 40 players selected by the Canadian Soccer Association for a week @-@ long training camp in Vancouver , BC for the newly formed Canadian women 's under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 17 national teams . She was subsequently named to the under @-@ 17 roster . Later that year , McLeod was called up for the under @-@ 17 training camps in Nebraska that took place August 9 – 13 and two friendlies that followed on August 11 and 13 .
McLeod played in the under @-@ 19 team 's first international tournament , the third annual adidas Cup , in May 2001 . She started in goal for the May 29 match against China , which they lost 3 – 0 . She was the starting goalkeeper in a match against Japan on May 31 , helping to record the first international win for Canada 's under @-@ 19 team . During Canada 's final game of the tournament on June 2 against Finland , McLeod subbed in for Anne Ogundele during the second half . Canada lost 3 – 2 , resulting in a third place tie at the adidas Cup .
After McLeod was called up for an under @-@ 21 training camp that took place June 11 – 18 , 2001 in Mexico , she appeared in two exhibition games against Mexico . Later in June , she was called up for an under @-@ 19 training camp in Toronto . Following the camp , the under @-@ 19 team took on the United States in two international friendlies on June 30 and July 2 . McLeod started in goal for both games , allowing twelve goals total .
McLeod was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the under @-@ 21 Open Nordic Cup in Gjorvik , Norway held July 25 – 31 , 2001 . The team arrived a week before the tournament to train and participate in an exhibition match against a Norwegian first division all @-@ star team on July 23 . McLeod made several appearances during the tournament , with Canada earning fifth place .
= = = 2002 Algarve Cup = = =
McLeod 's received her first call @-@ up to the senior national team in March 2002 for the Algarve Cup . She was among eight under @-@ 19 players that were added to the 20 @-@ player roster for the tournament in Portugal . McLeod earned her first international cap with the senior national team on March 3 , 2002 in the team 's second match of the tournament against Wales , recording her first shutout in the 4 – 0 win . She made a second appearance in the tournament in a match against Portugal on March 5 , allowing one goal . McLeod made her final appearance of the tournament in the team 's final match against Finland on March 7 , allowing three goals .
McLeod was named to the senior national team for the Tournoi international de France from April 3 – 9 , 2002 . During Canada 's first match of the tournament on April 3 ( and McLeod 's single appearance during the tournament ) , she earned her second career shutout with a 0 – 0 draw .
= = = 2002 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship = = =
= = = = Qualifying = = = =
McLeod spent the summer of 2002 training with both the under @-@ 19 and senior national teams . She was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the under @-@ 19 training camp in Florida from April 10 – 14 , 2002 . The team also participated in a tournament during the camp , which served as a qualifying tournament for the first FIFA Under @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship held later in the summer ; however , Canada already qualified as the host nation . McLeod started in goal for both matches of the tournament .
= = = = Road to the World Championship = = = =
McLeod was called up for the under @-@ 19 training camp and three @-@ game series against Italy held May 26 – June 5 , 2002 in preparation for the FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship . She recorded a shutout during the first match on May 30 and started in all three games .
McLeod played in goal for a three @-@ game series against Mexico from June 25 – July 6 , 2002 following an under @-@ 19 training camp . She recorded a shutout during the second game of the series on July 3 . As the goalkeeper for the final three games of the Road to the World Championship series , she recorded three straight wins for the team : two against Chinese Taipei and one against Brazil . She posted a shutout for a 2 – 0 win over Brazil in the final game on August 11 .
McLeod was invited to train with the senior national team in Toronto in preparation for an international friendly against Norway in July of the same year . She started in goal for the friendly on July 17 , which resulted in a 2 – 2 draw .
= = = = 2002 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship = = = =
McLeod started all six of Canada 's games in the first FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship , held August 17 – September 1 , 2002 . Highly recognizable for her red and white Mohawk hairstyle throughout the tournament , she allowed six goals in the six games , ending the tournament with a 4 – 1 – 1 record . Following the tournament , she was named to the FIFA All @-@ Star Team , along with fellow Canadians Candace Chapman , Carmelina Moscato , and Christine Sinclair .
= = = Transition to the senior national team = = =
McLeod fully transitioned to the Canadian senior national team following her performance at the U @-@ 19 World Championship . She has stated that the transition was difficult for her due to the great depth of goalkeepers already with the national team , noting she often took the back seat to more experienced players , which affected her confidence .
In October 2002 , McLeod was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the 2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup , the qualifying tournament for the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup . McLeod made one appearance during the tournament in Canada 's first match against Haiti , allowing one goal in the 11 – 1 win . McLeod was forced to leave the tournament early to return to her Southern Methodist University team in order to maintain her scholarship .
= = = The struggle for caps , 2003 – 2006 = = =
From 2003 to 2006 , McLeod made 22 appearances for the Canadian national team , four of those being in major tournaments .
McLeod made the 18 @-@ player roster for the 2003 Algarve Cup in Portugal held March 14 – 20 , 2003 and made one appearance during the team 's final match against Greece . She was the starting goalkeeper in four of five additional appearances for the national team in 2003 , allowing six goals and recording one shutout .
In September 2003 , McLeod represented Canada at the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup though she did not make an appearance during the tournament . Following the tournament , McLeod moved to Vancouver to live with another goalkeeper in order to gain more practice and improve her game .
McLeod made one appearance for Canada during the Four Nations tournament in China on January 30 , 2004 against China . Her second appearance in 2004 came during the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying tournament in March . She subbed in during the 69th minute of the March 5 match against Costa Rica , helping to secure a third place win . Because of the team 's third @-@ place finish , Canada did not qualify for the 2004 Summer Olympics .
McLeod did not make another appearance for the national team until 2006 . She was invited to the first training camp of 2006 in mid @-@ January . It was the first training camp she took part in since July 2004 . McLeod was named to a 17 @-@ women roster for two matches against the Netherlands in March 2006 . She started in goal for the March 4 match , allowing one goal in the 90 minutes played . In April , she made the 18 @-@ women roster for the four @-@ city , five @-@ match tour of the United States , where the Canadian team played various college teams . Following the tour , McLeod appeared and started in seven friendlies for Canada from June to August , allowing eight goals total and recording two shutouts .
McLeod was a member of the 20 @-@ player team that played in the inaugural Peace Queen Cup that took place in South Korea October 28 – November 4 , 2006 . She was the starting goalkeeper in all four of Canada 's games in the tournament , losing once in the final against the United States .
McLeod was named to the 22 @-@ player roster that represented Canada during the 2006 CONCACAF Women 's Gold Cup in November , which served as the qualifying tournament for the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup . As the starting goalkeeper for the semi @-@ final match against Jamaica , she recorded a shutout , earning Canada the win and a berth to the championship final and 2007 World Cup . In the championship final against the United States , McLeod was the starting goalkeeper and allowed one goal in regular time , leading to a tie after 90 minutes . In the last minute of extra time , Kristine Lilly of the United States scored on a penalty kick against McLeod , giving the United States the Gold Cup title .
= = = 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = =
McLeod and the national team began preparation for the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup with a residency camp in Vancouver in the months leading up to the September tournament . Leading up to the World Cup , McLeod started in goal in three international friendlies for Canada , conceding nine goals and recording one shutout .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2007 World Cup in China , McLeod played in all three of the team 's matches during the group stage of the tournament . She allowed three goals in 259 minutes played , recording one shutout in the match against Ghana . The team placed third in their group , halting their advancement in the tournament .
McLeod and the national team regrouped one last time in November 2007 for another residency camp to begin preparing for the 2008 Summer Olympics the following summer .
= = = 2008 and the Beijing Olympics = = =
In January 2008 , McLeod was named to the 21 @-@ player roster for the Four Nations tournament in China . The four @-@ team , three @-@ game tournament took place in late January and provided needed preparation for the Canadian team for the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament later that year . McLeod made one appearance during the tournament in Canada 's first match against the United States . She started and played all 90 minutes of the game . McLeod was named to the roster for a European trip that included the Cyprus Cup from March 5 – 12 and two international friendlies . McLeod was the starting goalkeeper for two of three matches in the Cyprus Cup , allowing one goal and recording a shutout . She recorded a shutout in an international friendly as the starting goalkeeper against France on March 14 .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2008 CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament in April , McLeod recorded three shutouts and allowed one goal in the final against the United States . The team 's April 9 semi @-@ final win over Mexico was her sixth clean sheet of the season , setting a national team record . She helped Canada set a CONCACAF record with 509 consecutive shutout minutes . Canada 's second @-@ place finish at the tournament earned the team a spot at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Following the Olympic Qualifying Tournament , McLeod started in two friendlies in May against the United States and Australia before the Peace Queen Cup in Korea in June . She recorded one shutout during the tournament . After the Peace Queen Cup , McLeod and Canada 's women 's national team resumed the Vancouver residency program for final preparations for the 2008 Women 's Olympic Football Tournament . The residency included three friendlies in July against Brazil , New Zealand , and Singapore ; McLeod started in the matches against New Zealand and Singapore and allowed two goals .
= = = = Women 's Olympic Football Tournament , injury , and setbacks = = = =
McLeod represented Canada at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing that took place from August 6 – 21 . During the group stage , she was the starting goalkeeper for all three of Canada 's matches against Argentina , China , and Sweden . She allowed four goals in three matches , helping Canada advance to the knockout stage .
During the quarter @-@ finals , Canada faced the United States with McLeod starting in goal . In the twelfth minute of the game , American player Heather O 'Reilly made a shot on goal , but it was stopped by McLeod . Angela Hucles then got the rebound and scored for the United States . However , McLeod injured her right knee during the play . She was down for several minutes before she got up and attempted to resume playing . A few minutes later , she was replaced by goalkeeper Karina LeBlanc in the 19th minute . The United States won the game 1 – 2 . It was later revealed that McLeod had torn her right ACL .
Following the injury , McLeod stated that she was relieved because the injury gave her a much needed break from the national team . After the 2007 World Cup , she experienced a drop in confidence due to both her own negative thoughts about her performances as well as derogatory comments about her sexuality made by fellow national team players . It took her years to finally get back to the national team .
= = = Attempted comeback and another injury , 2009 – 2010 = = =
Following her ACL injury , McLeod did not make an appearance for the Canadian national team until July 2009 . She made one appearance for the team in 2009 during an international friendly against the United States on July 22 , where she allowed one goal . She was noted for making several impressive saves during the match . McLeod returned to training with the national team in November for the 12 @-@ day camp in Florida which featured 22 players and a pair of exhibition matches against local university teams .
In February 2010 , McLeod joined the national team for an 18 @-@ day training camp that included four matches in the Cyprus Cup and an international friendly against Poland . McLeod started in the friendly against Poland on February 20 , recording a clean sheet . She also made one start in the Cyprus Cup against South Africa , allowing one goal . She made one other appearance in 2010 in a friendly in April against China before sustaining another ACL injury in July while playing with the Washington Freedom .
= = = Comeback and disappointment , 2011 = = =
McLeod recovered from her second ACL injury quickly and was on the 24 @-@ player roster that competed in Chongqing , China at the Four Nations Tournament in late January 2011 . She appeared in one of three matches against China on January 21 . After the Four Nations tournament , the Canadian national team convened for their traditional residency program in preparation for the FIFA Women 's World Cup . The team trained in Italy from February 12 – 22 preceding the Cyprus Cup . McLeod appeared in three of the four matches in the Cyprus Cup , recording two shutouts . Following the tournament , the Canadian team took a break , during which McLeod hosted Special Goalkeeper Training Sessions from March 17 – 18 . The team reconvened for a four @-@ week training camp from March 23 – April 20 in Roma , Italy to prepare for the FIFA Women 's World Cup . During the camp , McLeod appeared in three friendlies and recorded two shutouts .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Germany , McLeod appeared in two of three matches in the group stage , allowing six goals . Despite an impressive effort , the Canadian team did not advance past the group stage and finished last . Some have stated that the team was burned out following the extensive residency program leading up to the World Cup . Players were also critical of the decision of head coach Carolina Morace to hold the camp in Italy as opposed to Canada . Following the tournament , McLeod appeared in two friendlies against the United States and Sweden .
= = = 2012 London Olympics = = =
After the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , John Herdman was hired as head coach of the Canadian national team . He rebuilt the team and used inclusive language to help create an environment that allowed players to be honest with each other and grow . McLeod was able to address issues that she had with herself and others , which she attributed to helping re @-@ build her confidence .
Leading up to the 2012 Olympics , McLeod helped the Canadian team qualify at the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying tournament that took place from January 19 – 29 in Vancouver . She started in the group stage match against Cuba on January 21 and recorded a clean sheet . She made one other appearance during the tournament in the final match against the United States on January 29 at BC Place . During the match , she conceded four goals , resulting in a 4 – 0 win for the United States .
Following a 10 @-@ day training camp in Cyprus in February 2012 , McLeod was named to the 21 @-@ player roster for the 2012 Cyprus Cup that ran from February 28 to March 6 . She appeared in two of Canada 's four matches in the tournament , including the final against France . From April until late June , McLeod joined her teammates in an extended residency camp in Vancouver in preparation for the 2012 Olympics . During the camp , the team played in various friendlies ; McLeod appeared and started in four friendlies , recording two shutouts .
McLeod was Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . During the group stage , she played in two matches against Japan and Sweden on July 25 and 31 , respectively . She allowed four goals in the two matches . In the quarter @-@ finals , McLeod started in goal against Great Britain and secured a clean sheet .
McLeod started in the semi @-@ final game against the United States on August 6 , in what many have called a controversial match . In the 78th minute of the game , Canada was leading , 3 – 2 , when the referee ruled that McLeod had held the ball for more than six seconds , going by a rule that is rarely enforced , and gave an indirect free kick inside the penalty area to the United States . McLeod faced no challenge with the free kick ; however , the referee then called a penalty after the ball struck Canadian player Marie @-@ Eve Nault on the arm . American striker Abby Wambach took the penalty kick , and it went past McLeod . The match went into extra time , with Alex Morgan heading in the ball past McLeod 's fingertips in the 123rd minute , resulting in a win for the United States .
McLeod started in the Bronze medal match against France on August 9 . Her clean sheet helped Canada win the bronze medal .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
McLeod was named to the national team roster for the Four Nations tournament that took place in Yongchuan , China in January 2013 . She started in two of the three matches , recording two shutouts . In March , she started in three of the four matches at the Cyprus Cup , allowing one goal in all three games . The national team travelled to Europe for eight days in April 2013 , where McLeod started in two friendlies against France and England , conceding one goal in each match . McLeod was named Canada 's player of the match in the draw against France on April 4 . She was the starting goalkeeper in the rematch against the United States on June 2 in Toronto . Later in June , McLeod played during a friendly against Germany and was named Canada 's player of the match for the second time in 2013 . McLeod started in goal four more times in 2013 , including two friendlies and two matches in the Torneio Internacional Cidade de São Paulo in December . All four games were shutouts .
In 2014 , McLeod appeared in seven games , starting six . The year started off with a friendly against the United States on January 31 , where McLeod conceded one goal . In March of the same year , she started in two matches during the Cyprus Cup . The last four matches of the year for McLeod were international friendlies , including another match up against the United States on May 8 , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . On November 24 , 2014 , McLeod made her 100th appearance for the senior team and recorded a shutout in a friendly match against Sweden at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles .
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = = 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = = =
In the months leading up to the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , McLeod joined the Canadian national team as they took part in an extended residency in order to prepare and train . McLeod and the Canadian national team started off the year at the Four Nations Tournament . While McLeod was on the roster for the tournament , she did not play in any of the three games , allowing fellow Canadian Stephanie Labbé to gain experience . McLeod made her first appearance of the year at the Cyprus Cup in March , where she appeared in three of the four matches that Canada played , recording three shutouts . She also appeared in two other friendlies against France and England in April and May .
In April 2015 , McLeod was named to the 23 @-@ player Canadian roster for the FIFA Women 's World Cup hosted by Canada . As Canada 's veteran goalkeeper , she started in net for all five of the team 's matches , recording three shutouts , and helping Canada earn a sixth @-@ place finish . The team 's one loss came in the quarter @-@ finals against England , which halted their advancement in the tournament . Although McLeod had an impressive tournament , she was left off both the Golden Glove shortlist and the FIFA Technical Study Group All @-@ Star Squad .
= = = = Injury = = = =
Following the 2015 World Cup , McLeod was named to the national team roster for the Torneio Internacional de Natal . During her second appearance of the tournament on December 20 – a match against Brazil – McLeod jumped for an incoming ball in the 35th minute and collided with Brazilian player Marta . McLeod landed awkwardly on her right leg , causing injury to her right knee . Though it was initially thought to be a serious injury , it turned out to be a bone bruise and she walked off the field on her own accord .
= = = 2016 = = =
Despite her injury , McLeod returned to the pitch quickly , starting in three games at the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifier in February 2016 where she recorded two shutouts . Instead of playing at the Algarve Cup , she decided to return to Sweden to play with her club team , FC Rosengard . In March 2016 , she sustained her third ACL injury , taking her out of contention for the 2016 Rio Olympics . McLeod has stated that her recovery is expected to take one to two years , and there is a possibility she may not return to play .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = World Cup and Olympic appearances = = =
Updated through 2016 @-@ 06 @-@ 16
= = Style of play = =
In the early years of her career , McLeod 's playing style was described as exuberant and with " boisterous " energy . Her kinetic style of goalkeeping was something that came naturally to her in her youth . Tim Rosenfeld , now a coach at the University of Wisconsin , first saw McLeod in the early 2000s while he was coaching at Penn State University and noted that she was " out of control " and kept coming off her line " going for balls she had no business going for . " When she eventually transferred to Penn State in 2004 , Rosenfeld stated that " she 'd make saves that no one in the world could make , but she 'd also made decisions that allowed a bad goal . " As a youth player in 2002 , the FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship Technical Study Group noted that she was " self @-@ assured in all situations , " has " good positioning " and " organized defense well . "
After gaining more experience in goal , McLeod has improved her control and composure . Canadian head coach John Herdman has noted her ability to stay focused , sharp and alert as well as her strength when faced with great crosses . In 2007 , the FIFA Women 's World Cup Technical Study Group stated that she was an " influential goalkeeper " with " steady performances . " In 2012 , the Olympic Football Tournament Technical Study Group noted that she was a " reliable goalkeeper with good positional play " and that she " comes off her line to good effect . " She has been noted for her dedication , hard work , and attention to detail when playing .
McLeod has been known to rely on meditation to deal with mental fatigue and mentally prepare for games . She has said that Buddhist principles drive her meditation and her selfless lifestyle . Herdman has noted that because of this , McLeod has a calm and comforting presence on the field . She has been recognized for her leadership on and off the field . Her ability to effectively communicate with her back line allows her to take complete control , creating an organized defense . In 2015 , the FIFA Women 's World Cup Technical Study Group called her a " goalkeeper with good positioning and technique " and stated that she " played with confidence and leadership " and " communicated well from the back . "
= = Personal life = =
McLeod is openly lesbian . She came out publicly during a CBC interview following the controversy surrounding the 2014 Sochi Olympics and Russia 's gay propaganda laws . She was among a group of athletes who called for a change in the language of the Olympic Charter and host @-@ city contract to include non @-@ discrimination of sexual orientation . She also served on the Canadian Athletes ' Commission as the LGBT representative .
On July 6 , 2015 , McLeod married teammate Ella Masar in Vancouver following the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . The two co @-@ hosted a regular online web show called The Ella and Erin Show while playing for the Chicago Red Stars and later the Houston Dash in order to promote home games and give away tickets to fans . They currently live in Malmö , Sweden with their chihuahua , Max , while playing with FC Rosengård .
= = = Tattoos = = =
McLeod has several tattoos , the most noticeable being on her right arm . In 2002 , following Canada 's silver medal win at the Under @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship , McLeod had the image of a Canadian Maple Leaf tattooed on her buttocks . Prior to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , she had a Washington Irving quote tattooed on her right forearm :
There is sacredness in tears . They are not the mark of weakness , but a power . They speak more eloquently than 10 @,@ 000 tongues . They are the messengers of overwhelming grief and unspeakable love .
In addition to the quote , she had the Roman numeral " V " above the quote near the crevice of her elbow . While the " V " was meant to represent the five members of her immediate family , she had the tattoo covered up in early 2014 . In its place is a black rectangle with the words " keep going " inscribed inside . At the same time , she had teal zigzag lines inked around her entire right forearm , surrounding the Washington Irving quote , a large owl wrapped around her arm , and script around her wrist , the latter two of which she got right after the 2012 Summer Olympics .
McLeod has the Roman numerals " X X IX " tattooed down the back of her neck , representing the 29th Olympiad . McLeod and Masar have matching tattoos , which they received in the summer of 2015 following their wedding . The tattoo is simply composed of the word " one " located on the side of her ring finger .
= = Outside of professional soccer = =
= = = Noble Motives Collective = = =
McLeod and fashion designer Adelle Renaud founded the Noble Motives Collective composed of Peau de Loup , a button down shirt company ; Caposhie , a fashion boutique located in West Vancouver ; and Motive Athletics , McLeod 's athletic clothing line . Peau de Loup was founded in early 2013 by Renaud and McLeod joined the company in October of the same year . Caposhie opened for business in October 2015 in the Park Royal Shopping Center in West Vancouver . Motive Athletics was revealed in late 2015 , with some promotional products being sold in Caposhie , but was not officially launched until July 2016 . On November 4 , 2015 , McLeod appeared on the business reality show Dragons ' Den presenting her company and getting a deal .
In June 2015 , Peau de Loup teamed up with the Canadian Soccer Association to launch an exclusive collection in support of the women 's national team at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup with a campaign named The Canadian Promise . The line included the Unity Scarf , which donned the word " Canada " on the inside , as well as the True North Flannel . Players from the Canadian national team could be seen wearing items from the collection during the tournament . In addition to their support for team Canada , Peau de Loup also supports Freedom Factory , a Canadian charity based in Surrey , British Columbia , and one dollar from every shirt sold goes directly to the women of Al @-@ lhsan .
= = = Art gallery = = =
In 2013 , McLeod launched her art career with her first solo art exhibit " Limitless " from September 16 – 30 at the Jane Roos Gallery in Toronto . She created all of the pieces in just six months and they all sold well . After completing the successful showing , McLeod began working on commission pieces . In November 2014 , she launched the Erin McLeod Gallery on Etsy , where she sells both original pieces and high quality prints .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
McLeod is an ambassador for the Right To Play campaign , a program that educates and empowers youth in impoverished countries in order to build self @-@ sustaining communities . Regarding her reason to get involved with the organization , McLeod stated , " I saw 7- or 8 @-@ year @-@ olds who are taking care of a family of six because their parents have died of AIDS . It 's one of the harshest circumstances I 've ever seen . "
McLeod has also worked with Rethink Breast Cancer , a program that educates young women on nutrition and body image in order to promote healthy living . She has cited her own body image issues and eating disorder as her reason for getting involved with the organization .
In 2013 , McLeod became an ambassador for the non @-@ profit organization Athlete Ally , which works to end homophobia and transphobia in sports . She stated that her performance on the field improved after she gained more confidence in who she was off the field . McLeod believes promoting such confidence and creating an accepting environment , as Athlete Ally strives to do , is important for athletes and is the reason she joined the organization .
= = = Endorsements = = =
In February 2015 , McLeod signed an endorsement deal with Destination Chrysler Jeep Dodge Ram , in which she received a 2015 Jeep Wrangler Sahara . In March , she visited two schools in Vancouver in collaboration with the company to speak to younger children about her experiences with soccer and life .
= = = Grass2Gold = = =
McLeod and fellow Canadian international Melissa Tancredi co @-@ founded the training program Grass2Gold for youth athletes in order to provide national level training for younger athletes so that they can reach their full potential .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = = Vancouver Whitecaps = = = =
W @-@ League Championship : 2004 , 2006
= = = International = = =
Olympic Bronze Medal : 2012
International Tournament of São Paulo : 2010
Cyprus Cup : 2008 , 2010 , 2011
= = = Individual = = =
All @-@ WAC Tournament Team : 2001
NSCAA Central All @-@ Region Team : 2001 , 2002
All @-@ WAC First @-@ Team : 2001 , 2002
Academic All @-@ WAC Team : 2002
NSCAA All @-@ American Third Team : 2004
All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region First team : 2004 , 2005
All @-@ Big Ten First Team : 2004 , 2005
NSCAA All @-@ American First Team : 2005
ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ American Third @-@ Team : 2005
Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year : 2005
M.A.C. Hermann Trophy semi @-@ finalist : 2005
Canadian Soccer Association 's All @-@ Time Canada XI : 2012
|
= Beneath a Steel Sky =
Beneath a Steel Sky is a 1994 cyberpunk science @-@ fiction point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game developed by Revolution Software and published by Virgin Interactive for MS @-@ DOS and Amiga home computers . The game was made available as freeware for PC platforms in 2003 . Set in a dystopian future , the player assumes the role of Robert Foster , who was stranded in a wasteland known as " the Gap " as a child and adopted by a group of local Aboriginals , gradually adjusting to his life in the wilderness . After many years , armed security officers arrive , killing the locals and taking Robert back to Union City . He escapes and soon uncovers the corruption which lies at the heart of society .
Originally titled Underworld , the game was a collaboration between game director Charles Cecil and comic book artist Dave Gibbons , and cost £ 40 @,@ 000 to make . Cecil was a fan of Gibbons 's work and approached with the idea of a video game . The game has a serious tone , but features humour @-@ filled dialogue , which came as a result of Cecil 's and writer Dave Cummins 's goal to find a middle ground between the earnestness of Sierra 's and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts ' adventure games . It was built using Revolution 's Virtual Theatre engine , first used in Revolution 's previous and debut release , 1992 's Lure of the Temptress .
It received extremely positive reviews at the time of its release and is retrospectively viewed as a cult classic and Revolution 's greatest game besides Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars . A remastered edition was released for iOS in 2009 ( as Beneath a Steel Sky Remastered ) , which also received a positive reception from the gaming press . A sequel was greenlit during the Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse 2012 Kickstarter campaign , but its development has yet to be confirmed .
= = Gameplay = =
Beneath a Steel Sky is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the environment and to guide protagonist Robert Foster through the game 's world . To solve puzzles and progress in the game , the player collects items that may be combined with one another , used on the environment , or given to non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . The protagonist converses with NPCs via dialogue trees to learn about the game 's puzzles and plot . Clues and other information are obtained by clicking on items in the inventory and on objects in the environment . Unlike in most adventure games at the time , the protagonist 's death is possible , after which the player starts from the last save point . In the remastered iOS version , the point @-@ and @-@ click interface is replaced with a touch user interface , a hint system is added , and hotspots are highlighted .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
Beneath a Steel Sky is set at an unknown point in a dystopian future , when the Earth has been significantly damaged by pollution and / or nuclear fallout .
In Australia , the six states and two territories who have been consumed by their respective capital cities are described as " city states " . Union City is the second largest of the six remaining city states after the acquisition of Asio @-@ City . Within this socio @-@ political milieu , the national intelligence agency ASIO wield a great deal of power .
After the " Euro @-@ American War " , all participants agreed upon a set of ideals described as the " neo democratic principles " which remove all labour representation and social benefits . Ironically , those that subscribe to these principles are called " Unions " , contrasting the real world definition of what a trade union pushes for . Those that oppose the Unions ' ideals are called " Corporations " . All of the City States in Australia are either Corporations or Unions .
The larger political context of the game involves a conflict between Union City and the Hobart Corporation , whereby they are each trying to achieve market dominance by the use of sabotage . During the game , characters in Union City remark that Hobart Corporation is winning the " economic war " by flooding the market with " cheap , gimmicky garbage , " although it is never clarified whether this is mere propaganda .
= = = Plot = = =
The immediate backstory is introduced via a comic book that tells the story of a young boy called Robert who is the sole survivor of a helicopter crash in " the Gap " ( the name applied to the Outback at the time of the game ) . Too young to fend for himself , Robert is adopted by a group of locals , who teach him the skills he needs to survive in this harsh new environment ; they name him Robert Foster , partly due to him being fostered by them , but also because of the discovery of an empty can of Foster 's Lager found near the crash site . Over the years , Foster learns engineering and technology and builds a talking , sentient robot called Joey . Joey 's personality is stored on a small circuit board , which can easily be inserted and removed from many types of robot . This allows him to change bodies as the situation requires , provided his circuit board is not damaged . His commentaries on the current " shell " he is in are a running gag throughout the game .
As the game starts , Foster is kidnapped and his tribe annihilated by security soldiers sent from Union City by its all @-@ powerful computer , LINC ( Logical Inter @-@ Neural Connection ) . The abductors refuse to give Foster any explanation as to what is happening . Shortly upon arriving in the city , the helicopter malfunctions and crashes in the city 's upper level . Foster survives and flees , making his way into a recycling plant , carrying Joey 's circuit board with him .
Foster places Joey 's circuit board into a robotic vacuum cleaner ( something about which Joey is none too happy ) . He then attempts to escape the plant , but is cornered by a security officer who had also survived the accident . The officer , Reich , addresses Foster as " Overmann " . Just as Reich is about to kill Foster , a nearby security camera shoots a laser , disarming him . Reich tells the camera , which he reveals is controlled by LINC , that Foster must be stopped . In answer the camera shoots him again , killing him . Foster takes the officer 's access card and sunglasses before he continues his escape .
As he makes his way further down the city , Foster eventually arrives in the abandoned subway tunnels . There he discovers that LINC has grown exponentially , to the point where he is now half @-@ machine , half @-@ organic entity . However , in order to function , LINC needs a human host to share its brain . The current host is Foster 's biological father , who is old and has become severely worn out from his symbiosis with LINC . It is revealed that LINC sent for Foster because , with the death of its current host inevitable , it needed a replacement , and only a blood relative would do . Foster ultimately defeats LINC by plugging Joey ( now calling himself Ken ) into the mainframe . Joey / Ken is able to take control of the system , and he and Foster set about turning Union City into a utopia .
= = Development = =
While working at Activision , Revolution co @-@ founder and CEO Charles Cecil got the idea of working with Dave Gibbons , artist and co @-@ creator of comic book Watchmen , as Cecil was a fan of the comic book himself . He approached Gibbons , but shortly thereafter , the old Activision broke down . However , they maintained a friendship , and Cecil later contacted Gibbons to ask him to work on Revolution 's second game . Seeing his son play video games , Gibbons became interested and realized that his skills in drawing , writing and conceptualizing could be useful in a gaming environment . Joining the team just before the release Lure of the Temptress , Gibbons was sent a rudimentary outline of what could happen in the hypothesised game , and wrote a longer story with new characters and scenarios , to which Revolution then further added . Originally the game was named Underworld , a title proposed by Gibbons , but it was renamed due to the release of Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss .
The production values became much higher for Beneath a Steel Sky than for Lure of the Temptress , resulting in a game six times larger , and by the end of 1993 , the team working on the game had grown to eleven . The game was created in sections , which allowed the team to ensure that each part was " perfected " before moving on . Its 2 @-@ year development cost £ 40 @,@ 000 , a large amount of money for the company at the time .
= = = Creative and technical design = = =
The designers ' goal was to create a visual bridge between comic and video game graphics . Gibbons drew the backgrounds in pencil , starting with roughs , which were sent to Revolution to see if they were technically feasible . Once agreed upon , Gibbons would then make the final sketch . The pencil sketches were then colored , mainly by Les Pace . The backgrounds were scanned on a Macintosh as 24 @-@ bit , 1000x1000 pixel images with 16 million colors , and then transformed to 8 @-@ bit , 320x200 pixel images with 256 colors for the PC version . The backgrounds were designed so that the sprites would appear clear on the screen and wouldn 't mix with the backgrounds . Gibbons created the sprites using Deluxe Paint . Steve Ince , who joined the team in February 1993 , created a number of sprite animations , also painting some backgrounds based on Gibbons 's sketches . Gibbons also designed the characters , although he found it challenging to get a character 's personality and expression in a face that was only around seven pixels wide and nine pixels high with a limited palette . He would have liked to design a character in a similar manner to Prince of Persia or Flashback , but Revolution wanted something more detailed , so the result became a compromise . All character sprites are smoothly animated with around 20 positions each . According to Gibbons , about 75 % of the backgrounds and characters he designed were used in the game .
Dave Cummins wrote the dialogue for the game . The tone of Revolution 's early games was born from a tension between Cummins and Cecil . Cummins wanted to be more flippant with dialogue , while Cecil wanted to be more serious . Their goal was to find the middle ground between Sierra 's " ridiculously earnest " stories and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts games . For the voice acting , which is only included in the CD @-@ ROM version , Revolution used actors from the Royal Shakespeare Company . Only two days were spent recording over five thousands lines of dialogue . Not pleased with the results , however , Revolution decided on a lengthy re @-@ recording , and realized that voice actors should be used , rather than stage actors . As a result of this , the speech doesn 't always match the on @-@ screen text , with English terms being Americanized . Cummins was also responsible for the score of the game , writing a specific tune for each of the main locations .
Beneath a Steel Sky became the second game to use Revolution 's Virtual Theatre engine , after Lure of the Temptress . According to Cecil , the original version of the engine seemed less applicable in Beneath a Steel Sky , as the ability to issue commands conflicted with the gameplay they intended to create . Lure of the Temptress had one story that was moved forward by a key event , whereas Beneath a Steel Sky had multiple threads . In one way this presented them with " exciting gameplay opportunities , but in others it cordoned off more ambitious ideas in terms of multilinearity . " As a consequence , some of the engine 's features were scaled back . Tony Warriner and David Sykes , both Revolution co @-@ founders and programmers , had to update the engine , which was part of the new deal with Virgin Interactive . As an example of change in the updated engine , Virtual Theatre 2 @.@ 0 , Warriner explained that in Lure of the Temptress , the system controlled everything , for instance specific routines to a door . So if there was a door on @-@ screen , the door @-@ routine was called up to handle it . The consequence was that every door looked the same and acted the same , so if a door was somewhat different from the last one , it caused a problem . This was changed in the new system , as it was object oriented and no distinction was made between a proper object like a door or key .
= = = Release = = =
Beneath a Steel Sky was presented at the European Computer Trade Show in the London Business Design Centre in April 1993 and at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago in June 1993 . According to French magazine Génération 4 , the game was supposed to be released by the end of October 1993 . Various playable demos of the game were made ; one was added to the first issue of PC Gamer , and Amiga demos were added as cover disks to several Amiga magazines .
Beneath a Steel Sky was published in March 1994 by Virgin Interactive on floppy disks and CD @-@ ROM . It came on 15 floppy disks , as opposed to Lure of The Temptress , which came on four . Because of the Amiga restrictions , a few animations had to be left out , as not all Amiga owners had a hard drive . Each conversion of the images to the Amiga resulted in a loss of detail because of the Amiga 's limited palette and resolution . According to Revolution in @-@ house artist Adam Tween , it took a couple of days to " touch up " the screens . A comic book created by Gibbons , which was translated into the introduction sequence of the game , came as part of the game package .
Beneath a Steel Sky was translated from English into French and Portuguese . This was the first game not developed in Portugal to be released with a Portuguese translation .
= = = Freeware release and Remastered edition = = =
In August 2003 , the game was released as freeware with its assembly language source code by Revolution Software . The source code availability made it possible for the ScummVM project to support the game , which allows the game to be played on Windows , OS X , Linux , Windows CE and other compatible operating systems and platforms .
In November 2011 , James Woodcock released an enhanced soundtrack of the game for ScummVM . The game is also available for free download on digital distribution services , including Desura and GOG.com.
In July 2009 , Revolution announced that a remastered edition of Beneath a Steel Sky would be released on iOS later that year . The remastered edition features new animated movies by Gibbons , a context @-@ sensitive help system and improved audio quality . The game was released on the App Store on October 7 , 2009 . The animated movies in the iOS remastered version make use of the original stills and use a sliding paper @-@ like style to animate them .
= = Critical reception and commercial performance = =
Beneath a Steel Sky was critically acclaimed . In 1995 , PC Gamer awarded it the " Best Dialogue " award , and it won the " Best Adventure " award at the Golden Joystick Awards . It was also a commercial success , reaching the number one place on the British Gallup charts .
CU Amiga 's Tony Dillon proclaimed Beneath a Steel Sky as " one of the greatest adventures ever . " Amiga Format 's Rob Mead said that the game is an " Utterly brilliant " , " massive , intense and atmospheric adventure which will keep you on tenterhooks right until its final startling conclusion . " PC Gamer US 's Steve Poole called it " slick , funny , " " absorbing " and " one of the most playable adventures of all time " " that will appeal to a wide variety of gamers " . Amiga Power 's Cam Winstanley said that it is " an example of what an adventure game should be like – funny , enthralling and convincing . " Adventure Gamers ' Claire Wood called it an " enjoyable " , " engaging adventure classic , thoroughly enjoyable playing experience " and " a 1984 for the computer game generation . "
Winstanley thought that the main highpoint of the game was the story , with an ending " that 's actually quite a surprise . " Wood praised the " intelligent , thought provoking storyline " that " becomes more and more compelling , punctuated by unexpected plot twists and macabre discoveries . "
Dillon praised the game 's " stunning " graphics . Mead said the comic book @-@ like artwork projected a great " atmosphere " . Winstanley felt that the game looked " superb " . Wood said the graphics " have aged reasonably well " .
Many of the critics praised the game 's " adult humour " , showcased through numerous one @-@ liners and double entendres . Dillon praised the charm of the various characters and their personalities built through conversations . Wood also praised the Revolution 's " trademark " " light @-@ hearted humour " . Both Dillon and Wood , as well as Winstanley , highlighted Joey 's witty remarks . Poole called the writing " some of the funniest dialog ever " and the characters " warped " and " interesting " .
Reviewers praised the game 's puzzles for being logical but still challenging . Poole found the puzzles to be " tricky " and " engaging " , but stated " the difficulty of the puzzles in the final third of the game is disproportionately high " and that he disliked some of the " race the clock " puzzles . On the other hand , Winstanley felt that the " real time " puzzles " add pace " . Wood 's only gripe with the puzzles were the " odd and disorienting " LINC @-@ space sequences .
Dillon wrote that the controls were so " simple that Revolution can finally lay claim to having created the ultimate in intuitive control methods . " Poole labeled them " a masterwork of simplicity " . Winstanley also praised the " simple " interface , while Wood said that the " unobtrusive interface " is one of the factors that make the game a " highly immersive experience " .
= = = Remastered version = = =
The remastered 2009 iOS version was also very well received . It holds an aggregate score of 85 % on GameRankings , based on seven reviews , and 82 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on five reviews . It was nominated for Best Port / Enhanced Re @-@ release at the Adventure Gamers ' 2009 Aggie Awards in 2010 . The game sold around 20 @,@ 000 units in its first month of release , while Cecil anticipated sales of around 70 @,@ 000 copies during its first year on sale , and roughly 100 @,@ 000 in its lifetime .
The remastered release is available with Spanish , French , Swedish , Portuguese , German , Italian , and English subtitles .
Slide To Play 's Keith Andrew said that " Beneath a Steel Sky somehow feels bigger and bolder than its rivals , raising the bar and highlighting what others have so far failed to achieve . Perfectly suited to its new home , this remastering of a classic game serves up point @-@ and @-@ click play nearly unmatched on the App Store . " Andrew noted that the point @-@ and @-@ click interface " merg [ es ] seamlessly with touchscreen controls " and that the hint system is " a feature that might antagonize some of Steel Sky ’ s hardened fan @-@ base , but one perfectly pitched at the iPhone generation . "
IGN 's Eduardo Vasconcellos stated that the game " is a reminder of how good the old point @-@ and @-@ clickers really were . The updated elements only add to the experience -- especially the cutscenes . If you 're looking for an intriguing story , solid gameplay and some nostalgic charm , Beneath a Steel Sky is for you . " Vasconcellos applauded the " intuitive and responsive " touch controls and said that the " visuals are an attractive update of the original release . " He gave the game an " Editor 's Choice " award .
Pocket Gamer 's Tracy Erickson said that the game " remains as entertaining as it did 15 years ago , galvanising the adventure gaming resurgence on iPhone . " Erickson felt that the touch controls are " only functional and not fantastic , " but that " measures have been taken to address [ problems of the original point @-@ and click interface ] to a respectable degree , " and that the " minimally enhanced presentation raises alarm . " However , he concluded that even though " More could have been done to brush the dust off this ageing title , " " it 's still a standout game . " He gave it a " Silver Award " .
= = Legacy = =
Although retrospectively Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars is generally looked upon as Revolution 's magnum opus , Beneath a Steel Sky still holds the status of a cult classic and has been featured on numerous " all @-@ time top " lists :
Amiga Power ranked Beneath a Steel Sky 42nd on their Amiga Power All @-@ Time Top One Hundred in 1994 . Adventure Gamers ranked the game 17th on their list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time in 2004 , and 19th on the Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures in 2011 . In 2006 , Adventure Classic Gaming put the game in 9th place on their list of the Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles . Retro Gamer placed it in third on its list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time ... not by LucasArts in 2010 . It was included in Edge editor Tony Mott 's 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , a book published in 2010 . In 2011 , PC Gamer ranked it ninth on its list of 20 free PC games you must play . In the same year , Now Gamer listed it as one of the Greatest Point @-@ And @-@ Click Games ( Not By LucasArts ) . In 2014 , TechRadar placed it 40th on its list of the Top 50 best free games you should play today . Pocket Gamer included it on its list of Top 10 adventure games that should be revived on DS in 2009 .
Beneath a Steel Sky : Remastered has been placed on numerous top lists as well , including Edge 's Top 50 iPhone Games at 26th in 2009 , as well as Pocket Gamer 's Top 10 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games on iPhone and iPad and Mashable 's 10 Classic PC Games That Found New Life on the iPhone , both in 2010 .
Beneath a Steel Sky is often referenced in Revolution 's Broken Sword games , including 1997 's Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror , in 2009 's Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut and 2013 / 2014 's Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , in the form of an easter egg .
= = = Sequel = = =
In 2004 , Cecil commented " Beneath a Steel Sky 2 is a project Revolution has been considering for a while , and has started to move forward on , but we are unable to comment beyond this . "
In an interview with Eurogamer in 2006 , Cecil spoke of his admiration for the work done by ScummVM and the resulting interest in a sequel . He also stated that if he were to make the game he " would dearly love to work with Dave Gibbons again . " In a February 20 , 2009 interview with IGN UK about the Wii and DS versions of Broken Sword : The Director 's Cut , Cecil and Gibbons re @-@ iterated their interest in a sequel to Beneath a Steel Sky .
In September 2012 , Revolution announced that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 would be greenlit if their Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse Kickstarter reached $ 1 million . Despite Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse failing to meet the $ 1 million ' stretch goal ' , Revolution announced that the success of its crowdfunding campaign had inspired them to greenlight Beneath a Steel Sky 2 . However , Revolution later clarified that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 will not necessarily be the studio 's first project following Broken Sword 5 and that they would " think " about what their next game will be after finishing the Broken Sword game . In February 2014 it was reported that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 had never entered production , despite previous reports to the contrary . The reason cited was that the Broken Sword franchise took up the sole focus of the company .
|
= Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository =
The Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository , as designated by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act amendments of 1987 , was to be a deep geological repository storage facility for spent nuclear fuel and other high level radioactive waste . The site is located on federal land adjacent to the Nevada Test Site in Nye County , Nevada , about 80 mi ( 130 km ) northwest of the Las Vegas Valley .
The project was approved in 2002 by the United States Congress , but Federal funding for the site ended in 2011 under the Obama Administration via amendment to the Department of Defense and Full @-@ Year Continuing Appropriations Act , passed on April 14 , 2011 . The project has had many difficulties and was highly contested by the general public and many politicians . The Government Accountability Office stated that the closure was for political , not technical or safety reasons .
This leaves US non @-@ governmental entities , such as utilities , without any designated long term storage site for the high level radioactive waste stored on @-@ site at various nuclear facilities around the country . The US government disposes of its waste at WIPP in New Mexico , in rooms 2 @,@ 150 feet ( 660 m ) underground . The Department of Energy ( DOE ) is reviewing other options for a high @-@ level waste repository and the Blue Ribbon Commission on America 's Nuclear Future , established by the Secretary of Energy , released its final report in January 2012 . It expressed urgency to find a consolidated , geological repository , and that any future facility should be developed by a new independent organization with direct access to the Nuclear Waste Fund , that is not subject to political and financial control like the DOE . In the meantime , most nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to the indefinite on @-@ site dry cask storage of waste in nearly impervious steel and concrete casks .
= = Background = =
Spent nuclear fuel is the radioactive by @-@ product of electricity generation at commercial nuclear power plants , and high @-@ level radioactive waste is the by @-@ product from reprocessing spent fuel to produce fissile material for nuclear weapons . In 1982 , the United States Congress established a national policy to solve the problem of nuclear waste disposal . This policy is a federal law called the Nuclear Waste Policy Act , which made the DOE responsible for finding a site , building , and operating an underground disposal facility called a geologic repository . The recommendation to use a geologic repository dates back to 1957 when the National Academy of Sciences recommended that the best means of protecting the environment and public health and safety would be to dispose of the waste in rock deep underground .
The DOE began studying Yucca Mountain in 1978 to determine whether it would be suitable for the nation 's first long @-@ term geologic repository for over 70 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 69 @,@ 000 long tons ; 77 @,@ 000 short tons ) ( 150 million pounds ) of spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level radioactive waste as of 2015 stored at 121 sites around the nation . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 800 long tons ; 11 @,@ 000 short tons ) of the waste would be from America 's military nuclear programs . On December 19 , 1984 , the DOE selected ten locations in six states for consideration as potential repository sites , based on data collected for nearly ten years . The ten sites were studied and results of these preliminary studies were reported in 1985 . Based on these reports , President Ronald Reagan approved three sites for intensive scientific study called site characterization . The three sites were Hanford , Washington ; Deaf Smith County , Texas ; and Yucca Mountain . In 1987 , Congress amended the Nuclear Waste Policy Act and directed DOE to study only Yucca Mountain , which is located within a former nuclear test site . The Act provided that if during site characterization the Yucca Mountain location was found unsuitable , studies would be stopped immediately . This option expired when the site was actually recommended by the President . On July 23 , 2002 , President George W. Bush signed House Joint Resolution 87 , ( Pub.L. 107 – 200 ) allowing the DOE to take the next step in establishing a safe repository in which to store the country 's nuclear waste . The DOE was to begin accepting spent fuel at the Yucca Mountain Repository by January 31 , 1998 but did not do so because of a series of delays due to legal challenges , concerns over how to transport nuclear waste to the facility , and political pressures resulting in underfunding of the construction .
On July 18 , 2006 the DOE proposed March 31 , 2017 as the date to open the facility and begin accepting waste based on full funding . On September 8 , 2006 Ward ( Edward ) Sproat , a nuclear industry executive formerly of PECO energy in Pennsylvania , was nominated by President Bush to lead the Yucca Mountain Project . Following the 2006 mid @-@ term Congressional elections , Democratic Nevada Senator Harry Reid , a longtime opponent of the repository , became the Senate Majority Leader , putting him in a position to greatly affect the future of the project . Reid has said that he would continue to work to block completion of the project , and is quoted as having said : " Yucca Mountain is dead . It 'll never happen . "
In the 2008 Omnibus Spending Bill , the Yucca Mountain Project 's budget was reduced to $ 390 million . The project was able to reallocate resources and delay transportation expenditures to complete the License Application for submission on June 3 , 2008 . Lacking an operating repository , the federal government owes utility companies somewhere between $ 300 and $ 500 million per year in compensation for failing to comply with the contract it signed to take the spent nuclear fuel by 1998 .
During his 2008 presidential campaign , Barack Obama promised to abandon the Yucca Mountain project . As a result , Senator Reid moved the Nevada primary to help Obama 's campaign . After his election , the Nuclear Regulatory Commission told Obama he did not have the ability to do so . On April 23 , 2009 , Lindsey Graham ( R @-@ South Carolina ) and eight other senators introduced legislation to provide " rebates " from a $ 30 billion federally managed fund into which nuclear power plants had been paying , so as to refund all collected funds if the project was in fact cancelled by Congress .
In November 2013 , in response to a lawsuit filed by the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners and the Nuclear Energy Institute , the US court of appeals ruled that nuclear utilities may stop paying into the nuclear waste recovery fund until either the DOE follows the Nuclear Waste Policy Act , which designates Yucca Mountain as the repository , or Congress changes the law . The fee ended May 16 , 2014 .
= = The facility = =
The purpose of the Yucca Mountain project is to comply with the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 and develop a national site for spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level radioactive waste storage . The management and operating contractor as of April 1 , 2009 for the project is USA Repository Services , a consortium of government contractors , URS Corporation , Shaw Corporation and Areva Federal Services LLC . After the layoff of 800 employees on March 31 , 2009 , about 100 employees remained on the project until all technical staff were laid off by the end of FY 2010 due to zero funding in the 2011 budget for the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management . Sandia National Laboratories had the responsibility for post closure analysis and ensuring compliance with the NWPA . The main tunnel of the Exploratory Studies Facility is U @-@ shaped , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) long and 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide . There are also several cathedral @-@ like alcoves that branch from the main tunnel . It is in these alcoves that most of the scientific experiments were conducted . The emplacement drifts ( smaller diameter tunnels branching off the main tunnel ) where waste would have been stored were not constructed since they required a construction authorization by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . The repository has a statutory limit of 77 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 85 @,@ 000 short tons ) . To store this amount of waste would have required 40 miles ( 64 km ) of tunnels . The Nuclear Waste Policy Act further limits the capacity of the repository to 63 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 62 @,@ 000 long tons ; 69 @,@ 000 short tons ) of initial heavy metal in commercial spent fuel . The 104 U.S. commercial reactors currently operating will produce this quantity of spent fuel by 2014 , assuming that the spent fuel rods are not reprocessed . Currently , the US has no civil reprocessing plant .
By 2008 , Yucca Mountain was one of the most studied pieces of geology in the world ; between geologic studies and materials science the United States had invested US $ 9 billion on the project . The DOE estimates that it has over 100 million U.S. gallons of highly radioactive waste and 2 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 800 short tons ) of spent fuel from the production of nuclear weapons and from research activities in temporary storage . The cost of the facility is being paid for by a combination of a tax on each kilowatt hour of nuclear power and by the taxpayers for disposal of weapons and naval nuclear waste . Based on the 2001 cost estimate , approximately 73 percent is funded from consumers of nuclear @-@ powered electricity and 27 percent by the taxpayers . The Total System Life Cycle Cost presented to Congress on July 15 , 2008 by Director Sproat was $ 90 billion . This cost , could not be compared to previous estimates since it included a repository capacity about twice as large as previously estimated over a much longer period of time ( 100 years vs 30 years ) . Additionally , the cost of the project continued to escalate because of insufficient funding to most efficiently move forward and complete the project . By 2007 , the DOE announced it was seeking to double the size of the Yucca Mountain repository to a capacity of 135 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 149 @,@ 000 short tons ) , or 300 million pounds .
The tunnel boring machine ( TBM ) that excavated the main tunnel cost $ 13 million and was 400 ft ( 120 m ) in length when in operation . It now sits at its exit point at the South Portal ( south entrance ) of the facility . The short side tunnel alcoves were excavated using explosives .
= = Opposition = =
The DOE was scheduled to begin accepting spent fuel at the Yucca Mountain repository by January 31 , 1998 . As of 2010 , years after this deadline , the future status of the repository at Yucca Mountain was still unknown due to on @-@ going litigation , and opposition by Senator Harry Reid .
Because of construction delays , a number of nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to dry cask storage of waste on @-@ site indefinitely in nearly impervious steel and concrete casks .
The project is widely opposed in Nevada and is a hotly debated national topic . A two @-@ thirds majority of Nevadans feel it is unfair for their state to have to store nuclear waste when there are no nuclear power plants in Nevada Many Nevadans ' opposition stemmed from the so @-@ called " Screw Nevada Bill , " the 1987 legislation halting study of Hanford and Texas as potential sites for the waste before conclusions could be made . The local county in which the proposed facility is located , Nye County , supports the development of the repository as do six adjoining counties .
One point of concern has been the standard of radiation emission from 10 @,@ 000 years to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years into the future . On August 9 , 2005 , the United States Environmental Protection Agency proposed a limit of 350 millirem per year for that period . In October 2007 , the DOE issued a draft of the Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement in which it shows that for the first 10 @,@ 000 years mean public dose would be 0 @.@ 24 mrem / year and that thereafter to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years the median public dose would be 0 @.@ 98 mrem / year , both of which are substantially below the proposed EPA limit . For comparison , a hip x @-@ ray results in a dose around 83 mrem and a CT head or chest scan results in around 1 @,@ 110 mrem . Annually , in the United States , an individual 's doses from background radiation is about 350 mrem , although some places get more than twice that .
On February 12 , 2002 , U.S. Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham made the decision that this site was suitable to be the nation 's nuclear repository . The governor of Nevada had 90 days to object and did so . However , the United States Congress overrode the objection . If the governor 's objection had stood the project would have been abandoned and a new site chosen . In August 2004 , the repository became an election issue , when Senator John Kerry ( D ) said that he would abandon the plans if elected .
In March 2005 , the Energy and Interior departments revealed that several U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists had exchanged e @-@ mails discussing possible falsification of quality assurance documents on water infiltration research . On February 17 , 2006 , the DOE ’ s Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management ( OCRWM ) released a report confirming the technical soundness of infiltration modeling work performed by U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) employees . In March 2006 , the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Majority Staff issued a 25 @-@ page white paper " Yucca Mountain : The Most Studied Real Estate on the Planet . " The conclusions were :
Extensive studies consistently show Yucca Mountain to be a sound site for nuclear waste disposal
The cost of not moving forward is extremely high
Nuclear waste disposal capability is an environmental imperative
Nuclear waste disposal capability supports national security
Demand for new nuclear plants also demands disposal capability
On January 18 , 2006 , DOE OCRWM announced that it would designate Sandia National Laboratories as its lead laboratory to integrate repository science work for the Yucca Mountain Project . " We believe that establishing Sandia as our lead laboratory is an important step in our new path forward . The independent , expert review that the scientists at Sandia will perform will help ensure that the technical and scientific basis for the Yucca Mountain repository is without question , " OCRWM ’ s Acting Director Paul Golan said . " Sandia has unique experience in managing scientific investigations in support of a federally licensed geologic disposal facility , having served in that role as the scientific advisor to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in Carlsbad , New Mexico . " Sandia began acting as the lead laboratory on October 1 , 2006 .
Because of questions raised by the State of Nevada and Congressional members about the quality of the science behind Yucca Mountain , the DOE announced on March 31 , 2006 the selection of Oak Ridge Associated Universities / Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education ( a not @-@ for @-@ profit consortium that includes 96 doctoral degree @-@ granting institutions and 11 associate member universities ) to provide expert reviews of scientific and technical work on the Yucca Mountain Project . DOE stated that the Yucca Mountain Project " will be based on sound science . By bringing in Oak Ridge for review of technical work , DOE will seek to present a high level of expertise and credibility as they move the project forward ... This award gives DOE access to academic and research institutions to help DOE meet their mission and legal obligation to license , construct , and open Yucca Mountain as the nation ’ s repository for spent nuclear fuel . "
There was significant public and political opposition to the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository project in Nevada . An attempt was made to push ahead with the project and override this opposition . But for large projects which would take decades to complete , there is every chance that sustained local opposition will prevail , and this happened with the Yucca Mountain project . Successful nuclear waste storage siting efforts in Scandinavia have involved local communities in the decision @-@ making process and given them a veto at each stage , but this did not happen with Yucca Mountain . Local communities at potential storage and repository sites " should have early and continued involvement in the process , including funding that would allow them to retain technical experts " .
On March 5 , 2009 , Energy Secretary Steven Chu reiterated in a Senate hearing that the Yucca Mountain site was no longer considered an option for storing reactor waste .
On March 3 , 2010 , the DOE filed a motion with the NRC to withdraw its license application , however multiple lawsuits to stop this action have been filed by states , counties , and individuals across the country as being unauthorized by the NWPA .
= = Radiation standards = =
= = = Original standard = = =
The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) established its Yucca Mountain standards in June 2001 . The storage standard set a dose limit of 15 millirem per year for the public outside the Yucca Mountain site . The disposal standards consisted of three components : an individual dose standard , a standard evaluating the impacts of human intrusion into the repository , and a groundwater protection standard . The individual @-@ protection and human intrusion standards set a limit of 15 millirem per year to a reasonably maximally exposed individual , who would be among the most highly exposed members of the public . The groundwater protection standard is consistent with EPA 's Safe Drinking Water Act standards , which the Agency applies in many situations as a pollution prevention measure . The disposal standards were to apply for a period of 10 @,@ 000 years after the facility is closed . Dose assessments were to continue beyond 10 @,@ 000 years and be placed in DOE 's Environmental Impact Statement , but were not subject to a compliance standard . The 10 @,@ 000 year period for compliance assessment is consistent with EPA 's generally applicable standards developed under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act . It also reflects international guidance regarding the level of confidence that can be placed in numerical projections over very long periods of time .
= = = Inconsistent standards = = =
Shortly after the EPA first established these standards in 2001 , the nuclear industry , several environmental and public interest groups , and the State of Nevada challenged the standards in court . In July 2004 , the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit found in favor of the Agency on all counts except one : the 10 @,@ 000 year regulatory time frame . The court ruled that EPA ’ s 10 @,@ 000 @-@ year compliance period for isolation of radioactive waste was not consistent with National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) recommendations and was too short . The NAS report had recommended standards be set for the time of peak risk , which might approach a period of one million years . By limiting the compliance time to 10 @,@ 000 years , EPA did not respect a statutory requirement that it develop standards consistent with NAS recommendations .
= = = EPA 's rule = = =
EPA published in the Federal Register a final rule in 2009 . The new rule limits radiation doses from Yucca Mountain for up to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years after it closes . Within that regulatory time frame , the EPA has two dose standards that would apply based on the number of years from the time the facility is closed .
For the first 10 @,@ 000 years , the EPA would retain the 2001 final rule ’ s dose limit of 15 millirem per year . This is protection at the level of the most stringent radiation regulations in the U.S. today . From 10 @,@ 000 to one million years , EPA established a dose limit of 100 millirem per year . EPA 's rule requires the Department of Energy to show that Yucca Mountain can safely contain wastes , considering the effects of earthquakes , volcanic activity , climate change , and container corrosion , over one million years . The current analysis indicates that the repository will cause less than 1 mrem / year public dose through 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years .
= = Geology = =
The formation that makes up Yucca Mountain was created by several large eruptions from a caldera volcano and is composed of alternating layers of ignimbrite ( welded tuff ) , non @-@ welded tuff , and semi @-@ welded tuff . The tuff surround the burial sites is expected to protect human health as it provides a natural barrier to the radiation . It lies along the transition between the Mohave and the Great Basin Deserts .
The volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain is appreciably fractured and movement of water through an aquifer below the waste repository is primarily through fractures . While the fractures are usually confined to individual layers of tuff , the faults extend from the planned storage area all the way to the water table 600 to 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 180 to 460 m ) below the surface . Future water transport from the surface to waste containers is likely to be dominated by fractures . There is evidence that surface water has been transported down through the 700 ft ( 210 m ) of overburden to the exploratory tunnel at Yucca Mountain in less than 50 years .
Some site opponents assert that , after the predicted containment failure of the waste containers , these cracks may provide a route for movement of radioactive waste that dissolves in the water flowing downward from the desert surface . Officials state that the waste containers will be stored in such a way as to minimize or even nearly eliminate this possibility .
The area around Yucca Mountain received much more rain in the geologic past and the water table was consequently much higher than it is today , though well below the level of the repository .
= = = Earthquakes = = =
Nevada ranks fourth in the nation for current seismic activity . Earthquake databases ( the Council of the National Seismic System Composite Catalogue and the Southern Great Basin Seismic Network ) provide current and historical earthquake information . Analysis of the available data in 1996 indicates that , since 1976 , there have been 621 seismic events of magnitude greater than 2 @.@ 5 within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of Yucca Mountain .
DOE has stated that seismic and tectonic effects on the natural systems at Yucca Mountain will not significantly affect repository performance . Yucca Mountain lies in a region of ongoing tectonic deformation , but the deformation rates are too slow to significantly affect the mountain during the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ year regulatory compliance period . Rises in the water table caused by seismic activity would be , at most , a few tens of meters and would not reach the repository . The fractured and faulted volcanic tuff that Yucca Mountain comprises reflects the occurrence of many earthquake @-@ faulting and strong ground motion events during the last several million years , and the hydrological characteristics of the rock would not be changed significantly by seismic events that may occur in the next 10 @,@ 000 years . The engineered barrier system components will reportedly provide substantial protection of the waste from seepage water , even under severe seismic loading .
In September 2007 , it was discovered that the Bow Ridge fault line ran underneath the facility , hundreds of feet east of where it was originally thought to be located , beneath a storage pad where spent radioactive fuel canisters would be cooled before being sealed in a maze of tunnels . The discovery required several structures to be moved several hundred feet further to the east , and drew criticism from Robert R. Loux , then head of the Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects , who argues that Yucca administrators should have known about the fault line 's location years prior , and called the movement of the structures “ just @-@ in @-@ time engineering . ” In June 2008 , a major nuclear equipment supplier , Holtec International , criticized the Department of Energy 's safety plan for handling containers of radioactive waste before they are buried at the proposed Yucca Mountain dump . The concern is that , in an earthquake , the unanchored casks of nuclear waste material awaiting burial at Yucca Mountain could be sent into a " chaotic melee of bouncing and rolling juggernauts " .
= = Transportation of waste = =
The nuclear waste was planned to be shipped to the site by rail and / or truck in robust containers known as spent nuclear fuel shipping casks , approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . While the routes in Nevada would have been public , in the other states the planned routes , dates and times of transport would have been secret for security reasons . State and tribal representatives would have been notified before shipments of spent nuclear fuel enter their jurisdictions .
= = = Nevada routes = = =
Within Nevada , the planned primary mode of transportation was via rail through the Caliente Corridor . This corridor starts in Caliente , Nevada , traveling along the northern and western borders of the Nevada Test Site for approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) . At this point , it turns south .
Other options that were being considered included a rail route along the Mina corridor . This rail route would have originated at the Fort Churchill Siding rail line , near Wabuska . The proposed corridor would have proceeded southeast through Hawthorne , Blair Junction , Lida Junction and Oasis Valley . At Oasis Valley , the rail line would have turned north @-@ northeast towards Yucca Mountain . Use of this rail corridor by the Department of Energy would have required permission from the Walker River Paiute Tribe in order to cross their land . As the first 54 miles ( 87 km ) of the proposed corridor was owned by the Department of Defense , additional permission from the DoD would have to have been granted .
= = = Impacts = = =
Since the early 1960s , the U.S. has safely conducted more than 3 @,@ 000 shipments of spent nuclear fuel without any harmful release of radioactive material . This safety record is comparable to the worldwide experience where more than 70 @,@ 000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel have been transported since 1970 – an amount approximately equal to the total amount of spent nuclear fuel that would have been shipped to Yucca Mountain . However , cities were still concerned about the transport of radioactive waste on highways and railroads that may have passed through heavily populated areas . Dr. Robert Halstead , who was a transportation adviser to the state of Nevada since 1988 , stated regarding transportation of the high level waste , " They would heavily affect cities like Buffalo , Cleveland , Pittsburgh , in the Chicago metropolitan area , in Omaha . " " Coming out of the south , the heaviest impacts would be in Atlanta , in Nashville , St. Louis , Kansas City , moving across through Salt Lake City , through downtown Las Vegas , up to Yucca Mountain . And the same cities would be affected by rail shipments as well . " Spencer Abraham ( DOE ) on the other hand has stated , " I think there 's a general understanding that we move hazardous materials in this country , an understanding that the federal government knows how to do it safely . "
= = Cultural impact = =
Archaeological surveys have found evidence that Native Americans used the immediate vicinity of Yucca Mountain on a temporary or seasonal basis . Some Native Americans disagree with the conclusions of archaeological investigators that their ancestors were highly mobile groups of hunter @-@ gatherers who occupied the Yucca Mountain area before Euroamericans began using the area for prospecting , surveying , and ranching . They believe that these conclusions overlook traditional accounts of farming that occurred before European contact .
Yucca Mountain and surrounding lands were central in the lives of the Southern Paiute , Western Shoshone , and Owens Valley Paiute and Shoshone peoples , who shared them for religious ceremonies , resource uses , and social events .
Crosby and Nash wrote a 2004 song Don 't Dig Here protesting against the environmental issues associated with the project .
= = Delays since 2009 = =
Since 2009 , the Obama administration has been attempting to close the Yucca Mountain repository , despite current US law that designates Yucca Mountain as the nation 's nuclear waste repository . The administration agency , DOE , began implementation of the President 's plan in May 2009 . The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has also gone along with the administration 's closure plan . Various state and Congressional entities have attempted to challenge the administration 's closure plans , by statute and in court . Most recently , in August 2013 , a US Court of Appeals decision has told the NRC and the Obama administration that they must either " approve or reject the Energy Department 's application for [ the ] never @-@ completed waste storage site at Nevada 's Yucca Mountain . " They cannot simply make plans for its closure in violation of US law .
In May 2009 , then United States Secretary of Energy Steven Chu stated :
" Yucca Mountain as a repository is off the table . What we 're going to be doing is saying , let 's step back . We realize that we know a lot more today than we did 25 or 30 years ago . The NRC is saying that the dry cask storage at current sites would be safe for many decades , so that gives us time to figure out what we should do for a long @-@ term strategy . We will be assembling a blue @-@ ribbon panel to look at the issue . We 're looking at reactors that have a high @-@ energy neutron spectrum that can actually allow you to burn down the long @-@ lived actinide waste . These are fast @-@ neutron reactors . There 's others : a resurgence of hybrid solutions of fusion fission where the fusion would impart not only energy , but again creates high @-@ energy neutrons that can burn down the long @-@ lived actinides . ...
" Some of the waste is already vitrified . There is , in my mind , no economical reason why you would ever think of pulling it back into a potential fuel cycle . So one could well imagine — again , it depends on what the blue @-@ ribbon panel says — one could well imagine that for a certain classification for a certain type of waste , you don 't want to have access to it anymore , so that means you could use different sites than Yucca Mountain , such as salt domes . Once you put it in there , the salt oozes around it . These are geologically stable for a 50 to 100 million year time scale . The trouble with those type of places for repositories is you don 't have access to it anymore . But say for certain types of waste you don 't want to have access to it anymore — that 's good . It 's a very natural containment . ... whereas there would be other waste where you say it has some inherent value , let 's keep it around for a hundred years , two hundred years , because there 's a high likelihood we 'll come back to it and want to recover that .
" So the real thing is , let 's get some really wise heads together and figure out how you want to deal with the interim and long @-@ term storage . Yucca was supposed to be everything to everybody , and I think , knowing what we know today , there 's going to have to be several regional areas . "
In 2008 , the U.S. Senate Committee on Environmental and Public Works found that failure to perform to contractual requirements could cost taxpayers up to $ 11 billion by 2020 . In 2013 this estimate of taxpayer liability was raised to $ 21 billion . In July 2009 , the House of Representatives voted 388 to 30 on amendments to HHR3183 ( Roll call vote 591 , via Clerk.House.gov ) to not defund the Yucca Mountain repository in the FY2010 budget . In 2013 , the House of Representatives voted twice during the 2014 Energy and Water Appropriations debate by over 80 % majority to reject elimination of Yucca Mountain as the nation 's only nuclear waste solution .
On April 13 , 2010 , the state of Washington filed suit to prevent the closing of Yucca Mountain , since this would slow efforts to clean up Hanford Nuclear Reservation . South Carolina , Aiken County ( the location of Savannah River site ) and others joined Washington . The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit dismissed the suit in July 2011 , saying the Nuclear Regulatory Commission had not ruled on the withdrawal of the license application . Washington and South Carolina filed another lawsuit on July 29 .
With $ 32 billion received from power companies to fund the project , and $ 12 billion spent to study and build it , the federal government had $ 27 billion left , including interest . In March 2012 , Senator Lindsey Graham introduced a bill requiring three @-@ fourths of that money to be given back to customers , and the remainder to the companies for storage improvements .
In August 2013 , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ordered the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to either " approve or reject the Energy Department 's application for [ the ] never @-@ completed waste storage site at Nevada 's Yucca Mountain . " The court opinion said that the NRC was " simply flouting the law " in its previous action to allow the Obama administration to continue plans to close the proposed waste site since a federal law designating Yucca Mountain as the nation 's nuclear waste repository remains in effect . The court opinion stated that " The president may not decline to follow a statutory mandate or prohibition simply because of policy objections . "
= = In pop culture = =
In the 1995 film Carnosaur 2 , dinosaur eggs hatch inside the repository and wreak havoc on the facility , which ultimately suffers a containment failure and explodes .
In the 2014 American science fiction monster film Godzilla , the Yucca Mountain waste repository is used to store a mysterious radioactive pod that is revealed to be the egg of an enormous monster . It then hatches , escapes Yucca Mountain and causes havoc in the monster movie tradition .
|
= Louis Slotin =
Louis Alexander Slotin ( 1 December 1910 – 30 May 1946 ) was a Canadian physicist and chemist who worked on the Manhattan Project . During World War II , Slotin conducted research at Los Alamos National Laboratory . He performed experiments with uranium and plutonium cores to determine their critical mass values . On 21 May 1946 , Slotin was conducting a demonstration when he accidentally initiated a fission reaction , which released a burst of hard radiation . He received a lethal dose of radiation and died of acute radiation syndrome nine days later . Slotin was the second person to die from a criticality accident , following the death of Harry Daghlian , who had been exposed to radiation by the same core that killed Slotin . Slotin was publicly hailed as a hero by the United States government for reacting quickly and preventing his accident from killing any colleagues . He was later criticized for failing to follow protocol during the experiment .
Others were injured and may have died from nuclear related exposure some years later . With the end of World War II , the work to build additional nuclear devices was less urgent , and the accident halted work for a while until increased safety protocols were implemented at Los Alamos . The incident and its aftermath have been dramatized in several fictional and non @-@ fiction accounts .
= = Early life = =
Slotin was the first of three children born to Israel and Sonia Slotin , Yiddish @-@ speaking refugees who had fled the pogroms of Russia to Winnipeg , Manitoba . He grew up in the North End neighborhood of Winnipeg , an area with a large concentration of Eastern European immigrants . From his early days at Machray Elementary School through his teenage years at St. John 's High School , Slotin was academically exceptional . His younger brother , Sam , later remarked that his brother " had an extreme intensity that enabled him to study long hours . "
At the age of 16 , Slotin entered the University of Manitoba to pursue a degree in science . During his undergraduate years , he received a University Gold Medal in both physics and chemistry . Slotin received a B.Sc. degree in geology from the university in 1932 and a M.Sc. degree in 1933 . With the assistance of one of his mentors , he obtained a fellowship to study at King 's College London under the supervision of Arthur John Allmand , the chair of the chemistry department , who specialized in the field of applied electrochemistry and photochemistry .
= = = King 's College = = =
While at King 's College , Slotin distinguished himself as an amateur boxer by winning the college 's amateur bantamweight boxing championship . Later , he gave the impression that he had fought for the Spanish Republic and trained to fly a fighter with the Royal Air Force . Author Robert Jungk recounted in his book Brighter than a Thousand Suns : A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists , the first published account of the Manhattan Project , that Slotin " had volunteered for service in the Spanish Civil War , more for the sake of the thrill of it than on political grounds . He had often been in extreme danger as an anti @-@ aircraft gunner . " During an interview years later , Sam stated that his brother had gone " on a walking tour in Spain " , and he " did not take part in the war " as previously thought . Slotin earned a Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry from the university in 1936 . He won a prize for his thesis entitled " An Investigation into the Intermediate Formation of Unstable Molecules During some Chemical Reactions . " Afterwards , he spent six months working as a special investigator for Dublin 's Great Southern Railways , testing the Drumm nickel @-@ zinc rechargeable batteries used on the Dublin – Bray line .
= = Career = =
= = = University of Chicago = = =
In 1937 , after he unsuccessfully applied for a job with Canada 's National Research Council , the University of Chicago accepted him as a research associate . There , Slotin gained his first experience with nuclear chemistry , helping to build the first cyclotron in the midwestern United States . The job paid poorly and Slotin 's father had to support him for two years . From 1939 to 1940 , Slotin collaborated with Earl Evans , the head of the university 's biochemistry department , to produce radiocarbon ( carbon @-@ 14 and carbon @-@ 11 ) from the cyclotron . While working together , the two men also used carbon @-@ 11 to demonstrate that plant cells had the capacity to use carbon dioxide for carbohydrate synthesis , through carbon fixation .
Slotin might have been present at the start @-@ up of Enrico Fermi 's " Chicago Pile @-@ 1 " , the first nuclear reactor , on 2 December 1942 ; the accounts of the event do not agree on this point . During this time , Slotin also contributed to several papers in the field of radiobiology . His expertise on the subject garnered the attention of the United States government , and as a result he was invited to join the Manhattan Project , the United States ' effort to develop a nuclear bomb . Slotin worked on the production of plutonium under future Nobel laureate Eugene Wigner at the university and later at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . He moved to the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico in December 1944 to work in the bomb physics group of Robert Bacher .
= = Work at Los Alamos = =
At Los Alamos , Slotin 's duties consisted of dangerous criticality testing , first with uranium in Otto Robert Frisch 's experiments , and later with plutonium cores . Criticality testing involved bringing masses of fissile materials to near @-@ critical levels to establish their critical mass values . Scientists referred to this flirting with the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction as " tickling the dragon 's tail " , based on a remark by physicist Richard Feynman , who compared the experiments to " tickling the tail of a sleeping dragon " . On 16 July 1945 , Slotin assembled the core for Trinity , the first detonated atomic device , and became known as the " chief armorer of the United States " for his expertise in assembling nuclear weapons . Slotin received two small circular lead and silver commemorative pins for his work on the project .
In the winter of 1945 – 1946 , Slotin shocked some of his colleagues with a bold action . He repaired an instrument six feet under water inside the Clinton Pile while it was operating , rather than wait an extra day for the reactor to be shut down . He did not wear his dosimetry badge , but his dose was estimated to be at least 100 roentgen . A dose of 1 Gy ( ~ 100 roentgen ) can cause nausea and vomiting in 10 % of cases , but is generally survivable .
= = = Harry Daghlian 's death = = =
On 21 August 1945 , laboratory assistant Harry Daghlian , one of Slotin 's close colleagues , was performing a critical mass experiment when he accidentally dropped a heavy tungsten carbide brick onto a 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) plutonium @-@ gallium alloy bomb core . The 24 @-@ year @-@ old Daghlian was irradiated with a large dose of neutron radiation . Later estimates would suggest that this dose might not have been fatal on its own , but he then received additional delayed gamma radiation and beta burns while disassembling his experiment . He quickly collapsed with acute radiation poisoning and died 25 days later in the Los Alamos base hospital .
= = = Planned return to teaching = = =
After the war , Slotin expressed growing disdain for his personal involvement in the project . He remarked , " I have become involved in the Navy tests , much to my disgust . " Unfortunately for Slotin , his participation at Los Alamos was still required because , as he said , " I am one of the few people left here who are experienced bomb putter @-@ togetherers . " He looked forward to resuming teaching and research into biophysics and radiobiology at the University of Chicago . He began training a replacement , Alvin C. Graves , to take over his Los Alamos work .
= = = Criticality accident = = =
On 21 May 1946 , with seven colleagues watching , Slotin performed an experiment that involved the creation of one of the first steps of a fission reaction by placing two half @-@ spheres of beryllium ( a neutron reflector ) around a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 89 mm ) plutonium core . The experiment used the same 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 7 lb ) plutonium core that had irradiated Harry Daghlian , later called the " demon core " for its role in the two accidents . Slotin grasped the upper 9 @-@ inch beryllium hemisphere with his left hand through a thumb hole at the top while he maintained the separation of the half @-@ spheres using the blade of a screwdriver with his right hand , having removed the shims normally used . Using a screwdriver was not a normal part of the experimental protocol .
At 3 : 20 p.m. , the screwdriver slipped and the upper beryllium hemisphere fell , causing a " prompt critical " reaction and a burst of hard radiation . At the time , the scientists in the room observed the blue glow of air ionization and felt a heat wave . Slotin experienced a sour taste in his mouth and an intense burning sensation in his left hand . He jerked his left hand upward , lifting the upper beryllium hemisphere and dropping it to the floor , ending the reaction . However , he had already been exposed to a lethal dose of neutron radiation . At the time of the accident , dosimetry badges were in a locked box about 100 feet ( 30 m ) from the accident . Realizing that no one in the room had their film badges on , " immediately after the accident Dr. Slotin asked to have the badges taken from the lead box and placed on the critical assembly " . This peculiar response was attributed to " vertigo " and was of no value for determining the actual doses received by the men in the room .
Others in the room at the time included Raemer E. Schreiber , Alvin Cushman Graves , Stanley Allan Kline , Marion Edward Cieslicki , Dwight Smith Young , Theodore P. Perlman , and Pvt. Patrick J. Cleary .
As soon as Slotin left the building , he vomited , a common reaction from exposure to extremely intense ionizing radiation . Slotin 's colleagues rushed him to the hospital , but the radiation damage was irreversible .
By 25 May 1946 , four of the eight men exposed during the incident had been discharged from hospital . The Army doctor responsible for the hospital , Captain Paul Hageman , said that Slotin , Graves , Kline and Young 's " immediate condition is satisfactory . "
= = = = Slotin 's death = = = =
Despite intensive medical care and offers from numerous volunteers to donate blood for transfusions , Slotin 's condition rapidly deteriorated , Slotin called his parents and they were flown at Army expense from Winnipeg to be with their son . They arrived on the fourth day after the incident , and by the fifth day Slotin 's condition started to rapidly deteriorate .
Over the next nine days , Slotin suffered an " agonizing sequence of radiation @-@ induced traumas " , including severe diarrhea , reduced urine output , swollen hands , erythema , " massive blisters on his hands and forearms " , intestinal paralysis , and gangrene . He had internal radiation burns throughout his body , which one medical expert described as a “ three @-@ dimensional sunburn . ” By the seventh day , he was experiencing periods of “ mental confusion . ” His lips turned blue and he was put in an oxygen tent . He ultimately experienced " a total disintegration of bodily functions " and slipped into a coma . Slotin died at 11 a.m. on 30 May , in the presence of his parents . He was buried in Shaarey Zedek Cemetery , Winnipeg , on 2 June 1946 .
= = = = Other injuries and deaths = = = =
Graves , Kline and Young remained hospitalized after Slotin 's death . Graves , who was standing the closest to Slotin , also developed acute radiation sickness and was hospitalized for several weeks . He survived , although he lived with chronic neurological and vision problems . Young also suffered from acute radiation syndrome , but recovered . By 28 January 1948 Graves , Kline and Perlman sought compensation for damages suffered during the incident . Graves settled his claim for $ 3 @,@ 500 .
Three of the observers eventually died of conditions that are known to be promoted by radiation : Graves of a heart attack 20 years later at age 55 ; Cieslicki of acute myeloid leukemia 19 years later at age 42 ; and Young of aplastic anemia and bacterial infection of the heart lining 27 years later at age 83 . Although some of those deaths were probably latent stochastic ( random ) effects of the accident , it is not possible to draw any definitive conclusions from such a small sample set .
= = = = Disposition of core = = = =
The core involved was intended to be used in the Able detonation , during the Crossroads series of nuclear weapon testing . Slotin 's experiment was said to be the last conducted before the core 's detonation and was intended to be the final demonstration of its ability to go critical . After the criticality accident it needed time to cool . It was therefore rescheduled for the third test of the series , provisionally named Charlie , but this was cancelled due to the unexpected level of radioactivity after the underwater Baker test and the inability to decontaminate the target warships . It was later melted down and reused in a later core .
= = = Radiation dosage = = =
The radiation doses received in these two accidents are not known with any semblance of accuracy . A large part of the dose was due to neutron radiation , which could not be measured by dosimetry equipment of the day . The available equipment , film badges , were not worn by personnel during the accident , and badges that were supposed to be planted under tables in case of disasters like these were not found . Disaster badges hung on the walls did provide some useful data about gamma radiation .
A " tentative " estimate of the doses involved was made in 1948 , based on dozens of assumptions , some of which are now known to be grossly incorrect . In the absence of personal dosimetry badges , the study authors relied on measurements of sodium activation in the victims ' blood and urine samples as their primary source of data . This activation would have been caused by neutron radiation , but they converted all doses to equivalent doses of gamma or X @-@ ray radiation . They concluded that Daghlian and Slotin had probably received doses equivalent to 290 and 880 rem ( respectively ) of gamma rays . Minimum and maximum estimates varied from about 50 % to 200 % of these values . The authors also calculated doses equivalent to a mix of soft 80 keV X @-@ rays and gamma rays , which they believed gave a more realistic picture of the exposure than the gamma equivalent . In this model the equivalent X @-@ ray doses were much higher , but would be concentrated in the tissues facing the source , whereas the gamma component penetrated the whole body . Slotin 's equivalent dose was estimated to be 1930 R of X @-@ ray with 114 R of gamma , while Daghlian 's equivalent dose was estimated to be 480 R of X @-@ ray with 110 R of gamma . Five hundred REM is usually a fatal dose for humans .
In modern times dosimetry is done very differently . Equivalent doses would not be reported in roentgen ; they would be calculated with different weighting factors , and they are not considered as relevant to acute radiation syndrome as absorbed doses . Recent documents have made various interpretations of Slotin 's dose , ranging from 287 rad to 21 sievert . Based on citations and supporting reasoning , the most reliable estimate may be a 1978 Los Alamos memo which suggested 10 Gy ( n ) + 1 @.@ 14 Gy ( γ ) for Slotin and 2 Gy ( n ) + 1 @.@ 1 Gy ( γ ) for Daghlian . These doses are consistent with the symptoms they experienced .
= = Legacy = =
After the accident , Los Alamos ended all hands @-@ on critical assembly work . Future criticality testing of fissile cores was done with remotely controlled machines , such as the " Godiva " series , with the operator located a safe distance away to prevent harm in case of accidents .
On 14 June 1946 , the associate editor of the Los Alamos Times , Thomas P. Ashlock , penned a poem entitled " Slotin – A Tribute " :
The official story released at the time was that Slotin , by quickly removing the upper hemisphere , was a hero for ending the critical reaction and protecting seven other observers in the room : " Dr. Slotin 's quick reaction at the immediate risk of his own life prevented a more serious development of the experiment which would certainly have resulted in the death of the seven men working with him , as well as serious injury to others in the general vicinity . " This interpretation of events was endorsed at the time by Alvin Graves , who stood closest to Slotin when the accident occurred . Graves , like Slotin , had previously displayed a low concern for nuclear safety , and would later allege that fallout risks were " concocted in the minds of weak malingerers . " Another witness to the accident , Raemer E. Schreiber , spoke out publicly decades later , arguing that Slotin was using improper and unsafe procedures , endangering the others in the lab along with himself . Robert B. Brode had reported hearsay to that effect back in 1946 .
In 1948 , Slotin 's colleagues at Los Alamos and the University of Chicago initiated the Louis A. Slotin Memorial Fund for lectures on physics given by distinguished scientists such as Robert Oppenheimer and Nobel laureates Luis Walter Alvarez and Hans Bethe . The memorial fund lasted until 1962 .
In 2002 , an asteroid discovered in 1995 was named 12423 Slotin in his honour .
= = = Dollar unit of reactivity = = =
According to Weinberg and Wigner , Slotin was the first to propose the name dollar for the interval of reactivity between delayed and prompt criticality ; 0 is the point of self @-@ sustaining chain reaction , a dollar is the point at which slowly released , delayed neutrons are no longer required to support chain reaction , and enters the domain called " prompt ( super- ) critical " . Stable nuclear reactors operate between 0 and a dollar ; excursions and nuclear explosives operate above a dollar . The hundredth part of a dollar is called a cent ( reactivity ) . When speaking of purely prompt critical events , some users refer to cents " over critical " as a relative unit .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The accident has been detailed in at least three films , including the 1989 film Fat Man and Little Boy , a dramatization of the Manhattan Project starring Paul Newman . John Cusack plays a fictional character named Michael Merriman who recreates Slotin 's criticality accident at the same time the first atomic bomb is being tested . Scenes of Merriman dying of radiation sickness are intercut with scenes of the bomb test as a dramatic technique . Slotin 's accidental death was also the subject of a 1999 documentary by Canwest Global and Great North Productions , Tickling the Dragon 's Tail : The Mystery of Louis Slotin . The film won for Best Director at the Alberta Film Awards .
The event was recounted in Dexter Masters ' 1955 novel The Accident , a fictional account of the last few days of the life of a nuclear scientist suffering from radiation poisoning . Slotin also appears as a character in the 1987 TV mini @-@ series Race for the Bomb . Besides the 1955 novel , the accident has been described in more than a dozen fictional and non @-@ fictional accounts related to the U.S. nuclear weapons program , including as a short story in a 1960s children 's academic reading program . Among them is The Dragon 's Tail : Americans Face the Atomic Age .
The criticality accident also inspired the Louis Slotin Sonata , a 2001 off @-@ Broadway play directed by David P. Moore . Author Paul Mullin wrote the play as a dramatic recreation of the events that unfolded on 21 May 1946 .
Most recently , the accident was reenacted in season 2 episode 4 of the Science Channel 's series Dark Matters : Twisted But True , which first aired in August 2012 .
|
= Minor v. Happersett =
Minor v. Happersett , 88 U.S. 162 ( 1875 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Constitution did not grant women the right to vote . The Supreme Court upheld state court decisions in Missouri , which had refused to register a woman as a lawful voter because that state 's laws allowed only men to vote .
The Minor v. Happersett ruling was based on an interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . The Supreme Court readily accepted that Minor was a citizen of the United States , but it held that the constitutionally protected privileges of citizenship did not include the right to vote .
The Nineteenth Amendment , which became a part of the Constitution in 1920 , effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett by prohibiting discrimination in voting rights based on gender . Minor v. Happersett continued to be cited in support of restrictive election laws of other types until the 1960s , when the Supreme Court started interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause to guarantee voting rights .
= = Background = =
Virginia Minor , a leader of the women 's suffrage movement in Missouri , attempted to register to vote on October 15 , 1872 , in St. Louis County , Missouri , but was refused on the grounds that she was a woman . With the assistance of her husband , Francis Minor ( a lawyer ) , she brought an action in state courts against Reese Happersett , the registrar who had rejected her application to register to vote , alleging that the provisions of the Missouri state constitution which allowed only men to vote were in violation of the United States Constitution , and specifically the Fourteenth Amendment . The key to the Minors ' argument was that citizenship entailed voting rights — an assertion with enough rhetoric on both sides to make it an open question .
The Missouri Supreme Court ruled in favor of the registrar and against Minor . The state court observed that the " almost universal practice of all of the States ... from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time " was to restrict voting rights to men only ; and , additionally , that the clear intent of the Fourteenth Amendment was to give the rights of citizenship to the former slaves , and not to force other changes in state laws . The court noted , in particular , that the second section of the Fourteenth Amendment ( penalizing states which denied the right to vote to any of its citizens ) referred specifically to male citizens , and concluded that " this clearly recognizes the right , and seems to anticipate the exercise of the right , on the part of the States to restrict the right of suffrage to the male inhabitants . "
Minor appealed the Missouri ruling to the United States Supreme Court , presenting the same arguments before the Supreme Court as had been unsuccessfully put forth before the state court , and additionally proposing that women 's suffrage was consistent with the original intent of the framers of the Constitution . The Supreme Court observed that the sole point at issue was whether the Constitution entitled women to vote despite state laws limiting this right to men only . The state of Missouri did not send counsel to defend its decision before the Supreme Court , choosing instead to justify its decision in a three @-@ sentence demurrer .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the Missouri voting legislation , saying that voting was not an inherent right of citizenship , that the Constitution neither granted nor forbade voting rights for women , and that allowing only male citizens to vote was not an infringement of Minor 's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment .
The opinion ( written by Chief Justice Morrison Waite ) first asked whether Minor was a citizen of the United States , and answered that she was , citing both the Fourteenth Amendment and earlier common law . Exploring the common @-@ law origins of citizenship , the court observed that " new citizens may be born or they may be created by naturalization " and that the Constitution " does not , in words , say who shall be natural @-@ born citizens . " Under the common law , according to the court , " it was never doubted that all children born in a country of parents who were its citizens became themselves , upon their birth , citizens also . These were natives , or natural @-@ born citizens , as distinguished from aliens or foreigners . " The court observed that some authorities " include as citizens children born within the jurisdiction without reference to the citizenship of their parents " — but since Minor was born in the United States and her parents were U.S. citizens , she was unquestionably a citizen herself , even under the narrowest possible definition , and the court thus noted that the subject did not need to be explored in any greater depth .
The court then asked whether the right to vote was one of the " privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States " at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment 's adoption in 1868 . Citing a variety of historical sources , it found that it was not . The court reasoned that the Constitution of the United States did not explicitly give citizens an affirmative right to vote and that , throughout the history of the nation from the adoption of the Constitution , a wide variety of persons — including women — were recognized as citizens but denied the right to vote . For example , at the time of the adoption of the Constitution , none of the original Thirteen Colonies gave all citizens the right to vote , all attaching restrictions based on factors such as sex , race , age , and ownership of land . The opinion continues that " it cannot for a moment be doubted that if it had been intended to make all citizens of the United States voters , the framers of the Constitution would not have left it to implication . So important a change in the condition of citizenship as it actually existed , if intended , would have been expressly declared . "
= = Subsequent history = =
The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution , ratified in 1920 , prohibited sex @-@ based denial or abridgment of any United States citizen 's right to vote — thus effectively overruling the key holding in Minor v. Happersett . In some later voting rights cases , however , Minor was cited in opposition to the claim that the federal Constitution conferred a general right to vote , and in support of restrictive election laws involving poll taxes , literacy tests , and the role of political parties in special elections .
In the 1960s , the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature , Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed .
|
= Eppa Rixey =
Eppa Rixey Jr . ( May 3 , 1891 – February 28 , 1963 ) , nicknamed " Jephtha " , was an American left @-@ handed pitcher who played 21 seasons for the Philadelphia Phillies and Cincinnati Reds in Major League Baseball from 1912 to 1933 . Rixey was best known as the National League 's leader in career victories for a left @-@ hander with 266 wins until Warren Spahn surpassed his total in 1959 .
Rixey attended the University of Virginia where he was a star pitcher . He was discovered by umpire Cy Rigler , who convinced him to sign directly with the Phillies , bypassing minor league baseball entirely . His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency . He won 22 games in 1916 , but also led the league in losses twice . In 1915 , the Phillies played in the World Series , and Rixey lost in his only appearance . After being traded to the Reds prior to the 1921 season , he won 20 or more games in a season three times , including a league @-@ leading 25 in 1922 , and posted eight consecutive winning seasons . His skills were declining by the 1929 season , when his record was 10 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 16 earned run average . He pitched another four seasons before retiring after the 1933 season .
An intellectual who taught high school Latin during the off @-@ season , earning the nickname " Jephtha " for his southern drawl , Rixey was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1963 but died a month after his election .
= = Early life = =
Rixey was born on May 3 , 1891 in Culpeper , Virginia , and at the age of ten , his father , a banker , moved his family to Charlottesville , Virginia . His uncles were John Franklin Rixey a former congressman and Presley Marion Rixey the former Surgeon General of the United States Navy . He attended the University of Virginia , where he played basketball and baseball ; he was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity . His brother Bill also played baseball for Virginia . During the off @-@ season , umpire Cy Rigler worked as an assistant coach for the University . He recognized Rixey 's talent and tried to sign him to the Philadelphia Phillies . Rixey originally declined , saying he wanted to be a chemist , but Rigler insisted , even offering a substantial portion of the bonus he received for signing a player . With his family in financial trouble , Rixey accepted the deal . The National League , upon hearing of the deal , created a rule that prohibits umpires from signing players . Neither Rixey nor Rigler received any signing bonus .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Rixey joined the Phillies for the 1912 season without playing a single game of minor league baseball . His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency . He went 10 @-@ 10 in his first year , with a 2 @.@ 50 earned run average ( ERA ) and 10 complete games in 23 games pitched . He had a three hit shutout against the Chicago Cubs on July 18 . Rixey was on the losing end of a no @-@ hitter by Jeff Tesreau on September 6 . After the season , the Chicago Cubs , under new manager Johnny Evers , offered a " huge sum " to the Phillies for Rixey , but manager Red Dooin declined the offer . Prior to the 1913 season , Rixey notified the Phillies of his desire to finish his studies at the University of Virginia and graduate in June ; however , after some negotiation , he decided to sign a contract and re @-@ joined the team shortly after the season began . That season , he appeared in 35 games , started 19 of them , winning nine games , and had a 3 @.@ 12 earned run average . In 1914 , his record worsened to 2 – 11 , and his earned run average increased to 4 @.@ 37 . Rixey 's record improved to 11 – 12 in 1915 , and his earned run average was 2 @.@ 39 as the Phillies won the National League pennant and played the Boston Red Sox in the 1915 World Series . During Game 5 of the series , Rixey replaced starter Erskine Mayer for the final six innings of the game . He allowed three runs in the final two innings and lost 5 – 4 .
Rixey went 22 – 10 in 1916 with a 1 @.@ 85 ERA and a career high of 134 strikeouts . On June 29 , Rixey pitched a four @-@ hit shutout against the New York Giants , facing the minimum 27 batters , because of three double plays , and a player caught stealing . In 1917 , despite having a 2 @.@ 27 earned run average , Rixey led the league in pitching losses with 21 . He also handled 108 chances without a single error . Rixey hated losing and was known for destroying the team locker room , or disappearing for days at a time after a loss . He missed the 1918 season to serve in the Chemical Warfare Division of the United States army during the war effort . He struggled upon returning to baseball , going 6 – 12 with a 3 @.@ 97 earned run average in 1919 , and again leading the league in losses with 22 in 1920 . Prior to the 1920 season , rumours circulated that his former manager , Pat Moran , now with the Cincinnati Reds , was interested in trading for Rixey . The relationship between Rixey and manager Gavvy Cravath was never good , and Cravath had made known his desire to trade him ; however , he stayed with the Phillies that season , working on his delivery with former pitcher Jesse Tannehill , who , Rixey admitted , helped with his pitching delivery . On November 22 , 1920 , Rixey was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Jimmy Ring and Greasy Neale . His record during his eight seasons with the Phillies was 87 wins and 103 losses .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
Rixey was traded to the Reds prior to the 1921 season for Jimmy Ring and Greasy Neale . In his first season with the Reds , he won 19 games , and set a Major League record by allowing just one home run in 301 innings pitched . In three of the next four seasons , he had 20 or more victories each season , with a league @-@ leading total of 25 in 1922 . He also led the league in innings pitched and hits allowed in 1922 and shutouts with four in 1924 . In 1926 he had 14 wins , followed by seasons of 12 , 19 and 10 wins . Rixey 's production began to decline in 1930 , when he went 9 – 13 with a 5 @.@ 10 ERA , and pitched fewer than 200 innings for the first time since 1919 . From 1931 through 1933 , Rixey pitched very little , and was used almost exclusively against the Pittsburgh Pirates . For the 1933 season , he was the only Reds pitcher with a winning record , at 6 @-@ 3 as the Reds finished last in the National League with a 58 @-@ 94 record . He retired prior to the 1934 season , stating " the manager wasn 't giving me enough work " . Rixey completed his career with 266 wins , 251 losses , and a 3 @.@ 15 ERA . He appeared in 692 games and completed 290 , and had 20 wins and 14 saves as a relief pitcher .
Bubbles Hargrave , former Cincinnati catcher , gave this testimonial : " Eppa was just great . He was great as a pitcher , fielder and competitor . I look on him as the most outstanding player I came in contact with in my entire career . "
Rixey 's approach to the game is exemplified by the following quote : " " How dumb can the hitters in this league get ? I 've been doing this for fifteen years . When they 're batting with the count two balls and no strikes , or three and one , they 're always looking for the fastball and they never get it . " – Eppa Rixey ( 1927 )
= = Legacy = =
Originally Rixey had trouble controlling his speed , but eventually became one of the most feared pitchers in baseball according to reporters . Rixey was considered a pitcher with an " peculiar motion " , who rarely walked a batter . Throughout his long career , the 210 @-@ pound Rixey charmed teammates and fans with his dry wit and big Southern drawl . His nonsensical nickname " Jephtha " seemed to capture his roots and amiable personality . Some writers thought " Jephtha " was a part of Rixey 's real name , but it was likely invented by a Philadelphia sportswriter . Rob Neyer called Rixey the fourth best pitcher in Reds history behind Bucky Walters , Paul Derringer and teammate Dolf Luque .
His 266 career victories was the record for most wins by a left @-@ handed pitcher in the National League until Warren Spahn broke it in 1959 , however his 251 losses are an all @-@ time record for left @-@ handed pitchers . He also held the longevity record for most seasons pitched by a National League left @-@ hander until Steve Carlton broke it in 1986 . As time passed , support for Rixey to be inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame grew . He was also inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in 1958 . In 1960 , Rixey finished third in the balloting behind former teammate Edd Roush and Sam Rice ( who was later inducted the same year as Rixey ) . Upon his election to the Hall of Fame on January 27 , 1963 , he was quoted as saying " They 're really scraping the bottom of the barrel , aren 't they ? "
In 1969 , he was named by Reds fans as the greatest left @-@ handed pitcher in Reds history . The Reds Hall of Fame summed up his career : " He was the best left @-@ hander ever to pitch for the Reds with a 179 – 148 record , 180 complete games , 23 shutouts and a 3 @.@ 33 ERA in his 13 seasons . "
In 1972 he was inducted into the first class of the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame and Museum .
Rixey 's childhood home in Culpeper still stands ; it suffered some damage in the 2011 Virginia earthquake .
= = Personal life = =
He was married to Dorothy Meyers of Cincinnati and had two children , Eppa Rixey III and Ann Rixey Sikes and five grandchildren , James Rixey , Eppa Rixey IV , Steve Sikes , Paige Sikes , and David Sikes . After his retirement from baseball , worked for his father @-@ in @-@ law 's successful insurance company in Cincinnati , eventually becoming president of the company . He died of a heart attack on February 28 , 1963 , one month after his election to the Hall of Fame , becoming the first player to die between election and induction to the Hall of Fame . He is interred at Greenlawn Cemetery in Milford , Ohio .
When Rixey started playing , he was considered an " anomaly " . He came from a well @-@ off family and was college @-@ educated , something that was rare during his era . He wrote poetry , and took graduate school classes in chemistry , mathematics and Latin . During the off @-@ season , he was a Latin teacher at Episcopal High School in Alexandria , Virginia . He was also considered among the best golfers among athletes during the time period . He was the subject of hazing in his first few years in the Majors . Eventually he teamed up with other college graduates , Joe Oeschger and Stan Baumgartner and the hazing lessened to a degree .
|
= Willow ptarmigan =
The willow ptarmigan ( / ˈtɑːr mᵻ ɡən / ) ( Lagopus lagopus ) is a bird in the grouse subfamily Tetraoninae of the pheasant family Phasianidae . It is also known as the willow grouse and in Ireland and Britain , where it was previously believed to be a separate species , as the red grouse . It is a sedentary species , breeding in birch and other forests and moorlands in northern Europe , the tundra of Scandinavia , Siberia , Alaska and northern Canada , in particular in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador . It is the state bird of Alaska . In the summer the birds are largely brown , with dappled plumage , but in the winter they are white with some black feathers in their tails ( British populations do not adopt a winter plumage ) . The species has remained little changed from the bird that roamed the tundra during the Pleistocene . Nesting takes place in the spring when clutches of four to ten eggs are laid in a scrape on the ground . The chicks are precocial and soon leave the nest and while they are young , both parents play a part in caring for them . The chicks eat insects and young plant growth while the adults are completely herbivorous , eating leaves , flowers , buds , seeds and berries during the summer and largely subsisting on the buds and twigs of willow and other dwarf shrubs and trees during the winter .
= = Description = =
The willow ptarmigan is a medium to large ground @-@ dwelling bird and is the most numerous of the three species of ptarmigan . Males and females are about the same size , the adult length varying between 35 and 44 centimetres ( 14 and 17 in ) with a wingspan ranging from 60 and 65 centimetres ( 24 and 26 in ) . The weight is 430 to 810 grams ( 15 to 29 oz ) . It is deep @-@ chested and has a fairly long neck , a broad bill , short feathered legs and a moderately short rounded tail . In the summer , the male 's plumage is marbled brown , with a reddish hue to the neck and breast , a black tail and white wings and underparts . It has two inconspicuous wattles above the eyes , which become red and prominent in the breeding season . The female is similar in appearance but lacks the wattles and has brown feathers scattered among the white feathers on the belly . During winter , the plumage of both sexes becomes completely white , except for some black feathers in the tail . Immature birds resemble the adults .
The willow ptarmigan can be distinguished from the closely related rock ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta ) by its larger size and thicker bill and by the fact that it is not generally found above the tree line while the rock ptarmigan prefers more elevated , barren habitat . The summer plumage is browner and in the winter , the male willow ptarmigan lacks the rock ptarmigan 's black stripe between the eyes and bill . The white @-@ tailed ptarmigan ( Lagopus leucura ) in North America is smaller , has a white tail and finely @-@ barred greyer plumage and lives permanently above the tree line . The distinctive British Isles subspecies L. l. scoticus ( red grouse ) was once considered a separate true British species but is now classified as a sub @-@ species . This moorland bird is reddish brown all over , except for its white feet .
The voice is low @-@ pitched and guttural and includes chuckles , repeated clucking sounds , expostulations . When displaying , the male makes rattles and barking noises .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The willow ptarmigan 's scientific name , Lagopus lagopus is derived from Ancient Greek lagos ( λαγως ) " hare " + pous ( πους ) " foot " , in reference to the bird 's feathered feet which allow it to negotiate frozen ground .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Nineteen subspecies have been recognised though some are believed not to be valid . Most differ little in appearance , though the red grouse ( L. l. scoticus ) is rather distinct . The taxonomy is confused , partly because of the complicated changes in plumage several times a year and the differing colour and pattern of the summer plumage :
hibernicus ( Latham , 1787 ) - Ireland
scoticus ( Latham , 1787 ) - Britain
variegatus Salomonsen , 1936 - Trondheim , Norway
lagopus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) - Scandinavia , Finland and North European Russia
rossicus Serebrovsky , 1926 - Baltic countries and Central Russia
birulai Serebrovsky , 1926 - New Siberia
koreni Thayer & Bangs , 1914 - Siberia
maior Lorenz , 1904 - Southeast Russia , North Kazakhstan and Southwest Siberia
brevirostris Hesse , 1912 - Altai Mountains and Sayan Mountains
kozlowae Portenko , 1931 - West Mongolia
sserebrowsky Domaniewski , 1933 - East Siberia
kamtschatkensis Momiyama , 1928 - Kamchatka and Kuril Islands
okadai Momiyama , 1928 - Sakhalin Island
muriei Gabrielson & Lincoln , 1959 - Aleutian Islands and Kodiak Island
alexandrae Grinnell , 1909 - Alaska and British Columbia
alascensis Swarth , 1926 - Alaska
leucopterus Taverner , 1932 - Arctic islands of North Canada
albus ( Gmelin , 1789 ) - North Canada
ungavus Riley , 1911 - North Quebec and North Labrador
alleni Stejneger , 1884 - Newfoundland
The willow ptarmigan often hybridises with the black grouse ( Tetrao tetrix ) and the hazel grouse ( Tetrastes bonasia ) and occasionally with the western capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus ) , the spruce grouse ( Falcipennis canadensis ) and the rock ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta ) .
During the Pleistocene , the willow ptarmigan widely occurred in continental Europe . Authors who recognize paleosubspecies have named the Pleistocene willow ptarmigan L. l. noaillensis ( though the older name medius might be the correct one ) . These marginally different birds are said to have gradually changed from the earlier ( Pliocene ) Lagopus atavus into the present @-@ day species L. lagopus . Pleistocene willow ptarmigan are recorded from diverse sites until the end of the Vistulian glaciation about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , when the species , by then all but identical with the living birds , retreated northwards with its tundra habitat .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The willow ptarmigan has a circum @-@ boreal distribution . It is native to Canada and the United States , China , Mongolia , the Russian Federation , Kazakhstan , the Czech Republic , Finland , Norway , Sweden , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Germany , the United Kingdom , Ireland and Spain . It primarily occupies subalpine and subarctic habitats such as sparse pine and birch forests , thickets with willow and alder trees , heather moors , tundra and mountain slopes . In the winter , females and sub @-@ adults may move to lower altitudes and seek shelter in valleys or in more densely vegetated areas , but adult males usually remain in the subalpine region . The red grouse is common on heather @-@ clad moorland across the north and west of Great Britain and in localised areas of Ireland .
= = Diet = =
The willow ptarmigan has a varied and seasonal diet . The bird is herbivorous for most of its life and subsists on various plant materials . As juveniles , they may feed on insects due to an inability to digest plant material caused by underdeveloped cecums . In the summer , their diet is highly varied and may consist of berries , flowers , leaves , twigs and seeds .
In Alaska , the main dietary item of the adults at all times of year is willows such as the Alaska willow Salix alaxensis , with leaves being eaten in summer and buds , twigs and catkins supplying the birds ' main nutritional needs in winter and early spring . In the early twenty @-@ first century , there has been an increase in shrub expansion in arctic Alaska that is thought to be greatly affecting the willow ptarmigan ’ s winter diet . Because of the way they browse , Ptarmigan help shape the landscape of the area . After heavy snowfalls , the birds cannot access the shorter shrubs as they are blanketed with snow , so they will eat the taller species that poke through . In one study it was found that 90 % of the buds of the Alaska willow within their reach had been browsed . This will stunt the willows and create a feedback cycle extending through the entire ecosystem . However , in winters with below average snowfall , the browsing of Ptarmigans will not have such a drastic effect as their feeding will be spread out across a range of lower plant species . It is also believed that the greening of parts of the Arctic is affecting Willow Ptarmigan populations by altering the shape and size of the shrubs they are able to feed on .
= = Behaviour = =
Male willow ptarmigans are territorial birds . Males arrive in the breeding areas and set up territories in April and May , aggressively defending them against male interlopers . When the females arrive a few weeks later , the male performs courtship displays such as aerial manoeuvres , strutting and tail @-@ fanning . When she has chosen a mate and a nesting site , the female lays a clutch of six to ten eggs in a shallow depression on the ground . The nest site is usually in a hidden location at the edge of a clearing .
A small minority of male willow ptarmigan are polygynous but most are monogamous . They are assiduous at guarding both nest and mate , particularly early in the incubation period and when the eggs are nearly ready to hatch . During this time , the greatest danger may be from conspecifics . Although adult willow ptarmigans are herbivores , the newly hatched young also feed on insects . In most other species of grouse , only the female takes care of the young , but the male willow ptarmigan also helps with feeding the brood and protecting them . He may take over completely if the female dies . In particular , the male defends the young from predators and both he and his mate can dive @-@ bomb intruders or lure attackers away by pretending to have a broken wing . Nevertheless , the chicks face many dangers which range from attacks by foxes or birds of prey , getting separated from the rest of the brood , bad weather and coccidiosis . Fewer than 35 % of chicks survive to eleven months and only a minority of these reach maturity . Despite this , in favourable seasons , many juveniles may survive and the population of willow ptarmigan is prone to wide fluctuations in size . By September , families begin to form flocks . The females and young migrate to lower altitudes and may overwinter 100 miles ( 160 km ) from their breeding grounds in wooded valleys and hilly country . The males also congregate in small groups but do not usually travel as far as the females .
= = State bird = =
The willow ptarmigan is the state bird of Alaska .
= = Status = =
Widespread and not uncommon in its remote habitat , the willow ptarmigan is classified as a species of " Least Concern " by the IUCN . This is because , even if , as is suspected , numbers are declining slightly , it has a very wide range with a total population estimated at forty million individuals .
|
= Spanish coup of July 1936 =
The Spanish coup of July 1936 fractured the Spanish Republican Armed Forces and marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War . Following a period of troubles in the Second Spanish Republic , a group of officers attempted to overthrow the left @-@ wing Popular Front government , elected five months previously , in a military coup . Planning started in early 1936 , and the coup was launched on 17 and 18 July . The coup failed to take complete control of the country and civil war ensued .
The rising was intended to be swift , but the government retained control of most of the country including Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cadiz was taken for the rebels and General Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville . In Madrid , the rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks , which fell with much bloodshed . On 19 July the cabinet headed by the newly appointed prime minister José Giral ordered the distribution of weapons to the unions , helping to defeat the rebels in Madrid , Barcelona , and Valencia , which led to anarchists taking control of large parts of Aragon and Catalonia . Rebel General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death . The rebels had secured the support of around half of Spain 's Peninsular army , which allowing for large numbers on extended leave totaled about 66 @,@ 000 men , and all of the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of Africa . The Army of Africa was Spain 's most professional and effective military force . The government retained less than half the supply of rifles , heavy and light machine guns and artillery pieces . Both sides had few tanks and outdated aircraft , and naval capacity was fairly even . Officers ' defections weakened Republican units of all types .
= = Background = =
Following the elections of November 1933 , Spain entered a period called the " black two years " ( Spanish : bienio negro ) . Both Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists continued to prepare , receiving the backing of Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini . José @-@ María Gil @-@ Robles struggled to control the CEDA 's youth wing , which copied Germany 's and Italy 's youth movements . Monarchists , however , turned their attention to the Fascist Falange Española , under the leadership of José Antonio Primo de Rivera . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities . Gil @-@ Robles ' CEDA continued to mimic the German Nazi Party , staging a rally in March 1934 . Gil Robles used an anti @-@ strike law to successfully provoke and break up unions one at a time . Efforts to remove local councils from socialist control prompted a general strike , which was brutally put down , with the arrest of four deputies and other significant breaches of articles 55 and 56 of the constitution .
On 26 September , the CEDA announced it would no longer support the Radical Republican Party 's minority government ; it was replaced by an RRP cabinet that included three members of the CEDA . A UGT general strike was unsuccessful in most of Spain . General Francisco Franco was put in informal command of the military effort against the Asturian miners ' revolt of 1934 , the only place it had succeeded . Around 30 @,@ 000 workers had been called to arms in ten days . Franco 's men , some brought in from Spain 's Army of Africa , acted horrifically , killing men , women and children , and carrying out summary executions when the main cities of Asturias had been retaken . About 1 @,@ 000 workers were killed , and about 250 government soldiers . This marked the effective end of the republic . Months of retaliation and repression by both sides followed ; torture was used on political prisoners . Bombings , shootings , political and religious killings were usual on the streets . Political parties created their own armed militias . Gil @-@ Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse , and five members of Lerroux 's new government were conceded to CEDA . The military was purged of Republicanist members and reformed ; those loyal to Gil @-@ Robles were promoted – Franco was made Chief of Staff .
Elections in 1936 were won by a grouping of left @-@ wing parties united as the Popular Front . The right began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic , rather than taking control of it . The government was weak , and Azaña led a minority government . Pacification and reconciliation would have been a huge task . Acts of violence and reprisals spiralled . In April , parliament replaced Zamora with Azaña as president . However , Azaña was increasingly isolated from everyday politics ; his replacement , Casares Quiroga , was weak . This was a watershed event which inspired conservatives to give up on parliamentary politics . CEDA turned its campaign chest over to army plotter Emilio Mola . Monarchist José Calvo Sotelo replaced CEDA 's Gil @-@ Robles as the right 's leading spokesman in Parliament . Prieto did his best to avoid revolution , promoting a series of public works and civil order reforms , including parts of the military and civil guard . Communists quickly took over the ranks of socialist organisations , scaring the middle classes . Several generals decided that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented . They held a contempt for professional politicians .
= = Preparations = =
The republican government had been attempting to remove suspect generals from their posts , and so Franco was relieved as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary islands . Goded was replaced as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands ; Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to be military commander of Pamplona in Navarre . However , this allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising , although the relationship between him and Carlist leaders was problematic . General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation , and helped to come to an agreement with the Carlists . Mola was chief planner and second in command . José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid @-@ March in order to restrict the Falange . However , government actions were not as thorough as they might have been : warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon .
On 12 June , Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who was rightly accused of masterminding the growing conspiracy in North Africa , but Yagüe managed to convince Casares of his loyalty to the republic . Mola held a meeting between garrison commanders in the north of Spain on 15 June , and local authorities , on hearing of the meeting , surrounded it with Civil Guards . However , Casares ordered their removal , saying he trusted Mola . Mola began serious planning in the spring , but General Francisco Franco hesitated until early July , inspiring other plotters to refer to him as " Miss Canary Islands 1936 " . Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1934 . He was well respected in the Spanish Moroccan Army , Spain 's strongest military force . He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June , suggesting that the military was disloyal , but could be restrained if he were put in charge . Casares did nothing , failing to arrest or buy off Franco , even if placing him in overall command was impossible . Franco was to be assigned control of Morocco in the new regime , and largely sidelined . On July 5 , an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco . It arrived on July 14 .
= = Murder of Calvo Sotelo = =
On 12 July 1936 , in Madrid , a member of the Falange named Jorge Bardina murdered Lieutenant José Castillo of the Assault Guards police force . Castillo was a member of the Socialist party . The next day , members of the Assault Guards arrested José Calvo Sotelo , a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative ; the original target was Gil Robles but he could not be found . Calvo Sotelo had protested against agricultural reforms , expropriations , and restrictions on the authority of the Catholic Church , which he considered Bolshevist and anarchist . He instead advocated the creation of a corporative state . Calvo Sotelo was shot by the Guards without trial .
The killing of Sotelo , a prominent member of Parliament , with involvement of the police , aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government 's opponents on the right . Massive reprisals followed . Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in advanced stages of a planned uprising , the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup , and in particular that Spain would have to be saved from anarchy by military rather than democratic means . The Socialists and Communists ( led by Prieto ) demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the military took over . The Prime Minister was hesitant .
Franco 's plane landed in Gran Canaria on July 14 , but , based in Tenerife , he would have been unable to make the plane without the death of General Amado Balmes , military commander in Gran Canaria , who was killed in a shooting accident on July 16 . Whether his death was an accident , suicide , or murder is unknown .
= = Beginning of the coup = =
The uprising 's timing was fixed at 17 July , at 5 : 00 p.m. ; this was agreed to by the leader of the Carlists , Manuel Fal Condé . However , the timing was changed : the men in Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 5 : 00 a.m. and those in Spain itself starting exactly a day later , so control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there . The rising was intended to be a swift coup d 'état , but the government retained control of most of the country .
Rebel control in Spanish Morocco was all but certain . The 30 @,@ 000 strong Army of Africa comprised the professional elite of the Spanish Army . Many of the soldiers acted as mercenaries and the vast majority of officers backed the rebel cause . The regulares ( troops recruited from the local populace ) were predominantly Muslim and were told that the Republic wished to abolish Allah . The plan was discovered in Morocco during 17 July , which prompted it to be enacted immediately . By the scheduled time , Spanish Morocco had already been secured as legionnaires moved into working @-@ class areas and shot unionists . The army commander in eastern Morocco , General Manuel Romerales , and other senior officers loyal to the Republic were executed . Little resistance was encountered ; in total , 189 people were shot by the rebels . Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned . Warned that a coup was imminent , leftists barricaded the roads on 17 July , but Franco avoided capture by taking a tugboat to the airport .
On 18 July , Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and UGT , proclaiming that nowhere outside Spanish Morocco had joined the rebels and that the populace should trust legal methods to deal with the uprising . Handing out weapons would be illegal . The CNT and UGT proclaimed a general strike , in effect mobilising . They opened weapons caches , some buried since the 1934 risings . The paramilitary forces , better trained than the army , often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion . Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town . General Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels , arresting a number of other officers .
= = Outcome = =
Despite the ruthlessness and determination of the supporters of the coup , the rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville which provided a landing point for Franco ’ s African troops . The primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León fell quickly , and in Pamplona they celebrated the uprising as if it were a festival . The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cadiz was taken for the rebels with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa . In Madrid they were hemmed into the Montaña barracks . The barracks fell the next day , with much bloodshed . Republican leader Santiago Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population . This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres , including Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia and other main cities in the Mediterranean area , but it allowed the anarchists to arm themselves and take control of Barcelona and large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia . In Barcelona , the official government lost control of security , essential services and welfare . However , the anarchists held back from demanding too much political power , which could have had even more serious consequences . General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death , despite broadcasting a message explaining his captivity over the radio at the request of the authorities .
Meanwhile , the Army of Africa crossed the Gibraltar Strait , using Junkers Ju 52 transport planes provided by Nazi Germany , without any loyalist Air Force interference owing to the confusion and lack of decision of the Spanish Republican side . The massive airlift of troops from Spanish Morocco was the world 's first long @-@ range combat airlift and it allowed Franco 's troops to join General Queipo de Llano 's forces in Seville . Their quick movement allowed them to meet General Mola 's Northern Army and secure most of northern and northwestern Spain , as well as central and western Andalusia . The Republican Government ended up with controlling almost all of the Eastern Spanish coast and central area around Madrid , as well as Asturias , Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north . Mola was keen to create a sense of fear within Nationalist @-@ controlled areas . There was a massive purge of freemasons , and a wide part of the left , including some moderate socialists .
The result of the coup was a polarization of Spain . Following General Mola 's orders of instilling fear in potential pro @-@ republican ranks by means of systematic executions in captured cities , a spontaneous revenge in the form of random murders of perceived fascists , conservatives and coup @-@ sympathizers by exalted mobs flared up in loyalist areas .
The Nationalist area of control contained roughly 11 million of Spain 's population of 25 million . The rebels also had secured the support of around half of Spain 's territorial army , some 60 @,@ 000 men . In Republican units , however , as much as 90 % of officers either rebelled , defected or merely disappeared and their loyalty to the republic was put in doubt , therefore some would later turn up in Nationalist ranks . This considerably reduced the units ' effectiveness as a new command structure had to be fashioned . No such problem occurred in Nationalist units . The Army of Africa , however , was entirely under Nationalist control , and numbered 30 @,@ 000 men considered Spain 's top fighting force . The rebels were also joined by 30 @,@ 000 members of Spain 's militarized police forces , the Assault Guards , the Civil Guards , and the Carabineers . 50 @,@ 000 members of the latter stayed loyal to the government . Of 500 @,@ 000 rifles , around 200 @,@ 000 were retained by the government . 65 @,@ 000 were issued to the Madrid populace in the days following the uprising – of these , only 7 @,@ 000 were usable . 70 @,@ 000 or so were lost following early Nationalist advances in the war . Republicans controlled about a third of both heavy and light machine guns ; of 1 @,@ 007 artillery pieces , 387 were in Republican hands . The Spanish Army had , before the coup , just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design , and the Republicans retained 10 . In terms of numbers , the Nationalists had seized control of 17 warships , leaving the Republicans with 27 . However , the two most modern ( both cruisers of the Canarias class ) were in Nationalist hands ; although not ready for service when the war broke out , when launched they compensated for the lack in numbers . The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the same problems as the army : many officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so . Due to the concerns of a Republican officer that such a coup was imminent , two @-@ thirds of air capability were retained by the government – however , the whole of the air service was very outdated and vulnerable both during flight and to mechanical problems .
|
= U.S. Route 67 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 67 ( US 67 ) is a U.S. Highway in extreme eastern Iowa . The route begins in Davenport at the Rock Island Centennial Bridge where it crosses the Mississippi River and ends at an intersection with US 52 and Iowa Highway 64 ( Iowa 64 ) west of Sabula . It passes through Bettendorf , Le Claire , and Clinton . Except for Folletts , every community which US 67 enters sits along the Mississippi River . As such , the entire route is part of the Great River Road , an All @-@ American Road .
US 67 was created in late 1934 , when it replaced US 55 from Davenport to Dubuque . The route ended then at the foot of the Julien Dubuque Bridge , which carries US 20 . The northern half of the route , from Sabula to Dubuque , was overlapped by US 52 until 1967 . Most of the state highways that intersect US 67 do so within sight of their Mississippi River bridge crossing .
= = Route description = =
US 67 crosses the Mississippi River into Davenport on the Rock Island Centennial Bridge . Adjacent to the bridge is Modern Woodmen Park , home of the Midwest League 's Quad City River Bandits . Vehicles can continue to the north on Gaines Street , but US 67 traffic is forced to make a U @-@ turn to the south to connect to River Drive . Prior to 2010 , River Drive carried U.S. Route 61 ( US 61 ) , but the street now carries its business route . River Drive is prone to seasonal flooding from the Mississippi , as was the case in 1993 , 1997 , 2001 , 2008 , and 2011 .
In downtown Davenport , US 61 Bus. intersects US 67 at two one @-@ way streets , Harrison Street southbound and Brady Street northbound . Continuing east along the river , River Drive passes under the Government Bridge . It enters Bettendorf and becomes two one @-@ way streets , Grant Street southbound and State Street northbound . The two streets intersect Interstate 74 ( I @-@ 74 ) and US 6 at the foot of the I @-@ 74 Bridges near downtown Bettendorf .
Through Bettendorf and Riverdale , where the route turns to the northeast , US 67 is separated from the Mississippi riverfront by industry . Alcoa , which employs over 2000 workers at its Davenport works , is the largest plant along US 67 .
Just south of Le Claire is the I @-@ 80 interchange , where US 67 passes underneath the Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge . In Le Claire the Mississippi River bends sharply and the highway follows . It heads through the picturesque downtown area , where many shops and even the street on which US 67 uses , Cody Road , pay homage to the Le Claire area 's most famous son , Buffalo Bill Cody .
Between Le Claire and Princeton , US 67 continues to closely parallel the river . This stretch of the road allows for good opportunities for bird watching . Where there are open views of the river , you can see water fowl on the water amongst lily pads . This area is near the southern end of the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge .
North of Princeton , US 67 turns inland to cross the Wapsipinicon River into Clinton County . At Folletts , the road takes a 90 @-@ degree turn back to the east towards Camanche . It then runs parallel to the river , which is obscured by trees surrounding its backwaters . At Camanche , it passes around the city to the west and north . At Washington Boulevard , which is the former alignment of the route through Camanche , it turns to the north onto a four @-@ lane , undivided highway , which passes an industrial area and over Union Pacific 's Overland Route . As it enters Clinton , it joins with US 30 .
US 30 / US 67 head east along Lincoln Way through an industrial and retail area . As they continue east , the two routes split into one @-@ way streets , northbound Liberty Avenue and southbound Camanche Avenue . The one @-@ way street alignment ends at 11th Avenue South , but quickly begins again as US 30 / US 67 turn to the north onto northbound S. Third Street and southbound South 4th Street . At 8th Avenue South , US 30 splits away from US 67 and onto the Gateway Bridge and crosses into Illinois .
A block north , the one @-@ way couplets rejoin and head a block east to South 2nd Street . US 67 stays on 2nd Street for the next 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . It passes through the heart of downtown Clinton , past the historic Van Allen Building designed by Louis Sullivan , Ashford University Field , home of the Clinton LumberKings , also of the Midwest League , and passes the location of the failed Flav 's Fried Chicken restaurant . On the north end of Clinton , US 67 intercepts Iowa 136 at the foot of the Mark Morris Memorial Bridge to Fulton , Illinois . The two routes are overlapped for 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) on 2nd Street and on Main Avenue . US 67 turns off of Main Avenue , away from Iowa 136 onto North 3rd Street and continues north out of town .
North of Clinton , US 67 travels through rural areas for the remainder of its route . Surrounded by acres ( hectares ) of farmland , houses occasionally dot the route . Near the Clinton – Jackson county line , the terrain begins to get hillier . The highway is entering the extreme southern end of the Driftless Area , a region of the Midwest that avoided glaciation during the last Ice Age . West of Sabula , US 67 meets Iowa 64 . The US Highway merges onto the state highway , and the two routes head east together for 2 ⁄ 5 mile ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) until they meet US 52 . Iowa 64 continues eastward with US 52 , but US 67 ends its journey from Texas here .
= = History = =
U.S. Highway 67 was extended into Iowa in late 1934 , when it replaced the southernmost portion of US 55 . It crossed the Mississippi River over the Government Bridge with US 32 ( now US 6 ) . The highway followed roughly the same route it does today through the then @-@ Tri Cities , along the river to Clinton to its present end near Sabula . Instead of ending at US 52 , the two routes continued north together along the river through Bellevue . Near Dubuque , the two highways converged with two others : US 61 and US 151 . Closer to downtown Dubuque , US 67 ended where US 61 and US 151 diverged from US 52 .
In 1940 , US 67 's entrance into Iowa was moved onto the new Rock Island Centennial Bridge . The Centennial Bridge was a toll bridge from its opening on July 12 , 1940 , until May 3 , 2003 . Tolls were originally 10 cents ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 69 in 2016 ) for drivers and 5 cents ( $ 0 @.@ 84 ) for pedestrians . The pedestrian toll was ended in 1960 . Tolls were 50 cents ( $ 0 @.@ 64 ) when they were removed in 2003 .
When the Julien Dubuque Bridge was completed in 1943 , US 67 's northern end was moved to the intersection of Dodge Street , which carried US 20 , and Locust Street , which carried US 67 , US 52 , US 61 , and US 151 . Iowa 3 's eastern end was moved to the same intersection , but on the opposite side of the street from US 67 's end . The intersection of Dodge and Locust was located at the foot of the Julien Dubuque Bridge .
When it was designated US 67 , only the first 45 miles ( 72 km ) , from Davenport to Almont , a ghost town in eastern Clinton County , were paved . Within ten years , paving had extended north to Iowa 64 . In addition , a short section north of Bellevue had been paved . By 1955 , all 95 miles ( 153 km ) were paved . In 1967 , US 67 was truncated at the intersection of US 52 and Iowa 64 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Senghenydd colliery disaster =
The Senghenydd colliery disaster , also known as the Senghenydd explosion ( Welsh : Tanchwa Senghennydd ) , occurred at the Universal Colliery in Senghenydd , near Caerphilly , Glamorgan , Wales , on 14 October 1913 . The explosion , which killed 439 miners and a rescuer , is still the worst mining accident in the United Kingdom . Universal Colliery , located on the South Wales Coalfield , produced steam coal which was much in demand . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were prone to explosions .
In an earlier disaster in May 1901 , three underground explosions at the colliery killed 81 miners . The inquest established that the colliery had high levels of airborne coal dust , which would have exacerbated the explosion and carried it further into the mine workings . The cause of the 1913 explosion is unknown , but the subsequent inquiry thought the most likely cause was a spark from underground signalling equipment that could have ignited any firedamp present . The miners in the east side of the workings were evacuated , but the men in the western section bore the brunt of the explosion , fire and afterdamp — a poisonous mixture of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen left after an explosion .
Fires in the workings hampered rescue efforts , and it took several days before they were under control . It took six weeks for most of the bodies to be recovered and the fire to be extinguished . The subsequent enquiry pointed to errors made by the company and its management leading to charges of negligence against Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , and the owners . Shaw was fined £ 24 while the company was fined £ 10 ; newspapers calculated the cost of each miner lost was just 51 ⁄ 2 pence .
In 1981 a memorial to the men who died in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board , followed by a second in 2006 , to honour the dead of both the 1901 and 1913 explosions . In October 2013 , on the centenary of the tragedy , a Welsh national memorial to those killed in all Wales 's mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead , depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion .
= = Background = =
= = = Welsh coal industry = = =
The Welsh coal industry employed 1 @,@ 500 workers in 1800 ; and as the industry expanded , the workforce rose to 30 @,@ 000 by 1864 , and to 250 @,@ 000 by 1913 . As employment became available , many people moved to the area of the South Wales Coalfield ; between 1851 and 1911 the population increased by 320 @,@ 000 . By 1913 the Welsh collieries were extracting 56 @.@ 8 million long tons of coal ( 63 @.@ 6 million short tons ) a year , up from 8 @.@ 5 million long tons ( 9 @.@ 5 million short tons ) in 1854 ; collieries in the region mined a fifth of all coal produced in the UK , and employed a fifth of its miners in the mid @-@ nineteenth century . In 1913 Britain was responsible for 25 per cent of world coal production and 55 percent of all world coal exports .
The South Wales Coalfield produced the sought @-@ after anthracite , bituminous and steam coals — the latter a grade between the two comprising a hard coal without the coking elements . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were therefore prone to explosions ; firedamp rises into the higher points of workings , including cavities or , as at Senghenydd , when the seams were being mined in an upward gradient . An additional danger of firedamp is afterdamp , a poisonous mixture of gases left after an explosion , primarily constituted of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . They combine with haemoglobin in the bloodstream to stop cells carrying oxygen , which can result in suffocation by lack of oxygen or anoxia . If survivors from an explosion are not rescued quickly , they face the possibility of being killed by the gas . The presence of firedamp contributed to a higher @-@ than @-@ average proportion of accidents : between 1880 and 1900 South Wales accounted for 18 % of Britain 's miners , but 48 per cent of all UK mining deaths occurred in the region . As coal output from British collieries reached its peak in 1913 there was a correspondingly large number of accidents around this time .
= = = Senghenydd and the Universal Colliery = = =
Senghenydd — Senghennydd in Welsh — is situated at the northern end of the Aber Valley , approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Caerphilly and eleven miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ west of Cardiff . When geological surveys for coal began in 1890 it was a farming hamlet of around 100 people . Coal was found , and sinking of the first mineshaft for Universal Colliery — which was owned and developed by William Lewis — began in 1891 ; the first coal was extracted in 1896 . The colliery 's two shafts were both 1 @,@ 950 feet ( 590 m ) deep , the downcast Lancaster and the upcast York . Development of the pit coincided with the Boer War , and sectors of the underground workings were named after key places in the war , such as Pretoria , or the lifting of the sieges at Ladysmith , Mafeking and Kimberley .
South Wales miners , including those at Universal , were paid on a rate determined by the Sliding Scale Committee , which fixed wages on the price coal fetched at market . When the price of coal slumped in the late 1890s , low wages led to industrial unrest and , in 1898 , a strike that the men at Universal joined at the end of April . The Monmouthshire and South Wales Coal Owners ' Association refused to replace the scale , and the strike ended on 1 September with some small concessions granted by the owners . The colliery resumed production and in 1899 was producing 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 short tons ) of coal a week .
The industrial historians Helen and Baron Duckham consider Universal Colliery to have been " an unlucky mine " . At approximately 5 : 00 am on 24 May 1901 three underground explosions occurred as the night shift was exiting the pit . Because the explosion damaged the pit winding gear , it took time to clear the debris from the pithead to allow rescuers to begin work . They descended at 11 : 00 am and rescued one man , an ostler , found alongside the corpse of the horse he was tending . There were no other survivors and 81 men died . Although the funerals for the victims started four days later , the rescue and recovery operations lasted for six weeks .
The Mines Inspectorate began an enquiry , chaired by the mining engineer Professor William Galloway . The report was published on 15 July . It stated that the mine was hot with high levels of coal dust present . The method used to load coal onto underground trucks created quantities of dust , which had aggravated a small explosion and created a chain reaction of related explosions throughout the workings . An inquest held in the October concluded that various safety precautions had not been followed , and that the mine had been insufficiently watered — which would have reduced the coal dust held in the air . The colliery had further problems in October 1910 when a heavy roof fall in the Mafeking return released trapped firedamp , which caused the mine to be temporarily evacuated .
In 1906 a major explosion at a colliery in Courrières , northern France , caused the deaths of more than 1 @,@ 000 miners . The subsequent report blamed the accidental ignition of firedamp , exacerbated by coal dust in the air . Concerned that a similar disaster might happen in British collieries , the Royal Commission was formed , reporting back in 1907 , 1909 and 1911 . The reports led to the Coal Mines Act 1911 , which came force into December that year . Among other changes to the health and safety culture , the Act required that ventilation fans in all collieries be capable of reversing the air current underground ; this measure was to be implemented by 1 January 1913 .
In 1913 the colliery was producing 1 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal a day , and Senghenydd 's population had grown to just under 6 @,@ 000 . No work was undertaken at Senghenydd to implement the requirement , and the Mines Inspectorate gave the management an extended deadline of September 1913 to complete the work , but this was missed .
= = 14 October 1913 = =
At 3 : 00 am on 14 October 1913 , the day firemen descended the pit to conduct the daily checks for gas ; they had three hours to complete their investigations . The firemen for the Mafeking return had to travel more than two miles from the shaft bottom to the workface . It left insufficient time in which to make a thorough check of the workings — which involved placing a naked flame into cavities to see if the flame lengthened — although the historian Michael Lieven states that " the company considered any other form of inspection to be too time @-@ consuming " . Between 5 : 10 and 6 : 00 am 950 men descended the shaft for a shift that was due to last until 2 : 00 pm .
Just after 8 : 00 am an explosion occurred in the west side of the underground workings . It is possible there were two explosions as survivors stated a smaller explosion preceded the main one , although the official report referred only to one . The cause was probably a build @-@ up of firedamp that was ignited by an electric spark from equipment such as electric bell signalling gear . The initial explosion ignited airborne coal dust , and a shock wave ahead of the explosion raised yet more coal dust , which also combusted . Many victims who were not killed immediately by the explosion and fire died from the effects of afterdamp . The explosive wave travelled up the Lancaster shaft to the surface , destroying the headframe ; it killed the winder — the man in charge — and badly wounded his deputy .
Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , was on the surface and the remaining shift foremen were still underground and unable to give assistance . He took charge and descended the York shaft , accompanied by overman D R Thomas . The descent was slow , and they had to clear several girders and obstructions before they reached the bottom . They found that the men from the east side of the workings ( approximately 450 workers ) were unharmed , and their evacuation was ordered . Shaw and Thomas moved to the western side , where they found other men , alive but injured , and arranged for them to travel to the surface . Thomas later reported that the view into the western workings " was exactly like looking into a furnace " .
Shaw explored what he could of the western workings , before he and some of the survivors began tackling the fire . The water pipes from the surface in the Lancaster shaft were all fractured , and hand @-@ extinguishers were used . Shaw returned to the surface at 9 : 30 am to arrange for rescue and fire @-@ fighting teams from neighbouring collieries . From 11 : 00 am the specialist mines rescue teams began arriving at the colliery from the Rhymney and Rhondda Valleys , as did Red Cross workers and local ambulance services ; a police detachment was sent from Cardiff in a special train . Members of the Inspectorate of Mines were quickly on the scene , and an inspector descended to view the mine the same morning .
Lieven recounts how the rescue parties " in their desperation , ... were reckless with their lives " in their attempts to find survivors ; many were injured in small roof collapses , or suffered the effects of carbon monoxide poisoning . Their endeavours saved lives throughout the remainder of the day and into the night , including a group of 18 men found at around 1 : 00 am . They were the last survivors found . A total of 432 miners had died that day — although some bodies were not found until later — and 7 others died later in hospital or at home . A journalist from The Times wrote : " The numbers are truly awful . We talk in awed terms of the decimation of a regiment in a bloody battle , but here a great community engaged in the pursuit of a peaceful vocation is threatened with the loss of at least a quarter of its able bodied manhood " . On the surface the townsfolk waited for news ; a reporter for The Dundee Courier thought : " the scene at Senghenydd last night was depressing in the extreme . The streets were full of silent throngs of people who moved aimlessly about or stood stolidly at the street corners . "
= = Rescue , fire @-@ fighting and recovery : 15 October to 30 November = =
Work continued throughout the night of 15 October and into the following day . It focused on finding survivors and fighting the fire that blocked the entry into some workings of the western returns . The fire caused the roof supports to become unstable , and falls triggered outbursts of methane . Several rescuers were injured by the falls , one fatally . Before descending the mine many of the firefighters wrote what they thought might be their last letters home , and some made their wills . As the water pipe in the shaft was out of operation , fire @-@ fighting continued with hand extinguishers and work was only possible in 20 @-@ minute shifts . Despite wearing respirators , several rescuers were overcome by the effects of firedamp . During the course of the day , 56 bodies were raised to the surface and , that evening , a new water supply , connected by three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) of pipes to a nearby reservoir , was installed in the Lancaster shaft .
Reginald McKenna , the Home Secretary , visited the colliery on 15 October representing King George V , who was attending the marriage of Prince Arthur of Connaught and Princess Alexandra , 2nd Duchess of Fife . The king sent a £ 500 donation to a disaster relief fund , while the royal couple displayed their wedding presents at St James 's Palace and charged a shilling for entrance , raising £ 1 @,@ 200 for the fund . The fund was started by the Lord Mayor of Cardiff , while another collection , the Mansion House Fund set up by the Lord Mayor of London , raised more than £ 3 @,@ 000 on its first day .
William Brace , the local MP speaking on behalf of the South Wales Miners ' Federation , announced on 16 October that the priority would be given to putting out the fire and that no more search parties would be looking for survivors . Brace observed that the fire was blocking the western workings and consuming the oxygen in the air , making it unlikely that anyone was left alive . Progress in tackling the fire over the previous days had been slow , and it had only been extinguished in the first 30 yards of the roadway — still two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coal face . Two coroner 's inquests were opened : one in Senghenydd for the men who died in the colliery , and one in Cardiff for those who had died in hospital ; both were adjourned the same day . The first funerals took place the following day , Friday 17 October . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 mourners gathered for the 11 men buried on the Saturday and 8 on the Sunday .
The firefighters built bashings , walls of sandbags , turf and sand , approximately 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 metres ) deep and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 metres ) up to the tunnel 's roof to prevent smoke filling the rest of the workings and allow men to explore areas previously cut off . Within two days the temperatures dropped and the volume of smoke was reduced . Although the fire was contained , miners still faced several obstacles , including roof collapses and large pockets of trapped firedamp . The first collapse consisted of more than 100 tons of debris , while another fall was more than 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 5 metres ) long and 30 to 40 feet ( 10 – 12 metres ) high . Clearing the falls and finding bodies was slow , and it took until 8 November for the first of the 4 working districts to be explored and cleared of bodies . Many victims were unidentifiable — either the explosion , fire or subsequent decomposition had taken its toll — and many had to be identified by their personal effects , although some bodies remained unidentified .
By 17 November the Mafeking and Pretoria districts had been fully explored , with more than 200 bodies raised to the surface in the preceding two days . On 20 November an official announcement reported that 439 miners had died , of whom 33 were still unaccounted for . Toward the end of the month , the men voted to return to work , even though the western workings were still out of action and 11 bodies were still missing .
A photographer , W Benton , took a series of photographs as the disaster unfolded , and later published them as a set of postcards . Their publication is described by the National Library of Wales as " an excellent example of early photo @-@ journalism " . The photographs came with a caption , shown below :
= = Aftermath = =
The Senghenydd explosion remains the worst mining disaster in Britain . The deaths of 440 men on a small community had a devastating effect ; 60 victims were younger than 20 , of whom 8 were 14 years old ; 542 children had lost their fathers and 205 women were widowed . The impact on individual households was great : 12 homes lost both a father and son , 10 homes lost two sons each , while the death of one father and son left an 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to raise her 6 siblings alone ; another woman lost her husband , 2 sons , a brother and her lodger .
The inquiry into the disaster opened on 2 January 1914 with R A S Redmayne , the Chief Inspector of Mines , as the commissioner ; he was assisted by two assessors , Evan Williams , the chairman of the South Wales and Monmouthshire Coal Owners Association , and Robert Smillie , the president of the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain . The inquiry ran for three days before being adjourned to allow for the coroner 's inquest to run at Senghenydd . It reopened on 27 January and ran until 21 February . Over the 13 days it heard evidence , 21 @,@ 837 questions were put to 50 witnesses . The coroner 's inquest chaired by David Rees lasted for 5 days from 5 January 1914 . A total of 9 @,@ 000 questions were put to 50 witnesses , and the jury returned verdicts of accidental death .
The inquiry report failed to identify a definite cause , although it was considered that the most likely cause was a spark from the signalling gear . It would have ignited the firedamp , exacerbated and fuelled by coal dust in the air . The report was critical of many aspects of the management 's practices , and considered it had breached the mining regulations in respect of measuring and maintaining the air quality in the workings , and in the removal of coal dust from the tracks and walkways . The report pointed out that because the management had not implemented the changes needed to the ventilation fans as demanded by the Coal Mines Act 1911 , the fans were unable to reverse the direction of the airflow , which would have blown the smoke out through the Lancaster shaft , although Redmayne and his colleagues held differing opinions on the advisability of reversing or stopping the airflow . The historian John H Brown , in his examination of the disaster , states that had the airflow been reversed , firedamp or afterdamp could have been extracted from some sectors into the blaze , causing another explosion .
Further criticism was directed toward the emergency procedures . The lack of respirators at the mine was deemed to have cost lives . The lack of an adequate water supply for fire fighting was criticised , and Redmayne wrote : " I should have thought , in view of the fact that the colliery was such a gassy one , and it had already been devastated by an explosion , that the management would have made arrangements for a supply of water adequate to meet an emergency of the kind that actually occurred . "
Shaw 's actions were described by Lieven as those that " gained him a degree of respect from the local mining community which remained over the years ; they probably also cost the lives of scores of miners . " The Duckhams describe Shaw 's inaction in fixing the ventilation fan before the explosion , as well as his delay in sending for assistance from rescue teams until he exited the mine an hour and a half after the explosion . The official report considered there had been a " disquieting laxity in the management of the mine " , although Shaw was described by the Duckhams as " undoubtedly a highly capable manager " . The report led to Shaw being charged with 17 breaches of the Mines Act 1911 , and four charges were made against the company . Shaw was found guilty of failing to keep adequate environmental records and failing to replace a broken lamp locker ; he was fined £ 24 . The company was convicted of failing to provide a ventilation system that could reverse the airflow and was fined £ 10 with £ 5 5 shillings costs . One newspaper , Pioneer , calculated " Miners ' Lives at 1 / 11 ⁄ 4 each " ( 1 shilling 11 ⁄ 4d or 51 ⁄ 2p each ) .
After it reopened the colliery never reached the same levels of employment as before the explosion . William Lewis died in August 1914 ; Shaw continued as manager of the mine until November 1928 , when it closed .
A stage play based on the disaster , by the journalist and broadcaster Margaret Coles , was first performed at the Sherman Cymru , Cardiff in 1991 . The disaster at Senghenydd has provided the backdrop to two printed works of historical fiction : Alexander Cordell 's This Sweet and Bitter Earth ( 1977 ) and Cwmwl dros y Cwm ( 2013 ) by Gareth F Williams .
In 1981 a memorial to those lost in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board . Based outside Nant @-@ y @-@ parc Primary School , which is built on the site of the former colliery , the monument is a 20 feet ( 6 m ) high replica of the colliery 's winding gear . A second monument was unveiled in 2006 to the dead from both the 1901 and 1913 explosions .
On 14 October 2013 , the centenary of the disaster , a Welsh national memorial to all mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead . Funded by the Aber Valley Heritage Group and their patron Roy Noble , with matched funding from the Welsh Government , a bronze statue by Les Johnson depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion , was unveiled by Carwyn Jones , the First Minister of Wales . Jones said : " Mining is central to the story of Wales . It has shaped our history and communities and its social and physical legacy is still with us to this day . ... It is only right that we have a permanent memorial . "
|
= Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel =
Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel ( 2 July 1916 – 18 December 1982 ) was a Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a ground @-@ attack pilot credited with the destruction of 519 tanks , as well as a number of ships . He also claimed 9 aerial victories , and the destruction of more than 800 vehicles of all types , over 150 artillery , anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft positions , 4 armored trains , and numerous bridges and supply lines . He flew 2 @,@ 530 ground @-@ attack missions exclusively on the Eastern Front , usually flying the Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bomber , and 430 missions flying the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 .
Born in the Province of Silesia , Rudel volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe in 1936 . Following flight training , he served in an aerial reconnaissance unit at the outbreak of World War II in Europe . He transferred to the dive bomber force , and was posted to France . Rudel flew his first combat missions as a dive bomber pilot at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 . On 23 September 1941 , he was credited with severely damaging the Soviet battleship Marat , which effectively put her out of action for several months . He was posted to the Luftwaffe main testing ground at Rechlin , and experimented with the Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 equipped Ju 87 G in the anti @-@ tank role . Back on the Eastern Front , Rudel flew a Ju 87 G in combat over the Kuban bridgehead , destroying numerous landing craft . He destroyed his 100th tank on 30 October 1943 and on 22 February 1944 was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( SG 2 — 2nd Ground Support Wing ) .
By 29 March 1944 , Rudel was credited with over 200 tanks destroyed , and more than 1 @,@ 800 combat missions logged . He was placed in command of SG 2 " Immelmann " in October 1944 . Rudel flew his 2,400th combat mission on 22 December 1944 , and on the following day destroyed his 463rd tank . For these achievements , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds , presented to him by Adolf Hitler on 1 January 1945 . Rudel was severely injured in combat on 8 February 1945 , requiring the amputation of his right lower leg , and time in the hospital . On 25 March 1945 , Rudel began flying again , before surrendering to US forces at the Kitzingen Airfield on 8 May 1945 .
After his release from captivity in April 1946 , Rudel owned and operated a haulage company in Coesfeld . In 1948 , he emigrated to Argentina and founded the " Kameradenwerk " , a relief organization for Nazi war criminals that helped fugitive Nazis escape to Latin America or the Middle East . Together with Willem Sassen , he helped conceal and protect Josef Mengele , a former SS doctor in the Auschwitz concentration camp , responsible for the selection of victims to be killed in the gas chambers . He also worked in the arms industry and as a military advisor . Through Juan Perón , the President of Argentina , he secured financially lucrative government military contracts . He was also active as a military adviser and arms dealer for the regime in Bolivia , for Augusto Pinochet in Chile , and for Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay . Due to these activities , he was placed under observation by the US Central Intelligence Agency .
In the West German federal election of 1953 , Rudel , who had returned to West Germany , was the top candidate for the far @-@ right Deutsche Reichspartei ( German Reich Party ) , but was not elected to the Bundestag . Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955 , the uprising that ended the second presidential term of Perón , Rudel was forced to move to Paraguay , where he frequently acted as a foreign representative for several German companies doing business in South America . In 1977 , he became a spokesman for the Deutsche Volksunion ( German People 's Union ) , a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey . Rudel died in Rosenheim in 1982 , and was buried in Dornhausen .
= = Early life and career = =
Rudel was born on 2 July 1916 in Konradswaldau , Silesia , a province in the Kingdom of Prussia ( present @-@ day Grzędy ) in the administrative district of Gmina Czarny Bór , within Wałbrzych County , Lower Silesian Voivodeship , in Poland . He was the third child of Lutheran minister Johannes Rudel and his wife Martha , née Mückner . He had two older sisters , Ingeborg and Johanna . The children were raised in a number of different parishes , which included Schweidnitz ( present @-@ day Świdnica ) , Sagan ( present @-@ day Żagań ) , Niesky , Görlitz and Lauban ( present @-@ day Lubań ) . As a boy , Rudel was a poor scholar , but a very keen sportsman . From 1922 to 1936 , he attended the Volksschule , a primary school , and the humanities oriented Gymnasium , a secondary school , in Lauban , and graduated with his Abitur ( university @-@ preparatory high school diploma ) . In late 1936 , he attended the compulsory Reichsarbeitsdienst ( Reich Labor Service ) at Muskau , working on the banks of the Lusatian Neisse .
On 4 December 1936 , Rudel joined the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker ( officer cadet ) . Following basic training , his flight training began in June 1937 at the Luftkriegsschule 3 ( 3rd Air Warfare School ) at Wildpark @-@ Werder near Berlin . In June 1938 , now an Oberfähnrich ( officer candidate ) , he joined I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Sturzkampfgeschwader 168 ( StG 168 — 168th Dive Bomber Wing ) at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , present @-@ day Graz Airport . There , he was assigned to the 1 . Staffel ( 1st squadron ) for dive bombing training . Rudel , as a teetotaler and non @-@ smoker , was not well accepted among his peers . He also had difficulties learning the new techniques , and was considered unsuitable for combat flying , so on 1 December 1938 , he was transferred to the Aufklärungsschule ( Reconnaissance Flying School ) at Hildesheim for air observer training in operational aerial reconnaissance . He was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 January 1939 . In June 1939 , he was posted to the 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Fernaufklärungsgruppe 121 ( 121st Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Group ) at Prenzlau .
= = World War II = =
On Friday 1 September 1939 , German forces invaded Poland starting World War II in Europe . Shortly before the invasion , Aufklärungsgruppe 121 was moved to Schneidemühl , present @-@ day Piła , at the time close to the Polish Corridor . As an air observer , Rudel flew on long @-@ range reconnaissance missions over Poland . He flew several missions over the Brest @-@ Litovsk – Kovel – Lutsk railway line , and earned the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) on 10 November 1939 . Following the invasion , Rudel submitted several requests for transfer back to the dive bomber force . On 2 March 1940 , he was posted to Fliegerausbildungs @-@ Regiment 43 ( 43rd Aviators Training Regiment ) , based at Vienna @-@ Stammersdorf and later at Crailsheim . There he served as a regimental adjutant . During his time with Fliegerausbildungs @-@ Regiment 43 , Rudel participated in various sporting events , including a cross Vienna relay race , and on 6 October 1940 , he took third place in the Silesian decathlon championship . In late June 1940 , he was transferred to I. Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 ( StG 3 — 3rd Dive Bomber Wing ) , formerly his old unit I. Gruppe of StG 168 , which had been renamed , and was based at Caen , France .
Rudel did not fly operationally during the Battle of Britain , since he was still regarded a poor pilot . Serving in a non @-@ combatant role , he was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 September 1940 . In early 1941 , he was transferred to the Stuka @-@ Ergänzungsstaffel ( Supplementary Dive Bomber Squadron ) at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , a specialized training unit for new dive bomber pilots . There , according to his own account , he finally learned to master the Junkers Ju 87 two @-@ man dive bomber . In mid @-@ April 1941 , he was assigned to I. Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( StG 2 — 2nd Dive Bomber Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Max Immelmann , and based at Molaoi , Greece . His poor reputation as a pilot preceded him , and he spent the Battle of Crete in a non @-@ combat role . At the time , the Geschwader was commanded by Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) Major Oskar Dinort , and Rudel 's I. Gruppe was headed by Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) Hauptmann ( captain ) Hubertus Hitschhold .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In June 1941 , StG 2 " Immelmann " was moved to Raczki in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . Initially for this campaign , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) , I. and III . Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " had been placed under the control of VIII . Fliegerkorps ( 8th Air Corps ) , led by General der Flieger ( General of the Aviators ) Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen , subordinated to Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) under the command of Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , and supported the northern or left flank of Army Group Center . The main objective of this army group , under the command of Feldmarschall Fedor von Bock , was to capture the capital of the Soviet Union , Moscow .
Rudel , who had been ordered to shuttle a Ju 87 to the production facility at Cottbus for a maintenance overhaul of the aircraft , heard over the radio news of the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 . That day , he flew another aircraft to Insterburg , present @-@ day Tschernjachowsk , and then southeast to Raczki . There , he was assigned to 1 . Staffel commanded by Oberleutnant Ewald Janssen . As Janssen 's wingman , Rudel flew his first four combat missions as a dive bomber pilot against Soviet tank and troop deployments in the vicinity of Grodno and Vawkavysk on 23 June 1941 . During the first two weeks of the campaign , StG 2 " Immelmann " flew ground support missions for armored units of Panzergruppe 3 ( 3rd Panzer Group ) advancing towards Smolensk . He was then transferred to the III . Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " , under command of Hauptmann Heinrich Brücker , and appointed Technischer Offizier ( TO — Technical Officer ) , a role in which he was responsible for the supervision of all technical aspects , such as routine maintenance , servicing , and modifications of the Gruppe . On 18 July 1941 , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) and the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Ground Attack Fighters in Gold ( Frontflugspange für Schlachtflieger in Gold ) .
By August 1941 , Adolf Hitler had shifted VIII . Fliegerkorps northwards in support of Army Group North , under command of Feldmarschall Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb , in its attempt to capture Leningrad , present @-@ day Saint Petersburg . As a consequence of this decision , on 29 August 1941 , III . Gruppe was ordered to an airfield south of Luga . There , Rudel flew numerous combat missions in support of the 16th Army and 18th Army advancing northwards . The Soviet Navy Baltic Fleet , with its capital ships Marat and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya , supported by the heavy cruisers Kirov and Maxim Gorky , bombarded German forces on their advance towards Leningrad . Subsequently , Richthofen ordered StG 2 " Immelmann " to attack this Soviet naval task force . On 21 September 1941 , Rudel flew his first mission against this task force , claiming a hit on the Marat with a 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb . On 23 September , StG 2 " Immelmann " , now armed with 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , again attacked the Soviet ships based at Kronstadt harbor . Oberleutnant Lothar Lau scored a hit on Marat , causing a fire . Rudel also hit Marat , causing an enormous explosion that put her out of action for several months . That day , III . Gruppe flew a second mission against the Soviet fleet at Kronstadt . Rudel did not participate in this mission . An accident while taxiing had rendered the aircraft of III . Gruppe commander , Hauptmann Ernst @-@ Siegfried Steen , unserviceable , and Steen ordered Rudel to hand over his Ju 87 to him . Steen , with Unteroffizier Alfred Scharnowski , Rudel 's regular air gunner , led the Gruppe in this attack . Flying into intense anti @-@ aircraft fire over Kronstadt , Steen and Scharnowski took a direct hit while attacking Kirov , and both were killed in action . In October 1941 , Erwin Hentschel joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner .
Army Group Center opened Operation Taifun , the Battle of Moscow , on 30 September 1941 and VIII . Fliegerkorps was again placed under the command of Luftflotte 2 . On 20 October 1941 , Rudel was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) , and on 2 December 1941 , the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) , the first pilot of III . Gruppe to receive this distinction . By the end of December , he had flown his 400th mission , and on 6 January 1942 received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) . The presentation was made by Richthofen on 15 January . Rudel had been nominated for the Knight 's Cross for severely damaging the battleships Marat and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya , sinking one heavy cruiser , and rendering another one unserviceable . In actions against land targets , he was credited with damaging or destroying 15 bridges , 23 artillery positions , 4 armored trains , and 17 tanks or assault guns . In the winter of 1941 – 42 , Rudel fought in the combat zones of the Volga – Daugave – Dnieper rivers near the Valdai Hills , in the vicinity of the Kholm and Demyansk Pockets , both pockets resulting from the German retreat following their defeat during the Battle of Moscow , in the area west of Rzhev , and over the railway line at Sychyovka .
In early 1942 , Rudel was granted home leave . During his vacation , he stayed with his parents in Alt @-@ Kohlfurt , present @-@ day Stary Węgliniec , and got married . He and his wife then took a skiing vacation in Tirol , Austria . From March to August 1942 , Rudel was appointed leader of the Ergänzungsstaffel at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , and transferred with this Staffel to Sarabus , present @-@ day Hwardijske , located 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) north of Simferopol on the Crimean peninsula . Beginning on 15 August 1942 , flying with the Stuka @-@ Ergänzungsstaffel and as Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel ( 9th squadron ) of StG 2 " Immelmann " , Rudel flew missions in the Caucasus and over the Black Sea . On 23 September 1942 , he damaged a 4 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) merchant ship in the harbor of Tuapse , and flew his 500th combat mission the following day . In early November 1942 , Rudel was briefly hospitalized in Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don and treated for hepatitis . On 17 November 1942 , Rudel was appointed Staffelkapitän of the 1 . Staffel ( 1st squadron ) of StG 2 " Immelmann " , and flew with this unit in the Battle of Stalingrad . Besides StG 2 " Immelmann " , Richthofen had ordered the Stukas of II . Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 ( StG 1 — 1st Dive Bomber Wing ) and elements of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( StG 77 — 77th Dive Bomber Wing ) to break Soviet opposition from the air . On 25 November 1942 , I. Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " defended an airfield occupied by StG 1 at Oblivskaya against attacks from an Soviet cavalry division . That day , Rudel flew 17 combat missions in its defense . Following his 750th combat mission , he was nominated for — but not awarded — the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 14 December 1942 .
= = = Anti @-@ tank operations = = =
On 10 February 1943 , Rudel flew his 1,000th combat mission from Gorlovka against forces of the 57th Army in the vicinity of Izium . He was then sent on fourteen days home leave , which he spent at St. Anton , skiing on the Arlberg .
Following this vacation , he was ordered to the Luftwaffe main testing ground at Rechlin . There , under the command of Hauptmann Hans @-@ Karl Stepp , the Luftwaffe was experimenting with using the Ju 87 G in the anti @-@ tank role , armed with two 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ) Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 under @-@ wing autocannons . On 1 April 1943 , he was promoted to Hauptmann with a rank age backdated to 1 April 1942 . The anti @-@ tank unit Versuchskommando zur Panzerbekämpfung was later located at Bryansk @-@ Desna , and then at an airfield at Kerch on the Kerch Peninsula . The airfield was also used by StG 2 " Immelmann " , which at the time was flying missions against the Kuban bridgehead near Krymsk . There , flying along with StG 2 " Immelmann " , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 70 Soviet landing crafts , flying the cannon equipped Ju 87 . Some of these attacks were filmed by an onboard gun camera and shown in Die Deutsche Wochenschau , a newsreel released in German cinemas , its production supervised and censored by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels . Der Adler , a biweekly Nazi propaganda magazine published by the Luftwaffe , also reported his actions in volume 12 of 1943 . On 14 April 1943 , Rudel was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross for his achievements in over 1 @,@ 000 combat missions . He was the 229th member of the German armed forces to be so honored . Rudel received the Oak Leaves from Hitler personally at his office in the New Reich Chancellery in Berlin .
On 5 July 1943 , the first day of the Battle of Kursk , Rudel flew his first combat missions with the cannon equipped Ju 87 G against Soviet tanks in the area of Belgorod , destroying four T @-@ 34s on the first mission . In total , he was credited with twelve tanks destroyed that day . The same day , Rudel and his squadron flew in support of 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and its advance towards Teterevino . At 10 : 30 , a group of about 30 T @-@ 34s from the 5th Guards Tank Corps , possibly belonging to the 22nd Guards Tank Brigade , attacked SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Hans Albin Freiherr von Reitzenstein 's Panzers . In two days , 5th Guards Tank Corps lost approximately 100 of its 200 tanks to Rudel 's Stukas and SS Panzers . On 17 July 1943 , Hauptmann Walter Krauß , Gruppenkommandeur of III . Gruppe , was killed in action near Oryol . Two days later , Rudel was appointed leader of III . Gruppe . On the morning of 12 August 1943 , Rudel and Hentschel respectively completed their 1,300th and 1,000th combat mission . Hentschel was the first air gunner to achieve this mark .
On the morning of 9 October 1943 , Rudel and Hentschel respectively completed their 1,500th and 1,200th combat mission . Rudel was the first pilot to achieve this mark . The event was celebrated at an airfield at Kostromka , south of Kryvyi Rih , and was attended by General der Flieger Kurt Pflugbeil , commanding general of the IV . Fliegerkorps ( 4th Air Corps ) . StG 2 " Immelmann " was redesignated to Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( SG 2 — 2nd Ground Support Wing ) on 18 October 1943 . On 30 October 1943 , Rudel , flying the Ju 87 G near Kirovohrad , was credited with the destruction of his 100th tank . He flew his 1,600th mission in November 1943 , and was credited with seven tanks destroyed on 23 November 1943 . For this achievement , on 25 November , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) , the 42nd member of the German armed forces to be so honored . On that day , Hentschel was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . The presentation to Rudel and Hentschel was made by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg , now Kętrzyn in Poland . At Rastenburg that day , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Dietrich Hrabak , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , was also present at the award ceremony , and received the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross .
= = = Defeat on the Eastern Front = = =
In January 1944 , Rudel led III . Gruppe in defensive support of the 8th Army . During the Kirovohrad Offensive ( 1 – 16 January 1944 ) , the 2nd Ukrainian Front , under command of Ivan Konev , attacked the German 8th Army . The Soviet operation was successful and led to German forces being encircled in the Battle of the Korsun – Cherkassy Pocket ( 24 January – 16 February 1944 ) . From 7 to 10 January 1944 , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 17 Soviet tanks in these battles ; he claimed his 150th tank victory on 11 January 1944 , and flew his 1 @,@ 700 mission on 16 January 1944 . He was officially appointed Gruppenkommandeur of III . Gruppe on 22 February 1944 , and promoted to Major on 1 March 1944 , with his seniority back dated to 1 October 1942 . On 20 March , Rudel landed behind Soviet lines to save a downed crew from captivity . This was his eighth mission of the day ; the target area had been a bridge spanning the Dniester near Yampil . Unable to take off as the wheels of his aircraft had sunk into the soft ground , the four headed back to German held territory on foot . Pursued by Soviet troops , the men attempted to swim across the Dniester River . Rudel and two of the others made it across , while the fourth , Hentschel , drowned in the attempt . Soon afterwards , the three were captured . Rudel was wounded by small arms fire in the shoulder as he made his escape and returned to German held territory the following day . Upon his return , Ernst Gadermann , previously the troop doctor of III . Gruppe , joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner .
Rudel completed his 1 @,@ 800 combat mission on 25 March 1944 . The next day he flew several more sorties during the prelude of the First Jassy – Kishinev Offensive ( 8 April – 6 June 1944 ) , and was credited with the destruction of 17 tanks at Fălești , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north of Iași . This achievement was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , the first of five such mentions , on 27 March 1944 . The next day , Rudel was again mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , which reported his 202nd tank kill . For this he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 29 March 1944 . Rudel was the tenth member of the Wehrmacht , and the seventh pilot , who had received this award . The presentation was made at the Berghof , Hitler 's home in the Obersalzberg of the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden . Following the presentation , Rudel went on vacation , and stayed with his wife and son at Alt @-@ Kohlfurt . He then returned to the Eastern Front , flying to join his Gruppe , which was based at Huși , southeast of Iași . Rudel flew his 2,000th combat mission on 1 June 1944 , destroying his 301st tank that day , 78 of which had been destroyed with bombs and 223 with the 37 mm cannon . This event earned him his third mention in the Wehrmachtbericht , which was broadcast on 3 June 1944 . The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe , Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Reich ) Hermann Göring , presented Rudel with the Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( Flugzeugführer- und Beobachterabzeichen in Gold mit Brillanten ) , and the Golden Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Ground Attack Fighters with Pennant " 2 @,@ 000 " ( Frontflugspange für Schlachtflieger in Gold mit Anhänger " 2 @,@ 000 " ) .
On 13 July 1944 , III . Gruppe was transferred from Huși , Romania to the central sector of the Eastern Front , where the Red Army was attacking towards the Vistula in Operation Bagration . Flying from an airfield at Chełm , the Gruppe targeted Rava @-@ Ruska and other targets in the Ukraine and Belarus area . On 22 July , the Gruppe moved to Mielec in the Vistula @-@ San triangle ; from Mielec missions against armored columns at Jarosław , Rzeszów , and the Wisłok were flown . On 5 August 1944 , Rudel claimed 11 tanks destroyed , earning him his fourth mention in the Wehrmachtbericht . Rudel 's number of tank kills had now reached 378 , including 300 destroyed with the 37 mm cannon . Fighting on the Courland front , he was credited with 8 tank kills on 14 August 1944 , taking the total to 320 tank kills with the 37 mm cannon . On 19 August , Rudel 's aircraft was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire in the vicinity of Ērgļi , Latvia . In the resulting forced landing , both he and Gadermann were injured , Rudel in the leg , and Gadermann suffering several broken ribs . Rudel 's unit was then ordered to transfer back to Romania , and then to Hungary . From 28 August onwards , Rudel operated from airfields at Buzău , 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) northeast of the vital oil refineries at Ploiești , namely Tășnad near Tokaj , Miskolc , Sajókaza northeast of Lake Balaton , Farmos near Szolnok , Vecsés near Budapest , and Börgönd near Székesfehérvár .
= = = Wing Commander = = =
Rudel was promoted to Oberstleutnant on 1 September 1944 , and appointed leader of SG 2 " Immelmann " , replacing Stepp , on 1 October 1944 . He handed over command of his III . Gruppe to Hauptmann Kurt Lau . On 17 November 1944 , he was wounded in the thigh , and had to make an emergency landing at a fighter airfield near Budapest . Following his release from the hospital , he flew subsequent missions with his leg in a plaster cast .
On 22 December 1944 , Rudel completed his 2,400th combat mission , and the next day , he reported his 463rd tank destroyed . On 29 December 1944 , Rudel was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) , and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Goldenem Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) , the first and only person to receive this distinction . This award was presented to him by Hitler at the Adlerhorst , Hitler 's headquarters in the Taunus mountains during the Battle of the Bulge , on 1 January 1945 . On 14 January 1945 , Rudel received the Hungarian Golden Medal for Bravery ( Vitézségi Érem Arany ) , which was presented to him by Hungary 's Head of State Ferenc Szálasi at Sopron , Hungary .
On 8 February 1945 , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 13 tanks near Lebus on the Oder River , earning him his fifth mention in the Wehrmachtbericht on 10 February 1945 . During the attack on the 13th tank , a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) shell hit his aircraft . He was badly wounded in the right foot , and crash landed inside German lines . His observer / gunner Gadermann stemmed the bleeding . Rudel was taken to a field hospital of the Waffen @-@ SS at Seelow , where his leg had to be amputated below the knee . He was then hospitalized in the Zoo flak tower in Berlin , and was flying operationally again with a modified rudder pedal on 25 March 1945 . He claimed 26 more tanks destroyed by the end of the war . On 19 April 1945 , the day before Hitler 's final birthday , Rudel spent the evening talking to Hitler in the Führerbunker , an air @-@ raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin . According to John Toland , author of the book Adolf Hitler , who based his statement on Rudel 's book Stuka Pilot and personal interviews with Rudel , Hitler had ordered him to take charge of all jet fighter aircraft . Rudel refused , as he preferred flying to a desk job . By the time Rudel left , it was after midnight .
On 8 May 1945 , determined not to fall into Soviet hands , he left his ground personnel behind and led three Ju 87s and four Fw 190s westward from an airfield at Klecany , north of Prague , landing at Kitzingen airfield , which was held by the United States Army Air Forces 405th Fighter Group . Rudel had his men lock the brakes and collapse the landing gear to render the aircraft useless ; all but one obeyed his order and wiped off their undercarriage . There he surrendered to US forces , and was taken prisoner of war . Over the next eleven months , he was held captive in Erlangen and Wiesbaden , then in prison camps in England and France , before he was taken to Fürth in Bavaria .
= = Later life = =
In April 1946 , Rudel was released from captivity at Fürth . While Rudel was interned , his family fleeing from the advancing Red Army had found refuge with Gadermann 's parents in Wuppertal . There , Gadermann helped Rudel look for work . He was offered an office job , but he did not accept the position . He then owned and operated a haulage company in Coesfeld . In 1948 , he emigrated to Argentina via the ratlines , travelling via the Austrian Zillertal to Italy . In Rome , with the help of South Tyrolean smugglers , and aided by the Austrian titular bishop Alois Hudal , he bought himself a fake Red Cross passport with the cover name " Emilio Meier " , and took a flight from Rome to Buenos Aires , where he arrived on 8 June 1948 .
= = = In South America = = =
After Rudel moved to Argentina , he became a close friend and confidant of the President of Argentina Juan Perón , and Paraguay 's dictator and Nazi Germany admirer Alfredo Stroessner . In Argentina , he founded the " Kameradenwerk " ( lit . " comrades work " or " comrades act " ) , a relief organization for Nazi war criminals . Prominent members of the " Kameradenwerk " included SS officer Ludwig Lienhardt , whose extradition from Sweden had been demanded by the Soviet Union on war crime charges , Kurt Christmann , a member of the Gestapo sentenced to 10 years for war crimes committed at Krasnodar , Austrian war criminal Fridolin Guth , and the German spy in Chile , August Siebrecht . The group maintained close contact with other internationally wanted fascists , such as Ante Pavelić , Carlo Scorza , Vittorio Mussolini , the son of Benito Mussolini , and Konstantin von Neurath . In addition to these war criminals that fled to Argentina , the " Kameradenwerk " also assisted Nazi criminals imprisoned in Europe , including Rudolf Hess and Karl Dönitz , with food parcels from Argentina and sometimes by paying their legal fees . In Argentina , Rudel became acquainted with notorious Nazi concentration camp doctor and war criminal Josef Mengele . Rudel , together with Willem Sassen , a former member of the Waffen @-@ SS and a Wehrmacht propaganda and war correspondent unit , who initially worked as Rudel 's driver and later for the Dürer @-@ Verlag , helped to relocate Mengele to Brazil by introducing him to Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard . In 1957 , Rudel and Mengele together travelled to Chile to meet with Walter Rauff , the inventor of the mobile gas chamber .
In Argentina , Rudel lived in Villa Carlos Paz , roughly 36 kilometers ( 22 mi ) from the populous Córdoba City , where he rented a house and operated a brickworks . There , Rudel wrote his wartime memoirs Trotzdem ( [ Nevertheless ] or [ In Spite of Everything ] ) . The book was published in November 1949 by the Dürer @-@ Verlag in Buenos Aires . Discussion ensued in Germany on Rudel being allowed to publish the book , because he was a known Nazi . In the book , he supported Nazi policies . This book was later re @-@ edited and published in the United States , as the Cold War intensified , under the title , Stuka Pilot , which supported the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Pierre Clostermann , a French fighter pilot , had befriended Rudel and wrote the foreword to the French edition of his book Stuka Pilot . In 1951 , he published a pamphlet Dolchstoß oder Legende ? ( [ Backstab or Legend ? ] or [ Daggerthrust or Legend ? ] ) , in which he claimed that " Germany 's war against Bolshevism was a defensive war " , moreover , " a crusade for the whole world " . In the 1950s , Rudel became friends with Savitri Devi , a writer and proponent of Hinduism and Nazism and introduced her to a number of Nazi fugitives in Spain and the Middle East .
With the help of Perón , Rudel secured financially lucrative governmental military contracts . He was also active as a military adviser and arms dealer for the regime and " Cocaine Generals " in Bolivia , for Augusto Pinochet in Chile and Stroessner in Paraguay . In addition , he was in contact with Werner Naumann , formerly a State Secretary in Goebbels ' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in Nazi Germany . Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955 , a military and civilian uprising that ended the second presidential term of Perón , Rudel was forced to leave Argentina and move to Paraguay . During the following years in South America , Rudel frequently acted as a foreign representative for several German companies , including Salzgitter AG , Dornier Flugzeugwerke , Focke @-@ Wulf , Messerschmitt , Siemens and Lahmeyer International , a German consulting engineering firm . Rudel 's input was used during the development of the A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II , a United States Air Force aircraft designed solely for close air support , including attacking tanks , armored vehicles and other ground targets .
According to the historian Peter Hammerschmidt , based on files of the German Bundesnachrichtendienst ( BND — Federal Intelligence Service ) and the US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , his research revealed that the BND , via the cover @-@ up company " Merex " , was in close contact with former members of the SS and the Nazi Party . In 1966 , Merex , represented by Walter Drück , formerly a Generalmajor in the Wehrmacht and then an agent of the BND and under observation of the CIA , via contacts established by Rudel and Sassen , sold discarded equipment of the Bundeswehr ( Federal Defence ) to various dictators in Latin America . According to Hammerschmidt , Rudel assisted in establishing contact between Merex and Friedrich Schwend , a former member of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ) and involved in Operation Bernhard . Schwend , according to Hammerschmidt , had close links with the military services of Peru and Bolivia . In the early sixties , Rudel , Schwend and Klaus Barbie , founded a company called " La Estrella " , the star . This company employed a number of former SS officers , who , after the war , had found refuge in Latin America . Rudel , through his involvement in La Estrella , was also in contact with Otto Skorzeny , who had his own network of former SS and Wehrmacht officers .
= = = Sport and political ambitions = = =
Although missing one leg , he remained an active sportsman , playing tennis , skiing , and mountain climbing . In 1949 , he competed in an international skiing competition held at Bariloche . In this competition , Rudel took fourth place in the men 's slalom , first place went to Stein Eriksen . In 1951 , he climbed the highest peak in the Americas , Aconcagua , at 6 @,@ 960 @.@ 8 meters ( 22 @,@ 837 ft ) , and by extension the highest point in both the Western Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere . Due to deteriorating weather conditions , Rudel had to turn back short of the summit on 31 December 1951 . In 1953 , Rudel ascended the Llullay @-@ Yacu in the Argentine Andes , at 6 @,@ 739 meters ( 22 @,@ 110 feet ) the fifth highest volcano , three times . On his second expedition , the team photographer Erwin Neubart was killed in a fall . His body was recovered and buried on the third expedition . Rudel suffered a stroke on 26 April 1970 .
Rudel returned to West Germany in 1953 and became a leading member of the Neo @-@ Nazi nationalist political party , the German Reich Party ( DRP — Deutsche Reichspartei ) . In the West German federal election of 1953 , Rudel was the top candidate for the DRP , but was not elected to the Bundestag . According to Josef Müller @-@ Marein , journalist and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Die Zeit , Rudel had an egocentric character . In his political speeches , Rudel made generalizing statements , claiming that he was speaking on behalf of most , if not all , former German soldiers of World War II . Rudel heavily criticized the Western Allies during World War II for not having supported Germany in its war against the Soviet Union . Rudel 's political demeanor subsequently alienated him from his formers comrades , foremost Gadermann . Müller @-@ Marein concluded his article with the statement : " Rudel no longer has a Geschwader ! " In 1977 , he became a spokesman for the Deutsche Volksunion ( German People 's Union ) , a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey . In 2004 , Frey and Hajo Herrmann published an abstract of Rudel 's biography in the book Helden der Wehrmacht – Unsterbliche deutsche Soldaten [ Heroes of the Wehrmacht – Immortal German soldiers ] . This publication was classified as a far @-@ right wing publication by the German scholars Claudia Fröhlich and Horst @-@ Alfred Heinrich .
= = = Public scandals = = =
In October 1976 , Rudel inadvertently triggered a chain of events , which were later dubbed the Rudel @-@ Affäre ( Rudel Scandal ) . Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 ( 51st Reconnaissance Wing ) the latest unit to hold the name " Immelmann " , held a reunion for members of the unit including those from World War II . The Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Defence , Hermann Schmidt authorized the event . Fearing that Rudel would spread Nazi propaganda on the German Air Force airbase in Bremgarten near Freiburg , Schmidt ordered that the meeting could not be held at the airbase . News of this decision reached Generalleutnant Walter Krupinski , at the time commanding general of NATO 's Second Allied Tactical Air Force , and a former World War II fighter pilot . Krupinski reached out to Gerhard Limberg , Inspector of the Air Force , requesting that the meeting be allowed to be held at the airbase . Limberg later confirmed Krupinski 's request , and the meeting was held on Bundeswehr premises , a decision which Schmidt still did not agree to . Rudel attended the meeting , where besides signing his book and a few autographs , he refrained from making any political statements .
During a routine press event , journalists , who had been briefed by Schmidt , questioned Krupinski and his deputy Karl Heinz Franke about Rudel . In this interview , the generals compared Rudel 's past as a Nazi and Neo @-@ Nazi supporter to the career of prominent Social Democrat leader Herbert Wehner , who had been a member of the German Communist Party in the 1930s , and who had lived in Moscow during World War II , where he was allegedly involved in NKVD operations . Calling Wehner an extremist , they described Rudel as an honorable man , who " hadn 't stolen the family silver or anything else " . When these remarks became public , the Federal Minister of Defense Georg Leber , complying with § 50 of the Soldatengesetz ( military law ) , ordered the generals into early retirement as of 1 November 1976 . Leber , however , a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) , was heavily criticized for his actions by the Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) opposition , and the scandal contributed to the minister 's retirement in early 1978 . On 3 February 1977 , the German Bundestag debated the scandal and its consequences . The Rudel Scandal subsequently triggered a military @-@ tradition discussion , which the Federal Minister of Defense Hans Apel ended with the introduction of " Guidelines for Understanding and Cultivating Tradition " on 20 September 1982 .
During the 1978 FIFA World Cup , held in Argentina , Rudel visited the German national football team in their training camp in Ascochinga . The German media criticized the German Football Association ( DFB — Deutscher Fußball @-@ Bund ) , and viewed Rudel 's visit as being sympathetic to the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina following the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état . The president of the DFB , Hermann Neuberger , justified the visit , and stated that criticizing Rudel 's visit was " an insult to all German soldiers " ( " käme einer Beleidigung aller deutschen Soldaten gleich " ) . The German team captain , Berti Vogts , further fostered the criticism by stating after the World Cup : " Argentina is a country governed by law and order . I have not seen a single political prisoner . " ( " Land , in dem Ordnung herrscht . Ich habe keinen einzigen politischen Gefangenen gesehen " ) Rudel had already visited a German team at a World Cup before . He was a spectator of the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final in Switzerland , and during the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden , he visited the German team at Malmö following its 3 : 1 victory over Argentina on 8 June 1958 . There he was welcomed by team manager Sepp Herberger .
= = = Personal life = = =
Rudel was married three times . His 1942 marriage to Ursula , nicknamed " Hanne " , produced two sons , Hans @-@ Ulrich and Siegfried . They divorced in 1950 . According to the news magazine Der Spiegel , one reason for the divorce was that his wife had sold some of his decorations , including the Oak Leaves with Diamonds , to an American collector , but she also refused to move to Argentina . On 27 March 1951 , Der Spiegel published Ursula Rudel 's denial of selling his decorations , and further stated she had no intention of doing so . Rudel married his second wife , Ursula née Daemisch in 1965 . The marriage produced his third son , Christoph , born in 1969 . Following his divorce in 1977 , he married Ursula née Bassfeld .
= = = Death and funeral = = =
Rudel died after suffering another stroke in Rosenheim on 18 December 1982 , and was buried in Dornhausen on 22 December 1982 . During Rudel 's burial ceremony , two Bundeswehr F @-@ 4 Phantoms appeared to make a low altitude flypast over his grave . Although Dornhausen was situated in the middle of a flightpath regularly flown by military aircraft , Bundeswehr officers denied deliberately flying aircraft over the funeral . Four mourners were photographed giving Nazi salutes at the funeral , and were investigated under a law banning the display of Nazi symbols . The Federal Minister of Defense Manfred Wörner declared that the flight of the aircraft had been a normal training exercise .
= = Summary of military career = =
Rudel flew 2 @,@ 530 combat missions on the Eastern Front of World War II . The majority of these were undertaken while flying the Junkers Ju 87 , although 430 were flown in the ground @-@ attack variant of the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . He was credited with the destruction of 519 tanks , severely damaging the battleship Marat , as well as sinking a cruiser , a destroyer and 70 landing craft . Rudel also claimed to have destroyed more than 800 vehicles of all types , over 150 artillery , anti @-@ tank or anti @-@ aircraft positions , 4 armored trains , as well as numerous bridges and supply lines . Rudel was also credited with 9 aerial victories , 7 of which were fighter aircraft and 2 Ilyushin Il @-@ 2s . He was shot down or forced to land 30 times due to anti @-@ aircraft artillery , was wounded five times and rescued six stranded aircrew from enemy held territory .
= = = Awards = = =
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) as Oberleutnant in a Sturzkampfgeschwader ( 20 October 1941 )
Wound Badge in Gold
Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds
German Cross in Gold on 2 December 1941 as Oberleutnant in the III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 10 November 1939 )
1st Class ( 18 July 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold and Diamonds with Pennant " 2000 "
in Gold ( 18 July 1941 )
in Gold and Diamonds with Pennant " 2000 "
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 6 January 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 9 . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
229th Oak Leaves on 14 April 1943 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 1 . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
42nd Swords on 25 November 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
10th Diamonds on 29 March 1944 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
1st Golden Oak Leaves on 29 December 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
8th ( 1st and only foreign ) Hungarian Gold Medal of Bravery ( 14 January 1945 )
Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor
Mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 27 March 1944 , 28 March 1944 , 3 June 1944 , 6 August 1944 , 10 February 1945 )
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
= = = Promotions = = =
= = Publications = =
|
= Paul Shuey =
Paul Kenneth Shuey ( born September 16 , 1970 ) is an American former professional baseball player . Primarily a relief pitcher , Shuey pitched in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Cleveland Indians ( 1994 – 2002 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2002 – 2003 ) and Baltimore Orioles ( 2007 ) .
Shuey was honored as an All @-@ American as a college baseball pitcher for the North Carolina Tar Heels baseball team . The Indians selected Shuey with the second overall selection of the 1992 MLB draft . Envisioned as a comparable pitcher to Cincinnati Reds closer Rob Dibble , Shuey had more success as a setup reliever than closer .
Injuries sidelined Shuey throughout his career , preventing him from becoming a closer . When healthy , he enjoyed success with the Indians as a setup pitcher . He was traded to the Dodgers in 2002 to be their set up man while contending for a playoff spot . He pitched well until a hip injury initially suffered in 1999 forced Shuey to retire in 2004 . After an experimental medical procedure , Shuey returned to baseball briefly in 2007 with the Orioles . He retired after that season , and took up a professional career in bass fishing , competing in what he considers " Double @-@ A " -level tournaments .
= = Early life = =
A native of Lima , Ohio , Shuey 's family moved to North Carolina when he was ten years old . Shuey 's father taught him how to pitch . He played American Legion and Babe Ruth League baseball with Everett Lindsay .
Shuey attended Millbrook High School in Raleigh , North Carolina . With Millbrook , Shuey was a starting pitcher and right fielder . While pitching for the baseball team at Millbrook , Shuey threw a no @-@ hitter against Garner High School . He was named to North Carolina 's All @-@ Triangle and All @-@ State teams .
= = College career = =
Shuey enrolled at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( UNC ) , where he played college baseball for the North Carolina Tar Heels baseball team in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) of NCAA Division I. He served as the team 's closer . At UNC , Shuey was named a freshman All @-@ American and All @-@ ACC pitcher for the Tar Heels in 1990 , as he had an 8 @-@ 1 win – loss record and eight saves . He led the team with 31 appearances , and the Tar Heels were the ACC regular season and tournament championships .
Though he suffered a patellar tendon rupture in 1991 , Shuey led the Tar Heels with a 1 @.@ 70 earned run average ( ERA ) that season . That summer , Shuey pitched for the United States national baseball team in the Pan American Games . He led the team with a 3 @.@ 13 ERA and 87 strikeouts in the 1992 season , in 69 innings pitched . Shuey and Chad Holbrook won the team 's S.H. Basnight Award as the team 's most valuable players . Through 2001 , Shuey 's career winning percentage ( .818 ) ranked fourth all time in UNC history . He was a letterman in all three seasons at UNC .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Indians = = =
The Indians selected Shuey with their first round draft pick , the second overall selection , in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft . The Indians envisioned that Shuey could develop into a closer similar to Rob Dibble of the Cincinnati Reds . Shuey made his professional debut with the Columbus Red Stixx of the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League in 1992 .
Heading into the 1993 season , Baseball America ranked Shuey as the 81st best prospect in baseball . He pitched for the Kinston Indians of the Class @-@ A Carolina League in 1993 , going 1 – 0 with a 4 @.@ 84 ERA in 15 appearances , and was promoted to the Canton – Akron Indians of the Class @-@ AA Eastern League that season . He opened the 1994 season with Kinston , where he went 1 – 0 with a 3 @.@ 75 ERA and eight saves in 13 appearances .
The deaths of Indians ' relief pitchers Steve Olin and Tim Crews in a boating accident heightened the Indians ' need to develop Shuey . Shuey was promoted from Kinston to the major leagues during the 1994 season , becoming the first player promoted from Class @-@ A to the majors since Greg Swindell during the 1986 season . He made his MLB debut on May 8 , 1994 . On May 14 , Shuey became the tenth American League pitcher to strike out four batters in an inning . He also pitched for the Charlotte Knights of the Class @-@ AAA International League that season . Baseball America ranked Shuey as the 67th best prospect in baseball heading into the 1995 season .
Shuey struggled with the Indians , with an 0 – 3 win – loss record , five saves , and 7 @.@ 00 ERA in 21 appearances in 1994 and 1995 . He also pitched for the Buffalo Bisons of the International League in 1995 , and spent time on the disabled list with an injured hamstring . He also pitched for the Senadores de San Juan of the Puerto Rico Baseball League that winter to gain more experience .
After starting the 1996 season with Buffalo , Shuey was promoted to the Indians , where he pitched to a 5 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 85 ERA . He pitched in the postseason for the Indians , appearing in three games in the 1996 American League Division Series , which the Indians lost to the Baltimore Orioles . Shuey received a three @-@ year contract from the Indians at the start of the 1997 season , worth $ 3 @,@ 203 @,@ 000 guaranteed . An option year and performance bonuses made the maximum value of the contract $ 11 @,@ 603 @,@ 000 over four seasons .
With José Mesa and Mike Jackson serving as closers for the Indians , Shuey pitched in middle relief . He spent time on the disabled list in the 1997 season on three separate occasions . In 1998 , he led all American League relief pitchers with a .132 ( 7 – for – 53 ) batting average against when the opposition had baserunners in scoring position . His strong performances while healthy gave the Indians hope that Shuey could become their closer in due time . Shuey appeared in four postseasons for the Indians , including in 1998 , when he pitched 6 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings for the Indians in the 1998 American League Championship Series .
In 1999 , while pitching on a wet mound in Cleveland , Shuey injured his right hip . Over the next several seasons , he had multiple surgeries on his hip , including repairing a torn labrum and removing bone spurs . He finished the 1999 season with an 8 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 53 ERA , and six saves . His eight wins tied for the most among Cleveland 's relief pitchers . In 2000 , new Indians ' manager Charlie Manuel indicated the Indians would attempt to shift Shuey into the closer role . When Shuey spent time on the disabled list , Steve Karsay served as the Indians ' closer . He again spent time on the disabled list in 2001 with a strained elbow ligament .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
As the 2002 trade deadline approached , teams interested in acquiring Shuey began to inquire on his availability . On July 28 , 2002 , before the trade deadline , Shuey was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Terry Mulholland and minor leaguers Ricardo Rodríguez and Francisco Cruceta . With the Dodgers in the playoff chase that season , they hoped to pair him with closer Éric Gagné to form a strong bullpen for the later portions of games .
Though Shuey struggled upon joining the Dodgers , recording a 9 @.@ 35 ERA in his first eleven appearances after the trade , he altered his approach and began to obtain better results , allowing no runs in his next five appearances . Shuey played for the Dodgers through the end of the 2003 season . During spring training prior to the 2004 season , he tore a ligament in his thumb and reinjured his hip while fielding a bunt during his rehabilitation . Shuey spent the entire season on the disabled list . The Dodgers sued the Hartford Life Insurance Company , who insured Shuey 's contract , over Shuey 's $ 3 @.@ 25 million salary for the 2004 season , saying the insurance company did not honor their claim .
= = = Later career = = =
A free agent after the 2004 season , Shuey signed a minor league contract with the Indians to attempt a comeback in the 2005 season . After pitching two innings for the Class @-@ AA Akron Aeros , he retired due to pain in his right hip .
Shuey sat out the whole 2006 season , as he received a hip replacement . The procedure , which involved installing a metal hip , was performed in Montreal , as it was not approved in the United States . On February 2 , 2007 , he signed a minor league contract with the Orioles that included an invitation to spring training . He suffered an injury and did not make the cut , and was sent to the minor leagues . He made one appearance for the Class @-@ AA Bowie Baysox , and then joined the Norfolk Tides , the Orioles ' Class @-@ AAA affiliate . His contract was then purchased on June 19 , 2007 , and he appeared in that night 's game against the San Diego Padres .
Though his fastball was able to reach 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) earlier in his career , Shuey 's fastball had difficulty reaching 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) due to his metal hip . On July 1 , 2007 , he recorded his first save since 2002 , in a game against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . He finished the 2002 season with a 9 @.@ 82 ERA in 22 games . In his penultimate appearance , in the first game of an August 22 doubleheader , he surrendered the last nine runs in a 30 – 3 defeat to the Texas Rangers , an American League record for most runs scored by a single team . As his fastball increased in velocity , Shuey injured his back . The Orioles gave Shuey his outright release on September 5 .
= = Personal = =
Shuey was inducted into the Kinston Professional Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011 and the Millbrook High School Hall of Fame in 2012 .
Shuey lives with his family , including his wife Julie and three daughters ; Morgan ( born 1997 ) , Casey ( born 1998 ) , and Kate ( born 2006 ) . in Wake Forest , North Carolina . He spends his time as a father , pitching coach , and bass fishing . He overcame posttraumatic stress disorder , which resulted from a car accident in 1996 .
Shuey competes in local bass fishing tournaments . He is hoping to compete in the Bassmaster Elite Series of the Bass Anglers Sportsman Society . Now Shuey is a successful coach of Barton College 's women soccer team alongside Head Coach Chris Shaw .
|
= First Macedonian War =
The First Macedonian War ( 214 – 205 BC ) was fought by Rome , allied ( after 211 BC ) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon , against Philip V of Macedon , contemporaneously with the Second Punic War ( 218 – 201 BC ) against Carthage . There were no decisive engagements , and the war ended in a stalemate .
During the war , Macedon attempted to gain control over parts of Illyria and Greece , but without success . It is commonly thought that these skirmishes in the east prevented Macedon from aiding the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the war with Rome . The " Peace of Phoenice " , a treaty drawn up at Phoenice , in 205 BC , formally ended the war .
= = Demetrius urges war against Rome = =
Rome 's preoccupation with its war against Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon to attempt to extend his power westward . According to the ancient Greek historian Polybius , an important factor in Philip 's decision to take advantage of this opportunity was the influence of Demetrius of Pharos .
Demetrius had been , after the First Illyrian War in 229 BC , ruler of most of coastal Illyria . However , in 219 BC , during the Second Illyrian War he was defeated by the Romans and fled to the court of Philip .
Involved in a war with the Aetolians , Philip learned by messenger of the victory of Hannibal over the Romans , at Lake Trasimene in June 217 BC . Philip at first showed the letter only to Demetrius . Perhaps seeing a chance to recover his kingdom , Demetrius immediately advised the young king to make peace with the Aetolians , and turn his attentions toward Illyria and Italy . Polybius quotes Demetrius as saying :
For Greece is already entirely obedient to you , and will remain so : the Achaeans from genuine affection ; the Aetolians from the terror which their disasters in the present war have inspired them . Italy , and your crossing into it , is the first step in the acquirement of universal empire , to which no one has a better claim than yourself . And now is the moment to act when the Romans have suffered a reverse .
Philip was easily persuaded .
= = Philip makes peace with Aetolia = =
Philip , at once began negotiations with the Aetolians . At a conference on the coast near Naupactus , Philip met the Aetolian leaders , and a peace treaty was concluded . Polybius quotes the Aetolian Agelaus of Naupactus as having given the following speech in favor of peace :
The best thing of all is that the Greeks should not go to war with each other at all , but give the gods hearty thanks if by all speaking with one voice , and joining hands like people crossing a stream , they may be able to repel the attacks of barbarians and save themselves and their cities . But if this is altogether impossible , in the present juncture at least we ought to be unanimous and on our guard , when we see the bloated armaments and the vast proportions assumed by the war in the west . For even now it is evident to any one who pays even a moderate attention to public affairs , that whether the Carthaginians conquer the Romans , or the Romans the Carthaginians , it is in every way improbable that the victors will remain contented with the empire of Sicily and Italy . They will move forward : and will extend their forces and their designs farther than we could wish . Wherefore , I beseech you all to be on your guard against the danger of the crisis , and above all you , O King . You will do this , if you abandon the policy of weakening the Greeks , and thus rendering them an easy prey to the invader ; and consult on the contrary for their good as you would for your own person , and have a care for all parts of Greece alike , as part and parcel of your own domains . If you act in this spirit , the Greeks will be your warm friends and faithful coadjutors in all your undertakings ; while foreigners will be less ready to form designs against you , seeing with dismay the firm loyalty of the Greeks . If you are eager for action , turn your eyes to the west , and let your thoughts dwell upon the wars in Italy . Wait with coolness the turn of events there , and seize the opportunity to strike for universal dominion . Nor is the present crisis unfavourable for such a hope . But I intreat of you to postpone your controversies and wars with the Greeks to a time of greater tranquillity ; and make it your supreme aim to retain the power of making peace or war with them at your own will . For if once you allow the clouds now gathering in the west to settle upon Greece , I fear exceedingly that the power of making peace or war , and in a word all these games which we are now playing against each other , will be so completely knocked out of the hands of us all , that we shall be praying heaven to grant us only this power of making war or peace with each other at our own will and pleasure , and of settling our own disputes .
= = Philip builds a fleet = =
Philip spent the winter of 217 – 216 BC building a fleet of 100 warships and training men to row them , and according to Polybius , it was a practice that " hardly any Macedonian king had ever done before " . Macedon probably lacked the resources to build and maintain the kind of fleet necessary to match the Romans . Polybius says that Philip had no " hope of fighting the Romans at sea " , perhaps referring to a lack of experience and training .
At any rate , Philip chose to build lembi . These were the small fast galleys used by the Illyrians . They had a single bank of oars and were able to carry 50 soldiers in addition to the rowers . With these , Philip could hope to avoid or evade the Roman fleet , preoccupied as he hoped it would be with Hannibal , and based , as it was , at Lilybaeum in western Sicily .
Philip had in the meantime expanded his territories west along the Apsus and Genusus river valleys , right up to the borders of Illyria . Philip 's plan was it seems , to first take the Illyrian coasts , conquer the area between the coasts and Macedon , and use the new land link to provide a rapid route for reinforcements across the narrow straits to Italy .
At the beginning of summer , Philip and his fleet left Macedon , sailed through the Euripus Strait , between the island of Euboea and Boeotia on the Greek mainland , and then rounded Cape Malea , before dropping anchor off the Islands of Cephalenia and Leucas , to await word of the location of the Roman fleet . Informed that it was still at Lilybaeum , he sailed north to Apollonia in Illyria .
However , as the Macedonian fleet neared the island of Sazan , Philip heard a report that some Roman quinqueremes had been seen headed for Apollonia . Convinced that the entire Roman fleet was sailing to apprehend him , Philip ordered an immediate return to Cephalenia . Polybius speaks of " panic " and " disorder " to describe the fleet 's hasty retreat , and says that in fact the Romans had sent only a squadron of ten ships , and that because of " inconsiderate alarm " , Philip had missed his best chance to achieve his aims in Illyria , returning to Macedon , " without loss indeed , but with considerable dishonour " .
= = Philip allies with Carthage = =
After hearing of Rome 's disastrous defeat at the hands of Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC , Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy to negotiate an alliance . There they concluded in the summer of 215 BC a treaty , the text of which is given by Polybius . In it they pledge in general terms , mutual support and defense and to be enemies to each other 's enemies ( excepting current allies ) . Specifically they promise support against Rome , and that Hannibal shall have the right to make peace with Rome , but that any peace would include Philip and that Rome would be forced to give up control of Corcyra , Apollonia , Epidamnus , Pharos , Dimale , Parthini , and Atintania and " to restore to Demetrius of Pharos all those of his friends now in the dominion of Rome . "
The treaty as set down by Polybius , makes no mention of an invasion of Italy by Philip , the débâcle at Sazan perhaps having soured Philip on such a venture — something which in any case Hannibal may not have desired .
On their way back to Macedon , Philip 's emissaries along with emissaries from Hannibal were captured by Publius Valerius Flaccus , commander of the Roman fleet patrolling the southern Apulian coast . A letter from Hannibal to Philip , and the terms of their agreement were discovered .
Philip 's alliance with Carthage caused immediate dismay in Rome , hard @-@ pressed as they already were . An additional twenty @-@ five warships were at once outfitted and sent to join Flaccus ' fleet of twenty @-@ five warships already at Tarentum , with orders to guard the Italian Adriatic coast , and to try to determine Philip 's intent and if necessary cross over to Macedonia , keeping Philip confined there .
= = War breaks out in Illyria = =
In the late summer of 214 BC , Philip again attempted an Illyrian invasion by sea , with a fleet of 120 lembi . He captured Oricum which was lightly defended , and sailing up the Aous ( modern Vjosë ) river he besieged Apollonia .
Meanwhile , the Romans had moved the fleet from Tarentum to Brundisium to continue the watch on the movements of Philip and a legion had been sent in support , all under the command of the Roman propraetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus . Upon receiving word from Oricum of events in Illyria , Laevinus crossed over with his fleet and army . Landing at Oricum , Laevinus was able to retake the town with little fighting .
In the account given by Livy , Laevinus , hearing that Apollonia was under siege , sent 2000 men under the command of Quintus Naevius Crista , to the mouth of the river . Avoiding Philip 's army , Crista was able to enter the city by night unobserved . The following night , catching Philip 's forces by surprise , he attacked and routed their camp . Philip , escaping to his ships in the river , made his way over the mountains and back to Macedonia , having burned his fleet and left many thousands of his men that had died or been taken prisoner , along with all of his armies ' possessions , behind . Laevinus and his fleet wintered at Oricum .
Twice thwarted in attempts at invasion of Illyria by sea , and now constrained by Laevinus ' fleet in the Adriatic , Philip spent the next two years 213 – 212 BC making advances in Illyria by land . Keeping clear of the coast , he took the inland towns of Atintania , and Dimale , and subdued the Greek tribe of the Dassaretae and the Illyrian Parthini and at least the southern Ardiaei .
He was finally able to gain access to the Adriatic by capturing Lissus and its seemingly impregnable citadel , after which the surrounding territories surrendered . Perhaps the capture of Lissus rekindled in Philip hopes of an Italian invasion . However the loss of his fleet meant that Philip would be dependent on Carthage for passage to and from Italy , making the prospect of invasion considerably less appealing .
= = Rome seeks allies in Greece = =
Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere , Rome sought out land allies in Greece .
Laevinus had begun exploring the possibility of an alliance with the Aetolian League , as early as 212 BC . The Aetolians , war weary , had made peace with Philip at Naupactus in 217 BC . However five years later the pendulum had swung in the other direction , the war faction was on the ascendency , and the Aetolians were once again ready to consider taking up arms against their traditional enemy of Macedon .
In 211 BC an Aetolian assembly was convened for discussions with Rome . Laevinus pointed out the recent capture of Syracuse and Capua in the war against Carthage as evidence of Rome 's rising fortunes , and offered to ally with them against the Macedonians . A treaty was signed . The Aetolians would conduct operations on land , the Romans at sea . Rome would keep any slaves and other booty taken and Aetolia would receive control of any territory acquired . Another provision of the treaty allowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League : Elis , Sparta , Messenia and Attalus I of Pergamon , as well as two Roman clients , the Illyrians Pleuratus and Scerdilaidas .
= = Campaign in Greece = =
Later that summer Laevinus seized the main town of Zacynthus , except for its citadel , and the Acarnanian town of Oeniadae and the island of Nasos which he handed over to the Aetolians . He then withdrew his fleet to Corcyra for the winter .
Upon hearing of the Roman alliance with Aetolia , Philip 's first action was to secure his northern borders . He conducted raids in Illyria at Oricum and Apollonia and seized the frontier town of Sintia in Dardania or perhaps Paionia . He marched rapidly south through Pelagonia , Lyncestis and Bottiaea and on to Tempe which he garrisoned with 4000 men . He turned north again into Thrace , attacking the Maedi and their chief city Iamphorynna before returning to Macedon .
No sooner had Philip arrived there , when he received an urgent plea for help from his ally the Acarnanians . Scopas the Aetolian strategos ( general ) , had mobilized the Aetolian army and was preparing to invade Acarnania . Desperate and overmatched , but determined to resist , the Acarnanians sent their women , children and old men to seek refuge in Epirus , and the rest marched to the frontier , having sworn an oath to fight to the death , " invoking a terrible curse " upon any who were forsworn . Hearing of the Acarnanians ' grim determination , the Aetolians hesitated . Then learning of Philip 's approach they finally abandoned their invasion . After which Philip retired to Pella for the winter .
In the spring of 210 BC , Laevinus again sailed from Corcyra with his fleet , and with the Aetolians , captured Phocian Anticyra . Rome enslaved the inhabitants and Aetolia took possession of the town .
Although there was some fear of Rome and concern with her methods , the coalition arrayed against Philip continued to grow . As allowed for by the treaty , Pergamon , Elis and Messenia , followed by Sparta , all agreed to join the alliance against Macedon . The Roman fleet together with the Pergamon fleet controlled the sea , and Macedon and her allies were threatened on land by the rest of the coalition . The Roman strategy of encumbering Philip with a war among Greeks in Greece was succeeding , so much so that when Laevinus went to Rome to take up his consulship , he was able to report that the legion deployed against Philip could be safely withdrawn .
However the Eleans , Messenians and Spartans remained passive throughout 210 BC , and Philip continued to make advances . He invested and took Echinus , using extensive siegeworks , having beaten back an attempt to relieve the town by the Aetolian strategos Dorimachus and the Roman fleet , now commanded by the proconsul Publius Sulpicius Galba . Moving west Philip probably also took Phalara the port city of Lamia , in the Maliac Gulf . Sulpicius and Dorimachus took Aegina , an island in the Saronic Gulf , which the Aetolians sold to Attalus , the Pergamene king , for thirty talents , and which he was to use as his base of operations against Macedon in the Aegean Sea .
In the spring of 209 BC , Philip received requests for help from his ally the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus who were being attacked by Sparta and the Aetolians . He also heard that Attalus had been elected one of the two supreme commanders of the Aetolian League , and rumors that he intended to crossover the Aegean from Asia Minor . Philip marched south into Greece . At Lamia he was met by an Aetolian force , supported by Roman and Pergamene auxiliaries , under the command of Attalus ' colleague as strategos , the Aetolian Pyrrhias . Philip won two battles at Lamia , inflicting heavy casualties on Pyrrhias ' troops . The Aetolians and their allies were forced to retreat inside the city walls , where they remained , unwilling to give battle .
= = Attempt at peace fails = =
From Lamia , Philip went to Phalara . There he met representatives from the neutral states of Egypt , Rhodes , Athens and Chios who were trying to end the war — they were trading states and the war was probably hurting trade . Livy says that they were concerned " not so much for the Aetolians , who were more warlike than the rest of the Greeks , as for the liberty of Greece , which would be seriously endangered if Philip and his kingdom took an active part in Greek politics . " With them was Amynandor of Athamania , representing the Aetolians . A truce of thirty days and a peace conference at Achaea were arranged .
Philip marched to Chalcis in Euboea , which he garrisoned to block Attalus ' landing there , then continued on to Aegium for the conference . The conference was interrupted by a report that Attalus had arrived at Aegina , and the Roman fleet was at Naupactus . The Aetolian representatives , emboldened by these events , at once demanded that Philip return Pylos to the Messenians , Atintania to Rome and the Ardiaei to Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus . " Indignant " , Philip quit the negotiations telling the assembly that they " might bear him witness that whilst he was seeking a basis for peace , the other side were determined to find a pretext for war " .
= = Hostilities resume = =
From Naupactus , Sulpicius sailed east to Corinth and Sicyon , conducting raids there . Philip , with his cavalry caught the Romans ashore and was able to drive them back to their ships , with the Romans returning to Naupactus .
Philip then joined Cycliadas the Achaean general , near Dyme for a joint attack on the city of Elis , the main Aetolian base of operations against Achaea . However , Sulpicius had sailed into Cyllene and reinforced Elis with 4000 Romans . Leading a charge , Philip was thrown from his horse . Fighting on foot Philip became the object of a fierce battle , finally escaping on another horse . The next day Philip captured the stronghold of Phyricus , taking 4000 prisoners and 20 @,@ 000 animals . Hearing news of Illyrian incursions in the north Philip abandoned Aetolia and returned to Demetrias in Thessaly .
Meanwhile , Sulpicius sailed round into the Aegean and joined Attalus on Aegina for the winter . In 208 BC the combined fleet of thirty @-@ five Pergamene and twenty @-@ five Roman ships failed to take Lemnos , but occupied and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos ( Skopelos ) , both Macedonian possessions .
Attalus and Sulpicius then attended a meeting in Heraclea Trachinia of the Council of the Aetolians which included representatives from Egypt and Rhodes , who were continuing to try to arrange a peace . Learning of the conference and the presence of Attalus , Philip marched rapidly south in an attempt to break up the conference and catch the enemy leaders , but arrived too late .
Surrounded by foes , Philip was forced to adopt a defensive policy . He distributed his commanders and forces and set up a system of beacon fires at various high places to communicate instantly any enemy movements .
After leaving Heraclea , Attalus and Sulpicius sacked both Oreus , on the northern coast of Euboea and Opus , the chief city of eastern Locris . The spoils from Oreus had been reserved for Sulpicius , who returned there , while Attalus stayed to collect the spoils from Opus . However , with their forces divided , Philip , alerted by signal fire , attacked and took Opus . Attalus caught by surprise was barely able to escape to his ships .
= = The war ends = =
Although Philip considered Attalus ' escape a bitter defeat , it proved to be the turning @-@ point of the war . Attalus was forced to return to Pergamon , when he learned at Opus that , perhaps at the urging of Philip , Prusias I , king of Bithynia and related to Philip by marriage , was moving against Pergamon . Sulpicius returned to Aegina . Free from the pressure of the combined Roman and Pergamon fleets , Philip was able to resume the offensive against the Aetolians . He captured Thronium , followed by the towns Tithronium and Drymaea north of the Cephisus , controlling all of Epicnemidian Locris , and took back control of Oreus .
The neutral trading powers were still trying to arrange a peace . At Elateia , Philip had met with the same would be peacemakers from Egypt and Rhodes , who had been at the meeting in Heraclea , and again in the spring of 207 BC , but to no avail . Representatives of Egypt , Rhodes , Byzantium , Chios , Mytilene and perhaps Athens also met again with the Aetolians that spring . The war was going Philip 's way , but the Aetolians , although now abandoned by both Pergamon and Rome , were not yet ready to make peace on Philip 's terms . However , after another season 's fighting , they finally relented . In 206 BC , the Aetolians , without Rome 's consent , sued for a separate peace on conditions imposed by Philip .
The following spring the Romans sent the censor Publius Sempronius Tuditanus with 35 ships and 11 @,@ 000 men to Dyrrachium in Illiria , where he incited the Parthini to revolt and laid siege to Dimale . However , when Philip arrived Sempronius broke off the siege and withdrew inside the walls of Apollonia . Sempronius tried unsuccessfully to entice the Aetolians to break their peace with Philip . With no more allies in Greece , but having achieved their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal , the Romans were ready to make peace . A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC , the so @-@ called " Peace of Phoenice " formally ended the First Macedonian War .
|
= Ronnie O 'Sullivan =
Ronald Antonio O 'Sullivan , OBE ( born 5 December 1975 ) is an English professional snooker and pool player . He is widely regarded as the greatest player in the sport 's modern era . He is noted for his rapid playing style , mercurial temperament and his ambivalent relationship with the sport , from which he has taken prolonged sabbaticals and repeatedly threatened to retire .
A childhood snooker prodigy , O 'Sullivan made his first century break at age 10 and his first maximum break at age 15 . He turned professional in 1992 , at the age of 16 , and soon earned the nickname " The Rocket " because of his rapid playing style . He achieved his first major professional success when he won the 1993 UK Championship at the age of 17 years and 358 days , making him the youngest player ever to win a ranking title , a record he still holds . He is also the youngest player to have won the Masters , having captured his first title in 1995 at the age of 19 years and 69 days .
His record in Triple Crown events now stands at five World Championship , six Masters , and five UK Championship titles . His career total of 28 ranking titles puts him in joint second place ( with Steve Davis and John Higgins ) behind Stephen Hendry , who has 36 , and his career earnings of over £ 8 million put him on second place after Hendry on snooker 's all @-@ time prize @-@ money list . O 'Sullivan has held the world number one ranking on multiple occasions , most recently during the 2009 / 2010 season . His other achievements include ten Premier League titles and winning the Nations Cup with England in 2000 .
Known as a prolific break @-@ builder , O 'Sullivan holds the record for the most competitive century breaks , with 824 . He also holds the record for the most ratified maximum breaks in professional competition ( 13 ) and for the three fastest competitive maximum breaks , the quickest in 5 minutes and 20 seconds .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
O 'Sullivan 's achievements in snooker began at an early age . He made his first century break ( 117 ) at the age of 10 , completed his first total clearance ( 142 ) at age 12 , and became British Under @-@ 16 Champion at age 13 . He made his television debut in The Thames Snooker Classic when he was 14 , with Steve Davis commentating on the match . He compiled his first maximum break in the final of the 1991 British Amateur Championships at age 15 , and won the IBSF World Under @-@ 21 Championship in the same year . He turned professional in 1992 , aged 16 .
O 'Sullivan began the 1992 / 1993 season by winning 74 of his first 76 professional matches , including a winning streak of 38 successive victories , a record that still stands . At the qualifying stage of the Grand Prix he defeated Jason Curtis 5 – 0 in a time of 43 minutes 36 seconds , setting the current record for the fastest best @-@ of @-@ 9 @-@ frame match . After this Alan Hughes gave him the nickname " The Rocket " . In September 1992 , at the age of 16 , he became the youngest player ever to qualify for the World Championship . He made his Crucible debut on 18 April 1993 at the age of 17 years and 134 days , and he is still the third @-@ youngest player ever to compete at the venue behind Luca Brecel and Stephen Hendry . He lost 7 – 10 to Alan McManus in the first round . O 'Sullivan was named the WPBSA 's Young Player of the Year for 1993 .
In the 1993 / 1994 season O 'Sullivan defeated Hendry 10 – 6 in the final of the UK Championship to win his first ranking title . At the age of 17 years and 358 days he became the youngest ever winner of a professional ranking tournament . He faced Hendry again in the final of the European Open , but lost 5 – 9 . He won his second ranking title at the British Open by defeating James Wattana 9 – 4 in the final . He reached the second round of the World Championship but lost 3 – 13 against John Parrott . Having started the season ranked number 57 in the world , he ended it ranked number 9 , and was named the WPBSA 's Player of the Year for 1994 .
= = = 1994 / 1995 – 1997 / 1998 = = =
O 'Sullivan did not win any ranking titles during the 1994 / 1995 season , but turned in consistently strong performances , reaching the quarter @-@ finals of the Grand Prix , the UK Championship , and the Welsh Open ; the semi @-@ finals of the Dubai Classic , and the European Open ; and the finals of the Thailand Open , and the British Open . He captured his first Masters title by defeating John Higgins 9 – 3 in the final , becoming the youngest player ever to win the tournament at the age of 19 years and 69 days . He also reached his first World Championship quarter @-@ final , but lost 8 – 13 to Hendry . By the end of his third season as a professional O 'Sullivan was ranked number 3 in the world behind Hendry and Davis .
In the 1995 / 1996 season O 'Sullivan reached the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship but lost 7 – 9 to Andy Hicks . He reached the final of the Masters but lost 5 – 10 to Hendry . He reached his first World Championship semi @-@ final but lost 14 – 16 to Peter Ebdon . Snooker 's governing body found O 'Sullivan guilty of physically assaulting Mike Ganley , a media official , during the event . For this he received a two @-@ year suspended ban , a £ 20 @,@ 000 fine , and was advised to donate £ 10 @,@ 000 to charity .
In the 1996 / 1997 season O 'Sullivan won two ranking titles , the Asian Classic by defeating Brian Morgan 9 – 8 in the final , and the German Open by defeating Alain Robidoux 9 – 7 in the final . In February 1997 , he reached his third consecutive Masters final , where he faced Davis . After O 'Sullivan took the first two frames with back @-@ to @-@ back century breaks of 116 and 113 , the third frame was disrupted by snooker 's first ever streaker , Lianne Crofts . Davis later stated that the streaking incident affected O 'Sullivan 's concentration and momentum , allowing him back into the match . The afternoon session ended all @-@ square at 4 – 4 . O 'Sullivan began the evening session by winning four frames in 49 minutes to take an 8 – 4 lead , but Davis fought back to win the next six frames and clinch the title with a 10 – 8 victory . On 21 April 1997 , while playing Mick Price in the first round of the World Championship , O 'Sullivan made the fastest ever competitive maximum break in 5 minutes and 20 seconds , an average of one shot every 8 @.@ 8 seconds . This was also O 'Sullivan 's first maximum break in professional competition . He exited the World Championship in the second round , losing 12 – 13 against Darren Morgan .
In the 1997 / 1998 season O 'Sullivan won his second UK Championship title by defeating Hendry 10 – 6 in the final . In February he reached the quarter @-@ final of the Masters , but lost 3 – 6 to Davis . Later that month he won the Scottish Open by defeating John Higgins 9 – 5 in the final . The following month he defeated Ken Doherty in the final of the Irish Masters , but was disqualified after a post @-@ match drug test found cannabis in his system . The title was subsequently awarded to Doherty . O 'Sullivan reached a second World Championship semi @-@ final , but lost 9 – 17 against Higgins .
= = = 1998 / 1999 – 2000 / 2001 = = =
In the 1998 / 1999 season O 'Sullivan did not defend his UK Championship title . He withdrew from the tournament shortly before his scheduled first @-@ round match , with his manager stating that he was suffering from physical and nervous exhaustion and that doctors had ordered him to rest . Other reports stated that O 'Sullivan was suffering from depression . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Masters , but lost 2 – 6 to Doherty . At the World Championship , he reached his third semi @-@ final in four years , but was again denied a place in the final when he lost 13 – 17 to Hendry . During the match , the players made a total of eight century breaks , four from Hendry and four from O 'Sullivan . When Hendry made back @-@ to @-@ back centuries of 101 and 108 in the 21st and 22nd frames , O 'Sullivan responded with 134 in the 23rd frame , narrowly missing out on a maximum break when he missed the pink into the middle pocket . O 'Sullivan went on to make a 110 break in the 24th frame , the fourth consecutive frame won with a century .
In the 1999 / 2000 season O 'Sullivan won two ranking tournaments , the China Open , where he defeated Stephen Lee 9 – 2 in the final , and the Scottish Open , where he defeated Mark Williams 9 – 1 in the final . For the third year in succession he was eliminated from the Masters at the quarter @-@ final stage , losing 3 – 6 to Parrott . At the World Championship O 'Sullivan was eliminated in the first round , losing 9 – 10 to David Gray , despite becoming the first player to compile five century breaks in a best @-@ of @-@ 19 @-@ frame match .
During the 2000 / 2001 season O 'Sullivan won six tournaments , and reached the final of one further event . He won the Champions Cup by defeating Mark Williams 7 – 5 in the final , and reached the final of the Grand Prix , but lost the final 5 – 9 against Williams . He successfully defended his China Open title by defeating Williams 9 – 3 in the final . He won the Irish Masters defeating Stephen Hendry 9 – 8 in the final , and went on to claim his first World Championship title with an 18 – 14 victory over John Higgins . O 'Sullivan dedicated this win to his father . He ended the season by winning the Premier League . After finishing second in the league stage , he defeated Higgins 6 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals , and Hendry 9 – 7 in the final .
= = = 2001 / 2002 – 2003 / 2004 = = =
In the 2001 / 2002 season , O 'Sullivan won his third UK title , with a 10 – 1 victory over Doherty . At the 2002 World Championship , before meeting Hendry in the semi @-@ finals , O 'Sullivan said during a pre @-@ match interview : " I know if I do get beat and he comes up and does a moonie in front of me and goes ' Ne ne ne ' , I 'll just look at him and say ' well done ' and say ' go back to your sad little life ' . " , referring to a previous match against Hendry in 1999 . In the match , O 'Sullivan opened up an 8 – 5 overnight lead , but Hendry rallied on the second day to level at 12 – 12 before the final session . Hendry subsequently outplayed O 'Sullivan , and won by 17 frames to 13 . After the match , O 'Sullivan accused Hendry of poor sportsmanship , referring to his conduct over a " miss " shot at an unnamed prior tournament . Hendry did not comment on his opponent 's outbursts , but O 'Sullivan did receive criticism for his remarks from Steve Davis , Dennis Taylor and Clive Everton , and he later apologised to Hendry for his comments . O 'Sullivan ended the season by defending his Premier League title . Having finished first after the league stage , O 'Sullivan defeated Jimmy White 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ final , and John Higgins 9 – 4 in the final . He began the 2002 / 2003 season ranked number 1 .
O 'Sullivan had another successful season in 2002 / 2003 , reaching the last 16 in seven ranking tournaments . He began the season by winning the invitational Scottish Masters , defeating John Higgins 9 – 4 in the final . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the LG Cup , losing against eventual champion Chris Small ; the last 16 of the British Open , losing against Paul Hunter , the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship , losing against Drew Henry ; and the quarter @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , losing against Marco Fu . After this O 'Sullivan won back @-@ to @-@ back ranking titles , defeating Hendry in the final of the European Open , and Higgins in the final of the Irish Masters . He reached the last 16 of the Scottish Open , before losing against Ken Doherty . His only first @-@ round ranking event defeat of the season came at the World Championship , when he lost 6 – 10 in the first round against the unseeded Marco Fu , despite making a maximum break in the match . This defeat saw him drop to number 3 in the rankings . He participated at the Premier League , but despite topping the table after the league stage , he lost 4 – 6 in the semi @-@ final against Fu .
In the 2003 / 2004 season , O 'Sullivan reached three ranking @-@ event finals . He reached the final of the British Open , but lost 6 – 9 against Stephen Hendry . He won the Welsh Open by defeating Steve Davis 9 – 8 . He reached the final of the Masters , but lost 9 – 10 against Paul Hunter , despite having led 6 – 1 and then 9 – 7 . In 2004 , O 'Sullivan 's father telephoned six @-@ time World Champion Ray Reardon , and asked if he could give O 'Sullivan some advice . With Reardon 's help O 'Sullivan recovered his form , and won the 2004 World Championship . He defeated Hendry 17 – 4 in the semi – finals , the most one @-@ sided defeat ever in a World Championship semi – final . He then defeated Graeme Dott 18 – 8 in the final , despite losing the first five frames . O 'Sullivan blamed his poor start on " mind games " by Dott 's coach Derek Hill , who visited O 'Sullivan 's dressing room just before the match . O 'Sullivan was ranked number one for the next two seasons .
= = = 2004 / 2005 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2004 / 2005 season by winning the Grand Prix , defeating Ian McCulloch 9 – 5 in the final . He then reached the semi @-@ finals of the British Open , losing 1 – 6 to Stephen Maguire , and the last 32 of the UK Championship , losing 6 – 9 , once again against Maguire . In 2005 , O 'Sullivan defended his Welsh Open title , by defeating Stephen Hendry 9 – 8 . During the tournament , O 'Sullivan compiled ten century breaks , including a break of 146 , the highest of the tournament . After this , he won his second Masters title , by defeating John Higgins 10 – 3 . After the final , Higgins described O 'Sullivan as a " total genius " .
O 'Sullivan then won his third Irish Masters title , by defeating Matthew Stevens 10 – 8 . He then missed the China Open on medical grounds ; for which he was criticised by Anthony Hamilton , who said that O 'Sullivan has a duty to promote the sport overseas . In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan lost to Peter Ebdon in the quarter @-@ final . From 2 – 8 down , Ebdon began a comeback and eventually won 13 – 11 , by playing in an exceptionally determined and dogged style , with many observers accusing him of deliberate slow play to disrupt O 'Sullivan 's fast game . After the match , O 'Sullivan indicated to the press that he was unlikely to compete in the following season , and would perhaps even retire from the sport altogether . O 'Sullivan participated in the Premier League . After finishing third in the table after the league stage , O 'Sullivan defeated Hendry 5 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals , and Williams 6 – 0 in the final . In September 2005 , he announced that he would play a truncated 2005 / 2006 season , spending some time playing eight @-@ ball pool in the United States , having been chosen to compete on the elite International Pool Tour .
= = = 2005 / 2006 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2005 / 2006 season at the Grand Prix , and reached the final , but lost 2 – 9 against John Higgins . In his last 32 match with Mark King at the UK Championship , O 'Sullivan sat with a wet towel draped over his head for most of the contest , and lost 8 – 9 . He then successfully defended his Premier League title . Having finished first in the league stage , he defeated Steve Davis 5 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals , and Stephen Hendry 6 – 0 in the final . O 'Sullivan then reached the final of the Masters , but lost 9 – 10 against Higgins . O 'Sullivan skipped the Malta Cup , and then lost his opening matches at the next two ranking events , as he lost 1 – 5 against Ian McCulloch at the Welsh Open and 0 – 5 against James Wattana at the China Open .
The 2006 World Championship began with O 'Sullivan defeating Dave Harold 10 – 4 , followed by a struggle through to a 13 – 10 win in his second @-@ round match against Welshman Ryan Day . A similar quarter @-@ final match ensued against Mark Williams . O 'Sullivan led 10 – 6 going into the final session . A fightback from Williams saw him take the lead by winning the next five frames ; but O 'Sullivan held his nerve to take the match 13 – 11 , and faced Graeme Dott in the semi – finals . Dott took an early lead before O 'Sullivan drew level at 8 – 8 at the end of the second session . Cue @-@ tip problems , which had dogged O 'Sullivan throughout the event , recurred , including an incident in which television footage appeared to show O 'Sullivan deliberately removing the tip of his cue . This secured him a 15 @-@ minute break to re @-@ tip the cue , before he returned and made a 124 break . Tournament Director Mike Ganley accepted the player 's assurance that the tip had simply fallen off , and no censure was made . The incident drew criticism from his opponent , and from Steve Davis and John Parrott . Dott then took all eight frames of the third session , leaving himself one frame away from his second final in three years . The final session saw O 'Sullivan stage a minor fightback , taking three frames in a row , before a mistake let Dott back in for an eventual clearance on the black . After Dott 's win , O 'Sullivan gave his cue and case to a boy in the crowd . BBC claims he had used as many as 21 different tips during the fortnight ; O 'Sullivan later stated that he had used seven tips before arriving in Sheffield , and a further eight during the week , and that he would return next season with a new cue . O 'Sullivan 's decision not to enter the Malta Cup cost him the number @-@ one rank for the following season .
= = = 2006 / 2007 = = =
On his way to the final of the Northern Ireland Trophy , which he lost 6 – 9 to Ding Junhui , he defeated semi – final opponent Dominic Dale 6 – 0 , in only 53 minutes – a record for a best of 11 frame match . O 'Sullivan then reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Grand Prix , but lost 1 – 5 against eventual champion Neil Robertson . In December 2006 , in his quarter @-@ final match of the UK Championship against Hendry , O 'Sullivan conceded in dramatic fashion part @-@ way into the sixth frame of the best of 17 match . He had gone 0 – 4 down after a strong start from Hendry , before finally taking a frame back . At the beginning of the sixth frame , O 'Sullivan opened with a break of 24 , before leaving himself a difficult shot from black to red . After missing the red , he calmly shook the hand of both Hendry ( saying to him that he " had enough of it , mate " ) and the match referee , Jan Verhaas , and walked out of the arena , stunning everyone present . The incident caused minor disruption to the other quarter @-@ final match , between Graeme Dott and Steve Davis , being played simultaneously in the same arena . Dott later said that he initially thought that O 'Sullivan and Hendry were having a fight when he heard an audience member shout " Get a grip , Ronnie . " It was later officially confirmed that O 'Sullivan had forfeited the match , which was awarded 9 – 1 to Hendry . O ’ Sullivan issued a statement later that day , apologising and saying that he would be " back on his feet fighting stronger and harder than ever very soon . " On 31 May 2007 , World Snooker fined him a total of £ 20 @,@ 800 over this incident , and docked him 900 ranking points .
O 'Sullivan returned to action at the Masters , to a mixed response from the audience ( being both booed and clapped ) . He won his first round match 6 – 1 on 16 January 2007 , against Ali Carter , making two century breaks in the process . However , he then created more controversy by failing to attend a post @-@ match press conference . He did record a short interview with Steve Davis for the BBC , stating that he was much happier than at the UK Championship , and that he was playing well once again . Sir Rodney Walker later issued a statement declaring that O 'Sullivan had been excused from dealing with the media because of the exceptional circumstances affecting him . This decision was criticised by Shaun Murphy , and Ken Doherty . O 'Sullivan went on to win the tournament against Ding Junhui , on 21 January 2007 . In the match , he was noted for his good sportsmanship by Steve Davis , specifically for comforting Ding after the twelfth frame , during which Ding had become visibly upset by an overly partisan member of the crowd , who was later ejected . O 'Sullivan was leading 9 – 3 at the time , and won the next frame for a 10 – 3 victory .
O 'Sullivan went out of the Malta Cup with a 3 – 5 loss to Michael Holt in the first round . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , but lost 4 – 5 against Neil Robertson . In his quarter @-@ final match against Joe Swail at the Irish Masters , O 'Sullivan compiled a maximum break on his way to a narrow 5 – 4 victory , the second 147 in any professional competition in Ireland . The initial maximum break prize of a Citroën Coupe , worth € 20 @,@ 000 , was later withdrawn by the organisers . He then defeated John Higgins 6 – 5 in the semi @-@ finals and won the title by defeating Barry Hawkins 9 – 1 in the final . O 'Sullivan then reached the semi @-@ finals of the China Open , but lost 2 – 6 against eventual champion Graeme Dott . Just before the World Championship , in which he was to play a first @-@ round match with Ding Junhui again , O 'Sullivan claimed that the draw was fixed . This was subsequently denied by World Snooker , and O 'Sullivan later retracted his accusation . In the end O 'Sullivan won the tie easily by 10 frames to 2 . He also won his second @-@ round match against Robertson 13 – 10 ( despite losing six frames in a row at one point ) , before losing his quarter @-@ final match 9 – 13 against eventual champion John Higgins .
= = = 2007 / 2008 = = =
O 'Sullivan withdrew from the first ranking event of the season , the Shanghai Masters , citing back problems for which doctors had advised him not to travel . He also chose not to enter the invitational Pot Black tournament . He made the final of the Grand Prix , but lost 6 – 9 against Marco Fu . During the Northern Ireland Trophy , he set a new record , by compiling five centuries in a 5 – 2 win over Ali Carter . This also included his seventh official competitive 147 maximum break . O 'Sullivan went out of the tournament in the next round , having lost against Fergal O 'Brien . On 2 December 2007 , he won a fourth consecutive , and record seventh total , Premier League Snooker title , by beating John Higgins in the final by a score of 7 – 4 . On 15 December 2007 , O 'Sullivan compiled his eighth maximum break in competition , in the deciding frame of his UK Championship semi – final against Mark Selby at Telford , equalling Hendry 's record . In doing so , he also became only the third person in professional competition to compile a maximum to win a match . Hendry had made the first against O 'Sullivan in the 1997 Charity Challenge final , and Mark Williams had made the second , at the Crucible in the first round of the 2005 World Championship . O 'Sullivan is also the second player after John Higgins to make 147 breaks in two consecutive ranking tournaments ( 2007 Northern Ireland Trophy and 2007 Maplin UK Championship ) . He then went on to win the tournament , beating Stephen Maguire 10 – 2 in the final ( from 8 – 0 up ) , thereby receiving a £ 100 @,@ 000 cheque for winning his first ranking tournament in almost three years .
At the Masters on 12 January , Stephen Maguire edged out O 'Sullivan in a final frame , to win their first @-@ round match at Wembley . In the battle of the top two players in the provisional world rankings , O 'Sullivan fought back from 1 – 4 down to level at 5 – 5 and take the match into a deciding eleventh frame . O 'Sullivan missed the final blue with the rest , when poised to win the match , allowing Maguire to reach the quarter @-@ finals . After withdrawing from the invitational Malta Cup , O 'Sullivan returned at the Welsh Open in February . Playing a good tournament , he reached the final . Although he led 8 – 5 , Selby won the last four frames to beat him 9 – 8 . O 'Sullivan was present at the China Open , in Beijing , where he lost 4 – 5 to Marco Fu in the first round . However , at the press conference , which followed the match , O 'Sullivan was heard making some lewd remarks inviting a member of the press to perform fellatio on him , then laughing with the World Snooker media spokesman . O 'Sullivan also joked about the size and girth of his penis , before simulating a sexual act on his microphone . In June 2008 , the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association punished him for his behaviour by docking the appearance @-@ money and world @-@ ranking points that he had earned from the event .
At the 2008 World Championships , O 'Sullivan compiled a record @-@ breaking ninth competitive maximum break against Mark Williams . It was his third of the season , and also his third maximum at the Crucible . It was the fourth maximum to be compiled in a winning frame of a match ( following those of Hendry , Williams , and O 'Sullivan himself ) . Interviewed by Steve Davis just after beating Williams 13 – 7 , he said " I can finally buy a Bentley Continental GT " . Soon after potting the final black , snooker legend and commentator Dennis Taylor labelled O 'Sullivan as a " total genius . " However , O 'Sullivan 's 147 was equalled by Ali Carter in the same tournament , thus halving the prize @-@ money . O 'Sullivan defeated Liu Chuang , Mark Williams , Liang Wenbo and Stephen Hendry en route to the final of the tournament . After the match Hendry described O 'Sullivan as " the best in the world by a country mile . " He then beat Carter 18 – 8 for the title on 5 May . In an interview after his third world @-@ title win , he hinted again that he may not play in the 2008 / 2009 season , but also stated that he might go on to pursue many more world titles . At the end of the season , O 'Sullivan left management company 110sport to join the Romford @-@ based Grove Leisure .
= = = 2008 / 2009 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2008 / 2009 season by winning the Northern Ireland Trophy , defeating Dave Harold 9 – 3 in the final . O 'Sullivan is the only player to win back @-@ to @-@ back ranking events in the last four years . He then reached the final of the Shanghai Masters , having defeated Stephen Maguire in the semi – finals with two the top breaks of 141 and 145 . However , in the final , he was defeated by qualifier Ricky Walden , 10 – 8 . O 'Sullivan was leading , but Walden pulled back four frames in a row to win the match . In the Premier League , he secured a 7 – 2 win over Mark Selby , which meant that he had won the event eight times in total , and five times consecutively . However , O 'Sullivan failed to defend his UK Championship title , losing to Joe Perry 5 – 9 in the second round . O 'Sullivan had conceded the twelfth game of the match to go 5 – 7 down , although Perry held a lead of only 23 points to zero . Commenting afterwards , O 'Sullivan said " It might have looked like I lost my head or whatever , but I 'm sure I 'll bounce back . " For this he was later fined £ 300 , and was ordered to pay £ 1 @,@ 000 in costs .
In the Masters , O 'Sullivan reached the final by beating Joe Perry , Ali Carter and Stephen Maguire . In a tense final against defending champion Mark Selby , neither player was able to obtain a sizeable lead , with frames littered with both big breaks and close finishes . After leading 3 – 1 , O 'Sullivan ended the afternoon session at 4 – 4 , and took the first frame of the evening session . Selby , however , then won the next 3 frames to lead 7 – 5 . O 'Sullivan responded by taking three frames in succession himself , to lead 8 – 7 . The following two frames were shared , and at 9 – 8 , after both players had wasted chances , O 'Sullivan constructed a break of 55 , beating Mark Selby 10 – 8 and thereby claiming the title for the fourth time . In doing this , he became only the second player , after Stephen Hendry , to win the trophy more than three times . In his post @-@ match interview , O 'Sullivan proclaimed his victory , composed with a cue that he had obtained only the previous Saturday , as his greatest achievement in snooker . During an exhibition in Ireland in January 2009 , O 'Sullivan and Jimmy White made maximum breaks in consecutive frames . In the first round of 2009 World Championship O 'Sullivan compiled three centuries in his 10 – 5 win against Stuart Bingham . O 'Sullivan compiled a 140 break in the second , a 104 in the eighth , and a 103 in the 14th . He was defeated in the second round 11 – 13 , by Mark Allen , after having led 9 – 7 .
= = = 2009 / 2010 = = =
He began the season by winning the Shanghai Masters , defeating Liang Wenbo 10 – 5 in the final . On the way to reaching the final , he lost only 6 frames . He beat Graeme Dott 5 – 0 in the first round , Marco Fu 5 – 2 in the second round , Ding Junhui 5 – 3 in the quarter @-@ finals , and John Higgins 6 – 1 in the semi – finals . After his Shanghai Masters victory , he joined the newly founded Snooker Players Association . In the second ranking event , the Grand Prix , he beat Jamie Burnett 5 – 3 in the first round , but then lost narrowly against John Higgins in the second round , by 4 – 5 . On 29 November 2009 , O 'Sullivan did not retain his Premier League Snooker title , with Shaun Murphy defeating him 7 – 3 in the final . Following his 9 – 3 victory over Matthew Stevens in the first round of the UK Championship on 7 December 2009 , O 'Sullivan caused controversy in his post @-@ match press conference . He described the outgoing regime at the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association ( headed by Sir Rodney Walker ) as " a cancer running through the game " and also said , " Leukaemia has set in " . He went on to endorse the new era of snooker , headed by Barry Hearn . He then won his next two matches , 9 – 3 against Peter Ebdon in the last 16 , and Mark Selby in the quarter @-@ finals , before losing the semi – final 8 – 9 to John Higgins , despite having come back from 2 – 8 to 8 – 8 .
O 'Sullivan began the defence of his Masters title by defeating Australian Neil Robertson 6 – 4 in the first round , after having trailed 0 – 3 . After this , he defeated Peter Ebdon 6 – 3 in the quarter @-@ final . In the semi @-@ final , he beat Mark Williams 6 – 5 , to reach his 6th Masters final in 7 years . O 'Sullivan met Mark Selby in the final for the second consecutive year , and lost 9 – 10 despite having led 9 – 6 . In the Welsh Open , he reached the semi – finals by beating Stuart Bingham 5 – 1 in the first round , Jamie Cope 5 – 0 in the second round , and Mark Allen 5 – 2 in the quarter @-@ finals , but lost 4 – 6 against John Higgins in the semi – finals . O 'Sullivan lost 3 – 5 in the first round of the China Open , against 22 @-@ year @-@ old wild card Tian Pengfei . In the eighth frame , O 'Sullivan made a mistake on the final black , and the ball finished over the pocket . He immediately conceded frame and match . With this , he also lost his chance to defend his official World No. 1 spot . At the World Championship , he defeated Liang Wenbo 10 – 7 in the first round and Mark Williams 13 – 10 in the second round , before losing 11 – 13 to Mark Selby in the quarter @-@ finals .
= = = 2010 / 2011 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2010 / 2011 season at Event 1 of the Players Tour Championship , where he lost in the quarter @-@ finals against Jamie Cope , 0 – 4 . O 'Sullivan next competed at Event 4 , where reached the final , but he lost 3 – 4 against Barry Pinches . At the World Open O 'Sullivan made his record 10th maximum break in the last frame of his match against Mark King , which he won 3 – 0 . However , he had to be persuaded by referee Jan Verhaas to play the final black , as he had become aware that there was no distinct prize money for a maximum break in the tournament , but only a prize of £ 4 @,@ 000 for the highest break . Even then , he played the final black in a nonchalant fashion . O 'Sullivan then defeated Jimmy White ( 3 – 1 ) , Stephen Hendry ( 3 – 1 ) , Stephen Maguire ( 3 – 1 ) and Peter Ebdon ( 3 – 1 ) to reach the final , where he lost 1 – 5 against Neil Robertson . O 'Sullivan participated at the Premier League Snooker , and qualified for the finals unbeaten . He then defeated Neil Robertson 5 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals , and Shaun Murphy 7 – 1 in the final , to claim his ninth Premier League Snooker title in 14 years . In the UK Championship in December , O 'Sullivan suffered an early exit , losing 6 – 9 against Stuart Bingham in the first round .
At the Masters in January , O 'Sullivan went out 4 – 6 in the first round against Mark Allen . O 'Sullivan reached the semi @-@ finals in the Snooker Shoot @-@ Out in January 2011 , before losing against Robert Milkins . He made the two highest breaks of the tournament , 112 and 123 . He then lost in the first round of the next two ranking tournaments , both times against Ryan Day . He lost 2 – 4 at the Welsh Open , and 2 – 5 at the China Open . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the World Championship by defeating Dominic Dale 10 – 2 in the first round and Shaun Murphy 13 – 10 in the second round , but lost 10 – 13 against John Higgins .
= = = 2011 / 2012 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2011 / 2012 season at Event 1 of the Players Tour Championship , where he won 4 – 0 in the final against Joe Perry . At the Paul Hunter Classic , he made the 11th official maximum break of his career , and set a new record of career maximum breaks . He reached the semi @-@ finals , but lost 3 – 4 against Mark Selby . His next tournament was the Shanghai Masters , where he reached the second round , but lost 3 – 5 against Anthony Hamilton . In October 2011 he won the Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy , by defeating Matthew Stevens 4 – 2 in the final . In November 2011 he reached the final of the Antwerp Open , but lost 3 – 4 against Judd Trump . After 12 of 12 events , O 'Sullivan was ranked number two on the Order of Merit , and qualified for the Finals , but withdrew due to medical reasons .
O 'Sullivan won the 10th Premier League title of his career . After topping the table in the league stage , he defeated Mark Williams to reach the final , where he defeated Ding Junhui 7 – 1 . His next tournament was the UK Championship , where he lost in the second round 5 – 6 against eventual champion Judd Trump . At the Masters , he again lost against Trump , this time 2 – 6 in the quarter @-@ finals . At the German Masters , he reached his first ranking final since the 2010 World Open , and won 9 – 7 against Stephen Maguire , despite having trailed 0 – 4 against Andrew Higginson in the first round . He then reached the semi @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , and the quarter @-@ finals of the China Open , but lost 2 – 6 against Mark Selby and 4 – 5 against Maguire .
At the World Championship O 'Sullivan saw off former world champions in each of his first three matches . He beat Peter Ebdon 10 – 4 in the first round , Mark Williams 13 – 6 in the second , and Neil Robertson 13 – 10 in the quarter @-@ finals . He beat two @-@ time runner @-@ up Matthew Stevens 17 – 10 in the semi @-@ finals , and defeated Ali Carter 18 – 11 in the final , to win his fourth world title . Aged 36 , and just 40 days older than Dennis Taylor was when he won the title in 1985 , O 'Sullivan became the oldest world champion since 45 @-@ year @-@ old Ray Reardon in 1978 . In the eighth frame of the final , O 'Sullivan made a break of 141 , the highest break ever recorded in a Crucible final . He was ranked world number nine at the end of the season . On 10 May 2012 , O 'Sullivan was named as the World Snooker Player of the Year and the Snooker Writers Player of the Year . He was also inducted into the Hall of Fame , along with Walter Donaldson , Mark Williams and John Higgins .
= = = 2012 / 2013 = = =
On 6 June the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association released a statement announcing that O 'Sullivan had not signed the official players ' contract and would therefore not be eligible to play in any 2012 / 2013 World Snooker event until he did so . On the same day O 'Sullivan said that he found the contract " too onerous " and that he was in a stage of his career where he did not wish to make the commitment . On 7 August it was announced that he had now signed the contract and would be playing in October 's International Championship and December 's UK Championship . O 'Sullivan returned to action at the third UK event of the Players Tour Championship in September , where he lost 3 – 4 to Simon Bedford after leading 3 – 2 . After the Shanghai Masters he dropped out of the top sixteen for the first time since entering it in the 1994 / 1995 season , as he was ranked world number 17 . O 'Sullivan 's return to snooker was short @-@ lived , as he withdrew from the inaugural International Championship due to advice from his doctor not to travel . On 6 November O 'Sullivan announced that he had withdrawn from every event he had entered and that he would not play for the remainder of the season . However , on 26 February O 'Sullivan announced during a press conference that he would return to the game and defend his World Championship title .
At the Crucible O 'Sullivan defeated Marcus Campbell in the last 32 , Ali Carter in the last 16 , Stuart Bingham in the quarter @-@ finals , and Judd Trump in the semi @-@ finals . He reached the final without falling behind even once , and defeated Barry Hawkins 18 – 12 to win his fifth world title . O 'Sullivan 's break of 103 in the 15th frame was his 128th century break at the Crucible Theatre , breaking Stephen Hendry 's record of 127 Crucible centuries . During the final he extended the record to 131 century breaks . O 'Sullivan became the only player to score six century breaks in a World Championship final . He also became only the third player to retain his title at the Crucible after Steve Davis and Stephen Hendry .
On 1 May 2013 , O 'Sullivan announced that his return to the Crucible would be short @-@ lived , and that he would not compete in future World Championships . However , after his title win , O 'Sullivan refused definitively to rule out a title defence in 2014 , saying in a post @-@ match interview that " I just love playing , so I will definitely be playing in some smaller events , and we will just see what goes on . "
= = = 2013 / 2014 = = =
O 'Sullivan started the 2013 / 2014 season ranked number 19 . For personal reasons , he pulled out of the first ranking tournament of the season , the Wuxi Classic , shortly before he was due to face Michael Wasley in the qualifying round . In June 2013 he competed in the Bulgarian Open , his first tournament appearance outside England in 15 months , but lost 2 – 4 against John Higgins in the semi @-@ finals . In August 2013 he announced that his tournament schedule for the remainder of the season would include the UK Championship , the German Masters , the Masters , and the Welsh Open , as well as returning to the Crucible in 2014 to defend his World Championship title . In the same month he suffered a surprise 1 – 4 defeat against Peter Lines in the last 32 of the Bluebell Wood Open , but went on to win the Paul Hunter Classic by defeating Gerard Greene 4 – 0 in the final . O 'Sullivan then qualified for the International Championship by defeating Joel Walker 6 – 1 in the qualifying round , and defeated Anthony McGill 6 – 2 at the venue , before losing 4 – 6 against Liang Wenbo in the last 32 . After that O 'Sullivan reached the final of the Antwerp Open , but lost 3 – 4 against Mark Selby , despite leading 3 – 1 . In the Champion of Champions he defeated Ding Junhui and Neil Robertson in final frame deciders and went on to win the title by defeating Stuart Bingham 10 – 8 in the final . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship , but lost 4 – 6 against Bingham , despite making breaks of 135 and 127 in the match .
At the Masters , O 'Sullivan defeated Robert Milkins 6 – 1 in the first round , before he whitewashed Ricky Walden 6 – 0 in the quarter @-@ finals , a match that lasted just 57 minutes and 48 seconds . During the match he scored 556 points without reply , a new record in a professional event , beating the previous record of 495 points set by Ding Junhui at the 2007 Premier League Snooker . He defeated Stephen Maguire 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals to reach a record tenth Masters final , surpassing the nine appearances by Stephen Hendry . Facing defending champion Mark Selby in the final , he took a 7 – 1 lead in the first session , before going on to a 10 – 4 victory for his fifth Masters title . On 22 January 2014 , the Disciplinary Committee of the WPBSA issued a statement that O 'Sullivan had been found in breach of the association 's Members Rules . It fined him £ 6 @,@ 000 and ordered him to pay £ 1 @,@ 000 in costs over three posts on his personal Twitter account , made in September and October 2013 , that it deemed damaging to the image of the sport . The first post related to match @-@ fixing allegations , the second to a suggestion that he had used performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and the third to a tweet that was described as " offensive " . The committee fined him an additional £ 1 @,@ 000 for making " abusive , insulting and disrespectful " comments to referee Jan Verhaas during the December 2013 qualifying round for the German Masters . The incident arose after Verhaas asked O 'Sullivan to tuck his shirt in during the match . O 'Sullivan apologised for his conduct with the referee , stating that he felt unwell on the day and that the venue was overly warm .
At the Welsh Open , O 'Sullivan defeated Ricky Walden 4 – 1 in the last 16 , John Higgins 5 – 1 in the quarter @-@ finals , and Barry Hawkins 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals . He defeated Ding Junhui 9 – 3 in the final to win his third Welsh Open title , and the 26th ranking title of his career . In the last frame of the final , he compiled a record 12th maximum break in professional competition , breaking the previous record of 11 maximum breaks that he had held jointly with Stephen Hendry . During the season O 'Sullivan competed at the Players Tour Championship , and finished second on the European Tour Order of Merit , to qualify for the Players Championship Grand Final . There he defeated Scott Donaldson 4 – 0 in the last 32 , but lost 3 – 4 against Yu Delu in the last 16 , despite making a 140 , the highest break of the tournament .
At the World Championship , O 'Sullivan began his title defence by beating Robin Hull 10 – 4 in the first round . Playing Joe Perry in the second round , O 'Sullivan was behind for the first two sessions , but recovered to win the match 13 – 11 . Up against Shaun Murphy in the 16th World Championship quarter @-@ final of his career , O 'Sullivan took 13 of the last 14 frames to win the match 13 – 3 , with a session to spare . He defeated Barry Hawkins 17 – 7 in the semi @-@ finals , also with a session to spare , to reach his sixth World Championship final . Facing Mark Selby in the final , O 'Sullivan began strongly , taking a 10 – 5 lead , but lost 10 of the next 12 frames to trail 12 – 15 . He went on to lose 14 – 18 , his first ever defeat in a World Championship final . At around 1 : 30 a.m. , on their way home from the final , O 'Sullivan and his six @-@ year @-@ old son were involved in a car crash on the M1 motorway near Leicester , after the sports car O 'Sullivan was driving hit a patch of standing water and collided with the central reservation . Neither O 'Sullivan nor his son were injured . After the World Championship , a new ranking system took effect , based on a two @-@ year rolling prize money list rather than ranking points . This meant that O 'Sullivan ended the season ranked number 4 .
= = = 2014 / 2015 = = =
O 'Sullivan started the 2014 / 2015 season at the Paul Hunter Classic , but lost 2 – 4 against Tian Pengfei in the last 16 . His first ranking event was the Shanghai Masters , where he lost 3 – 5 against Alan McManus . Ronnie O 'Sullivan then competed in the International Championship , cited as the biggest event in Asia , in Chengdu after beating James Cahill to qualify . Having battled to beat Ben Woollaston 6 – 4 , in his opening match of the tournament , Ronnie sailed past his next two opponents , McGill and Li Hang , 6 – 1 . This set up a meeting with Mark Williams , a man who had not beat O 'Sullivan for 12 years , in the quarters ; however , after falling 3 – 0 behind , Williams won the next 5 frames and eventually the match , 6 – 5 . O 'Sullivan next competed in the Champion of Champions where he was defending champion . O 'Sullivan begun his defence with a 4 – 2 defeat of Stuart Bingham . He then went on to whitewash Marco Fu 6 – 0 to reach the semi @-@ final . In the semi @-@ final , O 'Sullivan defeated Ding Junhui 6 – 4 and then went on to defeat Judd Trump in a high @-@ scoring final , 10 – 7 , making four century breaks and eleven breaks over fifty during the match . On 4 December 2014 , O 'Sullivan completed his 13th career maximum break in the fourth round of the UK Championship , against Matthew Selt . Three days later he won his fifth UK Championship , coming through 10 – 9 against Judd Trump in the final . After trailing 1 – 5 and 4 – 9 , Trump won five frames in succession , before O 'Sullivan prevailed in the deciding frame despite playing with a broken ankle , having broken it the previous week whilst running .
In the opening frame of his quarter @-@ final match with Marco Fu at the Masters , O 'Sullivan compiled the 776th century break of his career to overtake Stephen Hendry as the player with the most tons in the history of the sport . He received a standing ovation from the audience and went on to beat Fu 6 – 1 . However , in the semi @-@ finals he was defeated 6 – 1 by Neil Robertson , which meant O 'Sullivan lost at that stage for the first time in his Masters ' career after 10 prior victories and also ended a winning streak in all competitions which stood at 15 matches .
In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan defeated Craig Steadman 10 – 3 in the first round and Matthew Stevens 13 – 5 in the second round , but suffered a surprise 9 – 13 defeat to Stuart Bingham in the quarter @-@ finals . O 'Sullivan was involved in a number of incidents during the tournament . While playing Steadman , he breached snooker 's dress code when he removed a pair of uncomfortable shoes and played briefly in his socks , before borrowing shoes from tournament director Mike Ganley . In his match with Stevens , frustrated at missing a shot , he almost snapped his cue in half by hitting it against the table . In his quarter @-@ final match , O 'Sullivan placed his chalk on the table and used it to line up a shot . Controversially , referee Terry Camilleri did not penalise him for the incident , even though many commentators , including former world champion Ken Doherty and former tour referee Michaela Tabb , argued that under the rules of snooker the referee should have called a 7 @-@ point foul . These incidents led Stephen Hendry to say that O 'Sullivan was not fully focused . " Personally I think it is a sign he has got other things on his mind , " said Hendry . " He is not focused properly on winning the World Championship . "
= = = 2015 / 2016 = = =
O 'Sullivan won the pro – am Pink Ribbon tournament in July 2015 , defeating Darryn Walker 4 – 2 in the final , but took a hiatus from the professional tour for almost eight months . He declined to defend his Champion of Champions and UK Championship titles , stating that he was suffering from debilitating insomnia , but he made his debut providing in @-@ studio expert analysis during the UK Championship , alongside Jimmy White . He returned to professional competition in the qualifying rounds for the German Masters in December 2015 , defeating Hamza Akbar 5 – 1 in the first round , but losing 3 – 5 to Stuart Carrington in the second round .
In the 2016 New Year Honours , he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his services to snooker .
In group one of the Championship League , he made the 800th competitive century break of his career in his match against Barry Hawkins , and went on to defeat Ricky Walden 3 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals and Robert Milkins 3 – 0 in the final , earning a ticket to the winners ' group . At the Masters , he defeated Mark Williams 6 – 5 in the first round , Mark Selby 6 – 3 in the quarter @-@ finals , and Stuart Bingham 6 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals to reach the eleventh Masters final of his career . He defeated Barry Hawkins 10 – 1 in the final to win his sixth Masters title and equal Stephen Hendry 's record for the most Masters wins .
At the Welsh Open , O 'Sullivan defeated Barry Pinches 4 – 1 in the first round . In the fifth frame of the match , he declined the opportunity to make a maximum break , potting the pink off the penultimate red and completing a break of 146 . He stated afterward that the prize money of £ 10 @,@ 000 was not worthy of a 147 . World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn called the decision " unacceptable " and " disrespectful . " In the second round , he defeated Tian Pengfei 4 – 0 in just 39 minutes , with breaks of 110 , 90 , 112 and 102 in the four frames played . Tian scored only 37 points in the match . In the third round , he defeated Jimmy Robertson 4 – 0 in 55 minutes , a performance that included breaks of 94 and 131 as part of a run of 300 points without reply . He defeated Yu Delu 4 – 1 in the last 16 , and then defeated world number one Mark Selby 5 – 1 in the quarterfinals , finishing with a break of 132 . A 6 – 3 victory over Joe Perry in the semi @-@ final secured a place in the final against Neil Robertson . Despite trailing 3 – 5 after the afternoon session , O 'Sullivan won all six frames played in the evening session , finishing with a break of 141 to defeat Robertson 9 – 5 and equal John Higgins 's record of four Welsh Open titles . It was his 28th ranking title , which put him in joint second place with Higgins and Steve Davis for the number of career ranking titles . Over the tournament as a whole , O 'Sullivan won 36 of the 47 frames he played , and compiled ten century breaks .
At the Championship League , O 'Sullivan lost 3 – 2 in the final against Judd Trump . During the tournament , O 'Sullivan 's 24 @-@ match winning streak came to an end following a 3 – 0 defeat from Mark Williams . O 'Sullivan faced Michael Holt in the first round of the World Grand Prix and lost 4 – 3 .
In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan beat David Gilbert 10 – 7 in the first round . After the match , he refused to attend a mandatory press conference , and also refused to talk to the tournament broadcasters , the BBC . He received a formal warning from World Snooker , and was advised that further breaches of contract would lead to fines . In the second round , he lost 12 – 13 to Barry Hawkins , his first loss against Hawkins in 14 years and only the second time in 13 years that he had failed to reach the World Championship quarterfinals .
= = Playing style = =
O 'Sullivan plays in a fast and attacking manner . He is a prolific breakbuilder and solid tactical player . He has stated his disdain for long , drawn @-@ out games , saying that it harms the game of snooker . He is regarded by many other professionals as an excellent front @-@ runner . In previous years , he could become demoralized by being behind and not playing well , and was liable to lose several consecutive frames . He is right @-@ handed but can play to a very high standard with his left hand and routinely alternates where needed . While not quite possessing the same power in his left arm , being ambidextrous enables him to attempt shots with his left hand that would otherwise require awkward cueing with a rest or spider .
When he first displayed this left @-@ handed ability in the 1996 World Championship against Alain Robidoux , the Canadian accused him of disrespect . O 'Sullivan responded that he played better with his left hand than Robidoux could with his right . He was summoned to a disciplinary hearing in response to Robidoux 's formal complaint , where he had to prove that he could play to a high level with his left hand . He played three frames of snooker against former world championship runner @-@ up Rex Williams , winning all three . The charge of bringing the game into disrepute was subsequently dropped .
Unlike most players on the professional tour , O 'Sullivan does not request the cue ball to be cleaned whenever a kick or heavy contact occurs and plays on normally as if it had not happened . He has stated that stopping to have the cue ball cleaned affects his rhythm and that it is easier just to continue playing .
= = Status = =
He is considered by many to be the most naturally talented player in the history of the sport , with some labelling him a ' genius ' . Several of his peers regard him as the greatest player ever , although a temperamental streak sometimes leads to a lack of confidence or interest , and he has performed inconsistently throughout his controversial career thus far , with observers noting the ' two Ronnies ' aspect of his character . According to Stephen Hendry after his defeat at the 2008 World Championship , " O 'Sullivan is the best player in the world by a country mile " . O 'Sullivan has compiled the highest number of competitive century breaks in the sport 's history , surpassing Hendry 's previous record of 775 . O 'Sullivan has targeted reaching 1 @,@ 000 century breaks before he retires .
O 'Sullivan is one of the most popular players on the circuit , noted for being a ' showman ' , and has helped improve the image of snooker to the general public . O 'Sullivan himself has stated his desire for entertaining the watching public , and has said that slow , gritty games put viewers off . He has often been compared to Alex Higgins and Jimmy White , because of both his natural talent and popularity . O 'Sullivan has two verified social network accounts , on Twitter and Sina Weibo , with over 300 @,@ 000 and over 160 @,@ 000 followers respectively . He updates his Weibo account with the help of two assistants understanding Chinese .
= = Broadcaster = =
O 'Sullivan started broadcasting regularly on Brentwood radio station Phoenix FM in May 2015 , co @-@ hosting the Midweek Matchzone show with Chris Hood . O 'Sullivan has previously broadcast a number of hour @-@ long specials for the station .
In March 2014 , Eurosport announced that it had signed an exclusive deal with O 'Sullivan to make him its global ambassador for snooker , with the goal of driving the sport 's international appeal . As part of the deal , O 'Sullivan creates an exclusive snooker series for the network called The Ronnie O 'Sullivan Show , which includes his insights into the game , interviews with other professional players , and playing tips . He also wrote for Eurosport @-@ Yahoo ! websites and mobile apps during the World Championship . O 'Sullivan works for Eurosport with Jimmy White and Neal Foulds doing analysis for events that he does not take part in or qualify for like the 2015 UK Championship and the 2016 German Masters .
= = Other Endeavours = =
O 'Sullivan has also written a crime novel , entitled Framed , which will be published in 2016 . The novel is not autobiographical but is somewhat inspired by his early experiences and family life .
= = Personal life = =
O 'Sullivan was born in Wordsley in the West Midlands . He grew up , and still lives , in the Manor Road area of Chigwell , Essex , an affluent suburb of London . He attended Wanstead High School . His parents Ronald John O 'Sullivan and Maria O 'Sullivan ( née Catallana ) ran a string of sex shops in Soho . His mother is Sicilian , and his paternal grandfather hails from Cork , Ireland . He is the cousin of female snooker player Maria Catalano , who has been ranked number one in the women 's game . His father was jailed in 1992 for murder and released 18 years later . O 'Sullivan has three children : Taylor @-@ Ann Magnus ( born 1996 ) from a two @-@ year relationship with Sally Magnus ; and Lily ( born 2006 ) and Ronnie ( born 2007 ) from a relationship with Jo Langley , whom he met at Narcotics Anonymous . In February 2013 , he became engaged to actress and former Strictly Come Dancing contestant Laila Rouass , with whom he had been in a relationship since early 2012 .
He has been labelled a perfectionist , and highly self @-@ critical , even in victory . He suffered from clinical depression , and has had drug @-@ related problems , but works with the sports psychologist Steve Peters , who has helped him overcome his mood swings . Noted for repeatedly declaring his intention to leave the sport , O 'Sullivan worked during the 2012 / 2013 season on a pig farm .
In 2003 , media sources carried reports that O 'Sullivan had converted to Islam , but despite his self @-@ professed interest in the faith , these reports were proven to be false . O 'Sullivan also espouses an interest in Buddhism , having spent many lunchtimes at the London Buddhist Centre in Bethnal Green . However , he denies having a firm commitment to any religion .
O 'Sullivan is a keen football fan and is a supporter of Arsenal . Another of his hobbies is motor racing . In 2004 , he appeared on Top Gear as the " Star in a Reasonably Priced Car " , and finished with a time of 1 : 47 @.@ 3 around the test track in a Suzuki Liana . He also succeeded in clearing a snooker table of four reds plus all the colours faster than the Stig was able to drive O 'Sullivan 's own Mercedes SL 500 , with its " 147 " number plate , around the track . Over the weekend of 15 – 16 August 2009 , in the Volkswagen Racing Cup at Silverstone using a Volkswagen Jetta with the car number " 147 " , he drove two 20 @-@ minute rounds . In the first round , he spun off into a gravel trap , but fared better in the second , in which he finished 14th . O 'Sullivan is also a keen runner , and runs for Woodford Green with Essex Ladies . He has a personal best of 34 minutes 54 seconds for 10 km races , which ranked him in the top 1500 of 10k runners in the United Kingdom in 2008 . O 'Sullivan also enjoys cooking , and has said that if he were to go back to school he would study cooking . This was reinforced by his appearance on BBC 's Saturday Kitchen , in December 2014 .
O 'Sullivan publicly endorsed Labour 's Ed Miliband in the 2015 general election and played a game of pool against the Labour leader , who had previously expressed his admiration for O 'Sullivan .
= = Performance and rankings timeline = =
= = Career finals = =
= = = Ranking event finals : 40 ( 28 titles , 12 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Minor @-@ ranking event finals : 6 ( 3 titles , 3 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Non @-@ ranking event finals : 42 ( 29 titles , 13 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Variant event finals : 2 ( 1 title , 1 runner @-@ up ) = = =
|
= Hippocampus =
The hippocampus ( named after its resemblance to the seahorse , from the Greek ἱππόκαμπος , " seahorse " from ἵππος hippos , " horse " and κάμπος kampos , " sea monster " ) is a major component of the brains of humans and other vertebrates . Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi , one in each side of the brain . It belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short @-@ term memory to long @-@ term memory and spatial navigation . The hippocampus is located under the cerebral cortex ; and in primates it is located in the medial temporal lobe , underneath the cortical surface . It contains two main interlocking parts : the hippocampus proper ( also called Ammon 's horn ) and the dentate gyrus .
In Alzheimer 's disease , the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage ; memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms . Damage to the hippocampus can also result from oxygen starvation ( hypoxia ) , encephalitis , or medial temporal lobe epilepsy . People with extensive , bilateral hippocampal damage may experience anterograde amnesia — the inability to form and retain new memories .
In rodents , the hippocampus has been studied extensively as part of a brain system responsible for spatial memory and navigation . Many neurons in the rat and mouse hippocampus respond as place cells : that is , they fire bursts of action potentials when the animal passes through a specific part of its environment . Hippocampal place cells interact extensively with head direction cells , whose activity acts as an inertial compass , and conjecturally with grid cells in the neighboring entorhinal cortex .
Since different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus , it has frequently been used as a model system for studying neurophysiology . The form of neural plasticity known as long @-@ term potentiation ( LTP ) was first discovered to occur in the hippocampus and has often been studied in this structure . LTP is widely believed to be one of the main neural mechanisms by which memory is stored in the brain .
= = Name = =
The earliest description of the ridge running along the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle comes from the Venetian anatomist Julius Caesar Aranzi ( 1587 ) , who likened it first to a silkworm and then to a seahorse ( Latin : hippocampus from Greek : ἵππος , " horse " and κάμπος , " sea monster " ) . The German anatomist Duvernoy ( 1729 ) , the first to illustrate the structure , also wavered between " seahorse " and " silkworm . " " Ram 's horn " was proposed by the Danish anatomist Jacob Winsløw in 1732 ; and a decade later his fellow Parisian , the surgeon de Garengeot , used " cornu Ammonis " – horn of ( the ancient Egyptian god ) Amun .
Another mythological reference appeared with the term pes hippocampi , which may date back to Diemerbroeck in 1672 , introducing a comparison with the shape of the folded back forelimbs and webbed feet of the Classical hippocampus ( Greek : ἱππόκαμπος ) , a sea monster with a horse 's forequarters and a fish 's tail . The hippocampus was then described as pes hippocampi major , with an adjacent bulge in the occipital horn , the calcar avis , being named pes hippocampi minor . The renaming of the hippocampus as hippocampus major , and the calcar avis as hippocampus minor , has been attributed to Félix Vicq @-@ d 'Azyr systematising nomenclature of parts of the brain in 1786 . Mayer mistakenly used the term hippopotamus in 1779 , and was followed by some other authors until Karl Friedrich Burdach resolved this error in 1829 . In 1861 the hippocampus minor became the centre of a dispute over human evolution between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen , satirised as the Great Hippocampus Question . The term hippocampus minor fell from use in anatomy textbooks , and was officially removed in the Nomina Anatomica of 1895 .
Today , the structure is called the hippocampus rather than hippocampus major , with pes hippocampi often being regarded as synonymous with De Garengeot 's " cornu Ammonis " , a term that survives in the names of the four main histological divisions of the hippocampus : CA1 , CA2 , CA3 , and CA4 .
= = Anatomy = =
In terms of anatomy , the hippocampus is an elaboration of the edge of the cerebral cortex . The structures that line the edge of the cortex make up the so @-@ called limbic system ( Latin limbus = border ) : These include the hippocampus , cingulate cortex , olfactory cortex , and amygdala . Paul MacLean once suggested , as part of his triune brain theory , that the limbic structures comprise the neural basis of emotion . Some neuroscientists no longer believe that the concept of a unified " limbic system " is valid , however . Yet , the hippocampus is anatomically connected to parts of the brain that are involved with emotional behavior — the septum , the hypothalamic mammillary body , and the anterior nuclear complex in the thalamus — therefore its role as a limbic structure cannot be completely dismissed .
The hippocampus as a whole has the shape of a curved tube , which has been variously compared to a seahorse , a ram 's horn ( Cornu Ammonis , hence the subdivisions CA1 through CA4 ) , or a banana . It can be distinguished as a zone where the cortex narrows into a single layer of densely packed pyramidal neurons 3 to 6 cells deep in rats , which curl into a tight U shape ; one edge of the " U , " field CA4 , is embedded into a backward @-@ facing , strongly flexed , V @-@ shaped cortex , the dentate gyrus . It consists of ventral and dorsal portions , both of which are of similar composition but are parts of different neural circuits . This general layout holds across the full range of mammalian species , from hedgehog to human , although the details vary . In the rat , the two hippocampi resemble a pair of bananas , joined at the stems by the hippocampal commissure that crosses the midline under the anterior corpus callosum . In human or monkey brains , the portion of the hippocampus down at the bottom , near the base of the temporal lobe , is much broader than the part at the top . One of the consequences of this complex geometry is that cross @-@ sections through the hippocampus can show a variety of shapes , depending on the angle and location of the cut .
The entorhinal cortex ( EC ) , located in the parahippocampal gyrus , is considered to be part of the hippocampal region because of its anatomical connections . The EC is strongly and reciprocally connected with many other parts of the cerebral cortex . In addition , the medial septal nucleus , the anterior nuclear complex and nucleus reuniens of the thalamus and the supramammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus , as well as the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus in the brainstem send axons to the EC . The main output pathway ( perforant path , first described by Ramon y Cajal ) of EC axons comes from the large pyramidal cells in layer II that " perforate " the subiculum and project densely to the granule cells in the dentate gyrus , apical dendrites of CA3 get a less dense projection , and the apical dendrites of CA1 get a sparse projection . Thus , the perforant path establishes the EC as the main " interface " between the hippocampus and other parts of the cerebral cortex . The dentate granule cell axons ( called mossy fibers ) pass on the information from the EC on thorny spines that exit from the proximal apical dendrite of CA3 pyramidal cells . Then , CA3 axons exit from the deep part of the cell body and loop up into the region where the apical dendrites are located , then extend all the way back into the deep layers of the entorhinal cortex — the Schaffer collaterals completing the reciprocal circuit ; field CA1 also sends axons back to the EC , but these are more sparse than the CA3 projection . Within the hippocampus , the flow of information from the EC is largely unidirectional , with signals propagating through a series of tightly packed cell layers , first to the dentate gyrus , then to the CA3 layer , then to the CA1 layer , then to the subiculum , then out of the hippocampus to the EC , mainly due to collateralization of the CA3 axons . Each of these layers also contains complex intrinsic circuitry and extensive longitudinal connections .
Several other connections play important roles in hippocampal function . Beyond the output to the EC , additional output pathways go to other cortical areas including the prefrontal cortex . A very important large output goes to the lateral septal area and to the mammillary body of the hypothalamus . The hippocampus receives modulatory input from the serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine systems , and from nucleus reuniens of the thalamus to field CA1 . A very important projection comes from the medial septal area , which sends cholinergic and GABAergic fibers to all parts of the hippocampus . The inputs from the septal area play a key role in controlling the physiological state of the hippocampus ; destruction of the septal area abolishes the hippocampal theta rhythm and severely impairs certain types of memory .
The cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus is known collectively as the parahippocampal gyrus ( or parahippocampus ) . It includes the EC and also the perirhinal cortex , which derives its name from the fact that it lies next to the rhinal sulcus . The perirhinal cortex plays an important role in visual recognition of complex objects . There is also substantial evidence that it makes a contribution to memory , which can be distinguished from the contribution of the hippocampus . It is apparent that complete amnesia occurs only when both the hippocampus and the parahippocampus are damaged .
= = Functions = =
Historically , the earliest widely held hypothesis was that the hippocampus is involved in olfaction . This idea was cast into doubt by a series of anatomical studies that did not find any direct projections to the hippocampus from the olfactory bulb . However , later work did confirm that the olfactory bulb does project into the ventral part of the lateral entorhinal cortex , and field CA1 in the ventral hippocampus sends axons to the main olfactory bulb , the anterior olfactory nucleus , and to the primary olfactory cortex . There continues to be some interest in hippocampal olfactory responses , in particular the role of the hippocampus in memory for odors , but few specialists today believe that olfaction is its primary function .
Over the years , three main ideas of hippocampal function have dominated the literature : inhibition , memory , and space . The behavioral inhibition theory ( caricatured by O 'Keefe and Nadel as " slam on the brakes ! " ) was very popular up to the 1960s . It derived much of its justification from two observations : first , that animals with hippocampal damage tend to be hyperactive ; second , that animals with hippocampal damage often have difficulty learning to inhibit responses that they have previously been taught , especially if the response requires remaining quiet as in a passive avoidance test . Jeffrey Gray developed this line of thought into a full @-@ fledged theory of the role of the hippocampus in anxiety . The inhibition theory is currently the least popular of the three .
The second major line of thought relates the hippocampus to memory . Although it had historical precursors , this idea derived its main impetus from a famous report by William Beecher Scoville and Brenda Milner describing the results of surgical destruction of the hippocampi ( in an attempt to relieve epileptic seizures ) , in Henry Molaison , known until his death in 2008 as " Patient H.M. " The unexpected outcome of the surgery was severe anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia ; Molaison was unable to form new episodic memories after his surgery and could not remember any events that occurred just before his surgery , but he did retain memories of events that occurred many years earlier extending back into his childhood . This case attracted such widespread professional interest that Molaison became the most intensively studied subject in medical history . In the ensuing years , other patients with similar levels of hippocampal damage and amnesia ( caused by accident or disease ) have also been studied , and thousands of experiments have studied the physiology of activity @-@ driven changes in synaptic connections in the hippocampus . There is now universal agreement that the hippocampi play some sort of important role in memory ; however , the precise nature of this role remains widely debated .
The third important theory of hippocampal function relates the hippocampus to space . The spatial theory was originally championed by O 'Keefe and Nadel , who were influenced by E.C. Tolman 's theories about " cognitive maps " in humans and animals . O 'Keefe and his student Dostrovsky in 1971 discovered neurons in the rat hippocampus that appeared to them to show activity related to the rat 's location within its environment . Despite skepticism from other investigators , O 'Keefe and his co @-@ workers , especially Lynn Nadel , continued to investigate this question , in a line of work that eventually led to their very influential 1978 book The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map . There is now almost universal agreement that hippocampal function plays an important role in spatial coding , but the details are widely debated .
= = = Role in memory = = =
Psychologists and neuroscientists generally agree that the hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories about experienced events ( episodic or autobiographical memory ) . Part of this function is hippocampal involvement in the detection of novel events , places and stimuli . Some researchers regard the hippocampus as part of a larger medial temporal lobe memory system responsible for general declarative memory ( memories that can be explicitly verbalized — these would include , for example , memory for facts in addition to episodic memory ) .
Due to bilateral symmetry the brain has a hippocampus in each cerebral hemisphere , so every normal brain has two of them . If damage to the hippocampus occurs in only one hemisphere , leaving the structure intact in the other hemisphere , the brain can retain near @-@ normal memory functioning . Severe damage to the hippocampi in both hemispheres results in profound difficulties in forming new memories ( anterograde amnesia ) and often also affects memories formed before the damage occurred ( retrograde amnesia ) . Although the retrograde effect normally extends many years back before the brain damage , in some cases older memories remain . This retention of older memories leads to the idea that consolidation over time involves the transfer of memories out of the hippocampus to other parts of the brain .
Damage to the hippocampus does not affect some types of memory , such as the ability to learn new skills ( playing a musical instrument or solving certain types of puzzles , for example ) . This fact suggests that such abilities depend on different types of memory ( procedural memory ) and different brain regions . Furthermore , amnesic patients frequently show " implicit " memory for experiences even in the absence of conscious knowledge . For example , patients asked to guess which of two faces they have seen most recently may give the correct answer most of the time in spite of stating that they have never seen either of the faces before . Some researchers distinguish between conscious recollection , which depends on the hippocampus , and familiarity , which depends on portions of the medial temporal cortex .
= = = Role in spatial memory and navigation = = =
Studies conducted on freely moving rats and mice have shown that many hippocampal neurons have " place fields " , that is , they fire bursts of action potentials when a rat passes through a particular part of the environment . Evidence for place cells in primates is limited , perhaps in part because it is difficult to record brain activity from freely moving monkeys . Place @-@ related hippocampal neural activity has been reported in monkeys moving around inside a room while seated in a restraint chair ; on the other hand , Edmund Rolls and his colleagues instead described hippocampal cells that fire in relation to the place a monkey is looking at , rather than the place where its body is located . In humans , cells with location @-@ specific firing patterns have been reported in a study of patients with drug @-@ resistant epilepsy who were undergoing an invasive procedure to localize the source of their seizures , with a view to surgical resection . The patients had diagnostic electrodes implanted in their hippocampus and then used a computer to move around in a virtual reality town .
Place responses in rats and mice have been studied in hundreds of experiments over four decades , yielding a large quantity of information . Place cell responses are shown by pyramidal cells in the hippocampus proper , and granule cells in the dentate gyrus . These constitute the great majority of neurons in the densely packed hippocampal layers . Inhibitory interneurons , which make up most of the remaining cell population , frequently show significant place @-@ related variations in firing rate that are much weaker than those displayed by pyramidal or granule cells . There is little if any spatial topography in the representation ; in general , cells lying next to each other in the hippocampus have uncorrelated spatial firing patterns . Place cells are typically almost silent when a rat is moving around outside the place field but reach sustained rates as high as 40 Hertz when the rat is near the center . Neural activity sampled from 30 to 40 randomly chosen place cells carries enough information to allow a rat 's location to be reconstructed with high confidence . The size of place fields varies in a gradient along the length of the hippocampus , with cells at the dorsal end showing the smallest fields , cells near the center showing larger fields , and cells at the ventral tip fields that cover the entire environment . In some cases , the firing rate of rat hippocampal cells depends not only on place but also on the direction a rat is moving , the destination toward which it is traveling , or other task @-@ related variables .
The discovery of place cells in the 1970s led to a theory that the hippocampus might act as a cognitive map — a neural representation of the layout of the environment . Several lines of evidence support the hypothesis . It is a frequent observation that without a fully functional hippocampus , humans may not remember where they have been and how to get where they are going : Getting lost is one of the most common symptoms of amnesia . Studies with animals have shown that an intact hippocampus is required for initial learning and long @-@ term retention of some spatial memory tasks , in particular ones that require finding the way to a hidden goal . The " cognitive map hypothesis " has been further advanced by recent discoveries of head direction cells , grid cells , and border cells in several parts of the rodent brain that are strongly connected to the hippocampus .
Brain imaging shows that people have more active hippocampi when correctly navigating , as tested in a computer @-@ simulated " virtual " navigation task . Also , there is evidence that the hippocampus plays a role in finding shortcuts and new routes between familiar places . For example , London 's taxi drivers must learn a large number of places and the most direct routes between them ( they have to pass a strict test , The Knowledge , before being licensed to drive the famous black cabs ) . A study at University College London by Maguire , et al .. ( 2000 ) showed that part of the hippocampus is larger in taxi drivers than in the general public , and that more experienced drivers have bigger hippocampi . Whether having a bigger hippocampus helps an individual to become a better cab driver , or if finding shortcuts for a living makes an individual 's hippocampus grow is yet to be elucidated . However , in that study , Maguire et al. examined the correlation between size of the grey matter and length of time that had been spent as a taxi driver , and found a positive correlation between the length of time an individual had spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the right hippocampus . It was found that the total volume of the hippocampus remained constant , from the control group vs. taxi drivers . That is to say that the posterior portion of a taxi driver 's hippocampus is indeed increased , but at the expense of the anterior portion . There have been no known detrimental effects reported from this disparity in hippocampal proportions .
= = = Hippocampal formation = = =
Various sections of the hippocampal formation are shown to be functionally and anatomically distinct . The dorsal ( DH ) , ventral ( VH ) and intermediate regions of the hippocampal formation serve different functions , project with differing pathways , and have varying degrees of place field neurons . The dorsal region of the hippocampal formation serves for spatial memory , verbal memory , and learning of conceptual information . Using the radial arm maze , Pothuizen et al . ( 2004 ) found lesions in the DH to cause spatial memory impairment while VH lesions did not . Its projecting pathways include the medial septal complex and supramammillary nucleus . The dorsal hippocampal formation also has more place field neurons than both the ventral and intermediate hippocampal formations .
The intermediate hippocampus has overlapping characteristics with both the ventral and dorsal hippocampus . Using PHAL anterograde tracing methods , Cenquizca and Swanson ( 2007 ) located the moderate projections to two primary olfactory cortical areas and prelimbic areas of the mPFC . This region has the smallest number of place field neurons . The ventral hippocampus functions in fear conditioning and affective processes . Anagnostaras et al . ( 2002 ) showed that alterations to the ventral hippocampus reduced the amount of information sent to the amygdala by the dorsal and ventral hippocampus , consequently altering fear conditioning in rats .
= = Physiology = =
The hippocampus shows two major " modes " of activity , each associated with a distinct pattern of neural population activity and waves of electrical activity as measured by an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) . These modes are named after the EEG patterns associated with them : theta and large irregular activity ( LIA ) . The main characteristics described below are for the rat , which is the animal most extensively studied .
The theta mode appears during states of active , alert behavior ( especially locomotion ) , and also during REM ( dreaming ) sleep . In the theta mode , the EEG is dominated by large regular waves with a frequency range of 6 to 9 Hertz , and the main groups of hippocampal neurons ( pyramidal cells and granule cells ) show sparse population activity , which means that in any short time interval , the great majority of cells are silent , while the small remaining fraction fire at relatively high rates , up to 50 spikes in one second for the most active of them . An active cell typically stays active for half a second to a few seconds . As the rat behaves , the active cells fall silent and new cells become active , but the overall percentage of active cells remains more or less constant . In many situations , cell activity is determined largely by the spatial location of the animal , but other behavioral variables also clearly influence it .
The LIA mode appears during slow @-@ wave ( non @-@ dreaming ) sleep , and also during states of waking immobility such as resting or eating . In the LIA mode , the EEG is dominated by sharp waves that are randomly timed large deflections of the EEG signal lasting for 25 – 50 milliseconds . Sharp waves are frequently generated in sets , with sets containing up to 5 or more individual sharp waves and lasting up to 500 ms . The spiking activity of neurons within the hippocampus is highly correlated with sharp wave activity . Most neurons decrease their firing rate between sharp waves ; however , during a sharp wave , there is a dramatic increase of firing rate in up to 10 % of the hippocampal population
These two hippocampal activity modes can be seen in primates as well as rats , with the exception that it has been difficult to see robust theta rhythmicity in the primate hippocampus . There are , however , qualitatively similar sharp waves and similar state @-@ dependent changes in neural population activity .
= = = Theta rhythm = = =
Because of its densely packed neural layers , the hippocampus generates some of the largest EEG signals of any brain structure . In some situations the EEG is dominated by regular waves at 3 to 10 Hertz , often continuing for many seconds . These reflect subthreshold membrane potentials and strongly modulate the spiking of hippocampal neurons and synchronise across the hippocampus in a travelling wave pattern . This EEG pattern is known as a theta rhythm . Theta rhythmicity is very obvious in rabbits and rodents and also clearly present in cats and dogs . Whether theta can be seen in primates is a vexing question . In rats ( the animals that have been the most extensively studied ) , theta is seen mainly in two conditions : first , when an animal is walking or in some other way actively interacting with its surroundings ; second , during REM sleep . The function of theta has not yet been convincingly explained although numerous theories have been proposed . The most popular hypothesis has been to relate it to learning and memory . An example would be the phase with which theta rhythms , at the time of stimulation of a neuron , shape the effect of that stimulation upon its synapses . What is meant here is that theta rhythms may affect those aspects of learning and memory that are dependent upon synaptic plasticity . It is well established that lesions of the medial septum — the central node of the theta system — cause severe disruptions of memory . However , the medial septum is more than just the controller of theta ; it is also the main source of cholinergic projections to the hippocampus . It has not been established that septal lesions exert their effects specifically by eliminating the theta rhythm .
= = = Sharp waves = = =
During sleep or during waking states when an animal is resting or otherwise not engaged with its surroundings , the hippocampal EEG shows a pattern of irregular slow waves , somewhat larger in amplitude than theta waves . This pattern is occasionally interrupted by large surges called sharp waves . These events are associated with bursts of spike activity lasting 50 to 100 milliseconds in pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1 . They are also associated with short @-@ lived high @-@ frequency EEG oscillations called " ripples " , with frequencies in the range 150 to 200 Hertz in rats . Sharp waves are most frequent during sleep when they occur at an average rate of around 1 per second ( in rats ) but in a very irregular temporal pattern . Sharp waves are less frequent during inactive waking states and are usually smaller . Sharp waves have also been observed in humans and monkeys . In macaques , sharp waves are robust but do not occur as frequently as in rats .
One of the most interesting aspects of sharp waves is that they appear to be associated with memory . Wilson and McNaughton 1994 , and numerous later studies , reported that when hippocampal place cells have overlapping spatial firing fields ( and therefore often fire in near @-@ simultaneity ) , they tend to show correlated activity during sleep following the behavioral session . This enhancement of correlation , commonly known as reactivation , has been found to occur mainly during sharp waves . It has been proposed that sharp waves are , in fact , reactivations of neural activity patterns that were memorized during behavior , driven by strengthening of synaptic connections within the hippocampus . This idea forms a key component of the " two @-@ stage memory " theory , advocated by Buzsáki and others , which proposes that memories are stored within the hippocampus during behavior and then later transferred to the neocortex during sleep . Sharp waves are suggested to drive Hebbian synaptic changes in the neocortical targets of hippocampal output pathways .
= = = Long @-@ term potentiation = = =
Since at least the time of Ramon y Cajal , psychologists have speculated that the brain stores memory by altering the strength of connections between neurons that are simultaneously active . This idea was formalized by Donald Hebb in 1948 , but for many years thereafter , attempts to find a brain mechanism for such changes failed . In 1973 , Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo described a phenomenon in the rabbit hippocampus that appeared to meet Hebb 's specifications : a change in synaptic responsiveness induced by brief strong activation and lasting for hours or days or longer . This phenomenon was soon referred to as long @-@ term potentiation , abbreviated LTP . As a candidate mechanism for memory , LTP has since been studied intensively , and a great deal has been learned about it .
The hippocampus is a particularly favorable site for studying LTP because of its densely packed and sharply defined layers of neurons , but similar types of activity @-@ dependent synaptic change have now been observed in many other brain areas . The best @-@ studied form of LTP occurs at synapses that terminate on dendritic spines and use the transmitter glutamate . Several of the major pathways within the hippocampus fit this description and exhibit LTP . The synaptic changes depend on a special type of glutamate receptor , the NMDA receptor , which has the special property of allowing calcium to enter the postsynaptic spine only when presynaptic activation and postsynaptic depolarization occur at the same time . Drugs that interfere with NMDA receptors block LTP and have major effects on some types of memory , especially spatial memory . Transgenic mice , genetically modified in ways that disable the LTP mechanism , also generally show severe memory deficits .
= = Pathology = =
= = = Aging = = =
Age @-@ related conditions such as Alzheimer 's disease ( for which hippocampal disruption is one of the earliest signs ) have a severe impact on many types of cognition , but even normal aging is associated with a gradual decline in some types of memory , including episodic memory and working memory ( or short @-@ term memory ) . Because the hippocampus is thought to play a central role in memory , there has been considerable interest in the possibility that age @-@ related declines could be caused by hippocampal deterioration . Some early studies reported substantial loss of neurons in the hippocampus of elderly people , but later studies using more precise techniques found only minimal differences . Similarly , some MRI studies have reported shrinkage of the hippocampus in elderly people , but other studies have failed to reproduce this finding . There is , however , a reliable relationship between the size of the hippocampus and memory performance — meaning that not all elderly people show hippocampal shrinkage , but those who do tend to perform less well on some memory tasks . There are also reports that memory tasks tend to produce less hippocampal activation in elderly than in young subjects . Furthermore , a randomized @-@ control study published in 2011 found that aerobic exercise could increase the size of the hippocampus in adults aged 55 to 80 and also improve spatial memory .
= = = Stress = = =
The hippocampus contains high levels of glucocorticoid receptors , which make it more vulnerable to long @-@ term stress than most other brain areas . Stress @-@ related steroids affect the hippocampus in at least three ways : first , by reducing the excitability of some hippocampal neurons ; second , by inhibiting the genesis of new neurons in the dentate gyrus ; third , by causing atrophy of dendrites in pyramidal cells of the CA3 region . There is evidence that humans having experienced severe , long @-@ lasting traumatic stress show atrophy of the hippocampus more than of other parts of the brain . These effects show up in post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , and they may contribute to the hippocampal atrophy reported in schizophrenia and severe depression . A recent study has also revealed atrophy as a result of depression , but this can be stopped with anti @-@ depressants even if they are not effective in relieving other symptoms . Hippocampal atrophy is also frequently seen in Cushing 's syndrome , a disorder caused by high levels of cortisol in the bloodstream . At least some of these effects appear to be reversible if the stress is discontinued . There is , however , evidence derived mainly from studies using rats that stress occurring shortly after birth can affect hippocampal function in ways that persist throughout life .
Sex @-@ specific responses to stress have also been demonstrated to have an effect on the hippocampus . During situations in which adult male and female rats were exposed to chronic stress the females were shown to be better able to cope .
= = = Epilepsy = = =
The hippocampus is often the focus of epileptic seizures : hippocampal sclerosis is the most commonly visible type of tissue damage in temporal lobe epilepsy . It is not yet clear , however , whether the epilepsy is usually caused by hippocampal abnormalities or whether the hippocampus is damaged by cumulative effects of seizures . In experimental settings where repetitive seizures are artificially induced in animals , hippocampal damage is a frequent result . This may be a consequence of the hippocampus 's being one of the most electrically excitable parts of the brain . It may also have something to do with the fact that the hippocampus is one of very few brain regions where new neurons continue to be created throughout life .
= = = Schizophrenia = = =
The causes of schizophrenia are not at all well understood , but numerous abnormalities of brain structure have been reported . The most thoroughly investigated alterations involve the cerebral cortex , but effects on the hippocampus have also been described . Many reports have found reductions in the size of the hippocampus in schizophrenic subjects . The changes probably result from altered development rather than tissue damage and show up even in subjects never having been medicated . Several lines of evidence implicate changes in synaptic organization and connectivity . It is unclear whether hippocampal alterations play any role in causing the psychotic symptoms that are the most important feature of schizophrenia . Anthony Grace and his co @-@ workers have suggested , on the basis of experimental work using animals , that hippocampal dysfunction might produce an alteration of dopamine release in the basal ganglia , thereby indirectly affecting the integration of information in the prefrontal cortex . Others have suggested that hippocampal dysfunction might account for disturbances in long @-@ term memory frequently observed in people with schizophrenia .
= = = Transient global amnesia = = =
A current hypothesis as to one cause of transient global amnesia — a dramatic , sudden , temporary , near @-@ total loss of short @-@ term memory — is that it may be due to venous congestion of the brain , leading to ischemia of structures such as the hippocampus that are involved in memory .
= = Evolution = =
The hippocampus has a generally similar appearance across the range of mammal species , from monotremes such as the echidna to primates such as humans . The hippocampal @-@ size @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size ratio broadly increases , being about twice as large for primates as for the echidna . It does not , however , increase at anywhere close to the rate of the neocortex @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size ratio . Therefore , the hippocampus takes up a much larger fraction of the cortical mantle in rodents than in primates . In adult humans the volume of the hippocampus on each side of the brain is about 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 cm3 as compared to 320 to 420 cm3 for the volume of the neocortex .
There is also a general relationship between the size of the hippocampus and spatial memory . When comparisons are made between similar species , those that have a greater capacity for spatial memory tend to have larger hippocampal volumes . This relationship also extends to sex differences ; in species where males and females show strong differences in spatial memory ability they also tend to show corresponding differences in hippocampal volume .
Non @-@ mammalian species do not have a brain structure that looks like the mammalian hippocampus , but they have one that is considered homologous to it . The hippocampus , as pointed out above , is in essence the medial edge of the cortex . Only mammals have a fully developed cortex , but the structure it evolved from , called the pallium , is present in all vertebrates , even the most primitive ones such as the lamprey or hagfish . The pallium is usually divided into three zones : medial , lateral and dorsal . The medial pallium forms the precursor of the hippocampus . It does not resemble the hippocampus visually because the layers are not warped into an S shape or enfolded by the dentate gyrus , but the homology is indicated by strong chemical and functional affinities . There is now evidence that these hippocampal @-@ like structures are involved in spatial cognition in birds , reptiles , and fish .
In birds , the correspondence is sufficiently well established that most anatomists refer to the medial pallial zone as the " avian hippocampus " . Numerous species of birds have strong spatial skills , in particular those that cache food . There is evidence that food @-@ caching birds have a larger hippocampus than other types of birds and that damage to the hippocampus causes impairments in spatial memory .
The story for fish is more complex . In teleost fish ( which make up the great majority of existing species ) , the forebrain is distorted in comparison to other types of vertebrates : Most neuroanatomists believe that the teleost forebrain is in essence everted , like a sock turned inside @-@ out , so that structures that lie in the interior , next to the ventricles , for most vertebrates , are found on the outside in teleost fish , and vice versa . One of the consequences of this is that the medial pallium ( " hippocampal " zone ) of a typical vertebrate is thought to correspond to the lateral pallium of a typical fish . Several types of fish ( particularly goldfish ) have been shown experimentally to have strong spatial memory abilities , even forming " cognitive maps " of the areas they inhabit . There is evidence that damage to the lateral pallium impairs spatial memory .
Thus , the role of the hippocampal region in navigation appears to begin far back in vertebrate evolution , predating splits that occurred hundreds of millions of years ago . It is not yet known whether the medial pallium plays a similar role in even more primitive vertebrates , such as sharks and rays , or even lampreys and hagfish . Some types of insects , and molluscs such as the octopus , also have strong spatial learning and navigation abilities , but these appear to work differently from the mammalian spatial system , so there is as yet no good reason to think that they have a common evolutionary origin ; nor is there sufficient similarity in brain structure to enable anything resembling a " hippocampus " to be identified in these species . Some have proposed , however , that the insect 's mushroom bodies may have a function similar to that of the hippocampus .
= = = Journals = = =
Hippocampus ( Wiley )
= = = Books = = =
Per Andersen ; Richard Morris ; David Amaral ; Tim Bliss ; John O 'Keefe , eds . ( 2007 ) . The Hippocampus Book . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 510027 @-@ 3 .
Dori Derdikman ; James J. Knierim , eds . ( 2014 ) . Space , Time and Memory in the Hippocampal Formation . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 7091 @-@ 1292 @-@ 2 .
Henri M. Duvernoy ; F. Cattin ( 2005 ) . The Human Hippocampus : Functional Anatomy , Vascularization , and Serial Sections with MRI . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 23191 @-@ 2 .
Howard Eichenbaum ( 2002 ) . The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory . Oxford University Press US . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 514175 @-@ 7 .
edited by Patricia E. Sharp . ( 2002 ) . Patricia E. Sharp , ed . The Neural Basis of Navigation : Evidence from Single Cell Recording . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 7579 @-@ 1 .
Philippe Taupin ( 2007 ) . The Hippocampus : Neurotransmission and Plasticity in the Nervous System . Nova Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60021 @-@ 914 @-@ 6 .
John H Byrne , ed . ( 2008 ) . Learning and Memory : A comprehensive reference . Elsevier . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 370509 @-@ 9 .
|
= Cousin Bette =
La Cousine Bette ( French pronunciation : [ la kuzin bɛt ] , Cousin Bette ) is an 1846 novel by French author Honoré de Balzac . Set in mid @-@ 19th century Paris , it tells the story of an unmarried middle @-@ aged woman who plots the destruction of her extended family . Bette works with Valérie Marneffe , an unhappily married young lady , to seduce and torment a series of men . One of these is Baron Hector Hulot , husband to Bette 's cousin Adeline . He sacrifices his family 's fortune and good name to please Valérie , who leaves him for a tradesman named Crevel . The book is part of the Scènes de la vie parisienne section of Balzac 's novel sequence La Comédie humaine ( " The Human Comedy " ) .
In the 1840s , a serial format known as the roman @-@ feuilleton was highly popular in France , and the most acclaimed expression of it was the socialist writing of Eugène Sue . Balzac wanted to challenge Sue 's supremacy , and prove himself the most capable feuilleton author in France . Writing quickly and with intense focus , Balzac produced La Cousine Bette , one of his longest novels , in two months . It was published in Le Constitutionnel at the end of 1846 , then collected with a companion work , Le Cousin Pons , the following year .
The novel 's characters represent polarities of contrasting morality . The vengeful Bette and disingenuous Valérie stand on one side , with the merciful Adeline and her patient daughter Hortense on the other . The patriarch of the Hulot family , meanwhile , is consumed by his own sexual desire . Hortense 's husband , the Polish exile Wenceslas Steinbock , represents artistic genius , though he succumbs to uncertainty and lack of motivation . Balzac based the character of Bette in part on his mother and the poet Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore . At least one scene involving Baron Hulot was likely based on an event in the life of Balzac 's friend , the novelist Victor Hugo .
La Cousine Bette is considered Balzac 's last great work . His trademark use of realist detail combines with a panorama of characters returning from earlier novels . Several critics have hailed it as a turning point in the author 's career , and others have called it a prototypical naturalist text . It has been compared to William Shakespeare 's Othello as well as Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace . The novel explores themes of vice and virtue , as well as the influence of money on French society . Bette 's relationship with Valérie is also seen as an important exploration of homoerotic themes . A number of film versions of the story have been produced , including a 1971 BBC mini @-@ series starring Margaret Tyzack and Helen Mirren , and a 1998 feature film with Jessica Lange in the title role .
= = Background = =
By 1846 Honoré de Balzac had achieved tremendous fame as a writer , but his finances and health were deteriorating rapidly . After writing a series of potboiler novels in the 1820s , he published his first book under his own name , Les Chouans ( " The Chouans " ) , in 1829 . He followed this with dozens of well @-@ received novels and stories , including La Peau de chagrin ( " The Magic Skin " ) , in 1831 , Le Père Goriot ( " Father Goriot " ) in 1835 , and the two @-@ volume Illusions perdues ( " Lost Illusions " ) , in 1837 and 1839 . Because of his lavish lifestyle and penchant for financial speculation , however , he spent most of his life trying to repay a variety of debts . He wrote tirelessly , driven as much by economic necessity as by the muse and black coffee . This regimen of constant work exhausted his body and brought reprimands from his doctor .
As his work gained recognition , Balzac began corresponding with a Polish baroness named Ewelina Hańska , who first contacted him through an anonymous 1832 letter signed " L 'Étrangère " ( " The Stranger " ) . They developed an affectionate friendship in letters , and when she became a widow in 1841 , Balzac sought her hand in marriage . He visited her often in Poland and Germany , but various complications prohibited their union . One of these was an affair Balzac had with his housekeeper , Louise Breugniot . As she became aware of his affection for Mme. Hanska , Breugniot stole a collection of their letters and used them to extort money from Balzac . Even after this episode , however , he grew closer to Mme. Hanska with each visit and by 1846 he had begun preparing a home to share with her . He grew hopeful that they could marry when she became pregnant , but she fell ill in December and suffered a miscarriage .
The mid @-@ 19th century was a time of profound transformation in French government and society . The reign of King Charles X ended in 1830 when a wave of agitation and dissent forced him to abdicate . He was replaced by Louis @-@ Philippe , who named himself " King of the French " , rather than the standard " King of France " – an indication that he answered more to the nascent bourgeoisie than the aristocratic Ancien Régime . The change in government took place while the economy in France was moving from mercantilism to industrial development . This opened new opportunities for individuals hoping to acquire wealth , and led to significant changes in social norms . Members of the aristocracy , for example , were forced to relate socially to the nouveau riche , usually with tense results . The democratic spirit of the French Revolution also affected social interactions , with a shift in popular allegiance away from the church and the monarchy .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , a new style of novel became popular in France . The serial format known as the roman @-@ feuilleton presented stories in short regular installments , often accompanied by melodramatic plots and stock characters . Although Balzac 's La Vieille Fille ( The Old Maid ) , 1836 , was the first such work published in France , the roman @-@ feuilleton gained prominence thanks mostly to his friends Eugène Sue and Alexandre Dumas , père . Balzac disliked their serial writing , however , especially Sue 's socialist depiction of lower @-@ class suffering . Balzac wanted to dethrone what he called " les faux dieux de cette littérature bâtarde " ( " the false gods of this bastard literature " ) . He also wanted to show the world that , despite his poor health and tumultuous career , he was " plus jeune , plus frais , et plus grand que jamais " ( " younger , fresher , and greater than ever " ) . His first efforts to render a quality feuilleton were unsuccessful . Even though Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes ( " A Harlot High and Low " ) , published in segments from 1838 to 1847 , was celebrated by critics , Balzac complained to Mme. Hanska that he was " doing pure Sue " . He tried again in 1844 with Modeste Mignon , but public reactions were mixed . Two years later Balzac began a new project , determined to create something from his " own old pen again " .
= = Writing and publication = =
After resting for a week in June 1846 at the Château de Saché in Tours , Balzac returned to Paris and began working on a short story called " Le Parasite " , which he eventually developed into the novel Le Cousin Pons . He intended from the start to pair it with another novel , collecting them under the title Les Parents pauvres ( " The Poor Relations " ) . He based the second book on a story his sister Laure Surville had written called " La Cousine Rosalie " and published in 1844 in Le Journal des enfants . Writing intensively , he produced the entire novel , named La Cousine Bette after the main character , in two months . This was a significant accomplishment owing to his bad health , but its length made Balzac 's writing speed especially remarkable . One critic calls the writing of Les Parents pauvres Balzac 's " last explosion of creative energy " . Another suggests that this effort was " almost the last straw which broke down Balzac 's gigantic strength " .
Balzac 's usual mode of revision involved vast , complicated edits made to galley proofs he received from the printer . When creating La Cousine Bette , however , he submitted the work to his editor piece by piece , without viewing a single proof . The book was serialized in Le Constitutionnel from 8 October to 3 December , and Balzac rushed to keep up with the newspaper 's rapid printing schedule . He produced an average of eight pages each day , but was struck by the unexpected enormity of the story as it evolved . Balzac was paid 12 @,@ 836 francs for the series , which was later published with Le Cousin Pons as a twelve @-@ volume book by Chiendowski and Pétion . The first collected edition of La Cousine Bette was organized into 132 chapters , but these divisions were removed when Balzac added it to his massive collection La Comédie humaine in 1848 .
= = Plot summary = =
The first third of the novel provides a lengthy exploration of the characters ' histories . Balzac makes this clear after 150 pages : " Ici se termine , en quelque sorte , l 'introduction de cette histoire . " ( " Here ends what is , in a way , the introduction to this story . " ) At the start of the novel , Adeline Hulot – wife of the successful Baron Hector Hulot – is being pressured into an affair by a wealthy perfumer named Célestin Crevel . His desire stems in part from an earlier contest in which the adulterous Baron Hulot had won the hand of the singer Josépha Mirah , also favored by Crevel . The Hulots ' daughter , Hortense , has begun searching for a husband ; their son Victorin is married to Crevel 's daughter Celestine . Mme. Hulot resists Crevel 's advances , and he turns his attention elsewhere .
Mme. Hulot 's cousin , Bette ( also called Lisbeth ) , harbors a deep but hidden resentment of her relatives ' success . A peasant woman with none of the physical beauty of her cousin , Bette has rejected a series of marriage proposals from middle @-@ class suitors , and remains unmarried at the age of 42 . One day she comes upon a young unsuccessful Polish sculptor named Wenceslas Steinbock , attempting suicide in the tiny apartment upstairs from her own . As she nourishes him back to health , she develops a maternal fondness for him . She also befriends Valérie , the wife of a War Department clerk named Marneffe ; the two women form a bond of mutual affection and protection .
Baron Hulot , meanwhile , is rejected by Josépha , who explains bluntly that she has chosen another man because of his larger fortune . Hulot 's despair is quickly alleviated when he meets and falls in love with Valérie Marneffe . He showers her with gifts , and soon establishes a luxurious house for her and M. Marneffe , with whom he works at the War Department . These debts , compounded by the money he borrowed to lavish on Josépha , threaten the Hulot family 's financial security . Panicked , he convinces his uncle Johann Fischer to quietly embezzle funds from a War Department outpost in Algiers . Hulot 's woes are momentarily abated and Bette 's happiness is shattered , when – at the end of the " introduction " – Hortense Hulot marries Wenceslas Steinbock .
Crushed at having lost Steinbock 's company , Bette swears vengeance on the Hulot family . She works behind the scenes with Valérie to extract more money from Baron Hulot . Valérie also seduces Crevel and watches with delight as they vie for her attention . With Bette 's help , Valérie turns to Steinbock and draws him into her bedroom . When Hortense learns of his infidelity , she leaves Steinbock and returns with their son to live with her mother Adeline . Valérie also proclaims her love to a Brazilian Baron named Henri Montès de Montéjanos , and swears devotion constantly to each of the five men .
Baron Hulot 's brother , known as " le maréchal " ( " the Marshal " ) , hires Bette as his housekeeper , and they develop a mild affection . He learns of his brother 's infidelities ( and the difficulties they have caused Adeline , who refuses to leave her husband ) , and promises to marry Bette if she will provide details . She agrees eagerly , delighted at the prospect of finally securing an enviable marriage . While investigating his brother 's behavior , however , the Marshal discovers Baron Hulot 's scheme in Algiers . He is overwhelmed by the disgrace , and his health deteriorates . Bette 's last hope for a brighter future dies with him .
When Valérie becomes pregnant , she tells each of her lovers ( and her husband ) that he is the father . She gives birth to a stillborn child , however , and her husband dies soon thereafter . Hulot and Crevel are ecstatic when they hear this news , each believing that he will become her only love once the official mourning period has passed . Valérie chooses Crevel for his comfortable fortune , and they quickly wed . This news outrages Baron Montès , and he devises a plot to poison the newlyweds . Crevel and Valérie die slowly , their bodies devoured by an exotic Brazilian toxin .
Victorin Hulot is later visited by the Prince of Wissembourg , who delivers news of economic good fortune . The Marshal , prior to his death , had made arrangements for repayment of the Baron 's debts , as well as employment for Adeline in a Catholic charity . Baron Hulot has disappeared , and Adeline spends her free time searching for him in houses of ill repute . She eventually finds him living with a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old courtesan , and begs him to return to the family . He agrees , but as he climbs into the carriage , Hulot asks : " mais pourrai @-@ je emmener la petite ? " ( " But can I take the girl ? " ) The Hulot home is reunited for a time , and Bette 's fury at their apparent happiness hastens her death . One evening after the funeral , Adeline overhears Hulot seducing a kitchen maid named Agathe . On her deathbed , Adeline delivers her first rebuke to her husband : " [ D ] ans un moment , tu seras libre , et tu pourras faire une baronne Hulot . " ( " In a moment , you will be free , and you can make another Baroness Hulot . " ) Soon after burying his wife , Hulot marries Agathe .
= = Characters and inspirations = =
Balzac had written more than seventy novels when he began La Cousine Bette , and populated them with recurring characters . Many of the characters in the novel , therefore , appear with extensive back @-@ stories and biographical depth . For example , Célestin Crevel first appeared in Balzac 's 1837 novel César Birotteau , working for the title character . Having accumulated a considerable fortune in that book , Crevel spends his time in La Cousine Bette enjoying the spoils of his labor . Another important recurring character is Marshal Hulot , who first appeared as a colonel in Les Chouans . In the years between that story and La Cousine Bette , he became the Count of Forzheim ; in a letter to the Constitutionnel , Balzac described how Marshal Hulot gained this title . The presence of Crevel and Marshal Hulot – among others – in La Cousine Bette allows a continuation of each character 's life story , adding emphasis or complexity to earlier events .
Other recurring characters appear only briefly in La Cousine Bette ; previous appearances , however , give deep significance to the characters ' presence . This is the case with Vautrin , the criminal mastermind who tutors young Eugene de Rastignac in Balzac 's 1835 novel Le Père Goriot . When he resurfaces in La Cousine Bette , he has joined the police and introduces the Hulot family to his aunt , Mme. Nourrison , who offers a morally questionable remedy for their woes . Although Vautrin 's presence in La Cousine Bette is brief , his earlier adventures in Le Père Goriot provide instant recognition and emotional texture . Elsewhere , Balzac presents an entire world of experience by including characters from a particular sphere of society . For example , several scenes feature artists like Jean @-@ Jacques Bixiou , who first appeared in 1837 's Les Employés and in many other books thereafter . The world of Parisian nightlife is quickly brought to mind with the inclusion of several characters from Les Comédiens sans le savoir ( 1846 ) , and Bianchon appears – as always – when a doctor is needed .
Balzac 's use of recurring characters has been identified as a unique component of his fiction . It enables a depth of characterization that goes beyond simple narration or dialogue . " When the characters reappear " , notes the critic Samuel Rogers , " they do not step out of nowhere ; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which , for an interval , we have not been allowed to see . " Some readers , however , are intimidated by the depth created by these interdependent stories , and feel deprived of important context for the characters . Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac , because he " did not know where to begin " . The characterization in La Cousine Bette is considered especially skillful . Anthony Pugh , in his book Balzac 's Recurring Characters , says that the technique is employed " for the most part without that feeling of self @-@ indulgence that mars some of Balzac 's later work . Almost every example arises quite naturally out of the situation . " Biographer Noel Gerson calls the characters in La Cousine Bette " among the most memorable Balzac ever sketched " .
= = = Bette Fischer = = =
Descriptions of Bette are often connected to savagery and animal imagery . Her name , for example , is a homophone in French for " bête " ( " beast " ) . One passage explains that " elle ressemblait aux singes habillés en femmes " ( " she sometimes looked like one of those monkeys in petticoats " ) ; elsewhere her voice is described as having " une jalousie de tigre " ( " tiger @-@ like jealousy " ) . Her beastly rage comes to the surface with ferocity when she learns of Steinbock 's engagement to Hortense :
La physionomie de la Lorraine était devenue terrible . Ses yeux noirs et pénétrants avaient la fixité de ceux des tigres . Sa figure ressemblait à celles que nous supposons aux pythonisses , elle serrait les dents pour les empêcher de claquer , et une affreuse convulsion faisait trembler ses membres . Elle avait glissé sa main crochue entre son bonnet et ses cheveux pour les empoigner et soutenir sa tête , devenue trop lourde ; elle brûlait ! La fumée de l 'incendie qui la ravageait semblait passer par ses rides comme par autant de crevasses labourées par une éruption volcanique .
The peasant @-@ woman 's face was terrible ; her piercing black eyes had the glare of the tiger 's ; her face was like that we ascribe to a pythoness ; she set her teeth to keep them from chattering , and her whole frame quivered convulsively . She had pushed her clenched fingers under her cap to clutch her hair and support her head , which felt too heavy ; she was on fire . The smoke of the flame that scorched her seemed to emanate from her wrinkles as from the crevasses rent by a volcanic eruption .
When she learns that her cousin Adeline has been welcoming Steinbock into the Hulot home , Bette swears revenge : " Adeline ! se dit Lisbeth , ô Adeline , tu me le payeras , je te rendrai plus laide que moi ! " ( " ' Adeline ! ' muttered Lisbeth . ' Oh , Adeline , you shall pay for this ! I will make you uglier than I am . ' " ) Her cruelty and lust for revenge lead critics to call her " demonic " and " one of Balzac 's most terrifying creations " . Because of her willingness to manipulate the people around her , Bette has been compared to Iago in William Shakespeare 's play Othello . Her fierce persona is attributed partly to her peasant background , and partly to her virginity , which provides ( according to Balzac ) " une force diabolique ou la magie noire de la volonté " ( " diabolical strength , or the black magic of the Will " ) .
In a letter to Mme. Hanska , Balzac indicated that he based the character of Bette on three women from his life : his mother , Mme. Hanska 's aunt Rosalie Rzewuska , and the poet Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore . Balzac had a tumultuous relationship with his mother for most of his life , and he incorporated some of her personality ( particularly her " obstinate persistence in living " , as one critic calls it ) into Bette . Rosalie Rzewuska disapproved of Mme. Hanska 's relationship with Balzac ; biographers agree that her cold determination was part of the author 's recipe for Bette . Elements taken from Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore are more complex ; she faced many setbacks in life and she and Balzac became friends after she left the theatre to take up poetry .
= = = Valérie Marneffe = = =
Bette 's co @-@ conspirator in the destruction of the Hulot family is beautiful and greedy Valérie Marneffe , the unsatisfied wife of a War Department clerk . They develop a deep friendship , which many critics consider an example of lesbian affection . Because of their relationship and similar goals , the critic Frederic Jameson says that " Valérie serves as a kind of emanation of Bette " .
Valérie is repulsed by her ugly husband and has gone five years without kissing him . She explains bluntly that her position as a married woman provides subtleties and options unavailable to the common prostitute who has one set price ; after Marneffe dies , Valérie jockeys for position between Hulot and Montés ( while also sleeping with Steinbock ) , then discards them all to marry Crevel , who offers the most wealth . She amuses herself by mocking her lovers ' devotion , and this wickedness – not to mention her gruesome demise – has led some critics to speculate that she is actually the focus of Balzac 's morality tale .
In one important scene , Valérie models for Steinbock as Delilah , standing victorious over the ruined Samson . With obvious parallels to her own activities , she describes her vision for the piece : " Il s 'agit d 'exprimer la puissance de la femme . Samson n 'est rien , là . C 'est le cadavre de la force . Dalila , c 'est la passion qui ruine tout . " ( " What you have to show is the power of woman . Samson is a secondary consideration . He is the corpse of dead strength . It is Delilah — passion — that ruins everything . " )
Although Balzac did not draw specifically from the women in his life to create Valérie , parallels have been observed in some areas . The tumultuous end of his affair with Louise Breugniot and the advantage she gains from his devotion to Mme. Hanska is similar in some ways to Valérie 's manipulation of Steinbock . Critics also connect the pride and anguish felt by Balzac during Mme. Hanska 's pregnancy and miscarriage to the same emotions felt by Baron Hulot when Valérie conceives and loses her child . Although he never ascribed to Mme. Hanska any of the traits in Valérie 's treacherous character , he felt a devotion similar to that of Hulot . He once wrote to her : " je fais pour mon Eve toute les folies qu 'un Hulot fait pour une Marneffe , je te donnerai mon sang , mon honneur , ma vie " ( " I commit for [ you ] all the follies that a Hulot commits for Madame Marneffe ; I give you my blood , my honor , my life " ) .
= = = Hector and Adeline Hulot = = =
Baron Hector Hulot is a living manifestation of male sexual desire , unrestrained and unconcerned with its consequences for the man or his family . As the novel progresses , he becomes consumed by his libido , even in a physical sense . When Valérie tells him to stop dyeing his hair , he does so to please her . His financial woes and public disgrace lead him to flee his own home ; by the end of the book he is an elderly , decrepit shell of a man . Baron Hulot is so overcome by his taste for female flesh that he even asks his wife – without irony – if he can bring home his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old mistress .
Adeline Hulot , on the other hand , is mercy personified . Like her cousin Bette , she comes from a peasant background , but has internalized the ideals of 19th @-@ century womanhood , including devotion , grace , and deference . She reveals in the first scene that she has known for years about her husband 's infidelities , but refuses to condemn him . Adeline 's forgiving nature is often considered a significant character flaw . Some suggest that she is partly to blame for Hulot 's wandering affection . C.A. Prendergast , for example , calls her forgiveness " an inadequate and even positively disastrous response " to her situation . He further suggests that Adeline , by choosing the role of quiet and dutiful wife , has excised from herself the erotic power to which the Baron is drawn . " [ O ] ne could at the very least offer the tentative speculation that Hulot 's obsessional debauchery is in part the result of a certain poverty in Adeline , that the terrible logic of Hulot 's excess is partially shaped by a crucial deficiency in his wife . " Others are less accusatory ; Adeline 's nearly infinite mercy , they say , is evidence of foolishness . Critic Herbert J. Hunt declares that she shows " more imbecility than Christian patience " , and David Bellos points out that , like her husband , she is driven by passion – albeit of a different kind : " Adeline 's desire ( for good , for the family , for Hector , for God ) is so radically different from the motivating desires of the other characters that she seems in their context to be without desire ... "
Balzac 's inspiration for the characters of Hector and Adeline remain unclear , but several critics have been eager to speculate . Three officers named Hulot were recognized for their valor in the Napoleonic Wars , and some suggest that Balzac borrowed the name of Comte Hector d 'Aure . None of these men , however , were known for the sort of philandering or thievery exhibited by Baron Hulot in the novel . Instead , Balzac may have used himself as the model ; his many affairs with women across the social spectrum lead some to suggest that the author " found much of Hulot in himself " . Balzac 's friend Victor Hugo , meanwhile , was famously discovered in bed with his mistress in July 1845 . The similarity of his name to Hector Hulot ( and that of his wife 's maiden name , Adèle Foucher , to Adeline Fischer ) has been posited as a possible indication of the characters ' origins .
= = = Wenceslas Steinbock = = =
The Polish sculptor Wenceslas Steinbock is important primarily because of Bette 's attachment to him . He offers Bette a source of pride , a way for her to prove herself worthy of her family 's respect . When Hortense marries Steinbock , Bette feels as though she has been robbed . Prendergast insists that the incident " must literally be described as an act of theft " .
Steinbock 's relevance also lies in his background and profession , illustrating Balzac 's conception of the Polish people , as well as himself . Having spent more than a decade befriending Mme. Hanska and visiting her family in Poland , Balzac believed he had insight into the national character ( as he felt about most groups he observed ) . Thus , descriptions of Steinbock are often laced with commentary about the Polish people : " Soyez mon amie , dit @-@ il avec une de ces démonstrations caressantes si familières aux Polonais , et qui les font accuser assez injustement de servilité . " ( " ' Be my sweetheart , ' he added , with one of the caressing gestures familiar to the Poles , for which they are unjustly accused of servility . " )
Critics also consider Steinbock important because of his artistic genius . Like Louis Lambert and Lucien Chardon in Illusions perdues , he is a brilliant man – just as Balzac considered himself to be . Before he is nurtured and directed by Bette , however , Steinbock 's genius languishes under his own inertia and he attempts suicide . Later , when he leaves Bette 's circle of influence , he fails again . Thus he demonstrates Balzac 's conviction that genius alone is useless without determination . Bellos organizes Steinbock and Bette into a duality of weakness and strength ; whereas the Polish artist is unable to direct his energies into productive work , Bette draws strength from her virginity and thus becomes powerful by denying the lust to which Steinbock falls prey . Steinbock 's drive is further eroded by the praise he receives for his art , which gives him an inflated sense of accomplishment . One critic refers to the artist 's downfall as " vanity ... spoiled by premature renown " .
= = Style = =
If Balzac 's goal was ( as he claimed ) to write a realist novel from his " own old pen " rather than mimic the style of Eugène Sue , history and literary criticism have declared him successful . William Stowe calls La Cousine Bette " a masterpiece of classical realism " and Bellos refers to it as " one of the great achievements of nineteenth @-@ century realism " , comparing it to War and Peace . Some sections of the book are criticized for being melodramatic , and Balzac biographer V. S. Pritchett even refers to a representative excerpt as " bad writing " . Most critics , however , consider the moralistic elements of the novel deceptively complex , and some point out that the roman @-@ feuilleton format required a certain level of titillation to keep readers engaged . Others indicate that Balzac 's interest in the theatre was an important reason for the inclusion of melodramatic elements .
Balzac 's trademark realism begins on the first page of the novel , wherein Crevel is described wearing a National Guard uniform , complete with the Légion d 'honneur . Details from the 1830s also appear in the novel 's geographic locations . The Hulot family home , for example , is found in the aristocratic area of Paris known as the Faubourg Saint @-@ Germain . Bette 's residence is on the opposite end of the social spectrum , in the impoverished residential area which surrounded the Louvre : " Les ténèbres , le silence , l 'air glacial , la profondeur caverneuse du sol concourent à faire de ces maisons des espèces de cryptes , des tombeaux vivants . " ( " Darkness , silence , an icy chill , and the cavernous depth of the soil combine to make these houses a kind of crypt , tombs of the living . " ) Descriptions of her meager quarters are – as usual in Balzac 's work – an acute reflection of her personality . The same is true of the Marneffe home at the outset : it contains " les trompeuses apparences de ce faux luxe " ( " the illusory appearance of sham luxury " ) , from the shabby chairs in the drawing @-@ room to the dust @-@ coated bedroom .
Precise detail is not spared in descriptions of decay and disease , two vivid elements in the novel . Marneffe , for example , represents crapulence . His decrepit body is a symbol of society 's weakness at the time , worn away from years of indulgence . The poison which kills Valérie and Crevel is also described in ghastly detail . The doctor Bianchon explains : " Ses dents et ses cheveux tombent , elle a l 'aspect des lépreux , elle se fait horreur à elle @-@ même ; ses mains , épouvantables à voir , sont enflées et couvertes de pustules verdâtres ; les ongles déchaussés restent dans les plaies qu 'elle gratte ; enfin , toutes les extrémités se détruisent dans la sanie qui les ronge . " ( " She is losing her hair and teeth , her skin is like a leper 's , she is a horror to herself ; her hands are horrible , covered with greenish pustules , her nails are loose , and the flesh is eaten away by the poisoned humors . " )
La Cousine Bette is unapologetic in its bleak outlook , and makes blunt connections between characters ' origins and behavior . For these reasons , it is considered a key antecedent to naturalist literature . Novelist Émile Zola called it an important " roman expérimental " ( " experimental novel " ) , and praised its acute exploration of the characters ' motivations . Some critics note that La Cousine Bette showed an evolution in Balzac 's style – one which he had little time to develop . Pointing to the nuance of plot and comprehensive narration style , Stowe suggests that the novel " might in happier circumstances have marked the beginning of a new , mature ' late Balzac ' " .
= = Themes = =
= = = Passion , vice , and virtue = = =
Valérie 's line about Delilah being " la passion qui ruine tout " ( " passion which ruins everything " ) is symbolic , coming as it does from a woman whose passion accelerates the ruin of most people around her – including herself . Baron Hulot , meanwhile , is desire incarnate ; his wandering libido bypasses concern for his wife , brother , children , finances , and even his own health . Bette is living vengeance , and Adeline desperately yearns for the happy home she imagined in the early years of marriage . Each character is driven by a fiery passion , which in most cases consumes the individual . As Balzac puts it : " La passion est un martyre . " ( " Passion is martyrdom . " )
The intensity of passion , and the consequences of its manifestation , result in a stark contrast of vice and virtue . Bette and Valérie are pure wickedness , and even celebrate the ruin of their targets . As one critic says , " life 's truths are viewed in their most atrocious form " . Mocking the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution while acknowledging her own malicious intent , Valérie says with regard to Delilah : " La vertu coupe la tête , le Vice ne vous coupe que les cheveux . " ( " Virtue cuts off your head ; vice only cuts off your hair . " ) Hulot is not intentionally cruel , but his actions are no less devastating to the people around him .
On the other side of the moral divide , Adeline and her children stand as shining examples of virtue and nobility – or so it would seem . Hortense ridicules her aunt when Bette mentions her protégé Wenceslas Steinbock , providing a psychological catalyst for the ensuing conflict . Victorin repeatedly expresses outrage at his father 's philandering , yet crosses a significant moral boundary when he agrees to fund Mme. Nourrison 's plan to eradicate Valérie . As one critic puts it , Victorin 's decision marks a point in the novel where " the scheme of right versus wrong immediately dissolves into a purely amoral conflict of different interests and passions , regulated less by a transcendent moral law than by the relative capacity of the different parties for cunning and ruthlessness . " The cruelties of the Hulot children are brief but significant , owing as much to their obliviousness ( intentional in the case of Victorin , who asks not to learn the details of Mme. Nourrison 's scheme ) as to malicious forethought .
The question of Adeline 's virtue is similarly complicated . Although she is forgiving to the point of absurdity , she is often considered more of a dupe than a martyr . Some have compared her to Balzac 's title character in Le Père Goriot , who sacrifices himself for his daughters . As Bellos puts it : " Adeline 's complicity with Hector certainly makes her more interesting as a literary character , but it undermines her role as the symbol of virtue in the novel . " This complicity reaches an apex when she unsuccessfully attempts to sell her affections to Crevel ( who has since lost interest ) in order to repay her husband 's debts . Her flirtation with prostitution is sometimes considered more egregious than Valérie 's overt extortion , since Adeline is soiling her own dignity in the service of Baron Hulot 's infidelity . For the remainder of the novel , Adeline trembles uncontrollably , a sign of her weakness . Later , when she visits the singer Josépha ( on whom her husband once doted ) , Adeline is struck by the splendor earned by a life of materialistic seduction . She wonders aloud if she is capable of providing the carnal pleasures Hulot seeks outside of their home .
Ultimately , both vice and virtue fail . Valérie is devoured by Montés ' poison , a consequence of her blithe attitude toward his emotion . Bette is unsuccessful in her effort to crush her cousin 's family , and dies ( as one critic puts it ) " in the margins " . Adeline 's Catholic mercy , on the other hand , fails to redeem her husband , and her children are similarly powerless – as Victorin finally admits on the novel 's last page . Like Raphael de Valentin in Balzac 's 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin , Hulot is left with nothing but " vouloir " : desire , a force which is both essential for human existence and eventually apocalyptic .
= = = Gender and homoeroticism = = =
Gender roles , especially the figure of the ideal woman , are central to La Cousine Bette . The four leading female characters ( Bette , Valérie , Adeline , and Hortense ) embody stereotypically feminine traits . Each pair of women revolves around a man , and they compete for his attention : Valérie and Adeline for Baron Hulot ; Bette and Hortense for Wenceslas Steinbock . Balzac 's study of masculinity is limited to the insatiable lust of Hulot and the weak @-@ willed inconstancy of Steinbock , with the occasional appearance of Victorin as a sturdy patriarch in his father 's absence .
Critics pay special attention to Bette 's lack of traditional femininity , and her unconventional relationships with two characters . She is described from the outset as having " des qualités d 'homme " ( " certain manly qualities " ) , with similar descriptions elsewhere . Her relationship and attitude toward Steinbock , moreover , hint at her masculinity . She commands him into submission , and even binds him with economic constraints by lending him the money to develop his sculpture . Her domination is tempered by maternal compassion , but the couple 's relationship is compared to an abusive marriage : " Il fut comme une femme qui pardonne les mauvais traitements d 'une semaine à cause des caresses d 'un fugitif raccommodement . " ( " He was like a woman who forgives a week of ill @-@ usage for the sake of a kiss and a brief reconciliation . " )
Bette 's relationship with Valérie is layered with overtones of lesbianism . Early in the book Bette is " captée " ( " bewitched " ) by Valérie , and quickly declares to her : " Je vous aime , je vous estime , je suis à vous ! " ( " I love you , I esteem you , I am wholly yours ! " ) This affection may have been platonic , but neighbors of the Marneffes – along with many readers – suspect that their bond transcends friendship . As with Steinbock , Bette and Valérie assume butch and femme roles ; the narration even mentions " Le contraste de la mâle et sèche nature de la Lorraine avec la jolie nature créole de Valérie " ( " The contrast between Lisbeth 's dry masculine nature and Valerie 's creole prettiness " ) . The homoeroticism evolves through the novel , as Bette feeds on Valérie 's power to seduce and control the Hulot men . As one critic says : " Valérie 's body becomes , at least symbolically , the locus of Bette 's only erotic pleasure . "
= = = Wealth and society = = =
As with many of his novels , Balzac analyzes the influence of history and social status in La Cousine Bette . The book takes places between 1838 and 1846 , when the reign of Louis @-@ Philippe reflected and directed significant changes in the social structure . Balzac was a legitimist favoring the House of Bourbon , and idolized Napoleon Bonaparte as a paragon of effective absolutist power . Balzac felt that French society under the House of Orléans lacked strong leadership , and was fragmented by the demands of parliament . He also believed that Catholicism provided guidance for the nation , and that its absence heralded moral decay .
Balzac demonstrated these beliefs through the characters ' lives in La Cousine Bette . The conflict between Baron Hulot and the perfumer Crevel mirrors the animosity between the aristocracy of the Ancien Régime and the newly developed bourgeoisie of traders and industrial entrepreneurs . Although he despised the socialist politics of Eugène Sue , Balzac worried that bourgeois desperation for financial gain drove people from life 's important virtues . The characters – especially Bette , Valérie , and Crevel – are fixated on their need for money , and do whatever they must to obtain it . As Crevel explains to Adeline : " Vous vous abusez , cher ange , si vous croyez que c 'est le roi Louis @-@ Philippe qui règne ... au @-@ dessus de la Charte il y a la sainte , la vénérée , la solide , l 'aimable , la gracieuse , la belle , la noble , la jeune , la toute @-@ puissante pièce de cent sous ! " ( " You are quite mistaken , my angel , if you suppose that King Louis @-@ Philippe rules us ... supreme above the Charter reigns the holy , venerated , substantial , delightful , obliging , beautiful , noble , ever @-@ youthful , and all @-@ powerful five @-@ franc piece ! " )
Themes of corruption and salvation are brought to the fore as Valérie and Crevel lie dying from the mysterious poison . When his daughter urges him to meet with a priest , Crevel angrily refuses , mocking the church and indicating that his social stature will be his salvation : " la mort regarde à deux fois avant de frapper un maire de Paris ! " ( " Death thinks twice of it before carrying off a Mayor of Paris . " ) Valérie , meanwhile , makes a deathbed conversion and urges Bette to abandon her quest for revenge . Ever the courtesan , Valérie describes her new Christianity in terms of seduction : " je ne puis maintenant plaire qu 'à Dieu ! je vais tâcher de me réconcilier avec lui , ce sera ma dernière coquetterie ! " ( " I can please no one now but God . I will try to be reconciled to Him , and that will be my last flirtation ... ! " )
= = Reception and adaptations = =
The critical reaction to La Cousine Bette was immediate and positive , which Balzac did not expect . Whether due to the intensity of its creation or the tumult of his personal life , the author was surprised by the praise he received . He wrote : " I did not realize how good La Cousine Bette is ... There is an immense reaction in my favour . I have won ! " The collected edition sold consistently well , and was reprinted nineteen times before the turn of the 20th century . 20th @-@ century critics remain enthusiastic in their praise for the novel ; Saintsbury insists it is " beyond all question one of the very greatest of [ Balzac 's ] works " . Biographer Graham Robb calls La Cousine Bette " the masterpiece of his premature old age " .
Some 19th @-@ century critics attacked the book , on the grounds that it normalized vice and corrupt living . Chief among these were disciples of the utopian theorist Charles Fourier ; they disapproved of the " immorality " inherent in the novel 's bleak resolution . Critics like Alfred Nettement and Eugène Marron declared that Balzac 's sympathy lay with Baron Hulot and Valérie Marneffe . They lambasted him for not commenting more on the characters ' degenerate behavior – the same stylistic choice later celebrated by naturalist writers Émile Zola and Hippolyte Taine .
Balzac 's novel has been adapted several times for the screen . The first was in 1927 , when French filmmaker Max DeRieux directed Alice Tissot in the title role . Margaret Tyzack played the role of Bette in the five part serial Cousin Bette made in 1971 by the BBC , which also starred Helen Mirren as Valérie Marneffe . The film Cousin Bette was released in 1998 , directed by Des McAnuff . Jessica Lange starred in the title role , joined by Bob Hoskins as Crevel , and Elisabeth Shue as the singer Jenny Cadine . Screenwriters Lynn Siefert and Susan Tarr changed the story significantly , and eliminated Valérie . The 1998 film was panned by critics for its generally poor acting and awkward dialogue . Stephen Holden of the New York Times commented that the movie " treats the novel as a thoroughly modern social comedy peopled with raging narcissists , opportunists and flat @-@ out fools " . The 1998 film changed the novel quite drastically , retaining the basic idea of Bette avenging herself on her enemies , and not only eliminating Valerie , but letting Bette survive at the end .
La Cousine Bette was adapted for the stage by Jeffrey Hatcher , best known for his screenplay Stage Beauty ( based on his stage play Compleat Female Stage Beauty ) . The Antaeus Company in North Hollywood produced a workshop in 2008 and presented the world premiere of Cousin Bette in early 2010 in North Hollywood , California . The adaptation retains many of the main characters but places Bette as the story 's narrator .
= = Additional reading = =
Dargan , E. Preston and Bernard Weinberg . The Evolution of Balzac 's Comédie humaine . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press , 1942 . OCLC 905236 .
Kanes , Martin . Balzac 's Comedy of Words . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1975 . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 06282 @-@ X.
Marceau , Felicien . Balzac and His World . Trans . Derek Coltman . New York : The Orion Press , 1966 . OCLC 236621 .
Pasco , Allan H. Balzacian Montage : Configuring La Comédie humaine . Toronto : University of Toronto Press , 1991 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8020 @-@ 2776 @-@ 8 .
|
= Washington State Route 542 =
State Route 542 ( SR 542 ) is a 57 @.@ 24 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 92 @.@ 12 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving Mount Baker in Whatcom County . SR 542 travels east as the Mount Baker Highway from an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in Bellingham through the Nooksack River valley to the Mt . Baker Ski Area at Austin Pass . It serves as the main highway to Mount Baker and the communities of Deming , Kendall , and Maple Falls along the Nooksack River . The highway was constructed in 1893 by Whatcom County as a wagon road between Bellingham and Maple Falls and was added to the state highway system as a branch of State Road 1 in 1925 . The branch was transferred to Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) during its creation in 1937 and became SR 542 during the 1964 highway renumbering .
= = Route description = =
SR 542 begins as Sunset Drive and the Mount Baker Highway at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 5 to the northeast of downtown Bellingham . The highway travels northeast through suburban neighborhoods along Squalicum Creek and passes Squalicum High School as it leaves the city of Bellingham . SR 542 continues northeast through rural Whatcom County , crossing the Nooksack River and intersecting SR 9 at a roundabout . The concurrent SR 9 and SR 542 travel southeast through the community of Deming along a BNSF rail line and passes Mount Baker Senior High School . SR 542 leaves SR 9 east of Deming and turns north along the North Fork of the Nooksack River and the eastern slope of Sumas Mountain to Kendall , where it serves as the southern terminus of SR 547 . The Mount Baker Highway turns east and continues along the Nooksack River North Fork into the Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest at Glacier in the foothills of Mount Baker . SR 542 turns south and serves the Mt . Baker Ski Area on the northeast side of the mountain before splitting into a one @-@ way pair around Picture Lake . The Mount Baker Highway continues through Austin Pass and ends at Artist Point , located at 5 @,@ 210 feet ( 1 @,@ 588 @.@ 01 m ) above sea level on Kulshan Ridge .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 542 was the I @-@ 5 interchange in Bellingham , serving 38 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busy section of SR 542 was the one @-@ way pair around Picture Lake in Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest , seriving 230 vehicles . The Mount Baker Highway is designated as a National Forest Scenic Byway and serves as the eastern section of the Ski to Sea Race between Mount Baker and Maple Falls , a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) Memorial Day race with seven legs hosting seven events . The eastern terminus of SR 542 , at Artist Point on Kulshan Ridge , is closed annually by WSDOT between October and July due to extreme weather conditions .
= = History = =
The Mount Baker Highway was constructed by Whatcom County in 1893 as a wagon road traveling northeast from Bellingham along the Nooksack River through Deming and Kendall to Maple Falls . The wagon road was extended from Maple Falls through Glacier to the Mt . Baker Ski Area at Heather Meadows began 1921 and ended in 1926 . The Mount Baker Highway was added to the state highway system in 1925 as the Austin Pass branch of State Road 1 and was extended to its current terminus at Artist Point in 1931 . The highway was closed seasonally between Glacier and Artist Point until the filming of The Call of the Wild in 1934 and 1935 prompted interest in the Mount Baker area . The Department of Highways began clearing the highway of snow during the winter of 1934 for the film and continued annually between Glacier and Heather Meadows ; however , the highway was not cleared during World War II due to gasoline shortages . The highway was designated as the Austin Pass branch of PSH 1 during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 and renumbered to SR 542 in 1964 . The entire route , between Bellingham and Austin Pass , was designated as part of the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program in 1987 and a National Forest Scenic Byway on November 1 , 1988 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Whatcom County .
|
= Antonio Paoli =
Antonio Paoli ( April 14 , 1871 – August 24 , 1946 ) was a Puerto Rican tenor . He was known at the height of his fame as " The King of Tenors and The Tenor of Kings . " He is considered to be the first Puerto Rican to reach international fame in the musical arts . Paoli has been recognized as " one of the most outstanding opera singers of all time , " and as one who had " one of the most lyric and powerful voices ... superior even to his contemporary rival , Enrico Caruso . "
After spending his childhood in his birth town of Ponce , Paoli moved to Spain where , with the assistance of his well @-@ connected sister Amalia , he obtained a Royal scholarship to take singing lessons in Italy . After singing to standing ovation crowds in both Spain and Italy , Paoli made his grand debut in Paris , France , where he was encouraged to perform on the highest levels of the world stage . Before the end of the 19th century and while Paoli was still in his twenties , he went on a tour of Europe that earned him both popular acclaim , and imperial honors from princes , kings , and emperors .
Between 1900 and 1914 his career skyrocketed , with performances not only in Europe but also in the Americas , the Caribbean , Africa , and Asia .
When World War I forced the closure of all European opera houses , Paoli made his living as a professional boxer . Unfortunately , he also lost his singing voice during this period . After the War ended , following medical advice and performing vocal exercises , Paoli regained his voice and returned to the international stage , in all the glory of days past . He performed in Europe , North and South America , and finally settled with his sister Amalia in San Juan , Puerto Rico , where she had opened a singing school .
Paoli spent the last 20 years of his life teaching voice and singing in San Juan , while also working for the establishment of a music conservatory in that city . He would not see this last dream come true , because he developed cancer and died at age 75 . He was buried in San Juan , but his remains were later transferred to a mausoleum in his birth town of Ponce .
= = Early years = =
Paoli ( birth name : Antonio Emilio Paoli y Marcano ) was born in Ponce , Puerto Rico . He was the son of Amalia Marcano Intriago , of Spanish ancestry , who was born on the island of Margarita , Venezuela , and of Domingo Paoli Marcatentti , from Corsica . Antonio Paoli 's parents met in Caracas , and immediately fell in love , however Amalia 's father , a rich landlord , was opposed to the relationship because of class differences , therefore the young couple escaped to the Dominican Republic without getting married and later returned to Puerto Rico . The couple established themselves in the city of Yauco , but later moved into a house , given to them by Amalia 's aunt , Teresa Intriago , located at one of the main arteries in the city of Ponce 's urban core , Calle Mayor ( Mayor Street ) , House # 14 . Ponce at the time was the financial and cultural capital of the island , thereby the ideal place for the initial cultural development of Paoli .
When Paoli was young , his parents would often take him to operas at Ponce 's La Perla Theater located a block away from Paoli 's residence . There , on one occasion he saw a performance of Giuseppe Verdi 's Il Trovatore by Italian tenor , Pietro Baccei , and at that moment knew what he wanted to do as an adult . His parents were very supportive of his ambition and guided him on this route during his youth , enrolling him in a school of " voice " directed by Ramon Marin . His sister Amalia was a soprano who performed at La Perla in Emilio Arrieta 's opera , Marina . In 1883 , when Paoli was only 12 years old , both his parents died and he went to live in Spain with his sister Amalia .
= = Debut = =
Amalia , who at that time was under the protective wing of Isabel de Borbón , Princess of Asturias , and sister of the King of Spain , Alfonso XII , was taking singing classes under Napoleon Verger . In 1884 , Amalia helped Paoli to obtain two scholarships from her Majesty Queen María Cristina , Queen Regent of Spain . Paoli started his studies at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial . Paoli entered Toledo 's Military Academy and in 1892 graduated with honors . He was assigned to the Queen 's escort and named personal custodian and guard of the child King Alfonso XIII . Paoli desired to continue singing and in 1897 went to study at the Academia de Canto La Scala in Milan , Italy . On April 26 , 1899 , he made his debut in Gioacchino Rossini 's opera William Tell in Paris , France . Paris newspapers commented on Paoli 's success and stated " We should declare Paoli the Tenor of France . "
= = World tours = =
Between 1900 and 1914 , Paoli performed in Europe , America , Africa , and Asia . He performed in Italy , Luxembourg and in the United Kingdom , with performances in London , Scotland , Edinburgh , and Brighton , closing the year with concerts in Corsica ( his father 's homeland ) and Turkey . In 1900 , he married Josephine Vetiska , an Austrian , in Vienna . From 1901 to 1902 , Paoli performed in the following countries : Argentina , Brazil , Canada , Chile , Colombia , Cuba , Haiti , Puerto Rico , Venezuela and the United States . Paoli purchased a villa in Porto Cereso , Lugano , Italy , where his son Antonio Arnaldo was born . After singing for King Alfonso XII and the Royal family in Spain , he returned to the United States and sang in various cities , among them New York , Boston , Philadelphia , Albany , Providence , Grand Rapids , New London , Detroit , Cleveland , Indianapolis , Buffalo , Pittsburg , Syracuse and Chicago .
In 1905 , Paoli performed at the Grand Theatre du Conservatoire in St. Petersburg , Russia . The Czar of Russia Nicholas II was present during one of the performances and after inviting Paoli to perform at the royal Winter Palace , awarded Paoli The Cross of St. Mauricio medal and bestowed upon him the title Cammer Sanger ( Chamber Singer ) .
On September 5 , 1907 , Paoli held a private recital for Pope Pius X at the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican . That same year he was named as a " Singer of the Royal Court " by William II of Germany . Paoli was also the first operatic artist to record an entire opera when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan , Italy . He was selected in 1907 , as the First Tenor in the main character by a team of engineers and musicians which included Leoncavallo . The recording was arranged in the following manner ; the musicians were placed at the end of the recording room and the back up singers in a semi @-@ arc in front of the gramophone while Paoli stood alone 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) away from the gramophone .
Paoli continued to perform around the world with performances in Greece , Palestine , Poland , Egypt , Spain and Italy , where he established his permanent residence . In 1910 , the singer was signed as the First Tenor by La Scala , Milan , the most prestigious opera company in the world at the time . Paoli received a contract to inaugurate Teatro Colón , in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he sang Otello and Di quella pira . He also performed in Russia , Poland , Egypt , Hungary , Belgium , Cuba , Chile , Haiti , Colombia , Venezuela , Brazil , Canada , and the United States .
= = Boxing career = =
By 1914 , just before the start of World War I , Paoli lost his voice and all of the major opera houses in Europe were shut down . Paoli moved to Spain , a neutral country in the conflict , leaving all his properties unattended in Italy . By 1915 , Paoli found himself without economic means as a result of his bad investments .
In order to make a living , Paoli became a professional boxer and after a period of training in Spain , he moved to England to start his new " career . " He was undefeated in his first five fights . He broke his right wrist on his sixth challenge , which ended his boxing career .
Paoli sold his properties in Italy and acquired a small country house in Spain . He stayed for a few months with his brother Carlos in the Philippines . Paoli was medically treating his vocal cords , and it was commented that his career was over , but he continued his singing exercises with his sister Amalia , who moved into his house in Spain .
= = Comeback = =
In January 1917 , Paoli returned to the stage and performed the opera Samson and Delilah at the Constanzi Theater in Rome . Elvira de Hidalgo , who later became the singing coach of Maria Callas , remembered that :
" No one suspected that Paoli was coming back to the stage ; we all knew that he had lost his voice . People were there to see him fail ; I saw some guys with tomatoes and rotten eggs , ready to throw them as soon as Paoli made his first mistake . But when he came out singing his initial aria , the public went crazy and stood up in a standing ovation . Paoli 's voice sounded like one of those trumpets that you expect to hear in the day of the final judgment . His debut was tremendous . He had to repeat twice every single aria that he performed that night , because the public furiously demanded it . He performed for seven consecutive nights with the theater at its maximum capacity . I attended every single function . Every night he sang better than the night before . I always dreamed to sing with Paoli , but I don 't think my voice was good or strong enough to sing with him . I think he was the greatest tenor ever . "
Paoli kept busy performing in Italy , South America and the United States . He returned to Puerto Rico in 1923 . At the time , Amalia Paoli was residing in San Juan ( in the ward of Santurce ) where she was running a singing school ( Academia Paoli ) . Antonio conducted a few performances around the island and then departed to sing at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , the Manhattan Opera House and the Metropolitan Opera House in Philadelphia . He had wanted to sing in the Metropolitan Opera House in New York , but apparently his competitor Enrico Caruso opposed this . Some attribute this to the fact that Caruso was a shareholder of the renowned opera house . From the U.S. , the tenor would visit Curaçao , Cuba , Colombia , Haiti and Ecuador .
= = Last years = =
Even with this busy agenda , Paoli 's financial situation remained strained . After living in New York City for almost the entire year of 1927 , Paoli decided to come back to Puerto Rico to live and work with his sister Amalia , giving voice lessons at the Academia Paoli . Paoli also helped produce Othello at the Municipal Theater in San Juan . For the next two decades Paoli 's main concern would be teaching at the Paoli Academy with Amalia . In 1928 , the tenor performed Verdi 's Otello entirely for the last time in San Juan , Puerto Rico . This was his last performance on stage . It took place at the San Juan Municipal Theater , known today as the Tapia Theater . In 1935 , the government of Puerto Rico named the San Juan Municipal Theater in his honor , changing its name to Teatro Paoli . In 1929 , his wife Josephine died and a year later he married Adelaida Bonini , from Rimini , Italy , and whom he affectionately called " Adina " . He gave his last singing performance in 1942 , while commemorating the one @-@ year anniversary of the death of his sister , Amalia Paoli . The service was conducted at the Chapel of the University of the Sacred Heart ( Santurce ) .
Paoli died of prostate cancer in San Juan on August 24 , 1946 , and was buried in the Puerto Rico Memorial Cemetery in Carolina , Puerto Rico . On April 13 , 2005 , Paoli 's remains , and those of his ( second ) wife Adina Bonini ( who had died in May , 1978 ) were exhumed and transferred to Ponce 's Román Baldorioty de Castro National Pantheon and buried by the base of his statue .
= = Honors , accolades , and legacy = =
In Antonio Paoli , Puerto Rico had the first Puerto Rican to reach international recognition in the performing arts . He gave 1 @,@ 725 performances between 1888 and 1942 and interpreted Verdi 's Otello 575 times . To his credit , Paoli was also the first opera singer in the world to record an entire opera when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Italy in 1907 .
As early as 1904 , Paoli was awarded The Cross of St. Mauricio medal by the Czar of Russia Nicholas II , and María Cristina de Habsburgo , Queen of Spain , declared Paoli Cantante de Cámara de la Corte ( Chamber Singer of the Court ) and gave him La Gran Cruz de Isabel la Católica ( The Cross of Isabella the Catholic ) , while Carlos de Braganza , Prince of Portugal , named him Caballero Comendador del Cristo de Portugal y Cantante de Cámara . Just two years later , in 1906 , the same title of Cammer Sanger ( Chamber Singer of the Court ) was given to Paoli by Franz Joseph , Emperor of Austria , and in 1907 he was decorated by Carlos I of Braganza .
In 1909 , Paoli received La Cruz de Alfonso II from Alfonso XIII , King of Spain , and was declared ’ ’ Honor Singer of the Vatican ’ ’ by Pope Pius X. In 1910 , he was honored with the title of Hijo Predilecto de España ( Favorite Son of Spain ) , while in 1911 , Wilhelm II , Kaiser of Germany , declared Paoli ’ ’ Kammer Sanger of the Empire ’ ’ , and in 1912 , Paoli received a protocol @-@ breaking standing ovation from the Austro @-@ Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph when Paoli sang Lohengrin in Vienna . In 1920 , the tenor was knighted by Vittorio Emmanuelle III , King of Italy , making him Cavaliere De La Corona Italiana and Commendatore Dell Popolo Romano ( Knight of the Italian Crown and Commandant of the Roman People ) .
Though he did not see it happen during his lifetime , Puerto Rico also built the Music Conservatory , something for which Paoli had worked so hard to establish . This dream was finally realized shortly after his death . In San Juan 's " Centro de Bellas Artes " there is also a 1 @,@ 883 @-@ seat " Antonio Paoli Festival Hall . " San Juan 's Municipal Theater was also renamed Teatro Paoli in his honor in 1935 . In recognition of his fame and talent , the government of Puerto Rico also awarded Paoli a pension in 1934 .
In 1983 , the non @-@ profit " Paoli Award " was created . This award honors the effort , work , and success of outstanding professionals in the various arts and media , including music and recording , television , radio , written communication , fashion , and beauty . Originally designated to recognize the outstanding achievements of Puerto Ricans , the Paoli Award has branched out internationally , and since 1992 it also includes Hispanics and Latin Americans from around the world .
On October 9 , 2009 , the Government of the United States listed Casa Paoli in Antonio Paoli 's hometown of Ponce , Puerto Rico , in the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . The house , Antonio 's childhood house in Puerto Rico , is Paoli 's only remaining residencial structure in Puerto Rico .
Among other honors bestowed on Paoli after his death are a music school named in his honor ( " Escuela Libre de Música Antonio Paoli " ) , in the city of Caguas , Puerto Rico , and in his hometown of Ponce , there is a theater at the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico , Ponce named in his memory , Teatro Paoli .
Paoli has also been the subject of many books written about his life and influence . Included is the work by Emilio J. Pasarell titled " Orígenes y desarrollo de la afición teatral en Puerto Rico " ( Origins and development of the theatrical pursuit in Puerto Rico ) where he describes the life of Paoli in detail .
= = Discography = =
The following are part of Antonio Paoli 's discography :
Antonio Paoli . ( 2000 )
Great Voices . ( 1999 )
Antonio Paoli in arias from Otello . ( 1998 )
Leoncavallo : Pagliacci . ( 1996 )
Serie Artistas Célebres No. 1 : Edición del Centenario del Tenor Antonio Paoli . Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña ( 1971 )
|
= Street Fighter X Mega Man =
Street Fighter X Mega Man , also known as Street Fighter X Rockman ( ストリートファイター X ロックマン , Sutorīto Faitā Kurosu Rokkuman ) in Japan , is a crossover platform game created by Singaporean fan developer Seow Zong Hui . Initially developed as a fan game , Street Fighter X Mega Man later received support from Capcom , who assisted in the production of the game . Street Fighter X Mega Man was released as a free download from Capcom Unity on December 17 , 2012 . It celebrates the 25th anniversary of both Capcom 's Mega Man and Street Fighter franchises . Gameplay mimicks the design of classic Mega Man games with Street Fighter characters substituting as important enemies encountered in the game . The game received mixed to positive reviews by critics , with some common complaints relating to lack of a save feature and other bugs . In response to the complaints , an update was released on January 28 , 2013 titled Street Fighter X Mega Man V2 , which added a password save feature and other fixes .
= = Premise and gameplay = =
Street Fighter X Mega Man mimics the appearance and gameplay style of Mega Man games released on the Nintendo Entertainment System . The game 's premise and plot center around its status as a crossover video game and the respective anniversaries of both franchises . Having fought countless Robot Masters over the years , Mega Man is ready to lie back , relax and enjoy his 25th anniversary . Getting wind of this , Ryu and his fellow Street Fighters want one last battle before they let their own anniversary finish . In terms of gameplay , Mega Man uses the same set of moves ( the slide and the charge shot ) featured in Mega Man 4 . Instead of using stages based on Mega Man and using Robot Masters as level bosses , the stages share influences from the Street Fighter franchise stages and characters such as Blanka , Chun @-@ Li , and Ryu take the place of the Robot Masters as the end of level bosses . The Street Fighter characters use their signature moves as attacks ; in addition , they have their own Super Meters that build up when they take damage during the boss fights and allow them to launch a powerful attack at Mega Man once filled . Like other Mega Man games , defeating each boss earns Mega Man a new weapon based on the characters ' attacks , such as Ryu 's Hadouken and Chun @-@ Li 's Hyakuretsu Kyaku . After clearing the eight main levels , the player then moves on to face the final set of bosses . Clearing certain conditions unveils two secret hidden bosses at the end of the game .
= = Development = =
The game began as the private development of Seow Zong Hui who presented an early build to Christian Svensson , Capcom 's Senior VP of consumer software , at EVO 2012 . Svensson showed the build to several staff members in the Capcom office ( including senior community manager Brett Elston ) , and Capcom later decided to assist in the development of the game . While Zong Hui continued to develop the game based on his original design , Capcom took over tasks such as funding , marketing , and quality assurance . Capcom decided to distribute the game on PC instead of gaming consoles because Zong Hui did not have a license for console development . Svensson has noted that Capcom will consider console releases in the future , but chose to initially distribute the game on PC to keep the game free for fans and meet its December 17 target release date .
Zong Hui noted several concepts that were scrapped during development . Yang was originally planned as a boss character but was ultimately replaced by Chun @-@ Li . His special weapon is still included in the game via cheat codes . Zong Hui also wanted to include alternate costumes for boss characters and a second playable character from the Street Fighter franchise .
Following release , there were several complaints about the game crashing , having a vague user interface , and lacking any save system . In response to these complaints , Svensson noted that a patch was being discussed with the development team to address these issues in a future update . The update boasts an improved user interface , better controller compatibility , bug fixes , a password save system reminiscent of the original Mega Man games on the Nintendo Entertainment System , and an additional boss character . The updated version was released on January 1 , 2013 under the name , Street Fighter X Mega Man V2 .
= = = Music = = =
Chiptune artist Luke Esquivel ( " A _ Rival " ) composed the music for the game . Esquivel became involved when he approached Zong Hui via YouTube and requested to being full @-@ time musician for the game in 2009 / 2010 after comparing his music with Zong Hui 's previous musician . When composing the music for Street Fighter X Mega Man , Esquivel combined Mega Man themes with Street Fighter themes on certain songs . In other songs , he would use elements from various Mega Man songs in order not to break the cohesion of the original soundtrack . Esquivel based most of the sounds on the first two Mega Man games , but had also used sounds from Mega Man 3 , 4 , and 5 . Esquivel also added original compositions within several songs including two completely original compositions : " Willy Map Theme " and the beginning of the " Ending " theme . The soundtrack blends popular themes from both franchises together ( such as mixing Snake Man 's theme from Mega Man 3 with Dhalsim 's theme from Street Fighter II ) . The official soundtrack titled Street Fighter X Mega Man OST was released for free on Esquivel 's website on December 18 , 2012 . An EP with a total of four tracks titled Street Fighter X Mega Man X @-@ tended Vol . 1 was released on February 8 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Two days after release , Capcom Senior VP Christian Svensson commented on the official Capcom website , Capcom @-@ Unity , that the game has exceeded his personal expectations in terms of downloads , but no exact numbers have been released . Capcom 's Senior Community Manager , Brett Elston , noted that the amount of downloads during release was enough to cause significant strain on their servers . By March 3 , 2013 , the game had been downloaded one million times .
Street Fighter X Mega Man has been met with mostly mixed to positive reviews . Cheat Code Central gave the game a 4 @.@ 1 out of 5 , praising the nostalgic feel the game has , but criticized the lack of a save feature . Game Informer gave the game an 8 out of 10 , summarizing that " Street Fighter X Mega Man pales in comparison to the rest of the classic entries , but it ’ s still a wonderful test of the waters for newcomers and a charming experiment for lifelong fans . " Inside Gaming Daily gave the game an 8 out of 10 , stating , " Though it ’ s short and strays away a bit from traditional Mega Man games , Street Fighter X Mega Man is a great play that you honestly have little reason not to experience . " IGN gave the game a 7 out of 10 , noting that " The end result is a fine game that Mega Man fans will enjoy once or twice , but one without that special something that would allow it to rise to the greatness Mega Man so regularly reached in its heyday . " Destructoid echoed similar opinions stating , " Street Fighter X Mega Man is not the best or most polished Mega Man game around , but it 's a solid effort by a very dedicated fan . " Game Industry News gave it a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 with mixed review stating , " It combines two of Capcom 's greatest games in history into one nostalgic mash up that is sure to take fans on a trip down memory lane while still feeling fresh . Unfortunately though , the lack of challenge or the ability to continue progress after shutting down the game only hinders Street Fighter X Mega Man from being the perfect jewel it could have been . " Edge however gave the game a 5 out of 10 , noting " inconsistent level design and limited functionality " as the game 's biggest flaws .
|
= SMS Hertha =
SMS Hertha was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1890s . Hertha was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895 , launched in April 1897 , and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898 . The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Hertha served abroad in the German East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career ; she served briefly as the Squadron flagship in 1900 . She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . After returning to Germany in 1905 , she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1908 , following the completion of the refit . She conducted a series of training cruises , and several notable officers served aboard the ship as cadets , including Karl Dönitz and Ernst Lindemann . At the outbreak of World War I , Hertha was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Hertha was ordered under the contract name " K " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1895 . She was launched on 14 April 1897 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 23 July 1898 . The ship was 110 @.@ 6 meters ( 363 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ; 7 @,@ 155 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Hertha also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
Hertha served as a colonial cruiser after she was completed , starting in 1899 . After arriving on the East Asia station , she temporarily served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Felix von Bendemann , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , which included the cruisers Hansa , Gefion , Irene , and Kaiserin Augusta . After the new armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck reached the Asia station , she relieved Hertha as the Squadron flagship .
As part of the East Asia Squadron during the Boxer Rebellion , the ship made a noteworthy contribution in the Battle of the Taku Forts . In June 1900 , Hertha , along with Hansa , Gefion , and Irene landed detachments of Seebataillone ( marines ) to seize the Taku Forts . The marines joined detachments sent from warships of several other countries . A total of around 450 German troops were contributed to the multi @-@ national force , which totaled around 2 @,@ 200 officers and men . During the attack on the forts , Hertha 's commanding officer was shot and killed . In September , Hertha carried Alfred von Waldersee to Shanghai , arriving on the 21st , where he took command of the international forces suppressing the rebellion .
Hertha was detached from the East Asia Squadron and returned to Germany in 1905 . In 1906 , she went to dry dock at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig for a refit , during which she was re @-@ boilered . Hertha originally had three stacks , and during the modernization they were trunked into two funnels . The refit was finished by 1908 , at which point Hertha became a cadet training ship ; several prominent naval officers trained aboard the ship during this period . In September – October 1909 , Hertha , Victoria Louise , Dresden , and Bremen traveled to the United States to represent Germany during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration .
In 1910 , Karl Dönitz , the future commander of the Kriegsmarine during World War II , served as a cadet on Hertha for a year . The ship cruised in the western Mediterranean in the autumn of 1912 , along with her sister Vineta . The old cruiser Geier was also in the region . The future commander of the battleship Bismarck , Ernst Lindemann , served aboard the ship as a cadet in 1913 . The ship conducted a training cruise in the Baltic and North Seas in late May to early July , stopping in a number of foreign ports , including Stockholm , Visby , and Bergen . The ship then embarked on a seven month training cruise into the Atlantic Ocean ; during the voyage , Hertha called on numerous ports , including Vera Cruz , Mexico , Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti , Kingston , Jamaica , and Halifax , Canada . The cruise lasted from mid @-@ August 1913 to mid @-@ March 1914 .
Hertha had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , she was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was then put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and employed as a barracks ship for the seaplane base in Flensburg . She was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers in Audorf @-@ Rendsburg . She was scrapped the following year .
|
= Tom Hiddleston =
Thomas William Hiddleston ( born 9 February 1981 ) is an English actor . At the beginning of his career , he appeared in West End theatre productions of Cymbeline ( 2007 ) and Ivanov ( 2008 ) . He won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play for his role in Cymbeline and was also nominated for the same award for his role as Cassio in Othello .
He came to wider public attention when cast as Loki in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , appearing in Thor ( 2011 ) , The Avengers ( 2012 ) , and Thor : The Dark World ( 2013 ) . In 2011 , he won the Empire Award for Best Male Newcomer and was nominated for the BAFTA Rising Star Award . Hiddleston has also appeared in Steven Spielberg 's War Horse ( 2011 ) , The Deep Blue Sea ( 2011 ) , Woody Allen 's romantic comedy Midnight in Paris ( 2011 ) , the 2012 BBC series Henry IV and Henry V , and the romantic vampire film Only Lovers Left Alive ( 2013 ) .
In late 2013 and early 2014 , Hiddleston starred as the title character in the Donmar Warehouse production of Coriolanus , winning the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actor . In 2015 , he starred in Guillermo del Toro 's Crimson Peak , Ben Wheatley 's High Rise , and played the troubled country music singer Hank Williams in the biopic I Saw The Light . In 2016 , he starred in the limited series The Night Manager , for which he is nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie .
= = Early life and education = =
Hiddleston was born in Westminster , London . He is the son of Diana Patricia ( née Servaes ) Hiddleston , an arts administrator and former stage manager , and James Norman Hiddleston , a physical chemist . His father is from Greenock , Scotland and his mother is from Suffolk , England . His younger sister , Emma , is also an actress , whilst his older sister , Sarah , is a journalist in India . Through his mother , he is a great @-@ grandson of Vice Admiral Reginald Servaes , and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of food producer Sir Edmund Vestey .
He was raised in Wimbledon in his early years , and later moved to a Cotswold village near Oxford . He attended the Dragon School preparatory school in Oxford , and his parents divorced when he was 12 . When discussing his parents ' divorce in an interview with The Daily Telegraph , he stated : " I like to think it made me more compassionate in my understanding of human frailty " .
At the age of 13 , Hiddleston began boarding at Eton College . He continued on to Pembroke College at the University of Cambridge , where he earned a double first in Classics . During his second term at Cambridge , he was seen in a production of A Streetcar Named Desire by talent agent Lorraine Hamilton , of Hamilton Hodell . He proceeded to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , from which he graduated in 2005 .
= = Career = =
= = = 2001 @-@ 2010 : Early work = = =
While still doing student plays , Hiddleston began doing television , landing parts in Stephen Whittaker 's adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby ( 2001 ) for ITV , the BBC / HBO co @-@ production Conspiracy ( 2001 ) , and as Randolph Churchill , the son of Winston Churchill , in the BBC / HBO drama The Gathering Storm ( 2002 ) .
Upon graduating from RADA , Hiddleston was cast in his first film role , playing Oakley in Joanna Hogg 's first feature , Unrelated ( 2006 ) . His sister Emma also appeared in the film as Badge . Casting director , Lucy Bevan , who cast him in the film said " there was just a fantastic confidence about him " . Hiddleston had leading roles in Declan Donnellan 's company Cheek by Jowl 's productions The Changeling ( 2006 ) , and Cymbeline ( 2007 ) . For the latter he won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play . His Donmar Warehouse credits include Cassio in Michael Grandage 's production of Shakespeare 's Othello ( 2008 ) alongside Chiwetel Ejiofor and Ewan McGregor and later Lvov in their West End revival of Chekhov 's Ivanov ( 2008 ) with Kenneth Branagh .
Hiddleston was the voiceover for BBC 's documentary on the Galapagos Island in 2006 . He also narrated the audiobook The Red Necklace by Sally Gardner in 2007 @,@
Hiddleston also appeared in the leading role of Edward in Hogg 's second feature , Archipelago ( 2010 ) . His TV credits include Magnus Martinsson in the BBC detective drama Wallander ( 2008 ) , Bill Hazledine in Suburban Shootout ( 2006 ) , John Plumptre in the BBC costume drama TV film Miss Austen Regrets ( 2008 ) and William Buxton in the BBC drama series Return to Cranford ( 2009 ) . In 2007 , he joined a list of British actors , including Kate Winslet and Orlando Bloom , to have guest starred in the long @-@ running medical drama Casualty .
= = = 2011 @-@ 2014 : Career breakthrough = = =
Hiddleston is well known for his portrayal of Loki in the 2011 Marvel Studios film , Thor . He was invited to audition by Kenneth Branagh , the film 's director , after having previously worked with Branagh on Ivanov and Wallander . Hiddleston said of Branagh , " Ken has had a life @-@ changing effect . He was able to say to the executives , ' Trust me on this , you can cast Tom and he will deliver ' . It was massive and it 's completely changed the course of what is available to me to do . Ken gave me my break . " In the beginning , he originally auditioned for the part of Thor . " I initially auditioned to play Thor . That was what I was being considered for , because I 'm tall and blonde and classically trained , and that seemed to be the mold for what Thor was , he was to be a classical character . And it was in my auditions . I owe this entirely to Marvel and their open @-@ mindedness , they saw something that they thought was interesting . They saw some temperament that they liked . " The casting director gave Hiddleston six weeks to bulk up , so he went on a strict diet and gained twenty pounds of muscle . In the end , Branagh decided he was more suitable as the antagonist and cast him as Loki . To prepare for his role as Loki , Hiddleston trained in the Brazilian martial art of capoeira .
Hiddleston appeared with Benedict Cumberbatch , Gemma Arterton , Eddie Redmayne and Rose Byrne among others in Danny Boyle 's one time production of The Children 's Monologues in November 2010 where he played Prudence , a young girl upset with her mother for her father leaving and excited for her birthday . The play was a one time event of adapted stories of children 's first @-@ hand experiences in South Africa being re @-@ interpreted by and performed by various actors .
Also in 2011 Hiddleston portrayed novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald in writer @-@ director Woody Allen 's Midnight in Paris , the noble Captain Nicholls in War Horse , a film based on the 1982 novel by Michael Morpurgo , directed by Steven Spielberg , and Freddie Page , a RAF pilot in the drama The Deep Blue Sea , alongside Rachel Weisz . In 2012 , he reprised his role as the supervillain Loki in The Avengers . While filming a scene with Chris Hemsworth , who plays Thor , the film 's director , Joss Whedon told the fighting duo that the scene did not look real enough , so Hiddleston told Hemsworth to really hit him for the fight scene . " I said to Chris , ' Dude , just hit me . Just hit me because I 'm protected here and it 's fine . ' He 's like , ' Are you sure ? ' I was like , ' Yeah , it will look great . Just go for it . ' "
Hiddleston provided the voiceover the Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead in 2011 and poetry for iF Poems and The Love Book on iTunes in 2012 .
On television in 2012 Hiddleston appeared in the BBC Two series The Hollow Crown , portraying Prince Hal opposite Jeremy Irons as Henry IV in the adaptation of Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part I and Part II . He later as appeared as King Henry V in the television film Henry V. In 2013 , Hiddleston played Loki again in Thor : The Dark World , following which he played a vampire , Adam , in Jim Jarmusch 's film Only Lovers Left Alive with Tilda Swinton as Eve and Mia Wasikowska .
From December 2013 to February 2014 , Hiddleston played the title character in William Shakespeare 's Coriolanus at the Donmar Warehouse in Covent Garden directed by Josie Rourke . It was also aired live internationally on 30 January 2014 . David Benedict of Variety praised a " scorching " performance.He had a cameo in the 2014 film Muppets Most Wanted , as the Great Escapo .
= = = 2015 @-@ present : Varied roles = = =
Hiddleston replaced Benedict Cumberbatch in the gothic horror film Crimson Peak , directed by Guillermo del Toro . The film started filming in Toronto in February 2014 , and was released in October 2015 . Upcoming roles include Robert Laing in the film adaptation of J. G. Ballard 's novel High Rise , directed by Ben Wheatley . The film started shooting in Northern Ireland in July 2014 .
In January 2014 , Hiddleston became a spokesperson for Jaguar Cars in their " Good to be Bad " ad campaign featuring British actors in villain @-@ themed commercials to promote Jaguars new models . The first commercial of the campaign , titled " Rendezvous " , first aired during the 2014 Super Bowl and featured Hiddleston along with Mark Strong and Ben Kingsley .
In April 2014 , Hiddleston starred in another commercial in the campaign , titled " The Art of Villainy " . It was released on YouTube , promoting the F @-@ Type coupe . However , the Advertising Standards Authority received complaints about the video " encouraging irresponsible driving " . Jaguar Land Rover said that in the ad , when the car did leave the car park , it " accelerated briefly " and that police were present at filming to confirm the speed limit was not breached but the ASA ruled against it and banned the commercial .
It was announced in June 2014 that Hiddleston will play country music singer Hank Williams in the upcoming biopic I Saw the Light , based on the 1994 biography . It will be directed by Marc Abraham and is set to start shooting in Louisiana in October 2014 . Legendary Pictures announced in September 2014 that Hiddleston would star in the upcoming King Kong film Kong : Skull Island . It is set to be released on 10 March 2017 and will be directed by Jordan Vogt @-@ Roberts . He is also set to reprise his role as Loki in Thor : Ragnarok , scheduled for release on 3 November 2017 , as well as Avengers : Infinity War – Part 1 ( 2018 ) and Part 2 ( 2019 ) .
Hiddleston was one of the narrators in the 2015 documentary Unity directed by Shaun Monson .
Hiddleston appears as Jonathan Pine in the television mini @-@ series The Night Manager based on the espionage and detective novel of the same name by John le Carré . The series started filming in Spring 2015 and is currently airing on AMC with Hugh Laurie also starring .
= = Personal life = =
Hiddleston was one of the celebrities , including Benedict Cumberbatch , Jo Brand , E. L. James and Rachel Riley , to design and sign his own card for the UK @-@ based charity Thomas Coram Foundation for Children . The campaign was launched by crafting company Stampin ' Up ! UK and the cards were auctioned off on eBay during May 2014 . He is also a supporter of the humanitarian and developmental assistance fund group UNICEF . He travelled to Guinea in early 2013 to help women and children and raise awareness about hunger and malnutrition . Hiddleston is a self @-@ described feminist .
In July 2016 , Hiddleston confirmed he is in a relationship with American singer Taylor Swift .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = = Video game = = =
= = = Radio = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
|
= Grey 's raid =
In September 1778 , as part of British operations in the American Revolutionary War , Major General Charles Grey raided the Massachusetts communities of New Bedford , Fairhaven and Martha 's Vineyard . The raid was one of the first in a series between 1778 and 1781 executed by the British against American coastal communities .
Originally intended as a relief force for the British garrison that was briefly besieged at Newport , Rhode Island , Grey 's force of 4 @,@ 000 arrived after the Americans had already retreated , and was diverted for raiding by General Sir Henry Clinton . On September 5 and 6 Grey raided New Bedford and Fairhaven , only encountering significant resistance in Fairhaven . His troops destroyed storehouses , shipping , and supplies in New Bedford , where they met with light resistance from the local militia , and did less damage at Fairhaven , where militia resistance had time to organize . He then sailed for Martha 's Vineyard , which was undefended . Between September 10 and 15 its residents surrendered 10 @,@ 000 head of sheep and 300 oxen , as well as most of the island 's weapons .
= = Background = =
In December 1776 British forces occupied Newport , Rhode Island . American forces in New England were not strong enough to dislodge the garrison there , which was also supported by Royal Navy vessels that used Newport as a base . This situation changed in 1778 , following the entry of France into the war , when the French and Americans agreed to embark on joint operations against the British . The French sent a fleet under the command of the comte d 'Estaing to provide troops and naval support that arrived off New York City in July 1778 . Finding the port well defended and believing its bar to be too shallow for his largest ships to cross , d 'Estaing sailed instead for Newport , where he and General John Sullivan prepared to besiege the British garrison .
In response to the threat to Newport , General Sir Henry Clinton ordered 4 @,@ 000 men under General Charles Grey to prepare for transport to Rhode Island while Admiral Lord Richard Howe sailed from New York to oppose d 'Estaing . D 'Estaing sailed out of Newport harbor on August 10 , preparing to do battle with Howe . As the fleets maneuvered for position , a storm arose that scattered and damaged both fleets . D 'Estaing decided then to abandon Newport , and sailed for Boston to make repairs . General Sullivan had by then already begun siege operations against Newport without French assistance , which prompted Clinton to order Grey 's force to sail for Newport on August 26 . Clinton accompanied the force , which made slow progress due to contrary winds . By the time they arrived at Newport on September 1 , the Americans had not only been put on the defensive , but had retreated from the island after the inconclusive August 29 Battle of Rhode Island .
Rather than disembark Grey 's troops at Newport , Clinton decided to pursue other objectives . His orders , issued in March 1778 , included instructions to raid coastal communities , destroying shipbuilding facilities and supplies . Acting on this idea , he ordered the fleet to sail to New London , Connecticut , a potential raiding site . Finding too few ships there to bother with a landing , Clinton ordered Grey to " proceed without loss of time to the eastward " to raid New Bedford and Fairhaven on the Massachusetts mainland , and the island of Martha 's Vineyard .
= = New Bedford and Fairhaven = =
Early on September 4 , Grey 's fleet , led by the Royal Navy frigate Carysfort under Captain Robert Fanshawe , sailed for Buzzard 's Bay . En route they encountered Lord Howe 's fleet ; the earl agreed to remain near Block Island until the raids were completed . Arriving in Buzzard 's Bay that afternoon , the Carysfort had the misfortune to twice strike rocks ; fortunately , neither incident was serious , and the fleet proceeded up the Acushnet River toward New Bedford and Fairhaven . That evening , Grey landed his troops at Clark 's Point on the west bank of the river . They spent the night and the next morning destroying vessels , warehouses , and wharves " in the whole Extent of the Accushnet River " . Many of the ships destroyed were prizes captured by privateers operating out of the two towns . The conflagration caused by the fires they lit also destroyed homes and houses of worship , and was bright enough that it was seen in Newport , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . During the evening the 38 @-@ man artillery garrison , manning a small fort on the Fairhaven side of the river ( today known as Fort Phoenix ) , fired on the British ships , then spiked the fort 's guns and abandoned it , leaving their colors flying . The British briefly returned fire , and then destroyed the fort 's guns .
Grey 's troops marched around the head of the Acushnet River to the eastern banks and camped . The next day they reembarked on their boats , but General Grey decided that Fairhaven should also be raided . In the meantime , militia were beginning to arrive to defend Fairhaven , with Major Israel Fearing taking command from an elderly colonel who was reluctant to pursue an active defense . When the British approached Fairhaven on the morning of September 6 , Fearing arrayed about 150 men between the village and their landing point . After setting fire to a few nearby buildings the British headed for the village . At this point Fearing 's men unleashed a withering volley of musket fire , and the British precipitately retreated to their boats .
= = Martha 's Vineyard = =
Dispatching his aide , Captain John André , to New York to request transports for livestock , Grey then set sail for Martha 's Vineyard . Contrary winds slowed the fleet 's progress , and it did not reach the harbor at Holmes Hole ( present @-@ day Vineyard Haven ) until September 10 . Because of the bad winds , Grey abandoned the idea of raiding Nantucket , and focused on acquiring livestock on Martha 's Vineyard .
A deputation of three citizens came to the Carysfort to see what the British wanted , and Grey made his demands : he wanted the militia 's weapons , any public funds , 300 oxen , and 10 @,@ 000 sheep . He threatened to land his troops and seize these items if they were not delivered up by the defenseless islanders . After two days , the islanders had driven 6 @,@ 000 sheep and 130 oxen to the fleet . Not satisfied with this progress , Grey landed small contingents of troops on September 12 to accelerate the process and to destroy vessels found in the area . By the 14th he had received all 10 @,@ 000 sheep and 300 oxen , as well as local militia arms and £ 950 intended as a tax payment for the Second Continental Congress . Grey sailed from Martha 's Vineyard on September 15 , and reached New York City two days later .
An glimpse into Grey 's Raid on Martha 's Vineyard is provided in the below section from " The History of Martha 's Vineyard , " by Henry Franklin Norton :
September 10 , 1778 , General Grey in command of a transport of eighty @-@ two sails and ten thousand British troops made a raid upon the Vineyard , carrying off all the sheep , swine , cattle and oxen that could be found . To oppose this wholesale spoliation the " Islanders " had no power so they submitted in sullen and despairing silence , at times even assisting to drive away the captured flocks , hoping thereby to prevent still greater waste and outrage . A very good idea of this period is given in the diary of Colonel Beriah Norton , which reads as follows :
" September 10th . -- Gen. Grey commanding a detachment of his Majesty 's army arrived at Martha 's Vineyard , when I waited on him on shipboard . Agreed to deliver him 10 @,@ 000 sheep , 300 head of cattle ; the General informed me that payment would be made for the same if they were not resisted . The General then required the stock to be brought to the landing the next day , which was punctually complied with .
" September 11th . - This day the troops landed under the command of Col. Sterling . Said Sterling then informed me that Gen. Grey had directed him to assure me that the whole stock would be paid for if they came down according to the conversation of the evening before . Sterling then informed me that a person must be appointed to appraise the stock before they would take any on shipboard . To which I agreed and we jointly agreed to . I did appoint proper persons to do that business ; who were sworn by me to do their duty faithfully by the request of Col. Sterling . The stock was by this time coming down to the landing and was taken on board to the amount of 10 @,@ 000 sheep and 312 head of cattle .
" September 14th . - Col. Sterling then informed me and other inhabitants of the island that he had a message to deliver to the people . Then he recommended them to meet in a field for there was not room for them in doors , accordingly they met to the amount of several hundred . He informed us that we were to apply to New York for payment for the stock that they had received . I asked the Colonel if we best send a man in the fleet at this time for the payment to which the Colonel replied , we might if we chose but he recommended us to wait a little time before application was made .
" September 15th . -- The fleet sailed for New York . "
It must seem to the reader that this Colonel Beriah Norton was a traitor to his own people , but what could he do but give in to Grey 's command ! Grey had the force and the power and could have destroyed the towns on the island in half a day , and would have done so if they had resisted in any way . In the diary , September 12th and 13th are omitted . Those were the days when the British troops were ravaging the island from Edgartown to Gay Head .
A man was sent to New York to receive payment for the stock , but Grey had forgotten that he had ever stopped at Martha 's Vineyard . Colonel Beriah Norton made two special trips to London for the same purpose , and at one time he was given a hearing in Parliament . Very little was accomplished in these two trips to England .
= = Aftermath = =
Grey 's report on the expedition lists one man killed , four wounded , and sixteen missing . He reported that the defenders had four men killed ; he also took sixteen prisoners in New Bedford to exchange for his missing . The raid was followed others ( not led by Grey ) : one against Little Egg Harbor , New Jersey in October 1778 , and two in 1779 against communities on Chesapeake Bay and the Connecticut shore . In 1781 a raiding expedition led by turncoat General Benedict Arnold began the decisive Yorktown campaign in Virginia ; Arnold also led another raid in September 1781 against New London and Groton , Connecticut ( not far from where he grew up ) that was notorious for its severity .
In New Bedford eleven houses , 21 shops , 34 ships of various size , and one ropewalk were destroyed , along with goods and naval stores . Estimates of the damage done there and at Fairhaven ranged from £ 20 @,@ 000 to nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 , most coming in damage to ships and goods . The residents of Martha 's Vineyard petitioned for compensation in excess of £ 10 @,@ 000 due to the losses incurred in the raid . General Clinton 's successor , Sir Guy Carleton made payment of £ 3 @,@ 000 against these claims .
The fort at the mouth of the Acushnet River was rebuilt and named Fort Phoenix . It was manned in the War of 1812 , and is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
|
= Global Climate Coalition =
The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 – 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .
= = Founding = =
The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) was formed in 1989 as a project under the auspices of the National Association of Manufacturers . The GCC was formed to represent the interests of the major producers and users of fossil fuels , to oppose regulation to mitigate global warming , and to challenge the science behind global warming . Context for the founding of the GCC from 1988 included the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and NASA climatologist James Hansen 's congressional testimony that climate change was occurring . The government affairs ' offices of five or six corporations recognized that they had been inadequately organized for the Montreal Protocol , the international treaty that phased out ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons , and the Clean Air Act in the United States , and recognized that fossil fuels would be targeted for regulation .
According to GCC 's mission statement on the home page of its website , GCC was established : " to coordinate business participation in the international policy debate on the issue of global climate change and global warming , " and GCC 's executive director in a 1993 press release said GCC was organized " as the leading voice for industry on the global climate change issue . "
GCC reorganized independently in 1992 , with the first chairman of the board of directors being the director of government relations for the Phillips Petroleum Company . Exxon was a founding member , and a founding member of the GCC 's board of directors . Exxon , and later ExxonMobil , had a leadership role in coalition . The American Petroleum Institute ( API ) was a leading member of the coalition . API 's executive vice president was a chairman of the coalition 's board of directors . Other GCC founding members included the National Coal Association , United States Chamber of Commerce , American Forest & Paper Association , and Edison Electric Institute . GCC 's executive director John Shleas was previously the director of government relations at the Edison Electric Institute . GCC was run by Ruder Finn , a public relations firm .
GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy . About 40 companies and industry associations were GCC members . Considering member corporations , member trade associations , and business represented by member trade associations , GCC represented over 230 @,@ 000 businesses . Industry sectors represented included : aluminium , paper , transportation , power generation , petroleum , chemical , and small businesses . All the major oil companies were members . GCC members were from industries that would have been adversely effected by limitations on fossil fuel consumption . GCC was funded by membership dues .
= = Advocacy activities = =
GCC was one of the most powerful lobbyist groups against action to mitigate global warming . It was the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations , and led a campaign opposed to policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The GCC was one of the most powerful non @-@ governmental organizations representing business interests in climate policy , according to Kal Raustiala , professor at the UCLA School of Law .
GCC 's advocacy activities included lobbying government officials , grassroots lobbying through press releases and advertising , participation in international climate conferences , criticism of the processes of international climate organizations , critiques of climate models , and personal attacks on scientists and environmentalists . Policy positions advocated by the coalition included denial of anthropogenic climate change , emphasizing the uncertainty in climatology , advocating for additional research , highlighting the benefits and downplaying the risks of climate change , stressing the priority of economic development , defending national sovereignty , and opposition to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .
GCC sent delegations to all of the major international climate conventions . Only nations and non @-@ profits may send official delegates to the United Nations Climate Change conferences . GCC registered with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as a non @-@ governmental organization , and executives from GCC members attended official UN conferences as GCC delegates .
In 1990 , after U. S. President George H. W. Bush addressed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) urging caution in responding to global warming , and offering no new proposals , GCC said Bush 's speech was " very strong " and concurred with the priorities of economic development and additional research . GCC sent 30 attendees to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , where it lobbied to keep targets and timetables out of the Framework Convention on Climate Change . In December , 1992 GCC 's executive director wrote in a letter to The New York Times : " ... there is considerable debate on whether or not man @-@ made greenhouse gases ( produced primarily by burning fossil fuels ) are triggering a dangerous ' global warming ' trend . " In 1992 GCC distributed a half @-@ hour video entitled The Greening of Planet Earth , to hundreds of journalists , the White House , and several Middle Eastern oil @-@ producing countries , which suggested that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide could boost crop yields and solve world hunger .
In 1993 , after U. S. President Bill Clinton pledged " to reducing our emissions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 levels by the year 2000 , " GCC 's executive director said it " could jeopardize the economic health of the nation . " GCC 's lobbying was key to the defeat in the United States Senate of Clinton 's 1993 BTU tax proposal . In 1994 , after United States Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O 'Leary said the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change needed to be strengthened , and that voluntary carbon dioxide reductions may not be enough , GCC said it was : " disturbed by the implication that the President 's voluntary climate action plan , which is just getting under way , will be inadequate and that more stringent measures may be needed domestically . "
GCC did not fund original scientific research and its climate claims relied largely on the World Climate Review and its successor the World Climate Report edited by Patrick Michaels and funded by the Western Fuels Association . GCC promoted the views of climate skeptics such as Michaels , Fred Singer , and Richard Lindzen . In 1996 , GCC published a report entitled Global warming and extreme weather : fact vs. fiction written by Robert E. Davis .
GCC members questioned the efficacy of climate change denial and shifted their message to highlighting the economic costs of proposed greenhouse gas emission regulations and the limited effectiveness of proposals exempting developing nations . In 1995 , after the United Nations Climate Change conference in Berlin agreed to negotiate greenhouse gas emission limits , GCC 's executive director said the agreement gave " developing countries like China , India and Mexico a free ride " and would " change the relations between sovereign countries and the United Nations . This could have very significant implications . It could be a way of capping our economy . " At a Washington , D.C. press conference on the eve of the second United Nations Climate Change conference in Geneva , GCC 's executive director said , " The time for decision is not yet now . " At the conference in Geneva , GCC issued a statement that said it was too early to determine the causes of global warming . GCC representatives lobbied scientists at the September , 1996 IPCC conference in Mexico City .
After actor Leonardo DiCaprio , chairman of Earth Day 2000 , interviewed Clinton for ABC News , GCC sent out an e @-@ mail that said that DiCaprio 's first car was a Jeep Grand Cherokee and that his current car was a Chevrolet Tahoe .
= = = Predicting Future Climate Change : A Primer = = =
In 1995 , GCC assembled an advisory committee of scientific and technical experts to compile an internal @-@ only , 17 @-@ page report on climate science entitled Predicting Future Climate Change : A Primer , which said : “ The scientific basis for the Greenhouse Effect and the potential impact of human emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 on climate is well established and cannot be denied . ” In early 1996 , GCC 's operating committee asked the advisory committee to redact the sections that rebutted contrarian arguments , and accepted the report and distributed it to members . The draft document was disclosed in a 2007 lawsuit filed by the auto industry against California ’ s efforts to regulate automotive greenhouse gas emissions .
According to The New York Times , the primer demonstrated that " even as the coalition worked to sway opinion , its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted . " According to the Union of Concerned Scientists in 2015 , the primer was : " remarkable for indisputably showing that , while some fossil fuel companies ’ deception about climate science has continued to the present day , at least two decades ago the companies ’ own scientific experts were internally alerting them about the realities and implications of climate change . "
= = = IPCC Second Assessment Report = = =
GCC was an industry participant in the review process of the IPCC Second Assessment Report . In 1996 , prior to the publication of the Second Assessment Report , GCC distributed a report entitled The IPCC : Institutionalized Scientific Cleansing to reporters , US Congressmen , and scientists . The coalition report said that Benjamin D. Santer , the lead author of Chapter 8 in the assessment , entitled " Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , " had altered the text , after acceptance by the Working Group , and without approval of the authors , to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science . Frederick Seitz repeated GCC 's charges in a letter to the Wall Street Journal published June 12 , 1996 . The coalition ran newspaper advertisements that said : " unless the management of the IPCC promptly undertakes to republish the printed versions ... the IPCC 's credibility will have been lost . "
Santer and his co @-@ authors said the edits were integrations of comments from peer review as per agreed IPCC processes .
= = = Opposition to Kyoto Protocol = = =
GCC was the main industry group in the United States opposed to the Kyoto Protocol , which committed signatories to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The coalition " was the leading industry group working in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , " according to Greenpeace , and led opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , according to the Los Angeles Times .
Prior to 1997 , GCC spent about $ 1 million annually lobbying against limits on CO2 emissions ; before Kyoto , GCC annual revenue peaked around $ 1 @.@ 5 million ; GCC spent $ 13 million on advertising in opposition to the Kyoto treaty . The coalition funded the Global Climate Information Project and hired the advertising firm that produced the 1993 @-@ 1994 Harry and Louise advertising campaign which opposed Clinton 's health care initiative . The advertisements said , “ the UN Climate Treaty isn ’ t Global ... and it won ’ t work ” and " Americans will pay the price ... 50 cents more for every gallon of gasoline . "
GCC opposed the signing of the Kyoto Protocol by Clinton . GCC was influential in the withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol by the administration of President George W. Bush . According to briefing notes prepared by the United States Department of State for the under @-@ secretary of state , Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol was " in part based on input from " GCC . GCC lobbying was key to the July , 1997 unanimous passage in the United States Senate of the Byrd @-@ Hagel Resolution , which reflected the coalition 's position that restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions must include developing countries . GCC 's chairman told a US congressional committee that mandatory greenhouse gas emissions limits were : " an unjustified rush to judgement . " The coalition sent 50 delegates to the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Kyoto . On December 11 , 1997 , the day the Kyoto delegates reached agreement on legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions , GCC 's chairman said the agreement would be defeated by the US Senate . In 2001 , GCC 's executive director compared the Kyoto Protocol to the RMS Titanic .
= = Membership decline and dissolution = =
GCC 's challenge to science prompted a backlash from environmental groups . Environmentalists described GCC as a " club for polluters " and called for members to withdraw their support . " Abandonment of the Global Climate Coalition by leading companies is partly in response to the mounting evidence that the world is indeed getting warmer , " according to environmentalist Lester R. Brown . In 1998 , Green Party delegates to the European Parliament introduced an unsuccessful proposal that the World Meteorological Organization name hurricanes after GCC members . Defections weakened the coalition . In 1996 , British Petroleum resigned and later announced support for the Kyoto Protocol and commitment to greenhouse gas emission reductions . In 1997 , Royal Dutch Shell withdrew after criticism from European environmental groups . In 1999 , Ford Motor Company was the first US company to withdraw ; the New York Times described the departure as " the latest sign of divisions within heavy industry over how to respond to global warming . " DuPont left the coalition in 1997 and Shell Oil ( US ) left in 1998 . In 2000 , GCC corporate members were the targets of a national student @-@ run university divestiture campaign . Between December , 1999 and early March , 2000 , Texaco , the Southern Company , General Motors and Daimler @-@ Chrysler withdrew . Some former coalition members joined the Business Environmental Leadership Council within the Pew Center on Global Climate Change which represented diverse stakeholders , including business interests , with a commitment to peer @-@ reviewed scientific research and accepted the need for emissions restrictions to address climate change .
In 2000 , GCC restructured as an association of trade associations ; membership was limited to trade associations , and individual corporations were represented through their trade association . Brown called it : " a thinly veiled effort to conceal the real issue - the loss of so many key corporate members . "
In 2001 , after US President George W. Bush withdrew the US from the Kyoto process , GCC disbanded . Absent the participation of the US , the effectiveness of the Kyoto process was limited . GCC said on its website that its mission had been successfully achieved , writing " At this point , both Congress and the Administration agree that the U.S. should not accept the mandatory cuts in emissions required by the protocol . "
= = Reception = =
In 2015 , the Union of Concerned Scientists compared GCC 's role in the public policy debate on climate change to the roles in the public policy debate on tobacco safety of the Tobacco Institute , the tobacco industry 's lobbyist group , and the Council for Tobacco Research , which promoted misleading science . Environmentalist Bill McKibben said that , by promoting doubt about the science , " throughout the 1990s , even as other nations took action , the fossil fuel industry 's Global Climate Coalition managed to make American journalists treat the accelerating warming as a he @-@ said @-@ she @-@ said story . " According to the Los Angeles Times , GCC members integrated projections from climate models into their operational planning while publicly criticising the models .
= = Members = =
= = = Membership notes = = =
|
= St Mary 's Church , Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf =
St Mary 's Church , Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf is a small medieval church in Anglesey , north Wales . The earliest parts of the building , including the nave and the north doorway , date from the 14th century . Other parts , including the chancel and the east window , date from the 15th century . It is associated with the Welsh poet and clergyman Goronwy Owen , who was born nearby and served as curate here . He later travelled to America to teach at The College of William & Mary , Virginia .
The church is still in use for worship , as part of the Church in Wales , as one of three churches in the combined parish of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a " good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric . "
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is situated near the east coast of Anglesey , north Wales . It is by the side of a country road near the village of Brynteg . The parish includes the coastal resort of Benllech . The parish takes its name in part from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -fair " is a modified form of Mary ( Mair in Welsh ) . " Mathafarn Eithaf " translates as " area ( or field ) of the tavern " .
It is a medieval church , and the oldest part of the building is the nave , which dates from the 14th century . The chancel and the arch between nave and chancel were added in the following century . The architect of the Diocese of Bangor , Henry Kennedy , carried out work on the church in 1847 . He added a vestry on the north side and a porch to the south , as well as making some other alterations and additions , such as the re @-@ roofing of the chancel .
The church is still in use for worship , as part of the Church in Wales . It is one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth . It is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the position of rector is held by the Venerable R P Davies , Archdeacon of Bangor . Services are held on a Sunday morning , alternating between Holy Communion and Morning Prayer .
The Welsh priest and poet Goronwy Owen , who was born in the parish on 1 January 1723 , served for three weeks as curate of St Mary 's . He later travelled to America to teach at The College of William & Mary , Virginia , and remained in Virginia until his death .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Mary 's is built from rubble masonry , with buttresses at the eastern ends of the nave and chancel , and it has a slate roof . The timbers of the roof can be seen from inside the church . There is a bellcote at the west end of the roof , containing one bell dated 1849 . The church has a gallery at the west end , reached by climbing a spiral staircase . The nave is longer and higher than the chancel , with one step and a simple 15th @-@ century chancel arch between them . The nave measures about 52 feet 6 inches by 16 feet 3 inches ( about 16 by 5 m ) , and the chancel measures about 18 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches ( about 5 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 1 m ) .
Entrance is through the porch in the middle of the south wall of the nave , which houses a round @-@ headed doorway from the 15th or 16th century . There is a trefoil @-@ headed single window on the south wall of the nave to the left of the porch , and two windows , each with three trefoil @-@ headed lights ( sections of window , separated by mullions ) , to the right of the porch . The south wall of the chancel has a similar window , with only two lights , which was inserted in 1847 ; it adjoins a blocked window from the 17th century . The north wall of the church , which was rebuilt in 1847 , has a 14th @-@ century doorway with a pointed arch , and windows on each side similar to those on the south side . The east window , which dates from the 15th century , has three lights headed with cinquefoils set within a pointed arch . There is a hood mould on the outside .
A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a wooden communion table , dated 1667 , and some interior memorials dated 1724 and 1731 . It also recorded that the churchyard contained an 11th @-@ century churchyard cross , which had at one point held a sundial . Most of the fittings inside the church date from the mid @-@ 19th century . The pulpit has two carved panels , one depicting Christ and the other a Madonna and Child . It was installed in 1969 , marking the bicententary of Goronwy Owen 's death . The reredos behind the altar is in memory of those who died during World War I.
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) states that St Mary 's has been listed because it is " a good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric " .
Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Mary 's , which he called " a rather long and low building " , was situated " in an uneven , rocky , and exposed locality " within a parish that had a " peculiarly bleak and desolate appearance " . He also thought that the roof of the church was " remarkable for the quantity of good , but light , timber used in its construction . "
|
= Action of 31 May 1809 =
The Action of 31 May 1809 was a naval skirmish in the Bay of Bengal during the Napoleonic Wars . During the action , an Honourable East India Company convoy carrying goods worth over £ 500 @,@ 000 was attacked and partially captured by the French frigate Caroline . The three East Indiamen that made up the convoy fought against their opponent with their own batteries of cannon but ultimately were less powerful , less manoeuvrable and less trained than their opponent and were defeated one by one ; only the smallest of the three escaped . The action was the first in a string of attacks on important convoys in the Indian Ocean by French cruisers operating from Île de France and Île Bonaparte during a concerted campaign against British shipping in the region .
= = Background = =
In November 1808 , a squadron of powerful French frigates sailed for Île de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin . This squadron was under orders to attack and capture or destroy British shipping in the Indian Ocean , particularly the heavily armed convoys of East Indiamen that carried millions of pounds worth of trade goods from British India and the Far East to Britain . These convoys were operated by the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) , which ran British India and maintained a private army and navy to secure the colony and its trade routes . During the late Napoleonic Wars , French naval strategy focused on the disruption of this trade with the use of fast and well @-@ armed frigates to operate independently along British trade routes and capture British merchant ships . This affected the British economy , which was already severely stretched by the war , and forced the Royal Navy to divert resources to distant parts of the world to protect British trade .
During the late spring of 1809 , following the end of the Indian Ocean hurricane season , Hamelin ordered his ships to operate in the Bay of Bengal . One of these frigates was the 40 @-@ gun Caroline , which was built in Antwerp in 1806 and weighed 1 @,@ 078 tons . Caroline was commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Henri Féretier , newly promoted following the sudden death of her previous captain . Féretier was the first of Hamelin 's captains to find a British convoy , spotting three sails on the horizon on 31 May . These belonged to a Britain @-@ bound convoy of East Indiamen , which had departed the Hooghly River on 2 May . Laden with over £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk and other trade goods , these ships were an important asset to the HEIC and had originally been part of a larger convoy , guarded by the sloop HMS Victor and consisting of five Indiamen and several smaller vessels . On 24 May a storm divided the convoy ; Victor , the small ships and two of the Indiamen Monarch and Earl Spencer were separated from the remainder , the Streatham , Europe and Lord Keith after Monarch sprang a leak .
The Indiamen were not unprotected : each one was large and powerfully built and carried a number of cannon . Streatham and Europe weighed over 800 tons each and carried 30 cannon , whereas the smaller Lord Keith was 600 tons and carried 12 guns . Four years earlier , a convoy of East Indiamen had driven off a French ship of the line and attached frigates under Admiral Linois in similar waters by forming a battle line and firing on their opponents as they closed . The crews of these East Indiamen were not of Royal Navy standard , however , with insufficient training and large numbers of Chinese and lascar seamen , who proved unreliable in combat .
= = Battle = =
One of the smaller ships from the convoy , an American merchant ship named Silenus , had separated from the main body in the storm and arrived at the Nicobar Islands . There she had encountered Caroline and the American captain had reported the location and value of the convoy to Féretier . Setting all sail , Féretier took Caroline to the north @-@ west , and sighted the convoy at 05 : 30 , only a few days after leaving the Nicobar Islands . The British ships , under the loose command of John Dale in Streatham , originally mistook the French frigate for the missing Victor and it was not until another half @-@ hour had passed that Dale realised the danger his ships were in . Ordering the Indiamen to form a line of battle , Dale placed his ship in the centre , with the small Lord Keith ahead and Europe behind . However , the lack of naval experience on the British ships resulted in the Indiamen sailing too far from one another in line , thus leaving them unable to provide effective mutual support .
Able to attack the HEIC ships individually , Caroline pulled alongside Europe at 06 : 30 and began a heavy fire into the merchant ship , which intermittently replied with her available guns . Within 30 minutes , Europe 's rigging was tattered , many of her guns dismounted and a number of her crew wounded or killed . Moving past his now disabled opponent , Féretier next attacked Streatham , which had slowed in an unsuccessful attempt to support Europe . Now alone against the frigate , Streatham came under heavy fire at 07 : 00 and by 08 : 00 was badly damaged , with casualties in her crew , her guns all dismounted and her lascars hiding below decks . With further resistance hopeless , Dale hauled down the company flag and surrendered .
During the engagement between Streatham and Caroline , Lord Keith and Europe had fired sporadically at the French ship with little effect . Pulling away from his surrendered opponent , Féretier then fired on Lord Keith , whose captain , Peter Campbell , realised that his ship stood no chance against the frigate and turned eastward , running before the wind to escape despite suffering severe damage to Lord Keith ' rigging as he did so . William Gelston , captain of Europe , also attempted to flee , but his battered ship was in no condition to outrun the virtually untouched frigate , and he surrendered at 10 : 00 . Lord Keith eventually arrived safely at Penang on 9 June . Casualties on the British ships were six killed and at least four wounded , while the French lost one killed and three wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Féretier repaired his captures at sea and returned to Île de France , arriving two months later on 22 July . Discovering the presence of a British frigate squadron under Josias Rowley off Port Louis , Féretier diverted to Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte . Among the goods removed from the ships were the £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk , which was stored in warehouses near the docks . In the British raid on Saint Paul on 21 September 1809 , these warehouses and their contents were burnt and Caroline , Streatham and Europe all captured by the raiding force . Despite these subsequent losses , Féretier was highly commended for his leadership in the action and received a promotion from Governor Charles Decaen . He also received letters from the captains of Streatham and Europe , thanking him for his attention and courtesy to their crews and passengers during their period of captivity .
|
= German destroyer Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt =
Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . It was named after Kapitänleutnant Friedrich Eckoldt ( 1887 @-@ 1916 ) , the commander of torpedo boat V 48 , who was killed when his boat was sunk during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 .
At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 and 1940 the ship made multiple successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed 21 merchant ships . Eckoldt participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign by transporting troops to the Trondheim area in early April 1940 . The ship was transferred to France later in the year . Eckoldt returned to Germany in late 1940 for a refit and was transferred to Norway in June 1941 as part of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The ship spent some time at the beginning of the campaign conducting anti @-@ shipping patrols in Soviet waters , but these were generally fruitless . She escorted a number of German convoys in the Arctic later in the year . Eckoldt escorted several German heavy cruisers at the beginning and end of their anti @-@ shipping raids in 1942 . She was part of a German surface fleet which attacked Convoy JW 51B on 31 December near the North Cape , Norway . After sinking the minesweeper HMS Bramble , Eckoldt mistook the British light cruiser HMS Sheffield for the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and was taken completely by surprise when the cruiser opened fire . The ship sank with all hands without returning fire .
= = Design and description = =
Friedrich Eckoldt had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 190 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 140 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Friedrich Eckoldt carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Friedrich Eckoldt carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by the end of 1939 .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 19 January 1935 and laid down at Blohm & Voss , Hamburg on 4 November 1935 as yard number B505 . She was launched on 21 March 1937 and completed on 28 July 1938 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , Friedrich Eckoldt was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
When World War II began , Friedrich Eckoldt was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . On the night of 17 / 18 October , Rear Admiral ( Konteradmiral ) Günther Lütjens , aboard his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , led Eckoldt , Hermann Künne , Diether von Roeder , Hans Lüdemann , and Karl Galster as they laid a minefield off the mouth of the River Humber . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost seven ships totaling 25 @,@ 825 Friedrich Eckoldt ( GRT ) . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Eckoldt and Hans Lody , led by Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey in his flagship Erich Steinbrinck , laid another minefield off the Humber Estuary that claimed another seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 GRT , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski of 14 @,@ 294 GRT .
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Eckoldt , Ihn and Steinbrinck on the night of 6 / 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . Commodore Friedrich Bonte led a minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area with Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Anton Schmitt , Richard Beitzen , Galster , and Ihn . The latter ship suffered tube failures in her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons . Eckoldt , Beitzen and Max Schultz laid 110 magnetic mines in the Shipwash area , off Harwich , on 9 / 10 February that sank six ships of 28 @,@ 496 GRT and damaged another . Eckoldt was the flagship during Operation Wikinger , an attempt to capture British fishing trawlers operating off the Dogger Bank on 22 February , when two destroyers sank with heavy loss of life – one hit newly @-@ laid British mines in a supposedly mine @-@ free channel and the other was bombed in error by the Luftwaffe .
Friedrich Eckoldt was allocated to Group 2 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 138th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 138 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) to seize Trondheim together with Admiral Hipper . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Eckoldt 's port propeller shaft began to overheat shortly after passing the mouth of the Elbe River and she had to slow down . The ship managed to repair the problem and joined the main body later in the day . The ship escorted Admiral Hipper as they entered the Trondheimfjord and both ships disembarked their troops once they reached Trondheim harbor . All of the German ships proved to be very low on fuel after their journey and fuel oil was transferred to Eckoldt from Theodor Riedel and Heinemann . Admiral Hipper and Eckoldt attempted to leave on the night of 10 April , but the smaller ship proved to be unable to match Admiral Hipper 's speed in the heavy seas encountered and was forced to turn back . After some fuel was discovered in Trondheim on 12 April , the ship and Heinemann sailed for Germany two days later .
After completing her refit in early September ( the ship may have been fitted with a FuMO 21 or FuMO 24 radar set above the bridge at this time ) , Eckoldt was transferred to France with four of the surviving destroyers on 9 September . The ship covered five other destroyers laying mines in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Eckoldt was attacked by Fairey Swordfish of No. 812 Squadron of the Fleet Air Arm during the night of 9 / 10 October and lightly damaged by bomb splinters . One man was killed and three were wounded . The ship was transferred back to Hamburg on 5 November where she was refitted until the end of December . Eckoldt was training in the Baltic until she escorted the battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen from Cape Arkona to Trondheim on 19 – 22 May as they sortied into the North Atlantic . The following month , she escorted the pocket battleship Lützow from Kiel to Norway as the latter ship attempted to break through the British blockade . Several Bristol Beaufort aircraft spotted Lützow and her escorts and one managed to surprise the ships and torpedo the pocket battleship early on the morning of 13 June . Eckoldt took Lützow under tow until the latter managed to restart her starboard engine and proceed under her own power .
On 20 June , Eckoldt sailed for Bergen , Norway , with Galster and Schonemann where they waited until 4 July for the latter 's main feed pump to be repaired and for Beitzen and Lody to arrive . All five destroyers arrived at Kirkenes on 10 July . They mounted their first anti @-@ shipping patrol on 12 July , but did not spot anything until the following night . A small Soviet convoy was spotted and two of its ships were sunk after expending four @-@ fifths of their ammunition . As the German ships were returning to port , they were attacked by several aircraft , of which Eckoldt claimed to have shot down one . A second patrol was made on 22 July , but only a single Soviet ship was sunk while the German ships were not damaged by several aerial attacks . When the British aircraft carriers Victorious and Furious attacked Petsamo and Kirkenes on 29 July , the destroyers were far to the east and could not catch the British ships before they left the area . The German destroyers made one final sortie into the Kola Inlet where they sank one small Soviet patrol vessel . Eckoldt was damaged by a single aircraft 's bombs that straddled the ship and damaged her steering and starboard engine . This damage was temporarily repaired , but Eckoldt was ordered to Narvik for more thorough repairs . After they were completed , the ship remained in the Arctic for convoy escort duties . She was accidentally rammed by a Norwegian freighter in Tromsø on 12 October and was given temporary repairs in the floating dock at Trondheim on 22 October before she was sent to Kiel for more permanent repairs where she arrived on 9 November .
Eckoldt finished her repairs and overhaul on 15 April 1942 and was training until she attempted to sail for Norway on 11 June . She developed more engine problems en route and had to turn back for repairs . The ship reached Trondheim on 9 July , escorting the light cruiser Köln ; both ships laid mines at the entrance to the Skagerrak en route . Eckoldt continued onwards and reached Narvik on 18 July . During Operation Wunderland in August , Eckoldt , Beitzen and Steinbrinck escorted the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer at the beginning and end of its mission to attack Soviet shipping in the Kara Sea . They also escorted the minelayer Ulm as it departed to lay a minefield off Cape Zhelaniya in mid @-@ August . On 13 – 15 October , Eckoldt , Beitzen , and the destroyers Z27 and Z30 laid a minefield off the Kanin Peninsula at the mouth of the White Sea that sank the Soviet icebreaker Mikoyan . Three weeks later , the same four destroyers escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to intercept Allied merchant ships proceeding independently to Soviet ports in early November .
= = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = =
During Operation Regenbogen , the attempt to intercept Convoy JW 51B sailing from the UK to the Soviet Union in late December , Eckoldt , Beitzen , and Z29 escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to occupy the attention of the convoy 's escort while Lutzow and three other destroyers attacked the convoy . The three destroyers separated from Hipper to search for the convoy and were successful on the morning of 31 December . The destroyer HMS Obdurate spotted them in turn and closed to investigate when the German ships opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) . Obdurate turned away to rejoin the convoy without sustaining any damage and the German ships did not pursue as they had been ordered to rejoin Hipper . The Germans found the minesweeper HMS Bramble , which had been detached earlier from the convoy to search for stragglers , as they maneuvered to close with the convoy and the destroyers were ordered to sink her while Hipper engaged the convoy 's escorting destroyers . This took some time in the poor visibility and Hipper was surprised in the meantime by the British covering force of the light cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica . After sinking Bramble , the German destroyers attempted to rejoin Hipper , but had no idea that British cruisers were in the area . They confused Sheffield with Hipper when they spotted each other at 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) range and were totally surprised when Sheffield opened fire on Eckoldt with every gun she possessed . The latter was dead in the water and on fire when Sheffield turned away ; Eckoldt sank some unknown amount of time later at 77 ° 19 ′ N 30 ° 47 ′ E. There were no survivors ; all 341 men aboard died .
|
= New York State Route 135 =
New York State Route 135 ( NY 135 ) is a 10 @.@ 66 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 16 km ) state highway in eastern Nassau County , New York , in the United States . The route is a limited @-@ access highway that connects Seaford with Syosset . The highway runs from Merrick Road ( unsigned County Route 27 or CR 27 ) in Seaford to NY 25 in Syosset . In between , NY 135 passes through Bethpage and Plainview and serves Bethpage State Park . The highway is ceremoniously designated as the Ralph J. Marino Expressway ; however , it is more commonly known as the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway .
The origins of the expressway date back to 1954 when engineering pioneer Robert Moses proposed that a highway be built between Wantagh and Oyster Bay . Although communities along the proposed path of the highway opposed its construction , Moses eventually won the grant . Right @-@ of @-@ way was taken in 1958 , and construction began in 1959 . In 1967 , the name of the expressway was renamed from the Wantagh – Oyster Bay Expressway to its current name . The expressway was completed to its current length in 1969 ; however , a stub exists at each end of the highway . The freeway was designated as NY 135 by 1964 .
Around 1970 , Robert Moses returned his focus to the expressway , proposing that the highway be extended north from Syosset . This extension would include a long bridge to Rye in Westchester County across the Long Island Sound . The plan received support until it was brought to the federal government , at which point towns began opposing his plans . Governor Nelson Rockefeller canceled the proposed extension in 1973 . In 2007 , a developer proposed building a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) tunnel to Rye instead . There have also been plans for a southern extension to Jones Beach , but none have been acted on .
= = Route description = =
The Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway northbound lanes begins at the onramp from Merrick Road ( unsigned CR 27 ) near the outer limits of downtown Seaford in southeastern Nassau County . There is an aging sign at the southern terminus , depicting the highway as " NY 135 " and showing the nearest control city as Oyster Bay . The offramp begins at a commercial building and turns to the northeast , heading through some trees . After a short distance , the onramp merges into the northbound lanes of the expressway .
The expressway progresses northward from the onramp , crossing over Waverly Avenue and passing the first guide sign for exit 2 ( NY 27 ) , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) ahead from this point . The highway widens to three lanes in each direction as it comes upon the interchange with NY 27 . The highway progresses its way northward through the interchange and passes by the first NY 135 northbound shield in the middle of the exit . Trees mainly separate the expressway from the nearby highways and communities . After a short distance , the onramp from NY 27 merges into the northbound lanes , and the highway continues northward .
On the southbound side , across from the onramp , the southbound lanes split for exit 2E , set specifically for the eastbound alignment of NY 27 . Shortly afterward the expressway crosses under both directions of NY 27 on separate bridges . After that , Seamans Neck Road becomes the service road to the expressway , running parallel to the east . There is a bridge over Clark Street in the nearby community of Massapequa , where West Seamans Neck Road , the southbound service road , ends . After a short distance , Seamans Neck Road ends at exit 3 for NY 105 .
After a while , the expressway passes the North Wantagh Park , and connects to the Southern State Parkway at exit 4 . There , the expressway makes a curve to the northeast , crossing over Cordwood Lane on an overpass . The direction of the expressway begins to straighten , until exit 5 , where it encounters NY 107 . Soon after , the expressway comes upon exit 6 , which is for Boundary Avenue , a connector to the nearby Bethpage State Parkway . From there , the expressway turns to the north and begins to parallel the Bethpage Parkway as it meets NY 24 ( Hempstead Turnpike ) .
North of NY 24 in Bethpage , NY 135 has an exit leading to Powell Avenue and Plainview Road , the latter serving as a local continuation of the Bethpage Parkway . At this point , the median of the expressway widens as the route heads northward . The wide median was originally constructed to allow the Bethpage Parkway to be extended north to the Caumsett State Parkway and Caumsett State Park . The wide median ends just before exit 9 as the lanes of NY 135 come back together for the exit with Cherry Avenue and Broadway . After interchange 9 , the expressway enters Plainview as it crosses over Haypath Road .
As the expressway passes through Plainview it passes beneath Old Country Road at exit 10 . Seven interchanges north of the Southern State Parkway , NY 135 comes upon the Northern State Parkway at exit 12 . Just after , there is a partial cloverleaf interchange ( exit 13 ) with the Long Island Expressway ( I @-@ 495 ) in Locust Grove . The expressway continues north of I @-@ 495 , heading through Locust Grove to interchanges 14E and 14W . Here , NY 135 ends and merges into NY 25 ( the Jericho Turnpike ) . A stub built for the possible extension of the expressway sits nearby . All traffic merges onto NY 25 west from there .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In 1954 , the New York State Department of Public Works ( NYSDPW ) unveiled plans for a six @-@ lane expressway that would go from the Wantagh State Parkway in Wantagh to NY 106 in Oyster Bay . Unlike the Western Nassau Expressway , a highway proposed two years earlier that would go through densely populated areas in western Nassau County , this roadway would go through lightly populated areas , meaning that acquiring the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way would be easier . Under Robert Moses ' original plans for the highway , the northern terminus of the expressway would be placed near brand new local ferry terminals in Oyster Bay . From there , commuters could connect to the city of Stamford , Connecticut , 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the north by way of ferries across Long Island Sound . The proposed highway was added to the New York State Highway Law as follows , with annotations in brackets :
... Seaford – Oyster Bay expressway , beginning at a point on the Wantagh parkway in the vicinity of the hamlet of Wantagh , thence running generally through or near the hamlets of Seaford , Bethpage and Plainview to a point on state highway nine thousand twenty @-@ one [ NY 106 ] south of the village of Oyster Bay ; ...
One of the major problems with the proposed alignment of the expressway was that it divided each community that it passed through . This was met by protests from all of the communities . To remedy the concerns , Lewis Waters , the Oyster Bay Town Supervisor , proposed a new alignment for the expressway . Under his plan , it would now begin at the Ocean Parkway in Tobay Beach , cross Great South Bay and enter West Amityville at Clocks Boulevard . From West Amityville , the expressway was to turn to the northeast near the current @-@ day Sunrise Mall , and progress its way through Massapequa and Farmingdale into Bethpage State Park . The highway was to cross through Bethpage State Park using the old right @-@ of @-@ way for the Bethpage State Parkway through the communities of Old Bethpage and Plainview . From there , it would veer to the northwest , approaching and intersecting with the Jericho Turnpike ( NY 25 ) about 0 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from its current northern terminus . At the Long Island Rail Road 's Port Jefferson Branch , it would follow the originally planned alignment , but would end at NY 25A instead of NY 106 .
This plan , supported by the residents of Oyster Bay , would require the acquisition of 185 residential homes . In comparison , the alignment planned by Moses would result in the elimination of 450 homes . However , Moses ' plan won out , to much of their dismay .
In 1958 , NYSDPW acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for the highway . From Seaford north to the Southern State Parkway near Plainedge , the right @-@ of @-@ way followed the alignment of Seamans Neck Road , then an uninterrupted local road extending from Merrick Road in Seaford north to NY 107 and Union Avenue in Levittown . Also in 1958 , the Nassau County Department of Public Works signed over 100 county highways around the county . According to the 1959 Master Plan for the county by the public works department , Seamans Neck Road was initially designated as CR 191 , but only from Merrick Road to the proposed interchange between the expressway and NY 105 , where Seamans Neck Road would meet the new highway . The CR 191 designation was eventually eliminated .
Construction commenced on the expressway a year later , with the section from Old Country Road ( exit 10 ) to Jericho Turnpike ( exits 14E and 14W ) opening in June 1962 . Construction continued rapidly , with the section from Old Country Road down to the Southern State Parkway ( exit 4 ) being completed only a year later . The incomplete expressway was designated as NY 135 by 1964 .
From there , the construction slowed , with the final piece from Merrick Road ( CR 27 ) to the Southern State Parkway opening to traffic in late 1969 . The resulting highway extended for 10 @.@ 66 miles ( 17 @.@ 16 km ) from Seaford to Syosset , but not to Oyster Bay as its name implied .
= = = Extension proposals = = =
= = = = Bridge to Rye = = = =
In 1957 , a plan for a bridge to Westchester County across Long Island Sound was first proposed by Charles H. Sells , a former commissioner for the New York State Department of Public Works . His proposal for the Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge , along with the eastern Orient Point – Watch Hill Bridge were two proposed bridge routes off Long Island . Sells , however , suggested that the bridges not be constructed until Long Island 's traffic and commuting began to increase .
In seven years , Long Island underwent the transformation that Sells had expected , and the east – west arterials between Long Island and New York City , such as the Northern State Parkway and the Long Island Expressway , were congested with commuters . Motorists bound for New England or upstate regions of New York had to take either the Throgs Neck Bridge or the Bronx – Whitestone Bridge , and both bridges were already reaching their designed capacities . Robert Moses , chairman of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority , worked with the Department of Public Works to commission a $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1964 USD ) study by the firm Madigan @-@ Hyland to study the feasibility of a bridge across the sound .
Moses revealed the results of the study to the Nassau and Suffolk Regional Planning Board in February 1966 . The Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge ( originally the Bayville – Rye Bridge ) was proposed to complete the Interstate 287 ( I @-@ 287 ) beltway around the New York Metropolitan Area . This was to be done by constructing a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 8 km ) long cable @-@ stayed suspension bridge from the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ( I @-@ 287 ) in Rye to the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway ( NY 135 ) in Nassau County . The proposed bridge was to cost $ 150 million ( 1966 USD ) and had the support of Governor Nelson Rockefeller and many officials on Long Island .
However , Moses ran into a problem once the proposal was brought to the Federal Highway Administration . At this point , opposition to the bridge began to form on both sides of Long Island Sound . In addition , plans to turn the Oyster Bay area into a bird sanctuary and a protected park made working on the highway harder as building on such protected places is forbidden by law . Faced with growing opposition , Governor Rockefeller canceled the plans for the bridge on June 20 , 1973 , nine years after the first proposal by Moses .
Nine ideas were discussed in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s , but all were canceled . Some were reconsidered during the 1990s , but the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) backed away from the idea in belief that it would not relieve congestion .
= = = = Highway extensions = = = =
Since the demise of the proposed bridge across Long Island Sound , several proposed northward extensions of NY 135 have arisen , none of which have been acted on . In 1973 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission proposed restudying the idea of extending the expressway northward back to its originally @-@ planned northern terminus , the hamlet of Oyster Bay , even though the bridge project was shelved . The commission stated , " With the abandonment of the Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge proposal , the need to extend the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway northward to NY 25A or NY 106 should be restudied . " They added that the study would be probable , even with the abandonment of working on the NY 135 corridor .
In 1990 , the Long Island Regional Planning Board came up with a proposed multibillion @-@ dollar plan to expand the capacities of state and county highways and to improve all major roads to " satisfactory " levels by 2010 . The proposal also revisited the idea of extending the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway to NY 25A in Oyster Bay via the right @-@ of @-@ way bought in the 1960s . NYSDOT reconsidered the idea a decade later in 2000 , saying it would relieve congestion in the area . They indicated that the extension may be built as either a " full @-@ build " expressway or a four @-@ lane arterial boulevard to NY 25A . However , there are no plans to do either at this time .
In 2007 , a developer proposed the idea of crossing Long Island Sound by way of a tunnel instead of a bridge . The tunnel would be 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and run from Bayville to Rye , just as the original bridge would have . To prevent the noticeable tunnel , the developer proposed building a park atop the entrance with ball fields , tennis courts , and several other amenities .
Part of the proposed northern right @-@ of @-@ way is now slated to be used for an extension of a multi @-@ use bicycle path from Bethpage State Park to the Long Island Rail Road station in Syosset . The path would be extended north to I @-@ 495 , where it would progress to the northern right @-@ of @-@ way that was once meant for use of the NY 135 extension and continue from there to the Syosset station . There would also be improvements to the hiking and biking trails , pedestrian improvements at crosswalks , the replacing of eroded areas and better parking and signage . Development of the project began in late 1993 and early 1994 ; however , construction has still not yet begun . Work on the project is expected to start in late 2009 and early 2010 and finish in late 2011 . The projected cost for the project is $ 8 @.@ 7 million , which will be paid for through state and federal funds .
When the first proposals for a southern extension of NY 135 came out in 1967 , around 25 families were relocated to clear a 7 @.@ 3 acres ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) right @-@ of @-@ way for the highway . By 1975 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission proposed a plan to extend the highway south to the Wantagh State Parkway , which was NY 135 's originally @-@ planned southern terminus . This would have provided another connection to Jones Beach via the Wantagh Parkway . However , the idea was not acted upon and was shelved by NYSDOT in 1980 . The right @-@ of @-@ way for the extension was held onto by the state until 2004 when they sold it to Nassau County . Nassau County plans to build a county recreational trail along that right @-@ of @-@ way .
= = = Recent history and proposals = = =
There are a number of projects either in progress or in development for NY 135 . The one with active construction , however , is work by NYSDOT to repair segments of NY 135 , along with many other highways in Nassau and nearby Suffolk counties , that have concrete beginning to wear out . The project was projected to end in mid @-@ 2008 , but the department has not updated of their project site with the construction . In late 2006 , development began on a project to construct a 100 parking space Park & Ride at the interchange of NY 135 and NY 25 . Work on the project is to expected to begin in mid @-@ 2015 and end in the middle of the following year . Funds would come from the federal government and the state of New York .
Another planned NYSDOT project is the replacement of the steel barrier for the median of NY 135 from Merrick Road to NY 24 . The department will replace it with a normal concrete barrier and will also resurface the entire stretch of highway . The project is to cost $ 41 @.@ 6 million of state and federal funding and begin in late 2010 and early 2011 . It is expected to be completed by early 2012 .
At 9 : 30 a.m. on May 24 , 1988 , a tanker truck loaded with as much as 3 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 14 @,@ 000 l ) of propane fuel overturned and exploded into flames along the expressway . This caused major traffic delays and congestion as police had to shut down three of the major transportation routes in the area . Nassau County police ordered the evacuation of 1 @,@ 000 residents in the immediate area , along with nearby commuter routes , the Sunrise Highway and Long Island Rail Road 's Montauk Branch . With the possibility of an explosion , emergency personnel could not approach the tanker . Since the fire was close to the LIRR station in Seaford , a spokesman said that they had shut all service down from Wantagh to Massapequa . The Long Island Rail Road attempted using buses , but with the congestion becoming worse , they routed the buses to Hicksville , where the passengers would take a diesel train to Bethpage and nearby Babylon to continue progress eastward . The Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway was shut down from Merrick Road to the Southern State Parkway . Police reported that the tanker broke a rear axle , and skidded , causing it to overturn . The tank ruptured , starting the blaze . The driver , a middle @-@ aged man from Westbury , escaped with few injuries .
When the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway was first built , the highway was known as the Wantagh – Oyster Bay Expressway . The route was changed to its current name in 1967 . The change was made to both avoid confusion with the Wantagh Parkway and to accommodate a request from the community of Seaford to popularize their town . There have also been attempts to rename the expressway with dedications to various Presidents of the United States such as Theodore Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan . However , in March 2002 , the New York State Legislature officially dedicated the expressway after Ralph J. Marino , a New York State Senator from Long Island . At the time , the designation was a tribute to Marino ; however , he died just two weeks later .
Between the Powell Avenue and Broadway / Plainview Road interchanges along the expressway , the highway is divided with a large median . The lane alignment was set up so that the proposed extension of the Bethpage State Parkway would have run within the median of NY 135 . The parkway would have followed the highway for a short distance before turning to the southeast and away from NY 135 . By making this possible , the Bethpage Parkway would likely have to have been upgraded from its current super @-@ two configuration into a four @-@ lane highway .
NYSDOT had created a project page for the Bethpage Parkway extension , which was viewed by the department as a long @-@ term project . As part of the project , the parkway would have been extended north from the traffic circle with Plainview Road to NY 135 . The project was tentatively scheduled to start in mid @-@ 2025 and wrap up in early 2027 and cost $ 27 @.@ 9 million . The page was taken down by November 2010 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Nassau County .
|
= Charles Lydiard =
Charles Lydiard ( fl . 13 May 1780 – 29 December 1807 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars .
Lydiard 's origins are obscure , but he joined the navy in 1780 and rose through the ranks after distinguished service in the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars , particularly during the Siege of Toulon . He saw action in several engagements in the Mediterranean , and had a part in the defeat of a French frigate in 1795 . The chance for promotion passed him by however when the French ship escaped . He again demonstrated his qualities on a cutting @-@ out expedition under the guns of a French shore battery , and this time was successful in escaping with his prize . He was promoted and appointed to the command of his prize , and went on to be captain of several small vessels before a period of unemployment caused by his promotion to post @-@ captain . He returned to active service in 1805 with command of the razee HMS Anson , in which ship he distinguished himself in a number of incidents in the West Indies , capturing a Spanish frigate , attacking a French ship of the line , and helping to capture the island of Curaçao . He returned to Britain after these exploits , but his ship was caught in a gale , and despite his best efforts , was driven ashore and wrecked . Lydiard did his utmost to save as many of his men as he could , before being swept away and drowned .
= = Early life = =
Lydiard 's origins are largely unknown , but his entry to the navy is recorded as being on 13 May 1780 , when he joined the 100 @-@ gun HMS Britannia as a captain 's servant . The Britannia was at this time the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral George Darby , commander of the Channel Fleet . Lydiard was appointed an able seaman on 25 July 1781 , and on 27 May 1782 was transferred to the 44 @-@ gun HMS Resistance , at first as an able seaman , but receiving a promotion to midshipman on 12 October that year . He went on to serve aboard the 74 @-@ gun HMS Bombay Castle and HMS Edgar , and passed his lieutenant 's examination on 27 May 1791 . He was serving with Lord Hood 's fleet during the occupation of Toulon in the early months of the French Revolutionary Wars . Lydiard distinguished himself with his actions during the hard @-@ fought defence of Fort Mulgrave , and received his commission on 25 November 1793 .
= = Lieutenancy = =
He then became first lieutenant of HMS Sincere , one of the prizes from Toulon , under the command of Commander William Shield . Shield and Lydiard served along the French Mediterranean coast until October 1794 , and were engaged in cutting @-@ out enemy ships from French harbours . Sincere was then paid off and Lydiard transferred to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Captain , where he saw action at the Battle of Genoa on 14 March and the Battle of Hyères Islands on 13 July 1795 . His former commander , William Shield , had received command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Southampton by July 1795 , and Lydiard transferred that month to serve as his first lieutenant . Lydiard remained with Southampton after Shield 's replacement by Captain James Macnamara and in September 1795 they spent 15 days blockading a French grain convoy in the port of Genoa .
= = = Southampton and the French = = =
The convoy was protected by two frigates , the Vestale and the Brun . The French finally came out on the evening of the fifteenth day , and were engaged by Southampton , despite the French possessing considerably more firepower . After a sustained engagement Southampton forced Vestale to strike her colours while the Brun escaped with the convoy , leaving Vestale to her fate . But as Southampton prepared to lower her boats to take possession of the French ship , her fore @-@ mast , which had been damaged during the engagement , went by the board . Taking advantage of this , Vestale raised her colours and escaped from the scene . Victory over the Vestale should have brought promotions for Southampton 's officers , including Lydiard , but her escape deprived them of this . Lydiard now had to secure another triumph to ensure his promotion .
= = = Capture of Utile = = =
Lydiard 's next opportunity to distinguish himself came in June 1796 . On 9 June a French corvette was sighted entering Hyères bay , and Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Jervis , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , summoned Macnamara to his flagship , HMS Victory . He asked Macnamara to bring out the French ship if he could . Recognising the difficulty and risk that would be involved , he did not make it a formal written order , instead instructing Macnamara ' bring out the enemy 's ship if you can ; I 'll give you no written order ; but I direct you to take care of the king 's ship under your command . ' Macnamara promptly took his ship in under the guns of the batteries , and apparently having been mistaken for a French or neutral frigate , closed to within pistol shot of the French ship , and demanded her captain surrender . The captain replied with a broadside , and Macnamara brought Southampton alongside and sent Lydiard over in command of the boarders . After subduing fierce resistance Lydiard took possession of the French ship and together he and Macnamara escaped out to sea under heavy fire from the French shore batteries . Macnamara wrote in a letter to Jervis
At this period , being very near the heavy battery of Fort Breganson , I laid him instantly onboard , and Lieutenant Lydiard , at the head of the boarders , with an intrepidity that no words can describe entered and carried her in about ten minutes , although he met with a spirited resistance from the captain ( who fell ) and a hundred men under arms to receive him . In this short conflict , the behaviour of all the officers and ship 's company of the Southampton had my full approbation , and I do not mean to take from their merit by stating to you , that the conduct of Lieutenant Lydiard was above all praise .
The prize , a 24 @-@ gun corvette named Utile , was taken into service with the Royal Navy as HMS Utile and Lydiard was promoted and given command of her , a commission confirmed on 22 July 1796 .
= = Command = =
Lydiard spent some time in the Adriatic before returning to Britain in 1797 as a convoy escort , after which Utile was paid off . He was appointed to command the bomb vessel HMS Fury in May 1798 , followed by the sloop HMS Kite in November that year . He served aboard Kite in the North Sea until his promotion to post @-@ captain on 1 January 1801 , at which point he was superseded in the command of the Kite . No further commands could be found for him , and the Peace of Amiens further lengthened his enforced retirement from active service . He went ashore during this time , and took the opportunity to marry . The couple had three sons together .
Lydiard finally returned to active service in December 1805 , with an appointment to command the 38 @-@ gun HMS Anson . Anson had originally been a 64 @-@ gun third rate , but had been razeed in 1794 . He sailed Anson to the West Indies in early 1806 and in August was sailing in company with Captain Charles Brisbane 's HMS Arethusa when on 23 August they came across the 38 @-@ gun Spanish frigate Pomona off Havana , guarded by a shore battery and twelve gunboats . The Pomona was trying to enter the harbour , whereupon Lydiard and Brisbane bore up and engaged her . The gunboats came out to defend her , whereupon the two British frigates anchored between the shore battery and gunboats on one side , and the Pomona on the other . A hard fought action began , which lasted for 35 minutes until the Pomona struck her colours . Three of the gunboats were blown up , six were sunk , and the remaining three were badly damaged . The shore battery was obliged to stop firing after an explosion in one part of it . There were no casualties aboard Anson , but Arethusa lost two killed and 32 wounded , with Brisbane among the latter . The captured Pomona was subsequently taken into the Navy as HMS Cuba .
= = = Anson and Foudroyant = = =
Lydiard remained cruising off Havana , and on 15 September sighted the French 84 @-@ gun Foudroyant . The Foudroyant , carrying the flag of Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , had been dismasted in a storm and was carrying a jury @-@ rig . Despite the superiority of his opponent and the nearness of the shore Lydiard attempted to close on the French vessel and opened fire . Anson came under fire from the fortifications at Morro Castle , while several Spanish ships , including the 74 @-@ gun San Lorenzo , came out of Havana to assist the French . After being unable to manoeuvre into a favourable position and coming under heavy fire , Lydiard hauled away and made his escape . Anson had two killed and 13 wounded during the engagement , while the rigging was badly cut . Foudroyant meanwhile had 27 killed or wounded .
= = = Capture of Curaçao = = =
Anson was then assigned to Charles Brisbane 's squadron and joined Brisbane 's Arethusa and James Athol Wood 's HMS Latona . The ships were despatched in November 1806 by Vice @-@ Admiral James Richard Dacres to reconnoitre Curaçao . They were joined in December by HMS Fisgard and Brisbane decided to launch an attack on 1 January 1807 . The British ships approached early in the morning of 1 January and anchored in the harbour . They were attacked by the Dutch , at which Brisbane boarded and captured the 36 @-@ gun frigate Halstaar , while Lydiard attacked and secured the 20 @-@ gun corvette Suriname . Both Lydiard and Brisbane then led their forces on shore , and stormed Fort Amsterdam , which was defended by 270 Dutch troops . The fort was carried after ten minutes of fighting , after which two smaller forts , a citadel and the entire town were also taken . More troops were landed while the ships sailed round the harbour to attack Fort République . By 10 am the fort had surrendered , and by noon the entire island had capitulated . Lydiard was sent back to Britain carrying the despatches and captured colours . The dramatic success of the small British force carrying the heavily defended island was rewarded handsomely . Brisbane was knighted , and the captains received swords , medals and vases .
= = Wreck of Anson = =
Anson was sent back to Britain shortly afterwards , and Lydiard rejoined his ship at Plymouth . After a period refitting Anson was assigned to the Channel Fleet and ordered to support the blockade of Brest by patrolling off Black Rocks . She sailed from Falmouth on 24 December , and reached Ile de Bas on 28 December . With a gale blowing up from the south west , Lydiard decided to return to port . He made for the Lizard , but in the poor weather , came up on the wrong side and became trapped on a lee shore , with breakers ahead . Anson rolled heavily in rough seas , having retained the spars from her days as a 64 @-@ gun ship after she had been razeed . Lydiard 's only option was to anchor , but early on the morning of 29 December the rising storm caused the anchor cables to part and she was driven onto the shore . Lydiard ordered the ship to be run onto a beach in the hope of saving as many lives as possible , and resolved to remain aboard to oversee the evacuation . The pounding surf prevented boats from being launched from the ship or the shore , and a number of the crew were swept away . Some managed to clamber along the fallen main @-@ mast to the shore , while Lydiard clung to the wheel to encourage them on . Eyewitnesses recorded that Lydiard had exhausted himself with the effort of organising the evacuation and clinging to the wreck in the violence of the storm . He attempted to leave the ship , but became distracted by trying to help a boy . In doing so Lydiard was washed away and drowned . The Naval Chronicle 's account of the wreck recorded that
It was the captain 's great wish to save the lives of the ship 's company , and he was employed in directing them the whole of the time . He had placed himself by the wheel , holding the spokes , where he was exposed to the violence of the sea , which broke tremendously over him , and from continuing in this situation too long , wishing to see the people out of the ship , he became so weak , that , upon attempting to leave the ship himself , and being impeded by a boy who was in his way , and whom he endeavoured to assist , he was washed away and drowned .
A total of sixty of Anson 's crew were lost , including her captain and her first @-@ lieutenant . Lydiard 's body was recovered and a funeral service was held at Falmouth , attended by Admiral Sir Charles Cotton and large numbers of army and navy officers , as well as the local dignitaries . The body was later interred in the family vault at Haslemere , Surrey .
|
= Marion Motley =
Marion Motley ( June 5 , 1920 – June 27 , 1999 ) was an American Football fullback and linebacker who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . He was a leading pass @-@ blocker and rusher in the late 1940s and early 1950s , and ended his career with an average of 5 @.@ 7 yards per carry , a record for a fullback that still stands . A versatile player who possessed both quickness and size , Motley was a force on both offense and defense . Fellow Hall of Fame running back Joe Perry once called Motley " the greatest all @-@ around football player there ever was " . Motley was also one of the first African @-@ Americans to play the professional game in the modern era .
Motley grew up in Canton , Ohio . He played football through high school and college in the 1930s before enlisting in the military during World War II . While training in the U.S. Navy in 1944 , he played for a service team coached by Paul Brown . Following the war , he went back to work in Canton before Brown invited him to try out for the Cleveland Browns , a team he was coaching in the newly formed AAFC . Motley made the team in 1946 and became a cornerstone of Cleveland 's success in the late 1940s . The team won four AAFC championships before the league dissolved and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Motley was the AAFC 's leading rusher in 1948 and the NFL leader in 1950 , when the Browns won another championship .
Motley and fellow black teammate Bill Willis contended with racism throughout their careers . Although the color barrier was broken in all major American sports by 1950 , the men endured shouted insults on the field and racial discrimination off of it . " They found out that while they were calling us niggers and alligator bait , I was running for touchdowns and Willis was knocking the shit out of them , " Motley once said . " So they stopped calling us names and started trying to catch up with us . " Focused exclusively on winning , Brown did not tolerate racism within the team .
Slowed by knee injuries , Motley left the Browns after the 1953 season . He attempted a comeback in 1955 as a linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers but was released before the end of the year . He then pursued a coaching career , but was turned away by the Browns and other teams he approached . He attributed his trouble finding a job in football to racial discrimination , questioning whether teams were ready to hire a black coach . Motley was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1968 .
= = Early years and college career = =
Motley was born in Leesburg , Georgia and raised in Canton , Ohio , where his family moved when he was three years old . After going to elementary and junior high schools in Canton , Motley attended Canton McKinley High School , where he played on the football and basketball teams . He was especially good as a football fullback , and the McKinley Bulldogs posted a win @-@ loss record of 25 – 3 during his tenure there . The team 's three losses all came against Canton 's chief rivals , a Massillon Washington High School team led by coach Paul Brown .
After he graduated , Motley enrolled in 1939 at South Carolina State College , a historically black school in Orangeburg , South Carolina . He transferred before his sophomore year to the University of Nevada , Reno , where he was a star on the football team between 1941 and 1943 . As a punishing fullback for the Wolf Pack , Motley played against powerful West Coast teams including USF , Santa Clara , and St. Mary 's . He suffered a knee injury in 1943 and returned to Canton to work after dropping out of school .
= = Military and professional career = =
As America 's involvement in World War II intensified , Motley joined the U.S. Navy in 1944 and was sent to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station . There he played for the Great Lakes Blue Jackets , a military team coached by Paul Brown , who was serving in the Navy during an extended leave from his job as head coach of Ohio State University 's football team . Motley played fullback and linebacker at Great Lakes , and was an important component of the team 's offense and defense . The highlight of his time at Great Lakes was a 39 – 7 victory over Notre Dame in 1945 . Motley was eligible for discharge before the game – it was the final match of the season and the last military game of World War II – but he stayed on to play . Motley put up an impressive performance , thanks in part to Brown 's experimentation with a new play : a delayed handoff later called the draw play .
After the war , Motley went back to Canton and began working at a steel mill , planning to return to Reno in 1946 to finish his degree . That summer , however , Paul Brown was coaching a team in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) called the Cleveland Browns . Motley wrote to Brown asking for a tryout , but Brown declined , saying he already had all the fullbacks he needed . At the beginning of August , however , Brown invited Bill Willis , another African @-@ American star , to try out for the team at its training camp in Bowling Green , Ohio . Ten days later , Brown invited Motley to come , too . " I think they felt [ Willis ] needed a roommate , " Motley later said . " I don 't think they felt I 'd make the team . I 'm glad I was able to fool them . "
Both Motley and Willis made the team and became two of the first African @-@ Americans to play professional football in the modern era . The Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League had signed the only other black players in pro football earlier that year : Kenny Washington and Woody Strode . The four men broke football 's color barrier a full year before Jackie Robinson was promoted from the Class AAA Montreal Royals to join the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 . Motley felt the Browns would likely be his only opportunity to make a career of football . " I knew this was the one big chance in my life to rise above the steel mill existence , and I really wanted to take it , " he said .
Motley was signed to a contract worth $ 4 @,@ 500 a year ( $ 54 @,@ 607 in 2016 dollars ) . With the Browns , he joined a potent offense led by quarterback Otto Graham , tackle and placekicker Lou Groza and receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . He was a force to be reckoned with in the AAFC , and helped the team win every championship in the league 's four years of existence between 1946 and 1949 . He had a combination of quickness and power – he was listed at 238 pounds – that helped him plow through tacklers . He was also an able pass blocker and played on defense as a linebacker . Motley rushed for an average of 8 @.@ 2 yards per carry in his first season . His forte was the trap play , a scheme where a defensive lineman was allowed to come across the line of scrimmage unblocked , opening up space for Motley to run . He led the league in rushing in 1948 as the Browns posted a perfect 15 – 0 record . He was the AAFC 's all @-@ time rushing leader when the league folded after the 1949 season and the Browns were absorbed into the more established National Football League ( NFL ) . The Browns had a 47 – 4 – 3 overall regular @-@ season win @-@ loss @-@ tie record during the AAFC years as Motley rushed for a total of 3 @,@ 024 yards .
Like other black players in the 1940s and 1950s , Motley faced racist attitudes both on and off the field . Paul Brown would not tolerate discrimination within the team ; he wanted to win and would not let anything get in his way . Motley and Willis , however , were sometimes stepped on and called names during games . " Sometimes I wanted to just kill some of those guys , and the officials would just stand right there , " Motley said many years later . " They 'd see those guys stepping on us and heard them saying things and just turn their backs . That kind of crap went on for two or three years until they found out what kind of players we were . " Motley and Willis did not travel to one game against the Miami Seahawks in the Browns ' early years after they received threatening letters . Another time in Miami , Motley and Willis were told they were not welcome at the hotel where the team was staying . Brown threatened to relocate the entire team , and the hotel 's management backed down .
Attitudes toward race in America began to change after the war , which had caused social and political upheaval and prompted people to think about the future with more ambition and confidence . Although progress was slow and racially motivated hostility continued for many years , the color barrier was broken in all major sports by 1950 . Many of Motley and Willis 's teammates on the Browns were used to playing with black players in college , where teams were integrated across most of the country . The presence of Motley and Willis , meanwhile , contributed to strong attendance at many of the Browns ' early games as large black audiences came to watch them . By one estimate , 10 @,@ 000 black fans saw the Browns play their first game .
Aided by Motley 's swiftness and size , the Browns won the NFL championship in 1950 , their first season in the league . In October 1950 , Motley set an NFL record that stood for more than 52 years when he averaged over 17 yards per rush against the Pittsburgh Steelers , with 188 yards on 11 carries . In December 2002 , quarterback Michael Vick of the Atlanta Falcons rushed for 173 yards on 10 carries against the Minnesota Vikings , eclipsing Motley 's average . Motley also had a 69 @-@ yard rushing and 33 @-@ yard receiving touchdowns in the game . While Motley did not factor in the Browns ' championship game win against the Los Angeles Rams , he led the league in rushing with 810 yards in 1950 despite averaging fewer than 12 carries per game . He was a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection .
By the 1951 season , Motley started to feel the physical effects of his hard @-@ hitting , up @-@ the @-@ middle running style . He suffered a knee injury in training camp , and he was getting older ; by the time the season was in full swing , he was 31 . Motley only ran for 273 yards and one touchdown that year , an uncharacteristically low total . Despite Motley 's troubles , the Browns made the championship game again after winning the American Conference with an 11 – 1 record . Cleveland , however , lost the title game to the Rams , 24 – 17 . Motley had just five carries and 23 yards .
Motley 's knees continued to bother him in 1952 . While he showed occasional signs of his old form that season , it became clear to the Browns ' coaching staff that he was no longer in his prime . Motley finished the year with 444 yards of rushing and 4 @.@ 3 yards per carry , a career low . The Browns finished with an 8 – 4 record but still captured the conference title and secured another spot in the NFL championship game . Motley performed well in that matchup against the Detroit Lions , rushing for 95 yards . The Browns , however , lost 17 – 7 .
The 1953 season was no better for Motley , whose effectiveness was again limited by injury . Cleveland finished with an 11 – 1 record and faced Detroit in the championship for the second year in a row . As Motley 's production declined , the Browns relied on Otto Graham 's passing to Lavelli and receiver Ray Renfro , who also lined up as a running back . Motley did not participate in the championship game that year , another loss to the Lions .
Motley thought he could come back and play a ninth season in 1954 , and showed up to training camp to prove it . Paul Brown , however , thought otherwise . Dogged by injuries and 34 years old , Motley quit before the season began , after Brown said he would otherwise be cut from the team . " Marion realized that his knee was weak and did not feel that it was coming around , " Brown said at the time . " He was one of the truly fine fullbacks in his prime , the type that comes along once in a lifetime . I certainly never will forget some of his runs and I imagine Cleveland football fans feel the same . "
Motley took the 1954 season off and attempted a comeback in 1955 after the Browns , who still had rights to Motley under his contract , traded him to the Pittsburgh Steelers for Ed Modzelewski . In Pittsburgh he played seven games as a linebacker , but the Steelers released him before the end of the season . In his eight years in the AAFC and NFL , Motley had rushed for 4 @,@ 712 yards and averaged 5 @.@ 7 yards per carry . His career rushing average is still an all @-@ time record for running backs .
= = Later life and death = =
After ending his playing career for good , Motley asked Brown about a coaching job with the team . Brown , however , rejected his overtures , saying Motley should instead look for work at a steel mill – the very career football was his ticket out of . Unable to find coaching opportunities in the NFL , he worked as a whisky salesman in the early 1960s . He got occasional scouting assignments from the Browns , but as the Civil Rights movement began to coalesce in 1965 , he issued a statement saying he had been refused a permanent coaching position by the team numerous times . He applied for a coaching job in 1964 , he wrote , and was told that there were no vacancies . The Browns then hired Bob Nussbaumer as an assistant . " When I heard of the hiring of a new assistant , I began to wonder if the full reason is whether or not the time is ripe to hire a Negro coach in Cleveland on the professional level , " he wrote . Art Modell , the Browns ' owner , responded by saying the team filled its coaching positions based on ability and experience , not race . " We are represented by scouts at every major Negro school . And we now have 12 Negroes signed for the 1965 season , " he said .
Motley asked Otto Graham for a job with the Washington Redskins when Graham was head coach there in the late 1960s , but he was again turned away . Motley also signed on to coach an all @-@ girl professional football team called the Cleveland Dare Devils in 1967 . By 1969 , the team had only played a few exhibition games as Cleveland theatrical agent Syd Freedman struggled to drum up interest in a women 's league . Later in life , Motley worked for the U.S. postal service in Cleveland , HM Miller Construction Suffield , Ohio , the Ohio Lottery and for the Ohio Department of Youth Services in Akron . He died in 1999 of prostate cancer .
= = Honors and legacy = =
In 1968 , Motley became the second black player voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame , located in his hometown of Canton . Having played successfully as a fullback and pass blocker on offense and as a linebacker on defense , he is seen as one of the best all @-@ around players in football history . Blanton Collier , an assistant who took over as the team 's head coach after Paul Brown 's firing in 1963 , said Motley " had no equal as a blocker . He could run with anybody for 30 yards or so . And this man was a great , great linebacker . "
Most of Motley 's runs were trap plays up the middle , but he had the speed to run outside . " There 's no telling how much yardage I might have made if I ran as much as some backs do now , " he once said . Running back Jim Brown surpassed Motley 's rushing records in the early 1960s , but many of Motley 's coaches and fellow players regarded Motley as the better player , in part because of his strength as a blocker . " There is no comparison between Jim Brown and Marion Motley , " Graham said at a luncheon in Canton in 1964 . " Motley was the greatest all @-@ around fullback . "
In his books The Thinking Man 's Guide to Pro Football and The New Thinking Man 's Guide To Pro Football , football writer Paul Zimmerman of Sports Illustrated called Motley the best player in the history of the sport . He was named to the NFL 's 75th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team in 1994 .
|
= 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship Final =
The 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship Final was the 116th final of the All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship , a Gaelic football tournament . It was held on 28 September 2003 at Croke Park , Dublin and featured defending champions Armagh against Tyrone . The counties are both in the province of Ulster and share a boundary – this was the first All @-@ Ireland Football Final between sides from the same province . Tyrone won their first title after the match finished 0 – 12 – 0 – 09 in their favour . Many commentators were critical of the game 's entertainment value .
= = Competition structure = =
Each of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland is represented by a county side . Apart from Kilkenny , they all participated in the 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship . The " overseas counties " of London and New York also participated . Every county in Ireland is located in a province ; London and New York were in Connacht for the purpose of the championship . It began with four provincial championships – knock @-@ out competitions between sides in the same province . The four winners progressed to the All @-@ Ireland quarter @-@ finals . The remaining sides , apart from New York , entered the All @-@ Ireland qualifiers to determine the other four teams to contest the quarter @-@ finals . These were followed by the semi @-@ finals and the All @-@ Ireland final .
= = Background = =
This was the first final between two counties from the same province ; in this case , Ulster . This was only possible because of the qualifying system introduced in the 2001 championship . Previously , the All @-@ Ireland Championship was only contested by the four winners of the provincial championships , so a final between two counties from the same province was impossible .
Tyrone had contested the final in 1986 and 1995 but lost on both occasions , against Kerry and Dublin respectively . Armagh were the defending champions , having won their first title the year previously . They had lost the final in 1953 and 1977 . No side had won consecutive titles since Cork in 1989 and 1990 , while no side from Ulster had done so since Down , who won in 1960 and 1961 .
Tyrone had already won the 2003 National Football League and the year 's Ulster Championship , in what was manager Mickey Harte 's first year in charge .
= = Routes to the final = =
Tyrone progressed directly to the All @-@ Ireland quarter finals as they won the 2003 Ulster Senior Football Championship , through victories against Derry , Antrim and Down . Armagh lost to Monaghan in the preliminary round of the Ulster Championship and therefore entered the All @-@ Ireland qualifiers at the first round . They defeated Waterford , Antrim , Dublin and Limerick to join Tyrone at the quarter @-@ final stage ; the ties were played whilst Tyrone were competing in the latter stages of the Ulster Championship .
Sides that had played each other in the provincial championships could not be drawn together in the quarter @-@ finals but none of these restrictions affected Armagh or Tyrone . Tyrone were drawn against Fermanagh , who had unexpectedly defeated Meath and Mayo in the qualifiers , while Armagh were drawn against Leinster championship winners Laois . Tyrone won their game by 1 – 21 ( 24 points ) to 0 – 05 . Armagh defeated Laois by 0 – 15 to 0 – 13 , although the sides were level on points on nine occasions . Even before Donegal 's win over Galway , which meant three of the four semi @-@ finalists were from Ulster , there was intense media speculation about the possibility of an all @-@ Ulster final .
Tyrone 's semi @-@ final was against Kerry . Despite their captain Peter Canavan suffering an injury early on , Tyrone won by 0 – 13 to 0 – 06 . Much of the match analysis focused on the manner in which it was played . It was characterised by persistent fouling ( 73 frees were awarded in total ) and Tyrone 's defensive tactics . While many commentators expressed frustration about the quality of the game , some appreciated the skill with which Tyrone employed their tactics . Mickey Harte countered the criticism by saying : " There 's no use in us playing flamboyantly and losing . "
Donegal were Armagh 's opposition in an all @-@ Ulster semi @-@ final . Armagh were behind at half time but took advantage of Raymond Sweeney 's dismissal just after the interval to finish with a 2 – 10 ( 16 points ) – 1 – 09 ( 12 points ) victory . Armagh may have had a larger winning margin had they not amassed 21 wides . A death threat was allegedly made against referee Michael Monahan in the closing minutes .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Brian White , who had previously refereed two All @-@ Ireland finals , was announced as the match referee in early September . He had once previously refereed a game between Armagh and Tyrone – an Ulster Championship quarter @-@ final replay in 2002 .
The final was highly anticipated , particularly as Armagh and Tyrone are neighbouring counties . Police Service of Northern Ireland Deputy Chief Constable Paul Leighton estimated that 40 @,@ 000 fans would travel from Northern Ireland to Dublin , despite each competing county only being allocated approximately 10 @,@ 000 match tickets . Declan Martin , policy director for Dublin Chamber of Commerce , expected the revenue generated in the city as a result of the final to double because two sides from Ulster were involved .
Road signs in the Pomeroy area were painted in Tyrone colours leading up to the match . This was condemned by the Roads Service , who said the signs would cost thousands of pounds to replace . In Strabane , a sculpture was covered in Tyrone kit . Ulster Unionist Party councillor for the town , Derek Hussey , responded by saying : " I know it is a unique sporting occasion , an all @-@ British All @-@ Ireland final , but the hysteria that has developed around the whole event is intimidatory to some people . "
John Boyle , a native of Armagh and owner of Boylesports , expressed an interest in placing a £ 250 @,@ 000 bet with nine other businessmen , each of whom would contribute £ 25 @,@ 000 , on Armagh winning the championship . The winnings and the stake would have been given to the Armagh squad . GAA president Seán Kelly denounced the idea : " Playing is a voluntary activity and should have nothing to do with gambling . Such bets put too much pressure on the players and are somewhat obscene . " The GAA was also critical of tickets for the final being sold in newspaper columns and on online auction sites .
= = Match = =
Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin and Ian Pearson of the Northern Ireland Office were at the match , as were eight family members of victims of the Omagh bombing , who sat in the Hogan Stand as guests of the GAA . Donegal singer Mickey Joe Harte sang Ireland 's national anthem , Amhrán na bhFiann , before the match . In the All @-@ Ireland Minor Football Championship Final , held just before the senior game , Laois and Dublin drew , each side scoring 1 – 11 ( 14 points ) .
The starting line @-@ ups for the senior game were released several days before the match ; both sides chose to start with the same fifteen players that had started their respective semi @-@ final wins . Peter Canavan had recovered sufficiently from the ankle injury he sustained during Tyrone 's semi @-@ final to captain them . He was the only player in their starting line @-@ up who had played in the county 's last All @-@ Ireland final . Ciaran Gourley , who was also an injury concern for Tyrone , was deemed fit enough to play . Brian McGuigan was suffering from the flu but started . Armagh had no injury concerns and twelve of their starting fifteen had played in the final the previous year – only Paul Hearty , Andy Mallon and Phillip Loughran were debutants ,
= = = Match report = = =
Both sides played defensively which led many commentators to bemoan the poor quality of the match . There were frequent pauses for injuries and accusations of diving . However , some analysts commented on the genuine desire to win both teams displayed . Numerous goal opportunities were missed , most notably by Tyrone , although only a block from Conor Gormley prevented Steven McDonnell from equalising for Armagh in the 68th minute . Tyrone led 0 – 08 – 0 – 04 at half @-@ time ; five of their points were scored by Peter Canavan from frees . He was replaced during the interval due to a relapse of his ankle injury during training , although he did return to the pitch for the final few minutes . Diarmuid Marsden was controversially sent off in the second half following an off @-@ the @-@ ball incident , leaving Armagh with only fourteen players . Marsden had been arguing with Conor Gormley when he was approached by Philip Jordan . Marsden raised his arm and made contact with Jordan , who fell to the ground . Some commentators claimed Jordan was feigning injury to get his opponent sent off . Armagh managed to stay within two points of Tyrone at times but were ultimately unable to catch Tyrone . At the final whistle , Tyrone fans invaded the pitch and remained there for an hour . In his speech after lifting the trophy , Peter Canavan dedicated the victory to every Tyrone team he had played on , the 1986 team ( beaten in the final by Kerry ) and every player who had played on teams without success . He also spoke of his father , who had died over the summer , and of Paul McGirr , who had played alongside many of the Tyrone team before he died in a freak accident aged 18 .
= = = Match details = = =
References :
= = Post @-@ match = =
Northern Ireland Secretary of State Paul Murphy congratulated Tyrone on their victory . The Ulster Council of the GAA congratulated both sets of fans , in particular the Tyrone fans who formed a guard of honour for the Armagh players as they returned to their team bus . Joe Kernan , manager of Armagh , also praised the opposition fans : " ... when the final whistle went and all the Tyrone supporters came running past me there wasn 't one bad word said . To me that was great . "
Crowds gathered across Tyrone the following day to celebrate the arrival of the Sam Maguire Cup . The players ' homecoming began at Aughnacloy before moving on to Ballygawley and Omagh , where upwards of 40 @,@ 000 fans gathered . Despite their defeat , Armagh were greeted by hundreds of fans on the Louth – Armagh border on their return .
Armagh manager Joe Kernan claimed he would have resigned had his side won but defeat encouraged him to continue . He lauded his players for their effort nonetheless , saying : " .. we 've won an All @-@ Ireland , and got back to the final . I think that 's a phenomenal achievement . " He added that he was confident Armagh would win another title in the future . Of the match itself , Kernan said : " I think if Steven McDonnell had got that goal towards the end , even with the man down I think we would have won the game . Big matches hinge on certain things and that was one of them . " McDonnell applauded Conor Gormley 's tackle which prevented him from scoring : " ... I 'd say it was one of the best tackles ever . "
The match received extensive media coverage in Northern Ireland , especially from the predominantly nationalist Irish News . The Belfast Telegraph dedicated several pages to the match the following day , including the front and back covers , whereas The News Letter , a largely unionist publication , had sparse coverage , highlighting traditional attitudes to Gaelic games in Northern Ireland .
About a week after the final , a family in Coleraine were targeted in an allegedly sectarian attack , thought to be because they were flying a Tyrone GAA flag from their home .
Two years later , Peter Canavan 's return from injury as a substitute in the final ten minutes finished 14th in RTÉ 's 2005 series Top 20 GAA Moments .
= = = Match controversies = = =
Joe Kernan was adamant that Diarmuid Marsden did not deserve to be sent off and criticised players for pretending to be injured during the game . The player himself also disagreed with the decision : " The umpire said I struck him but I just saw the man coming towards me and it was more a case of getting myself out of the way or protecting myself . " He added : " I 'd never been sent off for Armagh before and to be sent off in an All @-@ Ireland final is hard to take . Hopefully I won 't be remembered for that . And I wouldn 't like to end the career on that note . " Kernan and Marsden contested the decision and subsequent ban , but the GAA 's Games Administration Committee upheld the penalty . However , after taking their case to the Central Council , the ban was overturned .
|
= Anne Frank =
Annelies Marie Frank ( German pronunciation : [ ʔanəliːs maˈʁiː ˈʔanə ˈfʁaŋk ] ; Dutch pronunciation : [ ʔɑnəˈlis maˈri ˈʔɑnə ˈfrɑŋk ] ; 12 June 1929 – February or March 1945 ) was a German @-@ born diarist and writer . She is one of the most discussed Jewish victims of the Holocaust . Her diary , The Diary of a Young Girl , which documents her life in hiding during the German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II , is one of the world 's most widely known books and has been the basis for several plays and films .
Born in the city of Frankfurt , Germany , she lived most of her life in or near Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Born a German national , Frank lost her citizenship in 1941 and thus became stateless . The Frank family moved from Germany to Amsterdam in the early 1930s when the Nazis gained control over Germany . By May 1940 , they were trapped in Amsterdam by the German occupation of the Netherlands . As persecutions of the Jewish population increased in July 1942 , the family went into hiding in some concealed rooms behind a bookcase in the building where Anne 's father worked . In August 1944 , the group was betrayed and transported to concentration camps . Anne and her sister , Margot , were eventually transferred to Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , where they died ( probably of typhus ) in February or March 1945 , just weeks before the camp was liberated in April .
Otto Frank , the only survivor of the family , returned to Amsterdam after the war to find that Anne 's diary had been saved by one of the helpers , Miep Gies , and his efforts led to its publication in 1947 . It was translated from its original Dutch version and first published in English in 1952 as The Diary of a Young Girl , and has since been translated into over 60 languages . The diary , which was given to Anne on her thirteenth birthday , chronicles her life from 12 June 1942 until 1 August 1944 .
= = Early life = =
Frank was born Annelies or Anneliese Marie Frank on 12 June 1929 in Frankfurt , Germany , to Otto Frank ( 1889 – 1980 ) and Edith Frank @-@ Holländer ( 1900 – 45 ) . She had an older sister , Margot ( 1926 – 45 ) . The Franks were liberal Jews , and did not observe all of the customs and traditions of Judaism , and lived in an assimilated community of Jewish and non @-@ Jewish citizens of various religions . Edith Frank was the more devout parent , while Otto Frank was interested in scholarly pursuits and had an extensive library ; both parents encouraged the children to read .
On 13 March 1933 , elections were held in Frankfurt for the municipal council , and Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party won . Antisemitic demonstrations occurred almost immediately , and the Franks began to fear what would happen to them if they remained in Germany . Later that year , Edith and the children went to Aachen , where they stayed with Edith 's mother , Rosa Holländer . Otto Frank remained in Frankfurt , but after receiving an offer to start a company in Amsterdam , he moved there to organize the business and to arrange accommodations for his family . The Franks were among 300 @,@ 000 Jews who fled Germany between 1933 and 1939 .
Otto Frank began working at the Opekta Works , a company that sold fruit extract pectin , and found an apartment on the Merwedeplein ( Merwede Square ) in the Rivierenbuurt neighborhood of Amsterdam . By February 1934 , Edith and the children had arrived in Amsterdam , and the two girls were enrolled in school — Margot in public school and Anne in a Montessori school . Margot demonstrated ability in arithmetic , and Anne showed aptitude for reading and writing . Her friend Hanneli Goslar later recalled that from early childhood , Frank frequently wrote , although she shielded her work with her hands and refused to discuss the content of her writing . The Frank sisters had highly distinct personalities , Margot being well @-@ mannered , reserved , and studious , while Anne was outspoken , energetic , and extroverted .
In 1938 , Otto Frank started a second company , Pectacon , which was a wholesaler of herbs , pickling salts , and mixed spices , used in the production of sausages . Hermann van Pels was employed by Pectacon as an advisor about spices . A Jewish butcher , he had fled Osnabrück in Germany with his family . In 1939 , Edith 's mother came to live with the Franks , and remained with them until her death in January 1942 .
In May 1940 , Germany invaded the Netherlands , and the occupation government began to persecute Jews by the implementation of restrictive and discriminatory laws ; mandatory registration and segregation soon followed . Otto Frank tried to arrange for the family to emigrate to the United States – the only destination that seemed to him to be viable – but this possibility was blocked from June 1941 , as the US government was concerned that people with close relatives still in Germany could be blackmailed into becoming Nazi spies . The Frank sisters were excelling in their studies and had many friends , but with the introduction of a decree that Jews could attend only Jewish schools , they were enrolled at the Jewish Lyceum . Anne became a friend of Jacqueline van Maarsen in the Lyceum . In April 1941 , Otto Frank took action to prevent Pectacon from being confiscated as a Jewish @-@ owned business . He transferred his shares in Pectacon to Johannes Kleiman and resigned as director . The company was liquidated and all assets transferred to Gies and Company , headed by Jan Gies . In December 1941 , Frank followed a similar process to save Opekta . The businesses continued with little obvious change and their survival allowed Frank to earn a minimal income , but sufficient to provide for his family .
= = Time period chronicled in the diary = =
= = = Before going into hiding = = =
For her thirteenth birthday on 12 June 1942 , Anne Frank received a book she had shown her father in a shop window a few days earlier . Although it was an autograph book , bound with red @-@ and @-@ white checkered cloth and with a small lock on the front , Frank decided she would use it as a diary , and she began writing in it almost immediately . While many of her early entries relate the mundane aspects of her life , she also discusses some of the changes that had taken place in the Netherlands since the German occupation . In her entry dated 20 June 1942 , she lists many of the restrictions that had been placed upon the lives of the Dutch Jewish population , and also notes her sorrow at the death of her grandmother earlier in the year . Frank dreamed about becoming an actress . She loved watching movies , but the Dutch Jews were forbidden access to movie theaters from 8 January 1941 onwards .
In July 1942 , Margot Frank received a call @-@ up notice from the Zentralstelle für jüdische Auswanderung ( Central Office for Jewish Emigration ) ordering her to report for relocation to a work camp . Otto Frank told his family that they would go into hiding in rooms above and behind Opekta 's premises on the Prinsengracht , a street along one of Amsterdam 's canals , where some of his most trusted employees would help them . The call @-@ up notice forced them to relocate several weeks earlier than had been anticipated .
Shortly before going into hiding , Anne gave her friend and neighbor , Toosje Kupers , a book , a tea set , a tin of marbles , and the family cat for safekeeping . As the Associated Press reports : " ' I 'm worried about my marbles , because I 'm scared they might fall into the wrong hands , ' Kupers said Anne told her . ' Could you keep them for me for a little while ? ' "
= = = Life in the Achterhuis = = =
On the morning of Monday , 6 July 1942 , the family moved into their hiding place , a secret annex . Their apartment was left in a state of disarray to create the impression that they had left suddenly , and Otto Frank left a note that hinted they were going to Switzerland . The need for secrecy forced them to leave behind Anne 's cat , Moortje . As Jews were not allowed to use public transport , they walked several kilometers from their home , with each of them wearing several layers of clothing as they did not dare be seen carrying luggage . The Achterhuis ( a Dutch word denoting the rear part of a house , translated as the " Secret Annexe " in English editions of the diary ) was a three @-@ story space entered from a landing above the Opekta offices . Two small rooms , with an adjoining bathroom and toilet , were on the first level , and above that a larger open room , with a small room beside it . From this smaller room , a ladder led to the attic . The door to the Achterhuis was later covered by a bookcase to ensure it remained undiscovered . The main building , situated a block from the Westerkerk , was nondescript , old , and typical of buildings in the western quarters of Amsterdam .
Victor Kugler , Johannes Kleiman , Miep Gies , and Bep Voskuijl were the only employees who knew of the people in hiding . Along with Gies ' husband Jan Gies and Voskuijl 's father Johannes Hendrik Voskuijl , they were the " helpers " for the duration of their confinement . The only connection between the outside world and the occupants of the house , they kept the occupants informed of war news and political developments . They catered to all of their needs , ensured their safety , and supplied them with food , a task that grew more difficult with the passage of time . Frank wrote of their dedication and of their efforts to boost morale within the household during the most dangerous of times . All were aware that , if caught , they could face the death penalty for sheltering Jews .
On 13 July 1942 , the Franks were joined by the van Pels family : Hermann , Auguste , and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Peter , and then in November by Fritz Pfeffer , a dentist and friend of the family . Frank wrote of her pleasure at having new people to talk to , but tensions quickly developed within the group forced to live in such confined conditions . After sharing her room with Pfeffer , she found him to be insufferable and resented his intrusion , and she clashed with Auguste van Pels , whom she regarded as foolish . She regarded Hermann van Pels and Fritz Pfeffer as selfish , particularly in regard to the amount of food they consumed . Some time later , after first dismissing the shy and awkward Peter van Pels , she recognised a kinship with him and the two entered a romance . She received her first kiss from him , but her infatuation with him began to wane as she questioned whether her feelings for him were genuine , or resulted from their shared confinement . Anne Frank formed a close bond with each of the helpers , and Otto Frank later recalled that she had anticipated their daily visits with impatient enthusiasm . He observed that Anne 's closest friendship was with Bep Voskuijl , " the young typist ... the two of them often stood whispering in the corner . "
= = = The young diarist = = =
In her writing , Frank examined her relationships with the members of her family , and the strong differences in each of their personalities . She considered herself to be closest emotionally to her father , who later commented , " I got on better with Anne than with Margot , who was more attached to her mother . The reason for that may have been that Margot rarely showed her feelings and didn 't need as much support because she didn 't suffer from mood swings as much as Anne did . " The Frank sisters formed a closer relationship than had existed before they went into hiding , although Anne sometimes expressed jealousy towards Margot , particularly when members of the household criticised Anne for lacking Margot 's gentle and placid nature . As Anne began to mature , the sisters were able to confide in each other . In her entry of 12 January 1944 , Frank wrote , " Margot 's much nicer ... She 's not nearly so catty these days and is becoming a real friend . She no longer thinks of me as a little baby who doesn 't count . "
Frank frequently wrote of her difficult relationship with her mother , and of her ambivalence towards her . On 7 November 1942 she described her " contempt " for her mother and her inability to " confront her with her carelessness , her sarcasm and her hard @-@ heartedness , " before concluding , " She 's not a mother to me . " Later , as she revised her diary , Frank felt ashamed of her harsh attitude , writing : " Anne , is it really you who mentioned hate , oh Anne , how could you ? " She came to understand that their differences resulted from misunderstandings that were as much her fault as her mother 's , and saw that she had added unnecessarily to her mother 's suffering . With this realization , Frank began to treat her mother with a degree of tolerance and respect .
The Frank sisters each hoped to return to school as soon as they were able , and continued with their studies while in hiding . Margot took a shorthand course by correspondence in Bep Voskuijl 's name and received high marks . Most of Anne 's time was spent reading and studying , and she regularly wrote and edited her diary entries . In addition to providing a narrative of events as they occurred , she wrote about her feelings , beliefs , and ambitions , subjects she felt she could not discuss with anyone . As her confidence in her writing grew , and as she began to mature , she wrote of more abstract subjects such as her belief in God , and how she defined human nature .
Frank aspired to become a journalist , writing in her diary on Wednesday , 5 April 1944 :
I finally realized that I must do my schoolwork to keep from being ignorant , to get on in life , to become a journalist , because that 's what I want ! I know I can write ... , but it remains to be seen whether I really have talent ...
And if I don 't have the talent to write books or newspaper articles , I can always write for myself . But I want to achieve more than that . I can 't imagine living like Mother , Mrs. van Daan and all the women who go about their work and are then forgotten . I need to have something besides a husband and children to devote myself to ! ...
I want to be useful or bring enjoyment to all people , even those I 've never met . I want to go on living even after my death ! And that 's why I 'm so grateful to God for having given me this gift , which I can use to develop myself and to express all that 's inside me !
When I write I can shake off all my cares . My sorrow disappears , my spirits are revived ! But , and that 's a big question , will I ever be able to write something great , will I ever become a journalist or a writer ?
She continued writing regularly until her last entry of 1 August 1944 .
= = Arrest = =
On the morning of 4 August 1944 , following a tip from an informer who has never been identified , the Achterhuis was stormed by a group of German uniformed police ( Grüne Polizei ) led by SS @-@ Oberscharführer Karl Silberbauer of the Sicherheitsdienst . The Franks , van Pelses , and Pfeffer were taken to RSHA headquarters , where they were interrogated and held overnight . On 5 August they were transferred to the Huis van Bewaring ( House of Detention ) , an overcrowded prison on the Weteringschans . Two days later they were transported to the Westerbork transit camp , through which by that time more than 100 @,@ 000 Jews , mostly Dutch and German , had passed . Having been arrested in hiding , they were considered criminals and sent to the Punishment Barracks for hard labor .
Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman were arrested and jailed at the penal camp for enemies of the regime at Amersfoort . Kleiman was released after seven weeks , but Kugler was held in various work camps until the war 's end . Miep Gies and Bep Voskuijl were questioned and threatened by the Security Police but not detained . They returned to the Achterhuis the following day , and found Anne 's papers strewn on the floor . They collected them , as well as several family photograph albums , and Gies resolved to return them to Anne after the war . On 7 August 1944 , Gies attempted to facilitate the release of the prisoners by confronting Silberbauer and offering him money to intervene , but he refused .
Although there has been persistent speculation , the source of the information that led the authorities to raid the Achterhuis has never been identified . Signs of the building being occupied after office hours , such as open curtains and accidental noises , may have been noticed and discussed by people on the outside . Reports of such events may have eventually come to the attention of the authorities without there being a specific or intentional informant . Night watchman Martin Sleegers and an unidentified police officer investigated a burglary at the premises in April 1944 and came across the bookcase concealing the secret door . Tonny Ahlers , a member of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands ( NSB ) , was suspected of being the informant by Carol Ann Lee , biographer of Otto Frank . Another suspect is stockroom manager Willem van Maaren . The Annex occupants did not trust him , as he seemed inquisitive regarding people entering the stockroom after hours . He once unexpectedly asked the employees whether there had previously been a Mr. Frank at the office . Lena Hartog was suspected of being the informant by Anne Frank 's biographer Melissa Müller . Several of these suspects knew one another and might have worked in collaboration . While virtually everyone connected with the betrayal was interrogated after the war , no one was definitively identified as being the informant .
In 2015 , Flemish journalist Jeroen de Bruyn and Joop van Wijk , Bep Voskuijl ’ s youngest son , wrote a biography , Bep Voskuijl , het zwijgen voorbij : een biografie van de jongste helper van het Achterhuis ( Bep Voskuijl , the Silence is Over : A Biography of the Youngest Helper of the Secret Annex ) , in which they alleged that Bep 's younger sister Nelly ( 1923 – 2001 ) could have betrayed the Frank family . According to the book , Bep 's sister Diny and her fiance Bertus Hulsman recollected Nelly telephoning the Gestapo on the morning of 4 August 1944 . Nelly had been critical of Bep and their father , Johannes Voskuijl , helping the Jews . ( Johannes was the one who constructed the bookcase covering the entrance to the hiding place . ) Nelly was a Nazi collaborator between 1942 and 1946 . Karl Silberbauer , the SS officer who received the phone call and made the arrest , was documented to say that the informer had " the voice of a young woman " .
= = Deportation and death = =
On 3 September 1944 , the group was deported on what would be the last transport from Westerbork to the Auschwitz concentration camp and arrived after a three @-@ day journey . On the same train was Bloeme Evers @-@ Emden , an Amsterdam native who had befriended Margot and Anne in the Jewish Lyceum in 1941 . Bloeme saw Anne , Margot , and their mother regularly in Auschwitz , and was interviewed for her remembrances of the Frank women in Auschwitz in the television documentary The Last Seven Months of Anne Frank ( 1988 ) by Dutch filmmaker Willy Lindwer and the BBC documentary Anne Frank Remembered ( 1995 ) .
Upon arrival at Auschwitz , the SS forcibly separated the men from the women and children , and Otto Frank was wrenched from his family . Those deemed able to work were admitted into the camp , and those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed . Of the 1 @,@ 019 passengers , 549 — including all children younger than 15 — were sent directly to the gas chambers . Anne Frank , who had turned 15 three months earlier , was one of the youngest people to be spared from her transport . She was soon made aware that most people were gassed upon arrival and never learned that the entire group from the Achterhuis had survived this selection . She reasoned that her father , in his mid @-@ fifties and not particularly robust , had been killed immediately after they were separated .
With the other females not selected for immediate death , Frank was forced to strip naked to be disinfected , had her head shaved , and was tattooed with an identifying number on her arm . By day , the women were used as slave labour and Frank was forced to haul rocks and dig rolls of sod ; by night , they were crammed into overcrowded barracks . Some witnesses later testified Frank became withdrawn and tearful when she saw children being led to the gas chambers ; others reported that more often she displayed strength and courage . Her gregarious and confident nature allowed her to obtain extra bread rations for her mother , sister , and herself . Disease was rampant ; before long , Frank 's skin became badly infected by scabies . The Frank sisters were moved into an infirmary , which was in a state of constant darkness and infested with rats and mice . Edith Frank stopped eating , saving every morsel of food for her daughters and passing her rations to them through a hole she made at the bottom of the infirmary wall .
In October 1944 , the Frank women were slated to join a transport to the Liebau labour camp in Upper Silesia . Bloeme Evers @-@ Emden was slated to be on this transport , but Anne was prohibited from going because she had developed scabies , and her mother and sister opted to stay with her . Bloeme went on without them .
On 28 October , selections began for women to be relocated to Bergen @-@ Belsen . More than 8 @,@ 000 women , including Anne and Margot Frank , and Auguste van Pels , were transported . Edith Frank was left behind and later died from starvation . Tents were erected at Bergen @-@ Belsen to accommodate the influx of prisoners , and as the population rose , the death toll due to disease increased rapidly . Frank was briefly reunited with two friends , Hanneli Goslar and Nanette Blitz , who were confined in another section of the camp . Goslar and Blitz survived the war , and later discussed the brief conversations they had conducted with Frank through a fence . Blitz described Anne as bald , emaciated , and shivering . Goslar noted Auguste van Pels was with Anne and Margot Frank , and was caring for Margot , who was severely ill . Neither of them saw Margot , as she was too weak to leave her bunk . Anne told Blitz and Goslar she believed her parents were dead , and for that reason she did not wish to live any longer . Goslar later estimated their meetings had taken place in late January or early February 1945 .
In early 1945 , a typhus epidemic spread through the camp , killing 17 @,@ 000 prisoners . Other diseases , including typhoid fever , were rampant . Due to these chaotic conditions , it is not possible to say what ultimately caused Anne 's death . Witnesses later testified Margot fell from her bunk in her weakened state and was killed by the shock . Anne died a few days after Margot . The exact dates of Margot and Anne 's deaths were not recorded . It was long thought that their deaths occurred only a few weeks before British soldiers liberated the camp on 15 April 1945 , but new research in 2015 indicated that they may have died as early as February of that year . Among other evidence , witnesses recalled that the Franks displayed typhus symptoms by 7 February , and Dutch health authorities reported that most untreated typhus victims died within 12 days of their first symptoms . After liberation , the camp was burned in an effort to prevent further spread of disease ; the sisters were buried in a mass grave at an unknown location .
After the war , it was estimated that only 5 @,@ 000 of the 107 @,@ 000 Jews deported from the Netherlands between 1942 and 1944 survived . An estimated 30 @,@ 000 Jews remained in the Netherlands , with many people aided by the Dutch underground . Approximately two @-@ thirds of this group survived the war .
Otto Frank survived his internment in Auschwitz . After the war ended , he returned to Amsterdam , where he was sheltered by Jan and Miep Gies as he attempted to locate his family . He learned of the death of his wife , Edith , in Auschwitz , but remained hopeful that his daughters had survived . After several weeks , he discovered Margot and Anne had also died . He attempted to determine the fates of his daughters ' friends and learned many had been murdered . Susanne ' ' Sanne ' ' Ledermann , often mentioned in Anne 's diary , had been gassed along with her parents ; her sister , Barbara , a close friend of Margot 's , had survived . Several of the Frank sisters ' school friends had survived , as had the extended families of Otto and Edith Frank , as they had fled Germany during the mid @-@ 1930s , with individual family members settling in Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
= = The Diary of a Young Girl = =
= = = Publication = = =
In July 1945 , after the Red Cross confirmed the deaths of the Frank sisters , Miep Gies gave Otto Frank the diary and a bundle of loose notes that she had saved in the hope of returning them to Anne . Otto Frank later commented that he had not realized Anne had kept such an accurate and well @-@ written record of their time in hiding . In his memoir , he described the painful process of reading the diary , recognizing the events described and recalling that he had already heard some of the more amusing episodes read aloud by his daughter . He saw for the first time the more private side of his daughter and those sections of the diary she had not discussed with anyone , noting , " For me it was a revelation ... I had no idea of the depth of her thoughts and feelings ... She had kept all these feelings to herself " . Moved by her repeated wish to be an author , he began to consider having it published .
Frank 's diary began as a private expression of her thoughts ; she wrote several times that she would never allow anyone to read it . She candidly described her life , her family and companions , and their situation , while beginning to recognise her ambition to write fiction for publication . In March 1944 , she heard a radio broadcast by Gerrit Bolkestein — a member of the Dutch government in exile , based in London — who said that when the war ended , he would create a public record of the Dutch people 's oppression under German occupation . He mentioned the publication of letters and diaries , and Frank decided to submit her work when the time came . She began editing her writing , removing some sections and rewriting others , with a view to publication . Her original notebook was supplemented by additional notebooks and loose @-@ leaf sheets of paper . She created pseudonyms for the members of the household and the helpers . The van Pels family became Hermann , Petronella , and Peter van Daan , and Fritz Pfeffer became Albert Düssell . In this edited version , she addressed each entry to " Kitty , " a fictional character in Cissy van Marxveldt 's Joop ter Heul novels that Anne enjoyed reading . Otto Frank used her original diary , known as " version A " , and her edited version , known as " version B " , to produce the first version for publication . He removed certain passages , most notably those in which Anne is critical of her parents ( especially her mother ) , and sections that discussed Frank 's growing sexuality . Although he restored the true identities of his own family , he retained all of the other pseudonyms .
Otto Frank gave the diary to the historian Annie Romein @-@ Verschoor , who tried unsuccessfully to have it published . She then gave it to her husband Jan Romein , who wrote an article about it , titled " Kinderstem " ( " A Child 's Voice " ) , which was published in the newspaper Het Parool on 3 April 1946 . He wrote that the diary " stammered out in a child 's voice , embodies all the hideousness of fascism , more so than all the evidence at Nuremberg put together . " His article attracted attention from publishers , and the diary was published in the Netherlands as Het Achterhuis ( The Annex ) in 1947 , followed by five more printings by 1950 .
It was first published in Germany and France in 1950 , and after being rejected by several publishers , was first published in the United Kingdom in 1952 . The first American edition , published in 1952 under the title Anne Frank : The Diary of a Young Girl , was positively reviewed . The book was successful in France , Germany , and the United States , but in the United Kingdom it failed to attract an audience and by 1953 was out of print . Its most noteworthy success was in Japan , where it received critical acclaim and sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in its first edition . In Japan , Anne Frank quickly was identified as an important cultural figure who represented the destruction of youth during the war .
A play by Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett based upon the diary premiered in New York City on 5 October 1955 , and later won a Pulitzer Prize for Drama . It was followed by the 1959 movie The Diary of Anne Frank , which was a critical and commercial success . Biographer Melissa Müller later wrote that the dramatization had " contributed greatly to the romanticizing , sentimentalizing and universalizing of Anne 's story . " Over the years the popularity of the diary grew , and in many schools , particularly in the United States , it was included as part of the curriculum , introducing Anne Frank to new generations of readers .
In 1986 the Dutch Institute for War Documentation published the " Critical Edition " of the diary . It includes comparisons from all known versions , both edited and unedited . It includes discussion asserting the diary 's authentication , as well as additional historical information relating to the family and the diary itself .
Cornelis Suijk — a former director of the Anne Frank Foundation and president of the U.S. Center for Holocaust Education Foundation — announced in 1999 that he was in the possession of five pages that had been removed by Otto Frank from the diary prior to publication ; Suijk claimed that Otto Frank gave these pages to him shortly before his death in 1980 . The missing diary entries contain critical remarks by Anne Frank about her parents ' strained marriage and discuss Frank 's lack of affection for her mother . Some controversy ensued when Suijk claimed publishing rights over the five pages ; he intended to sell them to raise money for his foundation . The Netherlands Institute for War Documentation , the formal owner of the manuscript , demanded the pages be handed over . In 2000 the Dutch Ministry of Education , Culture and Science agreed to donate US $ 300 @,@ 000 to Suijk 's Foundation , and the pages were returned in 2001 . Since then , they have been included in new editions of the diary .
= = = Reception = = =
The diary has been praised for its literary merits . Commenting on Anne Frank 's writing style , the dramatist Meyer Levin commended Frank for " sustaining the tension of a well @-@ constructed novel " , and was so impressed by the quality of her work that he collaborated with Otto Frank on a dramatization of the diary shortly after its publication . Meyer became obsessed with Anne Frank , which he wrote about in his autobiography The Obsession . The poet John Berryman called the book a unique depiction , not merely of adolescence but of the " conversion of a child into a person as it is happening in a precise , confident , economical style stunning in its honesty " .
In her introduction to the diary 's first American edition , Eleanor Roosevelt described it as " one of the wisest and most moving commentaries on war and its impact on human beings that I have ever read . " John F. Kennedy discussed Anne Frank in a 1961 speech , and said , " Of all the multitudes who throughout history have spoken for human dignity in times of great suffering and loss , no voice is more compelling than that of Anne Frank . " In the same year , the Soviet writer Ilya Ehrenburg wrote of her : " one voice speaks for six million — the voice not of a sage or a poet but of an ordinary little girl . "
As Anne Frank 's stature as both a writer and humanist has grown , she has been discussed specifically as a symbol of the Holocaust and more broadly as a representative of persecution . Hillary Rodham Clinton , in her acceptance speech for an Elie Wiesel Humanitarian Award in 1994 , read from Anne Frank 's diary and spoke of her " awakening us to the folly of indifference and the terrible toll it takes on our young , " which Clinton related to contemporary events in Sarajevo , Somalia and Rwanda . After receiving a humanitarian award from the Anne Frank Foundation in 1994 , Nelson Mandela addressed a crowd in Johannesburg , saying he had read Anne Frank 's diary while in prison and " derived much encouragement from it . " He likened her struggle against Nazism to his struggle against apartheid , drawing a parallel between the two philosophies : " Because these beliefs are patently false , and because they were , and will always be , challenged by the likes of Anne Frank , they are bound to fail . " Also in 1994 , Václav Havel said " Anne Frank 's legacy is very much alive and it can address us fully " in relation to the political and social changes occurring at the time in former Eastern Bloc countries .
Primo Levi suggested Anne Frank is frequently identified as a single representative of the millions of people who suffered and died as she did because " One single Anne Frank moves us more than the countless others who suffered just as she did but whose faces have remained in the shadows . Perhaps it is better that way ; if we were capable of taking in all the suffering of all those people , we would not be able to live . " In her closing message in Müller 's biography of Anne Frank , Miep Gies expressed a similar thought , though she attempted to dispel what she felt was a growing misconception that " Anne symbolises the six million victims of the Holocaust " , writing : " Anne 's life and death were her own individual fate , an individual fate that happened six million times over . Anne cannot , and should not , stand for the many individuals whom the Nazis robbed of their lives ... But her fate helps us grasp the immense loss the world suffered because of the Holocaust . "
Otto Frank spent the remainder of his life as custodian of his daughter 's legacy , saying , " It 's a strange role . In the normal family relationship , it is the child of the famous parent who has the honor and the burden of continuing the task . In my case the role is reversed . " He recalled his publisher 's explaining why he thought the diary has been so widely read , with the comment , " he said that the diary encompasses so many areas of life that each reader can find something that moves him personally " . Simon Wiesenthal expressed a similar sentiment when he said that the diary had raised more widespread awareness of the Holocaust than had been achieved during the Nuremberg Trials , because " people identified with this child . This was the impact of the Holocaust , this was a family like my family , like your family and so you could understand this . "
In June 1999 Time magazine published a special edition titled " Time 100 : The Most Important People of the Century " . Anne Frank was selected as one of the " Heroes & Icons " , and the writer , Roger Rosenblatt , described her legacy with the comment , " The passions the book ignites suggest that everyone owns Anne Frank , that she has risen above the Holocaust , Judaism , girlhood and even goodness and become a totemic figure of the modern world — the moral individual mind beset by the machinery of destruction , insisting on the right to live and question and hope for the future of human beings . " He notes that while her courage and pragmatism are admired , her ability to analyze herself and the quality of her writing are the key components of her appeal . He writes , " The reason for her immortality was basically literary . She was an extraordinarily good writer , for any age , and the quality of her work seemed a direct result of a ruthlessly honest disposition . "
= = = Denials of authenticity and legal action = = =
After the diary became widely known in the late 1950s , various allegations against the veracity of the diary and / or its contents appeared , with the earliest published criticisms occurring in Sweden and Norway .
In 1957 , Fria ord ( " Free Words " ) , the magazine of the Swedish neofascist organisation National League of Sweden published an article by Danish author and critic Harald Nielsen , who had previously written antisemitic articles about the Danish @-@ Jewish author Georg Brandes . Among other things , the article claimed that the diary had been written by Meyer Levin .
In 1958 , at a performance of The Diary of Anne Frank in Vienna , Simon Wiesenthal was challenged by a group of protesters who asserted that Anne Frank had never existed , and who challenged Wiesenthal to prove her existence by finding the man who had arrested her . Wiesenthal indeed began searching for Karl Silberbauer and found him in 1963 . When interviewed , Silberbauer admitted his role , and identified Anne Frank from a photograph as one of the people arrested . Silberbauer provided a full account of events , even recalling emptying a briefcase full of papers onto the floor . His statement corroborated the version of events that had previously been presented by witnesses such as Otto Frank .
Opponents of the diary continued to express the view that it was not written by a teen , but was a hoax , with Otto Frank being accused of fraud .
In 1959 , Otto Frank took legal action in Lübeck against Lothar Stielau , a school teacher and former Hitler Youth member who published a school paper that described the diary as " a forgery . " The complaint was extended to include Heinrich Buddegerg , who wrote a letter in support of Stielau , which was published in a Lübeck newspaper . The court examined the diary in 1960 and authenticated the handwriting as matching that in letters known to have been written by Anne Frank . They declared the diary to be genuine . Stielau recanted his earlier statement , and Otto Frank did not pursue the case any further .
In 1976 , Otto Frank took action against Heinz Roth of Frankfurt , who published pamphlets stating that the diary was " a forgery . " The judge ruled that if Roth was to publish any further statements he would be subjected to a fine of 500 @,@ 000 German marks and a six @-@ month jail sentence . Roth appealed against the court 's decision . He died in 1978 , and after a year his appeal was rejected .
Otto Frank mounted a lawsuit in 1976 against Ernst Römer , who distributed a pamphlet titled " The Diary of Anne Frank , Bestseller , A Lie " . When a man named Edgar Geiss distributed the same pamphlet in the courtroom , he too was prosecuted . Römer was fined 1 @,@ 500 Deutschmarks , and Geiss was sentenced to six months imprisonment . The sentence of Geiss was reduced on appeal , and the case was eventually dropped following a subsequent appeal because the statutory limitation for libel had expired .
With Otto Frank 's death in 1980 , the original diary , including letters and loose sheets , were willed to the Dutch Institute for War Documentation , who commissioned a forensic study of the diary through the Netherlands Ministry of Justice in 1986 . They examined the handwriting against known examples and found that they matched . They determined that the paper , glue , and ink were readily available during the time the diary was said to have been written . They concluded that the diary is authentic , and their findings were published in what has become known as the " Critical Edition " of the diary . On 23 March 1990 , the Hamburg Regional Court confirmed the diary 's authenticity .
In 1991 , Holocaust deniers Robert Faurisson and Siegfried Verbeke produced a booklet titled The Diary of Anne Frank : A Critical Approach , in which they revived the allegation that Otto Frank wrote the diary . Purported evidence , as before , included several contradictions in the diary , that the prose style and handwriting were not those of a teenager , and that hiding in the Achterhuis would have been impossible . In December 1993 the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam and the Anne Frank Funds in Basel filed a civil lawsuit to prohibit further distribution of Faurisson and Verbeke 's booklet in the Netherlands . On 9 December 1998 the Amsterdam District Court ruled in favour of the claimants , forbade any further denial of the authenticity of the diary and unsolicited distribution of publications to that effect , and imposed a penalty of 25 @,@ 000 guilders per infringement .
= = = Complaints regarding unabridged version = = =
An unabridged edition of Anne Frank 's work was published in 1995 . This version included Anne 's description of her exploration of her own genitalia and her puzzlement regarding sex and childbirth , a passage that had previously been edited out by Otto Frank . When Gail Horalek of Northville , Michigan , learned in March 2013 that her daughter 's seventh @-@ grade class was using this edition of the diary in class , she filed a complaint with the school district asking that an edited version be used instead . Horalek , who described the passage as pornographic , said the school should have obtained prior approval from parents before assigning the book . In 2010 , school officials in Culpeper County , Virginia , stopped assigning the unabridged version after similar complaints were lodged .
Emer O 'Toole of The Guardian noted that " we live in a society in which young women are taught to be ashamed of the changes that their bodies undergo at puberty – to be secretive about them , and even to pretend that they don 't exist . " Clem Bastow of Daily Life found the complaint " infuriating " .
= = Legacy = =
On 3 May 1957 , a group of citizens , including Otto Frank , established the Anne Frank Stichting in an effort to rescue the Prinsengracht building from demolition and to make it accessible to the public . The Anne Frank House opened on 3 May 1960 . It consists of the Opekta warehouse and offices and the Achterhuis , all unfurnished so that visitors can walk freely through the rooms . Some personal relics of the former occupants remain , such as movie star photographs glued by Anne to a wall , a section of wallpaper on which Otto Frank marked the height of his growing daughters , and a map on the wall where he recorded the advance of the Allied Forces , all now protected behind Perspex sheets . From the small room which was once home to Peter van Pels , a walkway connects the building to its neighbours , also purchased by the Foundation . These other buildings are used to house the diary , as well as rotating exhibits that chronicle aspects of the Holocaust and more contemporary examinations of racial intolerance around the world . One of Amsterdam 's main tourist attractions , it received a record 965 @,@ 000 visitors in 2005 . The House provides information via the internet and offers exhibitions that in 2005 travelled to 32 countries in Europe , Asia , North America , and South America .
In 1963 , Otto Frank and his second wife , Elfriede Geiringer @-@ Markovits , set up the Anne Frank Fonds as a charitable foundation , based in Basel , Switzerland . The Fonds raises money to donate to causes " as it sees fit " . Upon his death , Otto willed the diary 's copyright to the Fonds , on the provision that the first 80 @,@ 000 Swiss francs in income each year was to be distributed to his heirs . Any income above this figure is to be retained by the Fonds for use on whatever projects its administrators considered worthy . It provides funding for the medical treatment of the Righteous among the Nations on a yearly basis . The Fonds aims to educate young people against racism , and loaned some of Anne Frank 's papers to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington for an exhibition in 2003 . Its annual report that year outlined its efforts to contribute on a global level , with support for projects in Germany , Israel , India , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
In 1997 , the Anne Frank Educational Centre ( Jugendbegegnungsstätte Anne Frank ) was opened in the Dornbusch neighborhood of Frankfurt , where Frank lived with her family until 1934 . The Centre is " a place where both young people and adults can learn about the history of National Socialism and discuss its relevance to today . "
The Merwedeplein apartment , where the Frank family lived from 1933 until 1942 , remained privately owned until the 2000s . After becoming the focus of a television documentary , the building — in a serious state of disrepair — was purchased by a Dutch housing corporation . Aided by photographs taken by the Frank family and descriptions in letters written by Anne Frank , it was restored to its 1930s appearance . Teresien da Silva of the Anne Frank House and Frank 's cousin , Bernhard " Buddy " Elias , contributed to the restoration project . It opened in 2005 . Each year , a writer who is unable to write freely in his or her own country is selected for a year @-@ long tenancy , during which they reside and write in the apartment . The first writer selected was the Algerian novelist and poet El @-@ Mahdi Acherchour .
In June 2007 , " Buddy " Elias donated some 25 @,@ 000 family documents to the Anne Frank House . Among the artifacts are Frank family photographs taken in Germany and the Netherlands and the letter Otto Frank sent his mother in 1945 , informing her that his wife and daughters had perished in Nazi concentration camps .
In November 2007 , the Anne Frank tree — by then infected with a fungal disease affecting the tree trunk — was scheduled to be cut down to prevent it from falling on the surrounding buildings . Dutch economist Arnold Heertje said about the tree : " This is not just any tree . The Anne Frank tree is bound up with the persecution of the Jews . " The Tree Foundation , a group of tree conservationists , started a civil case to stop the felling of the horse chestnut , which received international media attention . A Dutch court ordered city officials and conservationists to explore alternatives and come to a solution . The parties built a steel construction that was expected to prolong the life of the tree up to 15 years . However , it was only three years later , on 23 August 2010 , that gale @-@ force winds blew down the tree . Eleven saplings from the tree were distributed to museums , schools , parks and Holocaust remembrance centers through a project led by the Anne Frank Center USA . The first sapling was planted in April 2013 at The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis . Saplings were also sent to a school in Little Rock , Arkansas that was the scene of a desegregation battle , Liberty Park ( Manhattan ) , which honors victims of the September 11 attacks , and other sites in the United States .
Over the years , several films about Anne Frank appeared . Her life and writings have inspired a diverse group of artists and social commentators to make reference to her in literature , popular music , television , and other media . These include The Anne Frank Ballet by Adam Darius , first performed in 1959 , and the choral work Annelies , first performed in 2005 . The only known footage of the real Anne Frank comes from a 1941 silent film recorded for her newlywed next @-@ door neighbor . She is seen leaning out of a second @-@ floor window in an attempt to better view the bride and groom . The couple , who survived the war , gave the film to the Anne Frank House .
In 1999 , Time named Anne Frank among the heroes and icons of the 20th century on their list The Most Important People of the Century , stating : " With a diary kept in a secret attic , she braved the Nazis and lent a searing voice to the fight for human dignity " . Philip Roth called her the " lost little daughter " of Franz Kafka . Madame Tussauds wax museum unveiled an exhibit featuring a likeness of Anne Frank in 2012 . Asteroid 5535 Annefrank was named in her honor in 1995 , after having been discovered in 1942 .
|
= Live Forever =
" Live Forever " is a song by the English rock band Oasis . Written by Noel Gallagher , the song was released as the third single from their debut album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) on 8 August 1994 , just prior to that album 's release .
Gallagher wrote the song in 1991 , before he joined Oasis . Inspired by the Rolling Stones ' " Shine a Light " , " Live Forever " features a basic song structure and lyrics with an optimistic outlook that contrasted with the attitude of the grunge bands popular at the time . The song was the first Oasis single to enter the top ten in the United Kingdom , and garnered critical acclaim .
= = Background and recording = =
Noel Gallagher began working on " Live Forever " in 1991 , while working for a building company in his hometown of Manchester . After his foot was crushed by a pipe in an accident , he was given a less @-@ strenuous job working in the storeroom , allowing him more time to write songs . One night , he was listening to the Rolling Stones ' album Exile on Main St ; while playing one of his own chord progressions , Gallagher noted that it sounded good against one of the vocal melodies from the album : " It was the bit from " Shine a Light " that goes [ sings ] , " May the good Lord shine a light on you " " , Gallagher recalled . Gallagher incorporated the melody , changing the line to " Maybe I don 't really want to know " . For a period afterwards , that was the only part of the song Gallagher had completed .
Noel Gallagher presented a fully composed " Live Forever " to the band for the first time in early 1993 during rehearsals . According to drummer Tony McCarroll , the band were admittedly awed by it . The song was later instrumental in helping the band secure their record deal with Creation Records . Reflecting on when he first heard the song , Creation boss Alan McGee recalled , " It was probably the single greatest moment I 've ever experienced with them " .
The demo version of " Live Forever " begins with an acoustic guitar intro . While recording the album version , the record 's producer Owen Morris cut out this intro and replaced it with a drumbeat played by McCarroll . Morris further cut a second section in Gallagher 's guitar solo . Although Gallagher was upset , Morris felt the part had sounded " a bit like fucking Slash from Guns N ' Roses " .
= = Composition = =
" Live Forever " is in the key of G major ( varispeeded up by less than half a semitone during mixing ) and is based on a G – D – Am7 – C – D chord progression , with the G chord becoming an Em during the pre @-@ chorus , though the key changes to A minor following the last chorus . The song has no proper distinction between the verses or chorus section ( with only a falsetto refrain of " You and I are gonna live forever " marking off sections ) , and the vocal melody only consists of a few notes . The simplistic arrangement of the song " meant the song never resolved " . Guitarist Paul Arthurs said , " for me that song could keep going . "
The song begins with a voice whistling briefly and saying " Oh yeah " , followed by a drum beat that plays unaccompanied for a few measures . An intermingling of the main guitar line , piano notes , and Liam Gallagher 's vocals then enter . Each verse begins with Liam singing the phrase " Maybe / I don 't really wanna know / How your garden grows / ' Cause I just wanna fly " , and each verse ends with the falsetto refrain . A guitar solo appears after the second refrain of " You and I are gonna live forever " . After the third verse and refrain section , Liam Gallagher repeats the line " Gonna live forever ! " four times with ' ache in his voice ' , followed by one final guitar solo .
The song is interpreted to be an ode to Noel and Liam Gallagher 's mother Peggy . In general the lyrics of the song stress an optimistic outlook . Noel Gallagher explained that " At the time . . . it was written in the middle of grunge and all that , and I remember Nirvana had a tune called ' I Hate Myself and Want to Die ' , and I was like . . . ' Well , I 'm not fucking having that . ' As much as I fucking like him [ Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain ] and all that shit , I 'm not having that . I can 't have people like that coming over here , on smack , fucking saying that they hate themselves and they wanna die . That 's fucking rubbish . Kids don 't need to be hearing that nonsense . " While Gallagher has stated he did not intend " Live Forever " as a direct retort to Nirvana or their music ( being a professed fan of the band ) , he contrasted the lives of Cobain and his band at that point , saying , " Seems to me that here was a guy who had everything , and was miserable about it . And we had fuck @-@ all , and I still thought that getting up in the morning was the greatest fuckin ' thing ever , ' cause you didn 't know where you 'd end up at night . And we didn 't have a pot to piss in , but it was fucking great , man " . Gallagher considers the line " We see things they 'll never see " the most important line of the song , explaining that old friends tend to laugh at jokes and stories that " no one else gets " .
= = Reception = =
" Live Forever " was released on 8 August 1994 as the band 's third single , a month before the release of their debut album Definitely Maybe . The song had been part of the band 's set for longer than a year at that point , and had amassed so many mentions in reviews of the group that " its release [ as a single ] had long seemed inevitable . " In its review of the single , NME found " Live Forever " to be an improvement over Oasis ' previous singles , concluding , " Basically , what thus far looked like obnoxious Manc arrogance suddenly looks like sheer effortlessness . A terrific record . "
While Oasis ' first two singles , " Supersonic " and " Shakermaker " , were modestly received , it was " Live Forever " that " got the world 's attention " . " Live Forever " became Oasis ' first top ten hit , reaching number ten on the British singles charts in 1994 . In 1995 , the song became the band 's first chart success in the United States , reaching number two and ten on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts , respectively . Noel Gallagher commented on the praise given to the song : " People said to me after ' Live Forever ' , ' Where are you gonna go after that ? ' And I was like , I don 't think it 's that good . I think it 's a fucking good song , but I think I can do better . "
" Live Forever " has garnered additional acclaim years after its release . In 2006 , " Live Forever " was named the greatest song of all @-@ time in a poll released by Q ; the song had ranked ninth in a similar Q poll three years prior . In 2007 , " Live Forever " placed number one in the NME and XFM poll of the 50 " Greatest Indie Anthems Ever " . Pitchfork labeled the song as Oasis ' best ever track and said of the song ; " It 's an honest , aspirational sentiment just as the photo of John Lennon 's childhood home on the single 's sleeve is an honest , tasteful exhibition of fandom . " The music site went on to praise the song for its ' fearless optimism ' .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were made for " Live Forever " for British and American airplay . The original video , shot on 8 May 1994 , was directed by Carlos Grasso and features unusual imagery such as Liam Gallagher sitting on a chair affixed to a wall , and a number of scenes are devoted to the band burying drummer Tony McCarroll alive . Some of the UK version of the promotional video was filmed at the Strawberry Fields memorial , the area of New York City 's Central Park dedicated to John Lennon — the single cover features 251 Menlove Avenue , the childhood home of Lennon . The American video , directed by Nick Egan features the band playing in an office with pictures of Sid Vicious , Kurt Cobain , Jim Morrison , John Lennon , Brian Jones , Jimi Hendrix , Marc Bolan , and Bobby Moore on the wall . Both videos are included on the 2004 Definitely Maybe DVD .
= = Live performances = =
" Live Forever " is a crowd favorite to play at concerts . In some concerts , most notably Manchester in 1996 , a slideshow of famous deceased musicians Oasis admired - such as Elvis Presley , Bob Marley , and Sid Vicious - would be displayed behind the band , with a picture of John Lennon always at the end of the slideshow . During the early years , Liam Gallagher would personally sing the falsetto part , " You and I , we 're gonna live forever . " Noel Gallagher eventually picked up the role of singing the falsetto , as " Liam thought it was a bit gay . "
= = Track listings = =
= = = UK track listing = = =
CD CRESCD 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
" Supersonic " ( live ) – 5 : 12
7 " CRE 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
12 " CRE 185T
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
Cassette CRECS 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( Acoustic ) – 3 : 32
= = = European track listing = = =
CD HES 660689 2
" Live Forever " ( radio edit ) – 3 : 43
" Live Forever " – 4 : 37
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
" Supersonic " ( live ) – 5 : 10
= = Chart positions = =
|
= Everard Digby =
Sir Everard Digby ( c . 1578 – 30 January 1606 ) was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 . Although he was raised in a Protestant household , and married a Protestant , Digby and his wife were converted to Catholicism by the Jesuit priest John Gerard . In the autumn of 1605 he was part of a Catholic pilgrimage to the shrine of St Winefride 's Well in Holywell . About this time he met Robert Catesby , a religious fanatic who planned to blow up the House of Lords with gunpowder , killing James I. Catesby then planned to incite a popular revolt , during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the English throne .
The full extent of Digby 's knowledge of and involvement in the plot is unknown , but on Catesby 's behest Digby rented Coughton Court and prepared a " hunting party " , ready for the planned uprising . The plot failed however , and Digby joined the conspirators as they took flight through the Midlands , failing to garner support along their way . Digby left the other fugitives at Holbeche House in Staffordshire , and was soon captured and taken to the Tower of London .
Digby was tried on 27 January 1606 . Despite an eloquent defence , he was found guilty of high treason , and three days later was hanged , drawn and quartered .
= = Early life = =
Everard Digby was the son of Everard Digby , and Maria Digby ( née Neale ) , daughter of Francis Neale of Keythorpe in Leicestershire . He was also a cousin of Anne Vaux , who for years placed herself at considerable risk by sheltering Jesuit priests such as Henry Garnet . According to author Roy Digby Thomas , the Digby family may have been founded during the Norman conquest of England , when William the Conqueror was accompanied by Almar , who settled at Tilton in Rutland . Sir John Digby ( d . 1269 ) served on two crusades , and by 1418 Sir Everard " Greenleaf " Digby was Lord of Tilton and owner of the manor at Drystoke , and Rutland 's member of Parliament . Sir Everard lost his life ( and his family much of their fortune ) fighting in 1461 for Henry VI against Edward IV . The family had a reversal of fortune in 1485 when Sir Everard 's sons fought for the victorious Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field . Digby may have been related to the 16th @-@ century scholar , Everard Digby .
In 1596 , while still a teenager , he married Mary Mulshaw , a young heiress who brought with her Gayhurst House in Buckinghamshire . By all accounts their marriage was a happy one , and they had two sons ; Kenelm was born in 1603 at Gayhurst , and John in 1605 . Unlike other English Catholics , Digby had little first @-@ hand experience of England 's recusancy laws . Following the death of his father he had been made a ward of Chancery and was raised in a Protestant household . His wife Mary was converted to Catholicism by the Jesuit priest John Gerard . When Digby fell seriously ill , Gerard used the occasion to convert him also , and the two subsequently became close friends , " calling eachother [ sic ] ' brother ' when we wrote and spoke " . Gerard was godfather to Digby 's eldest son , Kenelm , and the Digbys also built a hidden chapel and sacristy at Gayhurst .
Digby frequented the court of Elizabeth I , and became informally associated with the Elizabethan gentlemen pensioners . His marriage had significantly expanded his holdings , however , and possibly for this reason he left court to manage his estates . He was apparently an unforgiving landlord , as his tenants in Tilton petitioned the Crown for redress when he failed to honour the expensive leases granted them by his father . He added to his property in Buckinghamshire by buying land in Great Missenden , and a month after the queen 's death his social station was elevated when on 24 April 1603 he was knighted by James I at Belvoir Castle . Four days later he was present for Elizabeth 's funeral in London .
= = Robert Catesby = =
In late August or early September 1605 , Digby , his wife and their secret Jesuit chaplain Edward Oldcorne joined a pilgrimage organised by , amongst others , Henry Garnet and Anne Vaux . The party had set out from White Webbs at Enfield Chase , heading for the shrine of St Winefride 's Well at Holywell , and had occasionally stopped along the way to collect more followers . As the thirty or so pilgrims returned from Holywell in mid @-@ September , they stopped at Rushton Hall where Sir Thomas Tresham had recently died , and then continued on to Digby 's seat at Gayhurst .
On 21 October Digby , his wife , Garnet and Vaux were at Harrowden celebrating a delayed Feast of St Luke . While there he met Robert Catesby , who at some point asked him to swear an oath of secrecy before introducing him to what later became known as the Gunpowder Plot . English Catholics had hoped that the years of persecution they suffered during Elizabeth 's reign would end when James I came to the throne , as his attitude appeared moderate , even tolerant towards Catholics . In Catesby 's view however , James had reneged on his promises , and he had quickly lost patience with the new dynasty . He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , and then inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the throne . Catesby had enlisted the aid of other Catholics , but had borne much of the scheme 's financial cost and was running out of money . The group had therefore agreed to expand their numbers . To this end Catesby had recruited Ambrose Rookwood — a young and wealthy Catholic with a stable of fine horses — and a wealthy cousin , Francis Tresham .
The extent of Digby 's knowledge of the plot is unknown , but in the opinion of author Alan Haynes , Digby was shocked by what he heard , and asked what would become of some of their Catholic friends . Catesby replied " Assure your selfe that such of the nobilitie as are worth the saving shalbe preserved and yet knowe not of the matter . " None of their friends would be caught in the explosion . He asked if Catesby had spoken of the matter with Garnet , or any other Jesuits ; although Catesby was in no doubt that the Jesuits disapproved of any such action , he lied and said that he would not act without their approbation . Catesby then named the other conspirators , and promised Digby that as soon as they reached Gayhurst he would demonstrate that their religion allowed such acts of regicide , thus dissuading the young lord from confessing to Garnet and discovering the Jesuit 's opinion of the matter . Catesby told him to rent Coughton Court from the head of the Throckmorton family , so that he would " the better to be able to do good to the cause [ kidnap Princess Elizabeth ] " . From there , he was to organise a hunting party ( in reality a group of armed men on horseback ) and be ready for some kind of military manoeuvre . Digby also provided monetary assistance ; he promised £ 1 @,@ 500 after fellow plotter Thomas Percy failed to pay the rent due for several properties in Westminster .
= = Hunting party = =
On 2 November at Gayhurst , while making preparations for his hunting party , Digby was visited by Gerard . Having noticed that the house was almost completely empty , the Jesuit asked him if there was " any matter in hand " and if Garnet knew of it . Keen not to implicate Gerard , despite being told less than two weeks earlier that the plot had Jesuit approval , Digby told him that there was nothing he knew of " or could tell him of " . Although Gerard later used this conversation to defend himself against those who accused him of involvement in the plot , he lived to regret not being given the opportunity to dissuade Digby from his course .
Two days later Digby and his servants were ensconced at the Red Lion inn , in Dunchurch , where his hunt was to take place . He took with him several items of clothing , including " a white satin doublet cut with purple " . Also present , but uninvolved , were his uncle , Sir Robert Digby , Humphrey Littleton and his nephew Stephen Littleton . They ate supper , before being joined by fellow conspirator John Grant and a friend . Also invited was the stepbrother of plotters Robert and Thomas Wintour , John Wintour . They attended a mass the next morning , conducted by a Father Hammond , before the party moved on .
Around midnight on 4 November , Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the gunpowder the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords , and arrested . Those conspirators still in London soon took flight for the Midlands , finding along the way those who had already left to prepare for the planned uprising . They met Digby and his party at Dunchurch . Catesby told Digby that the king and Salisbury were dead , and " if true Catholics would now stir , he doubted not that they might procure to themselves good conditions " . Digby was won over , but many of his party were less than impressed at being so badly deceived , and worse , being associated with treason . One of his servants asked Digby what would happen to them ; Digby told him that although he was aware of their ignorance , " but now there is no remedy " .
= = Flight = =
On 6 November the fugitives raided Warwick Castle and managed to secure more horses , before moving on to Norbrook to collect stored weapons . From there they continued their journey toward Huddington . Catesby ordered his servant ( and fellow plotter ) Thomas Bates to deliver a letter to Father Garnet at Coughton Court . Catesby and Digby asked Garnet to excuse their recklessness , before asking for his help in raising an army in Wales . Garnet 's reply begged them to stop their " wicked actions " , and to listen to the Pope 's teachings . When the priest tried to comfort Mary Digby , also at Coughton Court , she burst into tears .
With their ever @-@ decreasing band of supporters , the remaining fugitives arrived at Huddington at about 2 : 00 pm . Any expectation they had of support began to vanish ; almost everyone they met showed concern only for their own safety , fearful of being involved with traitors . The next morning they rode through the rain , stopping briefly to help themselves to supplies from the home of the absent Lord Windsor at Hewell Grange . Still the locals refused to have anything to do with them ; Digby later admitted that " not one man " joined them . They arrived that night at Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire , and tired and desperate , spread out some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , to dry out . A spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant , and another man .
= = Surrender = =
Catesby and fellow conspirators Thomas Percy , John Wright and his brother Christopher were killed by the Sheriff of Worcester 's men early on 8 November , but Digby had already left to give himself up ( the only conspirator to do so ) . With two servants , possibly Bates and his son , he took several horses and hid in nearby woods . Their tracks were soon found however , and with some hesitation ( Digby had intended to surrender himself to someone more worthy ) , early that morning he presented himself to the most senior @-@ looking of his adversaries . While Digby was taken to the Tower of London , Gayhurst was ransacked ; the servants ' belongings were stolen , the livestock was sold cheaply , and Mary Digby was left destitute . The sheriff later remarked " All goods are carried away , even to the very floor of the great parlour . " At the Tower , Digby 's two trunks of clothing were searched , and found to contain £ 100 in gold , and £ 50 in white money . William Waad , Lieutenant of the Tower , asked if he could take £ 50 to pay for Digby 's food and bedding .
Digby unsuccessfully sought an audience with James to try and explain himself , in Fraser 's opinion suggesting either that the extent of his involvement was limited , or that he was " astonishingly naive and trusting of his sovereign 's forgiveness . " While imprisoned he busied himself with writing secret letters , smuggled from the Tower and not rediscovered until Kenelm Digby 's death in 1675 . Although he was fortunate not to suffer the fate of Guy Fawkes , who was tortured on several occasions , one of these letters hints that it had been " in a fashion , offered " . He described his refusal to cooperate with his interrogators , boasted of his deceit , and how there was nothing he could do to make the plot appear less abhorrent to fellow Catholics . Digby also carved an inscription on the wall of his cell , extant as of 1996 .
= = Trial and execution = =
Digby was tried on the same day as seven of his surviving co @-@ conspirators , in Westminster Hall , on Monday 27 January 1606 . As the king and his family watched in secret , the charges against the plotters were read aloud . Alone amongst them Digby pleaded " Guilty " , and was tried on a separate indictment . Dressed in a black satin suit and " tuff taffetie gown " , he gave a short and moving speech , defending his actions by explaining his affection for Catesby , and the cause of his religion . He accused King James of reneging on his promises of toleration for Catholics , and told of his fears of harsher laws against recusancy . He also pleaded on behalf of his family , that they should not pay for his actions , before making a final request to be beheaded . His words fell on mostly deaf ears . The prosecution poured scorn on James 's supposed perfidy , and ridiculed Digby for asking for leniency where he would have given none . Along with the other plotters , he was found guilty . As they were led from the hall , Digby exclaimed : " If I may but hear any of your lordships say , you forgive me , I shall go more cheerfully to the gallows . " The reply came back , " God forgive you , and we do . "
He spent his last few days in the Tower writing letters to his wife and his sons , urging the two brothers to avoid the examples set by figures such as Cain and Abel . He also wrote poetry :
Who 's that which knocks ? Oh stay , my Lord , I come :
I know that call , since first it made me know
Myself , which makes me now with joy to run
Lest he be gone that can my duty show .
Jesu , my Lord , I know thee by the Cross
Thou offer 'st me , but not unto my loss .
Digby was hanged , drawn and quartered early on Thursday 30 January . Throngs of spectators lined the streets as he was strapped to a wattled hurdle , and alongside Robert Wintour and John Grant was dragged by horse to the western end of Old St Paul 's Cathedral churchyard . Thomas Bates was delivered in a similar fashion , but from the Gatehouse Prison . Armed guards interspersed along the route were there to defend against any possible rescue , but did not keep the miscreants ' families from witnessing the fate of the four men . Cold and grubby , Digby was the first of the four to face the executioner . He mounted the scaffold and addressed the audience , telling them that he knew he had broken the law , but that morally , and in the eyes of his religion , he had committed no offence . He asked for God 's forgiveness , and the country 's , and protested the Jesuits ' and Father Gerard 's innocence . He refused the attentions of a Protestant clergyman , speaking to himself in Latin , before saying goodbye to his friends .
Digby was then stripped of his clothing , except for his shirt . Murmuring " O Jesus , Jesus , save me and keep me " , he climbed the ladder and was hanged for a short period . The executioner cut the rope , and Digby fell back to the scaffold , wounding his forehead . Fully conscious , he was taken to the block and castrated , disembowelled , and quartered . Wintour , Grant and Bates followed . The remaining four conspirators suffered similar fates the following day , at the Old Palace Yard in Westminster .
|
= Battle of Pell 's Point =
The Battle of Pell 's Point ( October 18 , 1776 ) , also known as the Battle of Pelham , was a skirmish fought between British and American troops during the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War . The conflict took place in what is now part of Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx , New York City .
On October 12 , British forces landed at Throgs Neck in order to execute a flanking maneuver that would trap Gen. George Washington , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the American revolutionary forces , and the main body of the Continental Army on the island of Manhattan . The Americans thwarted the landing , and Gen. Sir William Howe , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , looked for another location along Long Island Sound to disembark his troops . On October 18 , he landed 4 @,@ 000 men at Pelham , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Throgs Neck . Inland were 750 men of a brigade under the command of the American Col. John Glover . Glover positioned his troops behind a series of stone walls and attacked the British advance units . As the British overran each position , the American troops fell back and reorganized behind the next wall . After several such attacks , the British broke off , and the Americans retreated .
The battle delayed British movements long enough for Washington to move the main army to White Plains and avoid being surrounded on Manhattan . After losing to the British in a battle at White Plains , and losing Fort Washington , Washington retreated across New Jersey to Pennsylvania .
= = Background = =
After a victory at the Battle of Long Island in late August , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , Gen. Sir William Howe landed his troops at Kip 's Bay , on the eastern shore of present @-@ day Manhattan , on September 15 . George Washington and his army retreated to Harlem Heights , a plateau situated on the north end of Manhattan Island . Washington was in a good defensive position , with his rear guarded on two sides by rocky heights and the Hudson and Harlem Rivers , and with more rocky heights to the south between his forces and the British . The next day , the British attacked the Americans and were defeated at the Battle of Harlem Heights . There was very little action for the next month , while the two forces remained in their fortified positions , each unable to decide upon their next move . The Americans believed Howe would either attack Fort Washington or attempt to flank the Americans with a landing at some point on Long Island Sound . A council @-@ of @-@ war decided to guard against both possibilities ; Washington kept 10 @,@ 000 men to defend Harlem Heights and Fort Washington , while Maj. Gen. William Heath took 10 @,@ 000 troops to defend Kingsbridge , and Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene was given 5 @,@ 000 troops to defend the other side of the Hudson River , near Fort Constitution .
After 26 days of contemplation , Howe decided against a frontal attack on Harlem Heights and Fort Washington , and chose instead to attempt a flanking maneuver . On October 12 , leaving behind three brigades under the command of Lord Hugh Percy on Manhattan Island , Howe embarked his main army in 80 vessels and proceeded up the East River , through Hell Gate , and landed at Throgs Neck . Throgs Neck — originally known as Throckmorton 's , and also known as Throck 's , Frog 's Neck , and Frog 's Point — is a narrow spit of land that sits between the East River and Long Island Sound . Conveniently for Howe , there was a road running from Throgs Neck to Kingsbridge , directly behind the American forces . Howe hoped to use this road to flank the Americans and pin them against the Hudson River .
Under the cover of fog , an advance force of 4 @,@ 000 men under the command of General Henry Clinton was landed on Throgs Neck . To their dismay , they found they were not on a peninsula , but on an island , separated from the mainland by a creek and a marsh . There were two ways to get to the mainland : a causeway and bridge at the lower end , and a ford at the other . The Americans were guarding both . Col. Edward Hand and a detachment of 25 men from the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment positioned themselves behind a length of cordwood along the causeway , after having removed the planks of wood from the bridge . They surprised the British troops , who fell back and made an attempt to cross at the ford , which was guarded by another detachment . The Americans guarding both positions were quickly reinforced , and the defenders soon numbered over 1 @,@ 800 men . Howe decided it would be better to retreat and land somewhere else . He made camp on Throgs Neck and remained there for six days while supplies and reinforcements , including 7 @,@ 000 Hessian soldiers under the command of Gen. Wilhelm von Knyphausen , were brought up from New York . Just after midnight on October 18 , Howe embarked his army again and decided to land at Pell 's Point near the town of Pelham , a few miles to the north .
After hearing of the landing on Throgs Neck , Washington knew he risked entrapment on Manhattan . He made the decision to move his army to White Plains , where he believed they would be safe . By October 17 , the Continental Army was on its way to White Plains , leaving behind 2 @,@ 000 men to garrison Fort Washington .
= = Battle = =
At dawn , the British began to land on the shore , Clinton 's advance guard of 4 @,@ 000 British light infantry and Hessian jägers landing first . Inland , opposing them , was a brigade of some 750 men under the command of John Glover . Glover was atop a hill with a telescope when he noticed the British ships . Glover sent an officer , Major William Lee , to report to Charles Lee , Washington 's second in command , and ask for orders . However , Lee did not give any orders , and in the absence of orders Glover chose to attack . Glover turned out his brigade , which consisted of the 14th , 13th , 3rd and the 26th Continental Regiments . Glover left the 150 men of the 14th Continentals behind in reserve . Glover had not closed half the distance when he ran into approximately 30 skirmishers . Glover ordered a Captain and his 40 @-@ man company forward as an advance guard to hold the British in check , while Glover organized the rest of the force .
Glover prepared an ambush by placing the main body in staggered positions behind the stone walls that lined either side of the laneway leading from the beachhead to the interior . Glover instructed each of the regiments to hold their position as long as they could and then to fall back to a position in the rear , while the next unit took up the fighting . Glover then rode up to take command of the advance guard . The advance guard and the British began to engage each other , both sides taking casualties . After a little while the British were reinforced , and Glover ordered a retreat , which was done without confusion . The British troops began to advance at the retreating Americans . However , the 200 troops of the 13th Continentals that Glover had stationed behind the stone wall stood up and fired at the British when there were only 30 yards away . The ambush worked , and the column of British troops took heavy losses and fell back to the main body of the invading army .
The British waited half an hour before attacking again . This time when they attacked , they attacked with all 4 @,@ 000 men and seven cannon . The British bombarded the American position behind the stone wall as their infantry advanced . The cannon fire was ineffective , and when the British were 50 yards away the Americans fired a volley which stopped the British infantry . The British returned fire , and musket and rifle fire ensued for 20 minutes , the British supported by cannon , at which point the lead American regiment fell back under cover of the next reserve regiment . The 3rd Continental Regiment was stationed behind the stone wall on the opposite side of the road .
The British attacked the position of the 3rd Continentals , and an engagement ensued . Both sides kept up constant fire , the Americans breaking the British lines several times . However , after 17 volleys , the British numbers began to overwhelm the Americans , and Glover ordered a withdrawal to another stone wall on the crest of a hill while the next regiment in line , the 26th Continentals , engaged the British .
A reconnaissance party of 30 men was sent out from behind the third stone wall to see if the British would try and flank the American position . The party ran into the British , who had continued to advance , and they fell back to the stone wall . The Americans behind the wall fired one volley before Glover gave the order to retreat . The Americans retreated across a bridge over the Hutchinson stream , their retreat covered by the 150 men of the 14th Continentals who engaged in an artillery duel with the British . Howe camped on a hill on the opposite side of the stream but made no attempt to cross the stream .
= = Aftermath = =
The next day , Glover and his force retreated to the town of Yonkers . American casualties were 8 killed and 13 wounded . British and Hessian casualties are not known . Howe 's official dispatch listed British casualties as 3 killed and 20 wounded , although the report did not include Hessian casualties . As the Hessians made up the majority of the landing force , it is reasonable to expect they made up the majority of the casualties . Over the next few days , from knowledge collected from British deserters , the Americans estimated that the British lost between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 killed or wounded , likely an exaggeration . Colonel Loammi Baldwin , who was present at the battle , estimated that the Americans had killed 200 British and Hessians , but historian David McCullough says this was " undoubtedly an exaggeration . " Historian George Athan Billias argues in support of Baldwin 's estimates , due in part to the corroborating admission of another British deserter . Regardless , the combined British and Hessian casualties were almost certainly larger than those of the Americans .
With the British advance delayed , the main American army under Washington was able to safely evacuate from Harlem ( on the island of Manhattan ) to White Plains . Howe slowly moved his army through New Rochelle and Scarsdale . On October 28 , he sent 13 @,@ 000 men to attack the Americans , resulting in a minor victory over Washington at the Battle of White Plains . Fort Washington , the last American stronghold on Manhattan , fell on November 16 . With these defeats , Washington and his army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania , paving the way for the Battles of Trenton and Princeton .
|
= The Transformation =
" The Transformation " is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . Its storyline centers on the circumstances surrounding a deceased scientist ( Neal Huff ) , who was doped with a " designer virus " and transformed into a dangerous monster , causing his plane to crash . Fringe agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and FBI consultants Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) connect the event to an impending arms deal . Olivia must explore her mind for remaining memories of her former partner and lover , John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , in order to prevent the sale of the virus .
The episode was co @-@ written by Zack Whedon and supervising producer J. R. Orci , while producer Brad Anderson served as the director . The creation of the monster took the crew approximately eleven days – they took molds of guest actor Huff 's head and back and created eight sets of dentures in order to create the special effect of transformation . To create the plane crash set , the crew spent over a week strategically placing around 15 @,@ 000 pounds worth of plane parts .
It was first screened at PaleyFest in November 2008 . On February 3 , 2009 , the episode was broadcast in the United States on Fox to an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers . The episode earned a 5 / 6 @.@ 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , finishing in eighth place for the week . It received generally positive reviews . Commentators have noted allusions to the pilot and a fourth season episode , in addition to the television series Lost and H.G. Wells ' novel The Island of Doctor Moreau .
= = Plot = =
On an airplane in flight , scientist Marshall Bowman ( Neal Huff ) gets a nosebleed , and he tries to warn the crew to give him sedatives or use force against him . He transforms into a beast in the bathroom , and bursts out , causing the plane to crash in Scarsdale , New York . The Fringe team arrives on the scene and discover the beast 's body . Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) concludes that it started out as a human . Agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) recognizes Bowman 's picture from John Scott 's ( Mark Valley ) memories , realizing that Bowman was flying to meet another man in the memories named Daniel Hicks ( Felix Solis ) . Back at the lab at Harvard , Walter finds a small crystalline disc implanted in the beast 's hand similar to one seen inside the woman killed in " The Ghost Network " , and thinks Marshall was dosed with a " designer virus " .
Hicks is brought in for questioning . After beginning to transform into a beast , he admits that " Conrad " dosed them before Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) pauses the process by administering a sedative and placing him in an induced coma . Walter develops an antidote , while Olivia finds another small disc in Hicks ' hand . Her demand to see Scott 's body leads her and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) to Massive Dynamic , where Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) tells her that the information gleaned from Scott 's body implicates him in a bioterrorist cell with the other two .
French intelligence states that weapons manufacturer Conrad is involved in a sale , leading to Olivia returning to the sensory deprivation tank in order to find out more from Scott 's memories . In a motel room they used to share , Scott talks to Olivia , scaring her into shooting him . Olivia next appears in an alleyway , where she follows Scott into a memory of him almost killing Conrad . He reveals that he , Hicks , and Marshall are all undercover government agents for the NSA , and tells Olivia to ask Hicks where the meeting is going to happen . They awake Hicks , who tells them more about the weapons sale .
Being given details from a secret radio by Hicks , Olivia pretends to be the weapons buyer , and is accompanied by Peter . They successfully make contact , but the sellers become suspicious after Hicks ' transformation restarts , depriving Olivia of the necessary information . Conrad makes his appearance and realizes Olivia and Peter are lying ; just before he orders them killed , the FBI moves in and arrests the sellers .
The episode ends with Walter telling Olivia her brain waves are going back to normal , and that Scott 's memories are fading from her mind . Olivia requests to enter the tank regardless , and she makes a last encounter with Scott , where he tells her he loved her and was going to marry her . She bids farewell to his consciousness , which has finally left her own .
= = Production = =
" The Transformation " was co @-@ written by Zack Whedon and supervising producer J.R. Orci . Whedon had last co @-@ written the season 's ninth episode , " The Dreamscape " , while Orci helped write " The Equation " , the season 's eighth episode . Producer Brad Anderson served as director , his latest Fringe work since directing " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " six episodes earlier . The episode resolved the John Scott storyline and featured the last appearance of actor Mark Valley . Media outlets speculated that because Valley and Torv married over the holiday break , his departure " would eliminate any chances of the marriage conflicting with the show . " Co @-@ creator Roberto Orci called Scott 's final scene a " truly satisfactory conclusion to his story . "
The creation of the monster took the series special effects crew approximately eleven days to implement . They created molds of guest actor Neal Huff 's head and back , giving him " creature eye " contact lenses and covering the back foam mold with " backbarbs " . Eight different dentures were made of Huff 's mouth to depict the character gradually losing his teeth , " anything from simple teeth that match his own ... , to wiggling teeth that he can start to loosen up , to ones where he 's already started to lose a tooth , " explained Special Effects Makeup crewman Stephen Kelley . Each denture appliance took about a day to create . The final version of the creature , Kelley noted , was " very exaggerated ... He 's got the big giant quills coming off it like a porcupine . And it 's also got six nipples on it , which is part of us trying to investigate what this creature actually it is . "
Andrew Orloff , the Creative Director and Visual Effects Supervisor of Zoic Studios , considered the creature one of the most challenging effects his company helped make for the season . He explained that this and other designed monsters are " really super fantastical , they ’ re really out there , the anatomy and the biology of them is so wild and crazy , that it really takes a lot to make it look real in the scene and make it a part of the actors are reacting to these things – to get the audience to believe in it is kind of the biggest challenge we ’ ve faced on the show so far . " During filming , the cast and crew referred to the monster as a " were @-@ upine " or " porcuman " . Lance Reddick commented on set , " When I first got here tonight , I was expecting zombies to come up out of the ground . And the actual creature looks so bizarre , I mean it really looks like something I wouldn 't want to be caught in the woods with . " The crew spent over a week collecting and placing the plane wreckage together . According to Set Dresser Russ Griffin , the set included approximately 15 @,@ 000 pounds worth of plane parts .
Though the episode first aired in February 2009 , " The Transformation " had an early screening at the November 2008 PaleyFest , where Fringe 's producers answered questions from the audience . When asked in an interview if the " giant germ " from " Bound " was the grossest thing of the season , executive producer Jeff Pinkner replied that " the huge porcupine man on the airplane [ from " The Transformation " ] was more shocking . It was so unexpected . " At the time " The Transformation " aired , Joshua Jackson considered it the series ' best episode . John Noble called it " grotesque " and " possibly one of the more gruesome ones we 've done . "
= = Analysis and legacy = =
In her 2011 book Into the Looking Glass : Exploring the Worlds of Fringe , author Sarah Clarke Stuart observed that two unrelated Fringe characters , Conrad Moreau of " The Transformation " and Moreau ( Brad Dourif ) of " The Day We Died " , are allusions to H.G. Wells ' 1896 novel The Island of Doctor Moreau . Both are " scientifically inspired men with questionable integrity , " while Wells ' Doctor Moreau is an " unethical researcher " who fell " under the overmastering spell of research , " in a vein similar to Walter .
Like the pilot episode , " The Transformation " begins on the passenger section of an airplane in flight . Actor Mark Valley was asked how the episode differed from the pilot , leading him to joke that " it 's a completely different airline this time . " His character , John Scott , was first seen in an episode about a plane disaster ; accordingly , IGN expressed , it made sense thematically to have his last appearance be in an episode about a similar type of disaster . The Los Angeles Times viewed the flight number of 718 and its subsequent crash as a nod to co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams ' other series , Lost .
The episode also had an influence on the series ' fourth season , which featured parallel stories to those that occurred in earlier episodes . The season 's sixteenth episode , " Nothing As It Seems " , centers around the " designer virus " that had caused Marshall Bowman to transform , but this time he does so in the airport after his plane has safely landed . Peter recognizes the case from his own timeline , as seen in the events of " The Transformation " , and helps the Fringe team locate Daniel Hicks .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Transformation " first aired on February 3 , 2009 in the United States , and was watched by an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers . The episode earned a 5 / 6 @.@ 5 ratings share among viewers aged 18 – 49 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . This rating meant it ranked eighth for the week among all the major networks . Sarah Stegall of SFScope attributed this ratings success to its lead @-@ in show , the highly @-@ rated American Idol , and observed that " with episodes like this one , mixing action , horror , and a few tender moments , it looks like Fringe is hitting its stride with viewers . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Transformation " received generally positive reviews . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times gave the episode a positive review , opining that it " hit the perfect tone for Fringe [ and had ] the right mixture of science fiction , dark comedy , crime story and melodrama " . Hanson was however disappointed with the closure of the Olivia – John Scott storyline , as he hoped that " she doesn 't carry this torch too long " because he preferred the " flirty " Olivia . Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode 9 @.@ 0 / 10 , an indication of an " amazing " installment . He was pleased with the absence of Sanford Harris and enjoyed the " brilliantly written and directed " undercover sting operation , particularly because Peter was properly utilized as Olivia 's " wingman . " Isler also criticized the monster 's special effects and believed there were still unanswered questions concerning Scott 's storyline .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Noel Murray thought it was the best " freak @-@ meet " of the series thus far , as well as one of its best episodes , which he would " eagerly show to Fringe @-@ doubters as evidence that the series has found its legs . " He consequently graded the episode an A − , further attributing the success of the episode to " top @-@ tier " writers Orci and Whedon and " skilled " director Brad Anderson . Murray wrote , " I wouldn 't say that ' The Transformation ' broke any new ground . If anything , it recapitulated pretty much every previous Fringe element — bio @-@ weapons sales , telepathic communication , Massive Dynamics , [ sic ] airplane crashes , etc . — but did so in a way that was energetic , tense , and even a little emotional . " SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall had difficulty " suspend [ ing her ] disbelief " with the science behind Bowman 's rapid transformation . Though she thought it was " sweet " that Scott 's proposal " echo [ ed ] the real @-@ life recent marriage between Anna Torv and Mark Valley , " Stegall was pleased that the series could now move onto another storyline .
|
= Norman Cob =
The Norman Cob or Cob Normand is a breed of light draft horse that originated in the province of Normandy in northern France . It is a mid @-@ sized horse , with a range of heights and weights , due to selective breeding for a wide range of uses . Its conformation is similar to a robust Thoroughbred , and it more closely resembles a Thoroughbred cross than other French draft breeds . The breed is known for its lively , long @-@ striding trot . Colors accepted by the breed registry include chestnut , bay and seal brown . There are three general subsets within the breed : horses used under saddle , those used in harness , and those destined for meat production . They are popular for recreational and competitive driving , representing France internationally in the latter , and are also used for several riding disciplines .
The Normandy region of France is well known for its horse breeding , having also produced the Percheron and French Trotter . Small horses called bidets were the original horses in the area , and these , crossed with other types , eventually produced the Carrossier Normand , the immediate ancestor of the Norman Cob . Although known as one of the best carriage horse breeds available in the early 20th century , the Carrossier Normand became extinct after the advent of the automobile , having been used to develop the French Trotter , Anglo @-@ Norman and Norman Cob . In its homeland , the Norman Cob was used widely for agriculture , even more so than the internationally known Percheron , and in 1950 , the first studbook was created for the breed .
The advent of mechanization threatened all French draft breeds , and while many draft breeders turned their production towards the meat market , Norman Cob breeders instead crossed their horses with Thoroughbreds to contribute to the fledgling Selle Francais breed , now France 's national saddle horse . This allowed the Norman Cob to remain relatively the same through the decades , while other draft breeds were growing heavier and slower due to selection for meat . Between the 1970s and 1990s , the studbook went through several changes , and in the 1980s , genetic studies were performed that showed the breed suffered from inbreeding and genetic drift . Breed enthusiasts worked to develop new selection criteria for breeding stock , and population numbers are now relatively stable . Today , Norman Cobs are mainly found in the departments of Manche , Calvados and Orne .
= = Characteristics = =
The Norman Cob is a mid @-@ sized horse , standing between 15 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 62 @.@ 25 inches , 158 cm ) and 16 @.@ 3 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 67 @.@ 5 inches , 171 cm ) and weighing 550 to 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 210 to 1 @,@ 980 lb ) . The large variations in height and weight are explained by selection for a variety of uses within the breed . The Norman Cob is elegant and closer in type to a Thoroughbred @-@ cross than other French draft breeds . Its conformation is similar to a robust Thoroughbred , with a square overall profile and short back . Selective breeding has been used to develop a lively trot , with long strides .
The head is well @-@ proportioned and similar to that of the Selle Francais , with wide nostrils , small ears and a straight or convex facial profile . The neck is thick , muscular and arched . The mane is sometimes roached . The shoulders are broad and angled , the chest deep and the withers pronounced . The body is compact and stocky , with a short , strong back . The hindquarters are powerful , although not so much as in heavy draft breeds , and the croup muscular and sloping . The legs are short , muscular and strong , with thick bone , but less massive than most draft breeds . The feet are round , wide and solid .
Colors accepted by the breed registry include chestnut , bay and seal brown ( the latter called black pangaré by the breed registry , although these horses are genetically brown , not black with pangaré markings ) . Bays with white markings are the most popular . Norman Cobs are known as calm , willing horses with strong personalities . The breed 's Thoroughbred ancestry gives them energy and athleticism , and makes them mature faster than other draft breeds . They show great endurance when ridden , and are relatively hardy , accepting outdoor living and changes in climate . Traditionally the Norman Cob had its tail docked , a practice that continued until January 1996 , when the practice became illegal in France .
There are three general subsets within the breed : horses used under saddle , those used in harness , and those destined for meat production . Horses may be automatically registered if at least 87 @.@ 5 percent of their ancestors ( seven out of eight ) were registered Norman Cobs . Purebred stallions may not be bred more than 70 times per year . Foals produced through artificial insemination and embryo transfer may be registered , but cloned horses may not . In general , breeders look to produce horses with good gaits and an aptitude for driving , while keeping the conformation that makes the Norman Cob one of nine French draft breeds .
= = History = =
The Norman Cob comes from the Normandy region of France , an area known for its horse breeding . Normandy is also the home of two other breeds , the Percheron and the French Trotter . Both of these breeds are better @-@ known than the Norman Cob , although the latter is popular in its home region . The name " cob " comes from the English and Welsh cobs that it resembles , with the addition of " Norman " to refer to the area in which it originated . Although generally considered a member of the draft horse group , the Norman Cob is special among French draft breeds . It has been used almost exclusively for the production of sport horses , and has not been extensively used for the production of meat , unlike many other French draft breeds . This means that its conformation has remained relatively unchanged , as opposed to being bred for heavier weights for butchering .
The original horses in Normandy and Brittany were small horses called bidets , introduced by the Celts . The Romans crossed these horses with larger mares , and beginning in the 10th century , these " Norman horses " were desired throughout Europe . During the 16th century , Norman horses were known to be heavy and strong , able to pull long distances , and used to pull artillery and diligences . Barb and Arabian blood was added during the reign of Louis XIV . The Norman Cob is descended from this Norman horse , called the Carrossier Normand . It was also influenced by crossing with other breeds including the Mecklenburger , the Gelderland horse and Danish horses . By 1840 , the Carrossier Normand had become more refined , due to crosses with imported British Norfolk Trotters , as well as gaining better gaits , energy , elegance , and conformation .
The Haras National de Saint @-@ Lô ( National Stud of Saint @-@ Lo ) was founded in 1806 by Napoleon . This stud and the Haras du Pin ( Stud of Pin ) became the main production centers for the Carrossier Normand . The Norman horse @-@ Thoroughbred crossbreds produced at these studs were divided into two groups . The first were lighter cavalry horses , and the second were heavier horses , called " cobs " , used for draft work in the region . At this time , there was no breed registry or studbook ; instead , selective breeding was practiced by the two studs , and farmers tested the capabilities of young horses to select breeding stock .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
At the very beginning of the 20th century , the Carrossier Normand was considered the best carriage horses available . The arrival of automobiles , and corresponding decline in demand for carriage horses , coincided with a split in the breed . A distinction was made between the lighter , faster horses in the breed , used for sport , and larger horses , used for agricultural work . The lighter horses eventually became the French Trotter ( for driving ) and Anglo @-@ Norman ( for riding and cavalry ) , while the heavier horses became the Norman Cob . In 1912 , when French horse populations were at their highest , there were 422 stallions at the Saint @-@ Lo stud , mainly cobs and trotters . When the original Carrossier Normand became extinct in the 1920s , breeding focused on the two remaining types , with the Norman Cob continuing to be used for farming and the Anglo @-@ Norman being used to create the Selle Francais , the national French sport horse .
In the regions of Saint @-@ Lo and Cotentin , the Norman Cob was widespread in agricultural uses until 1950 , and the population continued to increase in the first half of the 20th century , even through the occupation during World War II . Even the Percheron , which was internationally recognized as the Norman draft horse , was not as popular in the homeland of the Norman Cob breed . In 1945 , Norman Cob stallions accounted for 40 % of the conscripted horses , and in 1950 a studbook was created for the breed .
Like all French draft breeds , the Norman Cob was threatened by the advent of mechanization in farming . The only option left to many breeders was to redirect their production to the meat markets . However , the Norman Cob avoided this , through the efforts of Laurens St. Martin , the head of the Saint @-@ Lo stud in 1944 and the developer of the Selle Francais . He began crossing Thoroughbred stallions with Norman Cob mares to produce Selle Francais horses , and the success of this program allowed a reorientation of the Cob breeding programs . Although population numbers continued to decline until 1995 , the physical characteristics of the breed remained much the same , not growing heavier and slower as many of the French draft breeds did due to breeding for the production of meat . Even today , some Selle Francais from Norman bloodlines are similar to the Norman Cob in appearance .
= = = 1950 to 2000 = = =
The modern Norman Cob is slightly heavier than it was in the early 20th century , due to lighter horses of the breed being absorbed into the Selle Francais breed . In 1976 , the National Stud at Saint @-@ Lo had 186 stallions , including 60 Norman Cobs . In the same year , the breed registry was reorganized , and the Norman Cob placed in the draft horse category . The reorganization of the breed registry helped to reinvigorate Norman Cob breeding , and to bring attention to the risk of extinction of the breed . In 1980 , the Institut national de la recherche agronomique and Institut national agronomique performed demographic and genetic analysis of threatened breeds of horses within France . In 1982 , researchers concluded that the Norman Cob has been inbred and suffered genetic drift from its original population . The increasing average age of Norman Cob breeders also made the breed 's situation precarious .
Enthusiasts worked to reorient the breed towards driving and recreation pursuits , and since 1982 have again reorganized the breed association . In 1992 , a new studbook was created for the breed , with new selection criteria designed to preserve the quality of the breed , particularly its gaits . The latest editions of the breed registry and studbook are controlled by the Syndicat national des éleveurs et utilisateurs de chevaux Cob normand ( SNEUCCN , National Union of Farmers and Users of Normandy Cob Horses ) , based in Tessy @-@ sur @-@ Vire . The association works to preserve and promote the breed throughout France , focusing especially on Normandy , Vendee and Anjou . In 1994 , Normandy contained 2000 Percheron and Norman Cob horses , and annually bred around 600 foals of these two breeds . This included approximately half of the Norman Cobs bred in France .
= = = 2000 to today = = =
Today , Norman Cobs are mainly found in the departments of Manche , Calvados and Orne , which form the area where the breed was originally developed . The region of Saint @-@ Lo , which ranks first in the production of Norman Cobs , represents 35 percent of new births . The Norman Cob is also present around the Haras de la Vendee ( Stud at Vendee ) , which represents 25 percent of births , the Haras du Pin and in central Massif . In 2004 , there were just over 600 French breeders of the Norman Cob , and in 2005 , 914 Norman Cob mares were bred , with 65 stallions recorded as active in France . In recent years , the number of Norman Cobs has remained relatively stable . In 2011 , there were 319 Norman Cob births in France , and numbers of annual births between 1992 and 2010 ranged between 385 and 585 .
Members of the breed are shown annually at the Paris International Agricultural Show . There are fairs held for the breed at Lessay and Gavray , in Manche . The National Stud at Saint @-@ Lo remains involved in the maintenance and development of the breed , and organizes the annual national competition for the breed . The stud also organizes events at which to present the breed to the public , including the Normandy Horse Show . The Norman Cob is beginning to be exported to other countries , especially Belgium . In that country , some are bred pure , while others are crossed on the Ardennes to improve the latter 's gaits . Approximately 15 horses are exported annually , traveling to Belgium , Germany , Switzerland and Italy for leisure , logging and agricultural uses .
= = Uses = =
A multi @-@ purpose breed , the Norman Cob was formerly used wherever there was a need . It was utilized in a variety of agricultural and other work by farmers , and was used by the army for pulling artillery . The postal service used it to pull mail carriages , which it was capable of doing at a fast trot over bad roads for long distances . Postal workers appreciated the breed for its willingness to remain calm , stationary and tethered for long periods of time . Due to the modernization of agriculture and transport , it is now used very little in these areas .
The breed is popular for recreational and competitive driving , to which it is well suited in temperament . In 1997 , the rules of driving events in France were modified to take into account the speed of execution of the course , which made lighter , faster horses more competitive . The Norman Cob and the lighter type of Boulonnais were particularly affected . The Norman Cob 's gaits , calm temperament and willingness to master technical movements make it an excellent competitor , and in 2011 , more than a third of the horses represented in the French driving championships were Norman Cobs . Many Norman Cobs represent France in driving events at the international level .
The Norman Cob is also used for riding , and may be used for most equestrian disciplines . It is particularly well suited for vaulting . Elderly and nervous riders often appreciate the breed 's calm temperament . Lighter Cobs can be used for mounted hunts . Crosses between the Norman Cob and Thoroughbred continue to be made to create saddle horses , generally with 25 to 50 percent Cob blood . Some Norman Cobs are bred for the meat market . The breed is sometimes preferred by butchers because of the lighter carcass weight and increased profitability over the Thoroughbred , while at the same time retaining meat similar in flavor and appearance to that of the Thoroughbred .
|
= Billy ( pygmy hippo ) =
Billy , or William Johnson Hippopotamus , ( 1920s – October 11 , 1955 ) was a Pygmy Hippopotamus given as a pet to U.S. President Calvin Coolidge . Captured in Liberia , he was given to Coolidge by Harvey Samuel Firestone in 1927 . Billy spent most of his life in the National Zoo in Washington D.C .. In addition to his fame as an exotic presidential pet — which afforded him a trip to the 1939 New York World 's Fair — Billy is also notable as the common ancestor to most pygmy hippos in American zoos . By the time of his death in 1955 , Billy had sired 23 calves , 13 of whom survived at least a year .
= = Early years = =
In 1927 , Harvey Samuel Firestone , the founder of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company , acquired Billy in Liberia , where he was captured on one of Firestone Tires ' large plantations . Calvin Coolidge , who was the U.S. President at the time , was known for his collection of animals , including many dogs , birds , a wallaby , lion cubs , a raccoon and other unusual animals . At the time , pygmy hippos were virtually unknown in the United States . On May 26 , 1927 , Coolidge was informed that he would receive the rare hippo , already adult @-@ sized at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) long and around 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) , as a gift .
In Coolidge 's autobiography he wrote about the unusual menagerie he collected and stated that he donated many of these animals , including Billy , to the National Zoo . Though Coolidge had a deep fascination with animals , he was overshadowed by Theodore Roosevelt , who was more widely known for and associated with his interest in animals . By August 1927 , Coolidge had sent the second largest collection of animals of any president after Roosevelt to the zoo , and paid them frequent visits . Upon his arrival , Billy was one of the most @-@ valuable animals the zoo had ever received , and was only the eighth pygmy hippopotamus to be brought to the United States . Billy was a popular animal ; several months after his arrival , The New York Times wrote Billy was " as frisky as a dog . Even the antics of the monkeys go unobserved when the keeper opens the tiny hippo 's cage and cuts up with him . "
= = Parenting troubles = =
Today , pygmy hippos breed well in captivity : since Billy 's arrival , 58 pygmy hippos have been born at the National Zoo alone . As one of the earliest pygmy hippos in captivity in the U.S. zoo system , Billy went on to become the direct ancestor of nearly all pygmy hippos in American zoos . When Billy first came to the zoo , however , keepers did not know much about pygmy hippopotamus husbandry . A mate for Billy , a female named Hannah , was acquired by the zoo on September 4 , 1929 . Billy 's and Hannah 's first calf was born on August 26 , 1931 , but did not survive the week . " Inability to survive the neglect of an errant mother was the cause given for baby Hippo 's demise " , eulogized The Washington Post . Over the next two years , two more calves would follow , both of which died in infancy . Billy 's third calf was killed when Hannah rolled on top of the baby and crushed it . " She 's just a bad mother " , said the zoo 's long @-@ time director Dr. William M. Mann to The Washington Post , upon the death of the third infant .
As Hannah 's fourth pregnancy progressed , zookeepers noticed she seemed to be less agitated than previous pregnancies and attributed this to their new quarters : during her previous three pregnancies , Hannah had lived in the zoo 's lion house , a stressful environment for a pregnant hippo . On Mother 's Day of 1938 , Hannah gave birth to a healthy baby .
= = Life as a stud = =
Such was Billy 's popularity in the 1930s that at the end of the decade he traveled to Queens , New York , for the 1939 New York World 's Fair , where he appeared in the Firestone exhibit . Billy and Hannah successfully had more calves , and because of Billy 's worth as a breeding stud , in 1940 , Mann traveled to Liberia as part of the Smithsonian @-@ Firestone animal expedition , and acquired a second mate for Billy , another female who came to be known as Matilda .
Between 1931 and 1954 , Hannah gave birth to 15 of Billy 's calves , 7 of whom were reared or lived at least one year . Between 1943 and 1956 , Matilda gave birth to 8 of Billy 's calves , 6 of which were reared . At some point during the 1940s , the press started to refer to Billy as William Johnson Hippopotamus . The zoo developed the tradition of naming all his calves Gumdrop , using Roman numerals to distinguish them . By the birth of Gumdrop XVI , the zoo had noticed something curious : of all Billy 's calves , only one was male . Research would later confirm that pygmy hippos in captivity are far more likely to give birth to females , though not by such an extreme ratio as Billy . Twenty @-@ three years after Coolidge 's death ( January 5 , 1933 ) Billy himself died on October 11 , 1955 , five months before the birth of Gumdrop XVIII . " He carried his work on to the end " , said a zoo official . Hannah followed Billy in death on March 6 , 1958 .
= = A legacy continued = =
After a year or two at the National Zoo , Billy 's offspring were typically sent to other locations . Among the places to which his progeny were transferred : the Cole Bros. Circus , Philadelphia Zoological Gardens , Catskill Game Farm , the Miller Bros. Circus , the Fort Worth Zoo , as well as international destinations such as Sydney and London . In 1960 , after learning that the zoo 's female pygmy hippos remained without male companionship after Billy 's death , Liberian President William Tubman dispatched a search party to find a new male pygmy hippopotamus to ship to Washington . The pygmy hippopotamus , named Totota , arrived in Brooklyn , New York , on February 4 , 1960 , and traveled via station wagon to Washington the next day , where he would continue Billy 's breeding legacy with the zoo 's female pygmy hippos , two of which were Billy 's daughters .
|
= Cryptoprocta spelea =
Cryptoprocta spelea , also known as the giant fossa , is an extinct species of carnivore from Madagascar in the family Eupleridae , which is most closely related to the mongooses and includes all Malagasy carnivorans . It was first described in 1902 , and in 1935 was recognized as a separate species from its closest relative , the living fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) . C. spelea is larger than the fossa , but otherwise similar . The two have not always been accepted as distinct species . When and how the larger form became extinct is unknown ; there is some anecdotal evidence , including reports of very large fossas , that there is more than one surviving species .
The species is known from subfossil bones found in a variety of caves in northern , western , southern , and central Madagascar . In some sites , it occurs with remains of C. ferox , but there is no evidence that the two lived at the same time . Living species of comparably sized , related carnivores in other regions manage to coexist , suggesting that the same may have happened with both C. spelea and C. ferox . C. spelea would have been able to prey on larger animals than its smaller relative could have , including the recently extinct giant lemurs .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1902 , Guillaume Grandidier described subfossil carnivoran remains from two caves on Madagascar as a larger " variety " of the living fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , C. ferox var. spelea . G. Petit , writing in 1935 , considered spelea to represent a distinct species . Charles Lamberton reviewed subfossil and living Cryptoprocta in 1939 and agreed with Petit in recognizing two species , naming this species from a specimen found at Ankazoabo Cave near Itampolo . The specific name spelea means " cave " and was given because of the location of its discovery . However , Lamberton apparently had at most three skeletons of the living fossa , not nearly enough to capture the range of variation in that species , and some later authors did not separate C. spelea and C. ferox as species . Steven Goodman and colleagues , using larger samples , compiled another set of Cryptoprocta measurements that was published in a 2004 article . They found that some subfossil Cryptoprocta fell outside the range of variation of living C. ferox , and identified those as representing C. spelea . Grandidier had not designated a type specimen for the species , and to maintain C. spelea as the name for the larger form of the fossa , Goodman and colleagues designated a specimen to serve as the type specimen ( specifically , a neotype ) .
Lamberton recognized a third species , Cryptoprocta antamba , on the basis of a mandible ( lower jaw ) with abnormally broad spacing between the condyloid processes at the back . He also referred two femora ( upper leg bones ) and a tibia ( lower leg bone ) intermediate in size between C. spelea and C. ferox to this species . The specific name refers to the " antamba " , an animal allegedly from southern Madagascar described by Étienne de Flacourt in 1658 as a large , rare , leopard @-@ like carnivore that eats men and calves and lives in remote mountainous areas ; it may have been the giant fossa . Goodman and colleagues could not locate Lamberton 's material of Cryptoprocta antamba , but suggested that it was based on an abnormal C. spelea . Together , the fossa and C. spelea form the genus Cryptoprocta within the family Eupleridae , which also includes the other Malagasy carnivorans — the falanouc , the fanalokas , and the Galidiinae . DNA sequence studies suggest that the Eupleridae form a single natural ( monophyletic ) group and are most closely related to the mongooses of Eurasia and mainland Africa .
= = Description = =
Although some morphological differences between the two fossa species have been described , these may be allometric ( growth @-@ related ) , and in their 1986 Mammalian Species account of the fossa , Michael Köhncke and Klaus Leonhardt wrote that the two were morphologically identical . However , remains of C. spelea are larger than any living C. ferox . Goodman and colleagues found that skull measurements in specimens they identified as C. spelea were 1 @.@ 07 to 1 @.@ 32 times as large as in adult C. ferox , and postcranial measurements were 1 @.@ 19 to 1 @.@ 37 times as large . The only specimen of C. spelea in which condylobasal length ( a measure of total skull length ) could be ascertained measured 153 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 04 in ) , compared to a range of 114 @.@ 5 to 133 @.@ 3 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 to 5 @.@ 25 in ) in adult C. ferox . Humerus ( upper arm bone ) length in twelve C. spelea is 122 @.@ 7 to 146 @.@ 8 mm ( 4 @.@ 83 to 5 @.@ 78 in ) , averaging 137 @.@ 9 mm ( 5 @.@ 43 in ) , compared to 108 @.@ 5 to 127 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 27 to 5 @.@ 02 in ) , averaging 116 @.@ 1 mm ( 4 @.@ 57 in ) , in the extant fossa . Body mass estimates for C. spelea range from 17 kg ( 37 lb ) to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , and it was among the largest carnivores of the island . By comparison , adult C. ferox range from 5 kg ( 11 lb ) to 10 kg ( 22 lb ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and extinction = =
Cryptoprocta spelea is the only extinct member of the order Carnivora known from Madagascar ; recently extinct Madagascan animals also include at least 17 species of lemurs , most of which are larger than the living forms , as well as elephant birds and Malagasy hippopotamuses , among others . Subfossil remains of the giant fossa have been found in Holocene cave sites from the northern end of Madagascar along the west coast to the far south , and in the central highlands . Some sites have yielded both C. spelea and smaller remains referable to the living species , C. ferox ; however , lack of robust stratigraphic knowledge and no available radiocarbon dating on subfossil Cryptoprocta bones makes it uncertain whether the two species lived in the same region at the same time . The size ratio between the two species is within the range of ratios seen between similar @-@ sized living cats and mongooses found in the same areas , suggesting that the two species may have been able to occur together .
With its large size and massive jaws and teeth , C. spelea was a formidable , " puma @-@ like " predator , and in addition to smaller lemurids , it may have eaten some of the big , now extinct subfossil lemurs that would have been too large for C. ferox . No subfossil evidence has been found to definitively show that lemurs were its prey ; this assumption is based on the diet of the smaller , extant species of fossa . Other possible prey include tenrecs , smaller euplerids , and even young Malagasy hippopotamuses . Its extinction may have changed predation dynamics on Madagascar .
The IUCN Red List currently lists C. spelea as an extinct species ; why and when it became extinct remains unknown . However , local people on Madagascar often recognize two forms of fossa , a larger fosa mainty ( or " black Cryptoprocta " ) and a smaller fosa mena ( or " reddish Cryptoprocta " ) . There are also some anecdotal records of very large living fossas , such as a 2 @-@ m ( 7 ft ) , 30 @-@ kg ( 70 lb ) fossa at Morondava . Goodman and colleagues suggested that further research may demonstrate that there is more than one species of fossa yet alive .
|
= Glitter ( soundtrack ) =
Glitter is the soundtrack album from the film of the same name , and the eighth studio album by American singer Mariah Carey . It was released on September 11 , 2001 , by Virgin Records America . The album was a complete musical departure from any of Carey 's previous releases , focusing heavily on recreating a 1980s disco era to accompany the film , set in 1983 . By covering or heavily sampling several older tunes and songs , Carey created Glitter as an album that would help viewers connect with the film , as well as incorporating newly written ballads . The singer collaborated with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and DJ Clue , who co @-@ produced the album .
Musically , Glitter was structured to be a retro @-@ influenced album and have more of a dance @-@ oriented element . On several songs , critics noted Carey to be more sexually suggestive lyrically than before , in part due to the inclusion of several guest hip hop musicians . Glitter featured several other musical acts such as Eric Benét , Ludacris , Busta Rhymes , Fabolous , and Ja Rule . Both the album and its accompanying film were met with generally negative reviews from music critics who felt the album failed in trying to capture a genuine 1980s theme , and there were too many guest appearances . Universally , Glitter was viewed as a commercial and critical failure , leading to Virgin Records cancelling Carey 's $ 100 million five @-@ album contract and dropping her from the label . While it debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 , it was Carey 's lowest @-@ first week sales of any album she had ever released . Internationally , it peaked outside the top @-@ ten in many countries , but topped the charts in Japan . Glitter remains one of Carey 's lowest selling albums .
Several singles were released but attained weak charting positions . " Loverboy " served as the first single from the album and quickly became Carey 's lowest charting lead single globally . As the song stalled on the American charts , Virgin dropped the price to 0 @.@ 99 cents to spur sales . The reduction helped the single peak at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , the song failed to garner much traction . " Never Too Far " , the album 's second single , became a minor American hit , reaching number 81 on the US Hot 100 . Subsequent singles failed to make much of an impact on prominent global charts , some not charting at all .
= = Background and development = =
Following the release of Carey 's album Butterfly in 1997 , she began working on a film and soundtrack project titled at that time as All That Glitters . However , Columbia Records and Carey were also working on a greatest hits album to be released in time for Thanksgiving season in November 1998 . Carey put All That Glitters on hold and her greatest hits album # 1 's was released in November 1998 . Another studio album , Rainbow , was released in 1999 . After the album ran its course , Carey wanted to finish the film and soundtrack project . But by this time , Carey and her now ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola , head of her record company Columbia , did not have a good working or personal relationship . Mottola wanted Carey off the label and Carey wanted to leave ; however , she still owed Columbia one more album to fulfill her contract . Virgin Records stepped in and offered to pay Columbia $ 20 million to let Carey out of her contract early so that they could sign her for an $ 100 million deal .
Carey signed with Virgin and aimed to complete the film and soundtrack project . As part of her contract on her $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records , Carey was given full creative control . She opted to record an album partly mixed with 1980s influenced disco and other similar genres , in order to go with the film 's setting . As the release date grew nearer , the film and album title were changed from All That Glitters to Glitter . In early 2001 , Carey 's relationship with Latin singer Luis Miguel ended , while she was busy filming Glitter and recording the soundtrack . Due to the pressure of losing her relationship , being on a new record label , filming a movie , and recording an album , Carey began to have nervous breakdown . She began posting a series of disturbing messages on her official website , and displayed erratic behavior while on several promotional outings .
= = Controversy = =
= = = TRL incident = = =
Following commencement for Glitter and the release of the soundtrack 's lead single " Loverboy " , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the song and its parent album . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey began singing " Loverboy " a capella from behind a curtain . As he questioned the audience , she came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , she admitted that he was meant to act surprised in order to provide a more dramatic effect for the program . Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention , with many critics and newspapers citing her behavior as " troubled " and " erratic " .
= = = Hospitalization = = =
In the days following her appearance on TRL , Carey began displaying what was described as " erratic behavior " . On July 20 , Carey held a record signing for the " Loverboy " single at Roosevelt Field shopping mall in Long Island before fans and the media . As a camera crew covered the event , she began rambling on several subjects before finally discussing radio @-@ host Howard Stern and how his jokes about herself on his program bothered her greatly and how everything in life should be positive . At that point , Carey 's publicist Cindi Berger grabbed the microphone from her hand , and asked the news crew to stop filming . Berger said later , " She was not speaking clearly and not talking about what she had come to talk about : her record . " Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website :
I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself .
Following the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . Two days later on July 26 , she was hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . News websites and programs began reporting how Carey threatened to commit suicide by slitting her wrists the night before , and how Patricia , Carey 's mother , hastily called for help . When questioned regarding Carey 's suicidal rumor , Berger claimed Carey had broken dishes out of desperation , and as a result , accidentally cut her hands and feet . Following her induction at an un @-@ disclosed hospital in Connecticut , Carey remained hospitalized and under doctor 's care for two weeks , followed by an extended absence from the public .
= = = Project delay = = =
Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both Glitter , as well as its soundtrack of the same name . The announcement was made on August 9 , 2001 , that both the soundtrack and the film would be postponed three weeks , respectively from August 21 to September 11 , and from August 31 to September 21 . When asked regarding the motives behind the delay , Nancy Berry , vice chairman of Virgin Music Group Worldwide , addressed Carey 's personal and physical condition :
Mariah is looking forward to being able to participate in both her album and movie projects and we are hopeful that this new soundtrack release date will allow her to do so . She has been making great recovery progress , and continues to grow stronger every day . Virgin Music Worldwide continues to give its absolute commitment and support to Mariah on every level .
When discussing the project 's weak commercial reaction , Carey blamed the terrorist attacks of September 11 . Carey made specific remarks regarding the album 's commercial failure stating , " I released it on September 11 , 2001 . The talk shows needed something to distract from 9 / 11 . I became a punching bag . I was so successful that they tore me down because my album was at number 2 instead of number 1 . The media was laughing at me and attacked me . "
= = = Departure from Virgin = = =
Glitter performed poorly at the box @-@ office . And following the poor sales of the album as well , Virgin invoked a clause in its contract with Carey that allowed Virgin get out of the $ 100 million deal for approximately $ 28 million . Subsequently , Virgin dropped Carey from the label roster . These decisions were brought on due to the low sales of the album , as well as the negative publicity surrounding her breakdown . While the two sides were laying out the terms for Carey 's exit from Virgin , Carey 's team requested that the two parties just use the word " canceled " when asked by the media regarding the failed venture . Less than 24 hours after the settlement was made , Virgin released a statement that they had " terminated " the contract with Carey , and paid her $ 28 million to do so . Carey 's lawyers threatened to sue , with her attorney Marshall Grossman calling their behavior in the matter " deplorable " . Virgin replied that in terms of Carey 's payout , they only listed the money they gave her for departing , not including the $ 23 @.@ 5 million they already had paid while under contract for the first and only album they released by her . Additionally , Virgin stated they would counter @-@ sue Carey for " defamation " following Carey 's press release . The matter was resolved outside of court , with Carey and Virgin opting not to take the matter to the judicial system . Soon after , Carey flew to Italy for a period of five months . After several months , Carey signed a new $ 20 million deal with Island Records , which also included Carey 's own vanity label , MonarC Entertainment .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Glitter was notably different from anything Carey had ever written or recorded , drawing influence from the 1980s . Due to the parent film taking place in 1983 , the soundtrack harbored on recreating an older sound , while incorporating the usual ballads for which Carey was known . While some critics favored the album 's retro style , and inclusion of several sampled melodies , many felt that Glitter lacked originality , and its excess of guest artists overpowered Carey 's artistry . In an interview with MTV News , Carey described the album 's content , as well as its influences :
There are songs that are definitely going to take people back and make them go , ' Oh , man , this song from the ' 80s — I loved it growing up ' . Or people who never heard the songs before might be like , ' This is cool . ' When you see the movie , you 're gonna see the uptempo songs and the songs that are remakes in there as they would have sounded in the ' 80s , but the album is the way that I would make the record now , and the ballads can stand on their own as songs from a Mariah Carey album .
Serving as the project 's lead single , " Loverboy " features a sample from " Candy " by American band Cameo , which interpolates the melody into the chorus and instrumental introduction . Additionally , aside from sampling " Candy " as the musical bed for the song , Cameo serves as a featured artist on the song . Sarah Rodman from the Boston Herald compared it to Carey 's previous lead singles , and described its production as " another in an increasingly long line of glitzy , candy @-@ coated , creatively stunted Carey songs " . The song 's lyrics and vocals were described as " super @-@ sexed " by Sal Cinquemani from Slant magazine when put into comparison with Carey 's previous work . The official remix for " Loverboy " also earned a place on Glitter , adding rap verses from both Ludacris and Da Brat to the original version . The album 's second release , " Never Too Far " , was written and produced by Carey and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . Described as an " adult @-@ contemporary , slow @-@ jam love song " , the song 's lyrics read " Too painful to talk about it , so I hold it in / So my heart can mend and be brave enough to love again " , speaking of emotions felt by the protagonist in the film . " Never Too Far " features " a bed of synthesized strings , gentle drums and Spanish @-@ style guitar " as its primary instrumentation , and incorporates violin and keyboard notes prior to the first verse . The third single from Glitter , " Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " , was composed by Carey and DJ Clue , and interpolates " Funkin ' for Jamaica ( N.Y. ) " by Tom Browne . Featuring guest verses from Mystikal , with the former declaring " Ain 't nothin ' you could do with the man / Except for shake your ass and clap your hands " , while Carey responds " Don 't stop bay @-@ beee , its ex @-@ ta @-@ see / Turn me up a little . " Serving as the fourth and final single from Glitter , " Reflections ( Care Enough ) " was written by Carey and Philippe Pierre , and released as a single towards the end of 2001 . Lyrically , the song 'a protagonist " laments the end of a relationship " , while confronting her mother regarding her early abandonment . Additionally , during its bridge , Carey " eerily " refers to abortion , " You could have had the decency / To give me up / Before you gave me life " , as an option over abandoning the child . Cinquemani felt the song was reminiscent of Carey 's ballads during the earlier lengths of her career , and described the song as a " simple beauty " . In a review for the album in The Free Lance – Star , a writer outed the song 's first verse " A displeased little girl / Wept years in silence / And whispers wishes you 'd materialize / She pressed on night and day / To keep on living / And tried so many ways / To keep her soul alive " as his favorite lyric from Glitter , and described it as an " emotional and heart @-@ wrenching ballad " . Conceptualized in 1997 , " Lead the Way " was an unused track from Butterfly ( 1997 ) , written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff . The ballad was the last song composed by the pair , as they halted work with one another shortly after its completion , due to their growing creative differences . Though written , the song was recorded during 2000 , as Carey began producing Glitter . Beginning with a classic and simple piano introduction , Carey starts the song with soft and breathy vocals , eventually leading to a vocal climax , in which she belts an 18 @-@ second note , the longest from any of her recordings . He described it as one of her " best vocal performances " , as well as one of her " favorite songs . " In an interview with MTV News , Carey addressed Glitter as well as " Lead the Way " :
To me , ' Glitter ' is one of my best albums . A lot of people got confused , not knowing whether it was a soundtrack or an album or what . There 's a song called ' Lead the Way ' which I did on Ally McBeal , and it 's coming out in January . I sang the song on [ the show ] . It 's one of those ballads that basically everybody that 's been following my career says reminds them of a ' Vision of Love ' -type record , and that 's one of my favorite songs from the record . The cool thing for me is to be able to tie in ' Never Too Far ' and ' Hero ' . Having the Greatest Hits coming out , to be able to tie in both those records is almost like a circle .
Carey 's cover of the 1982 Indeep song " Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life " was one of the album 's more club @-@ themed songs . It features rappers Fabolous and Busta Rhymes , and was composed and produced by Carey and DJ Clue . Michael Paoletta from Billboard called it a " painful low " on Glitter , and commented how Carey seemed detached and over @-@ powered on the song , due to the inclusion of several male guests . " Twister " , another one of the album 's ballads , drew strong comparisons to Carey 's older work , in light of the very different remainder of the album . Paoletta called it " quietly heartbreaking " , in reference to the song 's lyrics , which relate to the suicide of Carey 's friend and hairstylist , Tonjua Twist . According to Carey , Twist took her own life in the spring of 2000 , and was known for her joy of life and her ability to put people at ease . She was " child like and effervescent " , but behind her mask of happiness was " a well " of lifelong and deep @-@ rooted pain . In " Twister " , Carey described the hidden inner @-@ struggle of her friend , and tried to find " closure " ; her " way of saying goodbye " . Chris Chuck from Daily News described its lyrics as " an airy requiem for a friend lost to suicide " and felt it was " the only memorable song on the album . " With lyrics reading " Feelin ' kinda fragile and I 've got a lot to handle / But I guess this is my way of saying goodbye " , David Browne from Entertainment Weekly felt that Carey was possibly referring to her own suicide rather than her friends , especially in light of the events that were taking place during the album 's release . " Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " is a cover of the 1984 Cherelle song of the same title . Aside from the heavy sampling of the hook and lyrics , Carey , who produced the song alongside Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , added keyboard notes and synthesizers to enhance the songs club appeal . In the song , Carey sings " I was only trying to be nice / Only trying to be nice / Sooooooo , I didn 't mean to turn you on " , indicating a woman who is weakly apologetic over fooling a man over intimacy . On the track " Want You " , American singer Eric Benét duets with Carey , while lyrically implying and suggesting the " exploration of bedroom fantasies . "
= = = " Loverboy " sample controversy = = =
Throughout 2000 , Carey had already been writing and recording material for Glitter and during this period , she developed the concept for " Loverboy " . Originally , Carey had sampled the melody and hook from the 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra song " Firecracker " , using an interpolation of it throughout the chorus and introduction . In early theatrical trailers for Glitter , the original version of " Loverboy " was still featured . As Carey had ended her contract with Columbia Records , Jennifer Lopez was signed by Tommy Mottola , and had begun recording material for her album , J.Lo ( 2001 ) . According to record producer Irv Gotti , Mottola knew of Carey 's usage of the " Firecracker " sample , and attempted to have Lopez use the same sample before her . At the time , Carey had become increasingly paranoid over outside executives being informed about Glitter , especially following news of Lopez 's " theft " of the song . When the music publishers for " Firecracker " were questioned , they admitted Carey had licensed usage of the sample first , and Lopez had signed for it over one month later , under Mottola 's arrangement . Ultimately Carey was not able to use the original sample , as Lopez 's album was to be released far earlier than Glitter . She subsequently changed the composition of " Loverboy " , and incorporated a new sample , " Candy " by Cameo . The " Firecracker " sample was eventually used by Lopez on her song " I 'm Real " and according to Gotti , Mottola contacted him with instructions to create the Murder Remix of " I 'm Real " to sound exactly like another Glitter track he produced , titled " If We " featuring rappers Ja Rule and Nate Dogg .
= = Critical reception = =
On the website Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score , the album received a 59 / 100 , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews . " Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album one and a half out of five stars , calling it an " utter meltdown -- the pop equivalent of Chernobyl " and wrote " It 's an embarrassment , one that might have been easier to gawk at if its creator wasn 't so close to emotional destruction at the time of release . " Michael Paoletta from Billboard was less critical , citing it as a " minor misstep in a stellar career that has earned the singer a few free passes . Editor Sarah Rodman from The Boston Herald gave Glitter a mixed review , praising Carey 's song @-@ writing and voice , although panning the excess of secondary musical guests . While criticizing the album 's roster of appearances , Rodman wrote " the artists contribute mostly distracting , self @-@ promoting jibber jabber all over what could have been Carey 's best , most emotionally mature record to date . " Daily News editor Chuck Campley rated the album two and a half out of five stars , writing " Maybe this was the best Mariah Carey could muster under the circumstances , but ' Glitter ' needed more work . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave Glitter a mixed review , criticizing the abundance of rappers and describing Carey 's vocals as " barely there " on several tracks . Concluding his review on a poor note , Browne wrote " ' Glitter ' is a mess , but its shameless genre hopping ( and Carey 's crash ) makes it an unintentional concept album about the toll of relentless careerism . "
Heather Vaughn from The Free @-@ Lance Star gave Glitter a positive review , complimenting both the dance @-@ oriented tracks , as well as the ballads . In reference to their weight on the album as a whole , Vaughn wrote " Sounds like Mariah 's other albums , but with more of an 80s twist . The ballads really let you hear how stunning her voice actually is . " Los Angeles Times critic and writer Natalie Nichols gave Glitter two out of a possible four stars , writing how Carey let the album " reflect the synth @-@ driven robo @-@ funk of that wretched decade . " Nichols called the album 's covers " tepid and pointless " , while agreeing that Carey was overwhelmed by the many guest rappers , calling her voice " semi @-@ disguised " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , criticizing the ballads as " big and goopy , with zero melodic or emotional punch . " Aside from the ballads , Sheffield felt Glitter failed to deliver the success or quality that Carey needed on her debut film and soundtrack . He concluded his review of the album with a comparison to Whitney Houston 's massive The Bodyguard ( 1992 ) , " Mariah still hasn 't found her theme song , the one people will remember her voice by . Glitter is good enough to make you hope she finds it . " Slant Magazine magazine editor Sal Cinquemani awarded Glitter three out of five stars , writing " Carey 's edgier tracks are inundated with so many guest artists that her sound ultimately becomes muddled ; her pop tunes are so formulaic that it 's difficult to distinguish one from the next . " USA Today 's Edna Gunderson rated the album one and a half out of four stars , criticizing Carey 's overall image for the project , as well as the many guest artists on the record . She described Carey as " cheapening her image " and wrote " The whiff of desperation grows more pungent on ' Glitter ' in Carey 's gratuitous coloratura and transparent enlistment of street @-@ cred boosters such as rappers Ja Rule and Mystikal .
= = Commercial performance = =
Glitter became Carey 's least commercially successful album to that point . It debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 116 @,@ 000 copies , but far from the first @-@ week sales of 323 @,@ 000 with her previous release , Rainbow in 1999 . Glitter became Carey 's lowest peaking album in the United States , with her second album Emotions ( 1991 ) , coming in at number four . It remained in the album 's chart for only eight weeks , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units ; and as it fell from the charts , received platinum certification , denoting shipments of 1 million in the US . Large quantities of the album remained unsold in record stores and , as such , record stores have the ability to return unsold product back to the record label -this had no effect on the certification already given , however . As of April 2013 , Nielsen SoundScan estimates sales of the Glitter album at 652 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart . Glitter entered the Australian Albums Chart at its peak position of number thirteen , during the week dated September 9 , 2001 . Remaining in the chart for only three weeks , the album made its exit at number forty on September 23 . Similarly in Austria , Glitter peaked at number fourteen , remaining on the albums chart for only four weeks .
In both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , Glitter peaked at numbers ten and eleven , respectively , while charting for a total of four weeks . In France , Glitter peaked at number five on the albums chart , during the week dated September 15 , 2001 . Following seventeen weeks fluctuating in the chart , the album was certified Gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 units . French sales of the album are estimated at 121 @,@ 100 copies . On the Dutch Albums Chart , Glitter debuted at number twenty @-@ six , during the week dated September 22 , 2001 . Reaching its peak position of number twelve the following week , the album remained a total of six weeks in the albums chart . In both New Zealand and Norway , Glitter peaked at number eleven , staying within the chart for four and one weeks , respectively . In Switzerland , the album peaked at number seven , and stayed within the chart for ten weeks . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified Glitter Gold in Switzerland , for shipments of 20 @,@ 000 copies . On the UK Albums Chart dated September 22 , 2001 , the album made its debut at number ten . The following week , Glitter fell to number twenty @-@ seven , staying in the chart for one more additional week . British sales of the album are at 55 @,@ 080 units as of July 2014 . In Japan , Glitter saw particular commercial success , debuting atop the albums chart and selling 450 @,@ 000 units within a month of release .
= = Singles = =
" Loverboy " was released as the first single from Glitter on July 16 , 2001 . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with many both criticizing and praising the inclusion of the " Candy " sample . It became one of Carey 's weakest charting lead singles to date , reaching number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . Following Carey 's publicized hospitalization and breakdown , as well as Virgin 's price reduction on the single , " Loverboy " managed to attain a new peak of number two on the chart . Although being propelled by high sales , radio airplay was still weak , due to many radio DJs feeling tepid towards its 1980s retro sound . Accompanied by little promotion from Carey , due to her hospitalization , " Loverboy " quickly descended the Hot 100 . Outside the United States , the song attained weak charting , peaking inside the top ten in Australia and Canada , and within the top twenty in Italy and the United Kingdom . The music video for " Loverboy " features Carey dressed in a variation of revealing outfits , while patrolling a large race track as her ' loverboy ' wins the race . The video was notable for portraying Carey in a more sexually oriented manner than before .
" Never Too Far " , the album 's second release , was released on October 23 , 2001 . It failed to impact the main Billboard chart , and achieved weak international charting . Carey was unable to film a music video for the single , as she was still recovering from her collapse . Instead , a video was created using a scene taken directly from the film Glitter , where Billie Frank ( played by Carey ) sings the song at Madison Square Garden during her first sold @-@ out concert . Frank 's performance of the song in the film omits its entire second verse , and the song 's development runs in parallel with the film 's love story . The album 's third single , " Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " , released on December 10 , 2001 , mirrored the same weak charting as " Never Too Far " , although receiving more rotation on MTV due to its video . Directed by Sanaa Hamri , it features the theme of southern bayous and lifestyles , and presents Carey and Mystikal in " southern style " clothing and hairstyles . Some shots feature three versions of Carey singing into a microphone on the screen at one time . The final single released from Glitter was " Reflections ( Care Enough ) " , which received a limited release in Japan on December 15 , 2001 . Following its limited promotional push from Virgin , and the absence of a music video , the song failed to make much of an impact .
= = Track listing = =
" Loverboy " and " Loverboy ( Remix ) " both contain a sample of " Candy " by Cameo .
" Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " is a cover of Cherrelle 's " I Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " . The cover is produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , who produced Cherrelle 's original song . Mariah sang over the original instrumental as well .
" Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " contains interpolates of " Funkin ' for Jamaica ( N.Y. ) " by Tom Browne .
" Last Night A DJ Saved My Life " contains a sample of " Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See " by Busta Rhymes and is a cover of " Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life " by Indeep .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Glitter adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
|
= M @-@ 152 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 152 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in Cass and Van Buren counties . The highway runs through the Sister Lakes area providing access to the lake cabins and adjoining farmlands . The highway has existed mostly unchanged since the designation was commissioned in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 152 begins at an intersection with South County Line Road on the border between Van Buren and Berrien counties just west of Round Lake . Known as 92nd Avenue , M @-@ 152 travels due east past the Sister Lakes area before turning south on 66th Street . From there , the road passes between Dewey and Magician Lakes before returning to its easterly course where it assumes the name Dewey Lake Street . Between the western terminus and Dewey Lake Street , the highway passes provides access to the cabins around the lakes . The route continues eastward for nearly three and a half miles through farmland before terminating at a junction with M @-@ 51 . M @-@ 152 is not on the National Highway System , a system of regionally important highways . In a traffic survey by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2009 , the department measured the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a computation of the average traffic levels for a segment of roadway on any given day of the year . This was calculated at 3 @,@ 318 vehicles over the entire length of M @-@ 152 . The commercial AADT in the same survey was 73 vehicles .
= = History = =
M @-@ 152 was assumed into the state trunkline system in 1933 . Aside from completing the pavement surfacing of the road in 1945 , the route has remain unchanged since its inception . The highway has been considered a potential candidate for transfer to local control . MDOT marked it as a " proposed transfer " in its Control Section Atlas in 1978 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue =
" It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan and featured on his Bringing It All Back Home album , released on March 22 , 1965 by Columbia Records ( see 1965 in music ) . The song was recorded on January 15 , 1965 with Dylan 's acoustic guitar and harmonica and William E. Lee 's bass guitar the only instrumentation . The lyrics were heavily influenced by Symbolist poetry and bid farewell to the titular " Baby Blue . " There has been much speculation about the real life identity of " Baby Blue " , with suspects including Joan Baez , David Blue , Paul Clayton , Dylan 's folk music audience , and even Dylan himself .
" It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " has been covered many times by a variety of artists , including Baez , Bryan Ferry , The Seldom Scene , Them , The Byrds , The Animals , The Chocolate Watchband , Graham Bonnet , Judy Collins , Joni Mitchell , Marianne Faithfull , Falco , The 13th Floor Elevators , the Grateful Dead , Link Wray , Hugh Masekela , Echo and the Bunnymen and Bad Religion . Them 's version , released in 1966 influenced garage bands during the mid @-@ 60 's and Beck later sampled it for his 1996 single " Jack @-@ Ass " . The Byrds recorded the song twice in 1965 as a possible follow up single to " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " All I Really Want to Do " , but neither recording was released in that form . The Byrds did release a 1969 recording of the song on their Ballad of Easy Rider album ( see 1969 in music ) .
= = Bob Dylan 's version = =
= = = Composition and recording = = =
Bob Dylan most likely wrote " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in January 1965 . The master take of the song was recorded during the sessions for the Bringing It All Back Home album on January 15 , 1965 and was produced by Tom Wilson . The track was recorded on the same day Dylan recorded the other three songs on side 2 of the album : " Mr. Tambourine Man " , " Gates of Eden " and " It 's Alright Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) " . However , Dylan had been playing those other songs live for some time , allowing them to evolve before recording of the album commenced . For " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " , Dylan wanted to record the song before he became too familiar with it . There were at least two studio recordings prior to the one that was released on the album . Dylan recorded a solo acoustic version on January 13 , 1965 ( released in 2005 on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home ) and a semi @-@ electric version on January 14 .
The version of the song on the album is sparsely arranged with Dylan accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica , with William E. Lee playing bass guitar . Author Clinton Heylin states that the song is another of Dylan 's " ' go out in the real world ' songs , like " To Ramona " , though less conciliatory – the tone is crueler and more demanding . " As well as being the final track on Bringing It All Back Home , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was also the final song to be recorded for the album .
Bill Janovitz of Allmusic describes the music as beautiful , with folk guitar chord changes and a somber melody , while the chorus , with its line " and it 's all over now , Baby Blue " has a heartbreaking quality to it . Like other Dylan songs of the period , such as " Chimes of Freedom " and " Mr. Tambourine Man " , the lyrics of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " bear the strong influence of Symbolist poets such as Arthur Rimbaud . Lines such as " take what you have gathered from coincidence " reflect the I Ching philosophy that coincidence represents more than mere chance . The song was described by Q magazine as , " The most toxic of strummed kiss @-@ offs , with not a snowball 's chance in hell of reconciliation . " Dylan , later describing the song , said that " I had carried that song around in my head for a long time and I remember that when I was writing it , I 'd remembered a Gene Vincent song . It had always been one of my favorites , Baby Blue ... ' When first I met my baby / she said how do you do / she looked into my eyes and said / my name is Baby Blue . ' It was one of the songs I used to sing back in high school . Of course , I was singing about a different Baby Blue . "
= = = Identity of " Baby Blue " = = =
Dylan 's two previous albums , The Times They Are A @-@ Changin ' and Another Side of Bob Dylan both ended with a farewell song , " Restless Farewell " and " It Ain 't Me , Babe " respectively . " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " concludes Bringing It All Back Home in consistent fashion . Much speculation has surrounded who or what the " Baby Blue " to whom Dylan is singing farewell is . Although Dylan himself has remained mute on the subject , Dylan scholars believe that it is probably an amalgam of personalities within Dylan 's social orbit . One person who has been regarded as the subject of the song is folk singer Joan Baez . Dylan and Baez were still in a relationship and were planning to tour together , but Dylan had been growing as an artist and as a person and may have already been planning to leave the relationship . Another possibility is a singer @-@ songwriter named David Blue . A friend or acquaintance of Dylan 's from his days in New York 's Greenwich Village , Blue is pictured on the cover of Dylan and the Band 's The Basement Tapes album wearing a trench coat . Yet another possibility is Dylan 's one @-@ time friend , folk singer Paul Clayton . Although Clayton had been Dylan 's friend throughout 1964 , and had accompanied Dylan on the road trip across the United States on which " Chimes of Freedom " and " Mr. Tambourine Man " were written , by 1965 he may have become more devoted to Dylan than Dylan was comfortable with , and Clayton 's use of amphetamines may have made him difficult to be around . However , author Paul Williams , in his book Performing Artist : Book One 1960 – 1973 , counters that " Dylan may have been thinking of a particular person as he wrote it , but not necessarily " , adding that the song has such a natural , flowing structure to it , that it could " easily have finished writing itself before Dylan got around to thinking about who ' Baby Blue ' was . "
Another interpretation of the song is that it is directed at Dylan 's folk music audience . The song was written at a time when he was moving away from the folk protest movement musically and , as such , can be seen as a farewell to his days as an acoustic guitar @-@ playing protest singer . Dylan 's choice of performing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as his last acoustic song at the infamous Newport Folk Festival of 1965 , after having had his electric set met with boos , is often used as evidence to support this theory . That particular performance of the song is included in Murray Lerner 's film The Other Side of the Mirror .
Yet another interpretation is that Dylan is directing the farewell to himself , particularly his acoustic performer self . The opening line " You must leave now " can be a command , similar to the line " Go away from my window " that opens " It Ain 't Me , Babe " . But it can also be an imperative , meaning just that it is necessary that you leave . And the song is as much about new beginnings as it is about endings . The song not only notes the requirement that Baby Blue leave , but also includes the hope that Baby Blue will move forward , in lines such as " Strike another match , go start anew " . If Dylan is singing the song to himself , then he himself would be the " vagabond who 's rapping at your door / standing in the clothes that you once wore " . That is , the new , electric , surrealist Dylan would be the vagabond , not yet having removed the " clothes " of the old protest singer . Alternatively , the vagabond and " stepping stones " referenced in the song have been interpreted as Dylan 's folk audience whom he needs to leave behind . He would also be telling himself to " Forget the dead you 've left , they will not follow you . " Others to whom he may be saying farewell in the song are any of the women he had known , the political left or to the illusions of his youth .
= = = Legacy = = =
In addition to appearing on the Bringing It All Back Home album , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is also included on the compilation albums Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II , The Essential Bob Dylan , Dylan and the UK version of Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits . Dylan played the song for Donovan in his hotel room during his May 1965 tour of England in a scene shown in the D. A. Pennebaker documentary Dont Look Back . A version of the song is included on the soundtrack to Martin Scorsese 's documentary No Direction Home . A live version from Dylan 's famous May 17 , 1966 concert in Manchester , England ( popularly but mistakenly known as the Royal Albert Hall concert ) was released in 1985 on Dylan 's box set Biograph and subsequently included on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 , The " Royal Albert Hall " Concert . Another live version , recorded during the Rolling Thunder Revue tour of 1975 , is contained on The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue . As of 2009 , Dylan continued to perform the song in concert .
In a 2005 readers ' poll reported in Mojo , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was listed as the # 10 all @-@ time best Bob Dylan song , and a similar poll of artists ranked the song # 7 . In 2002 , Uncut listed it as the # 11 all @-@ time best Bob Dylan song .
= = Covers = =
= = = Them 's version = = =
The Belfast band Them ( featuring Van Morrison ) recorded a cover of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " that was first released on their album , Them Again , in January 1966 in the UK and April 1966 in the U.S. The song was subsequently issued as a single ( b / w " I 'm Gonna Dress in Black " ) in the Netherlands during October 1966 but failed to reach the Dutch Singles Chart . It was later re @-@ released in Germany in December 1973 with " Bad or Good " on the B @-@ side , following its appearance in the 1972 German television movie , Die Rocker ( aka Rocker ) . The single became a hit in Germany , first entering the charts in February 1974 and peaking at # 13 , during a chart stay of 14 weeks .
Morrison recalled his first encounter with Dylan 's music in an interview in 2000 : " I think I heard [ The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan ] in a record shop in Smith Street . And I just thought it was just incredible that this guy 's not singing about ' moon in June ' and he 's getting away with it ... The subject matter wasn 't pop songs , ya know , and I thought this kind of opens the whole thing up . " Morrison 's record producer at the time , Bert Berns , encouraged him to find models for his songs , so he bought Dylan 's Bringing It All Back Home album in March 1965 . One of the songs on the album held a unique fascination for Morrison and he soon started performing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in small clubs and pubs as a solo artist ( without Them ) .
Producer Tommy Scott was conscious of the importance of Dylan 's music on the current pop scene and was eager for Morrison to cover " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " during the 1965 sessions for Them 's second LP . After a failed , preliminary attempt to record the track with session pianist Phil Coulter at Regent Sound studios in London , Scott reconsidered his approach to the song . Scott recalled in interview that " The number wasn 't going down , Van wasn 't sure . Then the guys said he didn 't fancy it and thought it was cheap because I 'd tried to go after the " Here Comes the Night " tempo . " The band returned to the song during a later session at Decca 's recording studios . Scott decided to rearrange the song 's musical backing , incorporating a distinctive recurring blues riff and piano work from Them 's keyboard player , Peter Bardens , resulting in a finished recording that the band were satisfied with . The song featured one of Morrison 's most expressive vocals and included subtle changes to Dylan 's lyrics ; instead of singing " Forget the dead you 've left " Morrison alters the line to " Forget the debts you 've left " .
Greil Marcus stated in a 1969 Rolling Stone review that " Only on Dylan 's ' It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue ' does Van truly shatter all the limits on his special powers ... Each note stands out as a special creation – ' the centuries of emotion that go into a musician ’ s choice from one note to the next ' is a phrase that describes the startling depth of this recording . Played very fast , Van 's voice virtually fighting for control over the band , ' Baby Blue ' emerges as music that is both dramatic and terrifying . " In recent years , author Clinton Heylin has noted that Them 's 1966 recording of the song is " that genuine rarity , a Dylan cover to match the original . " After Van Morrison left the band in 1966 , Them spinoff group , The Belfast Gypsies , recorded a cover of the song on their 1967 album , Them Belfast Gypsies .
Them 's interpretation of the song , with Morrison as vocalist , became influential during the years 1966 and 1967 , with several garage rock bands , including The Chocolate Watchband and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band , recording versions of the song that were indebted to Them 's cover version . Beck used a sample of Them 's 1966 recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as the basis for his single " Jack @-@ Ass " , which appeared on his 1996 album , Odelay ( see 1996 in music ) . Insane Clown Posse later sampled Beck 's song as the basis for " Another Love Song " , which appeared on their 1999 album , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . Hole 's cover of the song also uses Them 's recording as a blueprint . Them 's original 1966 version of the song has appeared in movies , such as the 1996 film Basquiat , the 1972 German film Rocker by Klaus Lemke and the 2000 film Girl , Interrupted .
In 1993 , Van Morrison included Them 's cover of the song on his compilation album The Best of Van Morrison Volume Two . In addition to recording " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " with Them , Morrison has covered the song frequently in concert throughout his solo career , beginning in 1974 , but has never released a studio or live recording of it as a solo artist . In 1984 , Morrison made a guest appearance at one of Bob Dylan 's concerts in London and the two musicians performed a duet of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " . Morrison and Dylan also sang a duet of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " at the final concert of Dylan 's 1984 tour on July 8 , 1984 at Slane Castle , Ireland .
In a 2009 Paste magazine readers , writers and editors poll of the 50 Best Bob Dylan Covers of All Time , Them 's version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was ranked at # 28 .
= = = The Byrds ' version = = =
The Byrds ' recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " first saw release on October 29 , 1969 as part of the band 's Ballad of Easy Rider album . The song also appeared on the B @-@ side of the band 's December 1969 single , " Jesus Is Just Alright " , which reached # 97 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The Byrds had previously attempted to record the song on two separate occasions , some four years earlier , during studio sessions for their second album , Turn ! Turn ! Turn !
The Byrds initially planned to release " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in 1965 , as a follow @-@ up to their previous hit Bob Dylan covers , " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " All I Really Want to Do " . The band 's first attempt at recording the song was on June 28 , 1965 : resulting in an irreverent , garage rock style take on the song . This version was deemed unsatisfactory and remained unreleased for 22 years , until its inclusion on the Never Before album in 1987 . The June 28 , 1965 recording can also be heard on the 1996 expanded reissue of Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! as well as on The Byrds and There Is a Season box sets .
The band attempted a second recording of the song during August 1965 . A program director from KRLA , who was present at the recording sessions , was impressed enough to play an acetate disc of the track on air , plugging it as The Byrds ' new single . However , The Byrds soon abandoned the idea of releasing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as their third single and instead issued the song " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! " . The Byrds ' August 1965 version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " has never been released .
Guitarist and band leader , Roger McGuinn , returned to the composition during a July 22 , 1969 recording session for the band 's Ballad of Easy Rider album . McGuinn decided to slow down the tempo and radically alter the song 's arrangement to fashion a more somber and serious version than those recorded in 1965 . In tandem with the slower tempo , the band dragged the syllables of each word out in order to emphasize the world @-@ weariness of the song 's lyric . Ultimately , McGuinn was dissatisfied with the recording of the song included on Ballad of Easy Rider , feeling that it tended to drag within the context of the album . In addition to appearing on Ballad of Easy Rider , The Byrds ' 1969 recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " can also be found on the compilation albums The Byrds Play Dylan and The Very Best of The Byrds .
= = = Other covers = = =
Many other artists have covered the song . Joan Baez , who has sometimes been speculated to be the subject of the song , covered it on her 1965 album Farewell , Angelina . It is one of four Dylan covers on that album , the others being the title track , " Mama , You Been on My Mind " ( recorded as " Daddy , You Been on My Mind " ) , and " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " . Baez sings " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in a falsetto voice , but retains the power of Dylan 's version . Baez has continued to perform the song at live concerts well into the modern era .
Others who have covered the song include Columbia Records contemporary Dion DiMucci ( who recorded the song one half year prior to Them 's version ) , The Country Gentlemen , Judy Collins , Joni Mitchell , Marianne Faithfull , Bryan Ferry , Manfred Mann 's Earth Band , Energy Orchard . , Turley Richards , Echo & the Bunnymen , Falco , Milltown Brothers , The Seldom Scene , Jon Fratelli , the Grateful Dead , The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band , The Chocolate Watchband , Richie Havens , Steve Howe , The 13th Floor Elevators , Hole , Graham Bonnet , The Last Drive and Chris Farlowe . Gal Costa performed a version of the song in Portuguese under the title of " Negro Amor " on her 1977 album Caras e Bocas . Link Wray also covered the song on his album Bullshot .
George Harrison , who performed with Dylan in the Traveling Wilburys and also co @-@ wrote the song " I 'd Have You Anytime " with Dylan in November 1968 , did not cover the song , but did reference the title in his 1987 single , " When We Was Fab " . One of the lyrics in the song reads " But it 's all over now , baby blue " , which is a nod from Harrison to his friend Dylan .
The Chocolate Watchband version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is featured in the documentary Tarnation .
The Animals recorded a version of the song on their 1977 album Before We Were So Rudely Interrupted .
The song was a source of inspiration for Joyce Carol Oates ' short story " Where Are You Going , Where Have You Been ? " , prompting her to dedicate the story to Dylan . A portion of the first verse of the song was used as the title for Barry Hannah 's 1995 novel Yonder Stands Your Orphan . Graham Bonnet 's version of the song appears on the soundtrack of the 2009 Peter Jackson film The Lovely Bones .. Philadelphia pop punk band The Wonder Years 's 2009 Distances split EP opens with a track entitled " An Elegy for Baby Blue , " which references Dylan 's song by directly quoting him in its chorus .
While not actually a cover , the rock band Nine Days included a sample of Dylan singing two lines from " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in their song " Bob Dylan " from the album The Madding Crowd .
In 2011 Bad Religion recorded a punk rock cover version for the 2012 charity compilation album Chimes of Freedom : Songs of Bob Dylan Honoring 50 Years of Amnesty International .
|
= Fun Run =
" Fun Run " is the first and second episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ fourth and fifty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written and directed by executive producer and showrunner Greg Daniels , the episode first aired on NBC in the United States on September 27 , 2007 .
In the episode , Michael Scott believes the office is cursed after he accidentally hits Meredith Palmer with his car . After being taken to the hospital , Meredith is found to have rabies . In an attempt to make amends with Meredith , Michael sponsors a fun run for rabies . Meanwhile , it is revealed that Jim Halpert and Pam Beesly are dating , while Angela Martin is mad at Dwight Schrute for killing her cat Sprinkles .
The episode received mixed reviews from the varying critics , while most praised the episode for Jim and Pam 's relationship . However , critics had differing opinions when it came to how Michael behaved throughout the episode .
= = Plot = =
Over the summer , Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) moved in with Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) started his new job at Corporate and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) broke up with Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) , who left Dunder Mifflin Scranton . Jim and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) claim that they see each other socially but only as friends . The documentary crew catches Pam picking up Jim in her car . They kiss and drive away . When faced with the footage of them kissing , Jim and Pam admit to the documentary crew that they are secretly dating .
As he arrives at work , Michael accidentally hits Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) with his car , sending her to the hospital for a fractured pelvis . Forced to join a group visit to Meredith in the hospital , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) leaves Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) with complicated instructions on the care of her ailing cat Sprinkles . During the hospital visit , Michael fails to obtain forgiveness from Meredith . When Angela returns to the office , Dwight informs her that her cat is dead . Dwight explains to Angela that he killed her cat because it was suffering , and that this is normal on the farm . Angela is furious , because being euthanized prevents Sprinkles from being in " cat heaven . "
The combination of Meredith 's accident , Sprinkles ' death , and a virus on Pam 's computer ( which is cleaned by the company 's tech support employee , Sadiq , portrayed by Omi Vaidya ) convinces Michael that the office is cursed . He insists that he is not superstitious , but rather " a little @-@ stitious " . Dwight discovers that Meredith has had a precautionary rabies shot due to several animal bites . Michael immediately takes credit for saving Meredith 's life by sending her to the hospital and declares the curse over . But , still feeling guilty about hurting Meredith , Michael organizes a charity five @-@ kilometer fun run to raise awareness of the dangers of rabies . Over half of the money raised is spent on the check presentation ceremony . Few take the race seriously ( Creed , Oscar and Stanley sneak off to a bar while Jim and Pam visit a garage sale ) and while Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) finishes first and Michael becomes ill , having " carbo @-@ loaded " ( he ate fettucini alfredo before the race ) and abstained from water . In the hospital for dehydration , Michael is visited by Meredith . In recognition of his efforts , she forgives him .
= = Production = =
" Fun Run " was the eighth episode of the series written by Greg Daniels and ninth episode directed by him . The episode was the second of the series in which Daniels was both the writer and director . Daniels also wrote and directed the first season episode " Basketball . "
After initially reading the script , Kate Flannery asked producer Kent Zbornak if Meredith was going to live , to which he replied " This isn 't All My Children . " Flannery was nervous about doing her own stunt , so Zbornak did it first to show her that she would be fine . Flannery recalls " [ I ] kind of got competitive with him , and I thought , ' I can do that . I can do that better than he can . ' " At first , Flannery would flinch before hitting the glass , until director Greg Daniels was able to get her to not think about it . Flannery 's arms were bruised , due to having to film the scene multiple times . During the hospital scenes , Flannery and Steve Carell improvised a few times .
= = Reception = =
Pam and Jim finally getting together went over well with most critics . Zap2It 's Rick Porter thought " the show handled the PB & J ( Pam Beesly and Jim ) stuff as well as it always has , underplaying the romance as much as the NBC marketing folks overplay it . " Although , Christine Fenno from Entertainment Weekly was happy about Pam and Jim finally dating , she was critical of them being secret about it , reasoning " I mean , nobody 's cheating . Can 't the Pam and Jim plotline have a bigger obstacle than self @-@ imposed , weakly enforced secrecy ? " TV Guide 's Jack Rodgers was glad " the writers aren ’ t jerking us around anymore , and the pair are finally busted when Jim hops a ride home with Pam after work . "
Reviews for Michael in this episode were a little bit more mixed . Rick Porter said that " there was a little too much Bad Michael in the hour for my taste . " Travis Fickett , of IGN , disagreed , saying that " the best stuff in the episode comes from Steve Carell . There 's his reaction to hitting Meredith , how he breaks it to the office , and his fear that the office is cursed . " Will Leitch , a writer for New York Magazine , said that Michael hitting Meredith with his car was " one of the most shocking moments in the show ’ s history " and " nothing that came afterwards could quite top what happened in the first 25 seconds . "
|
= The Chronic =
The Chronic is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Dr. Dre . It was released on December 15 , 1992 , by his own record label Death Row Records and distributed by Priority Records . Recording sessions for the album took place in June 1992 at Death Row Studios in Los Angeles and at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood . The album is named after a slang term for high @-@ grade cannabis , and its cover is a homage to Zig @-@ Zag rolling papers . It was Dr. Dre 's first solo album after he had departed from hip hop group N.W.A and its label Ruthless Records over a financial dispute . On The Chronic , he included both subtle and direct insults at Ruthless and its owner , former N.W.A member Eazy @-@ E. Although a solo album , it features many appearances by Snoop Dogg , who used the album as a launch pad for his own solo career .
Upon its release , The Chronic received acclaim from music critics and earned considerable commercial success . The album peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 and had been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America with sales of 5 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , which led to Dr. Dre becoming one of the top ten best @-@ selling American performing artists of 1993 . Dr. Dre 's production has been noted for popularizing the G @-@ funk subgenre within gangsta rap . The Chronic has been widely regarded as one of the most important and influential albums of the 1990s and regarded by many fans and peers to be one of the most well @-@ produced hip hop albums of all time .
= = Music = =
= = = Production = = =
The production on The Chronic was seen as innovative and ground @-@ breaking , and received universal acclaim from critics . AllMusic commented on Dr. Dre 's efforts , " Here , Dre established his patented G @-@ funk sound : fat , blunted Parliament @-@ Funkadelic beats , soulful backing vocals , and live instruments in the rolling basslines and whiny synths " and that " For the next four years , it was virtually impossible to hear mainstream hip @-@ hop that wasn 't affected in some way by Dre and his patented G @-@ funk . " Unlike other hip hop acts ( such as The Bomb Squad ) that sampled heavily , Dr. Dre only utilized one or few samples per song . In Rolling Stone 's The Immortals – The Greatest Artists of All Time , where Dr. Dre was listed at number 56 , Kanye West wrote on the album 's production quality : " The Chronic is still the hip @-@ hop equivalent to Stevie Wonder 's Songs in the Key of Life . It 's the benchmark you measure your album against if you 're serious . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the production , writing " The bottom register is swampy synthesizer bass lines that openly emulate Parliament @-@ Funkadelic ; the upper end is often a lone keyboard line , whistling or blipping incessantly . In between are wide @-@ open spaces that hold just a rhythm guitar , sparse keyboard chords . " Pareles observed that the songs " were smoother and simpler than East Coast rap , and [ Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg ] decisively expanded the hip @-@ hop audience into the suburbs . " Until this point , mainstream hip hop had been primarily party music ( for example , Beastie Boys ) or angry and politically charged ( for example , Public Enemy or X @-@ Clan ) , and had consisted almost entirely of samples and breakbeats . Dr. Dre ushered in a new musical style and lyrics for hip hop . The beats were slower and mellower , samples from late 1970s and early 1980s funk music . By mixing these early influences with original live instrumentation , a distinctive genre known as G @-@ funk was created .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The album 's lyrics caused some controversy , as the subject matter included homophobia and violent representations . It was noted that the album was a " frightening amalgam of inner @-@ city street gangs that includes misogynist sexual politics and violent revenge scenarios " . All the N.W.A members were addressed on the album ; Eazy @-@ E and Ice Cube were dissed on the second single " Fuck Wit Dre Day " , while MC Ren however was shouted out on the album 's intro . Dr. Dre 's dissing of former band @-@ mate , Eazy @-@ E , resulted in vicious lyrics , which were mainly aimed at offending his enemy with homosexual implications , although it was noted to have " a spirited cleverness in the phrasing and rhymes ; in other words , the song is offensive , but it 's creatively offensive " .
Rapper Snoop Dogg , who had a significant role on the album , was praised for his lyrics and flow , and it was mentioned that " Coupled with his inventive rhymes , Snoop 's distinctive style made him a superstar before he 'd even released a recording of his own " and that his involvement was as important to the album 's success as its production . Touré of The New York Times remarks that " While Snoop delivers rhymes delicately , the content is anything but . Growing up poor , often surrounded by violence , and having served six months in the Wayside County jail outside of Los Angeles ( for cocaine possession ) gave Snoop Dogg experiences upon which he draws . " Snoop Dogg later commented on the " reality " of his lyrics , stating " My raps are incidents where either I saw it happen to one of my close homies or I know about it from just being in the ghetto . I can 't rap about something I don 't know . You 'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor 's degree . It 's only what I know and that 's that street life . It 's all everyday life , reality . "
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from the album : " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " , " Fuck wit Dre Day " and " Let Me Ride " . " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " was released as the first single on January 19 , 1993 . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million copies and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified it Platinum on March 24 , 1993 . The song was nominated for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 1994 Grammy Awards , but lost to Digable Planets ' " Rebirth of Slick ( Cool Like Dat ) " . Steve Huey of AllMusic named it " the archetypal G @-@ funk single " and added " The sound , style , and performances of " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " were like nothing else on the early- ' 90s hip @-@ hop scene . " He praised Snoop Dogg 's performance , stating " [ Snoop Dogg 's ] flow was laconic and relaxed , massively confident and capable of rapid @-@ fire tongue @-@ twisters , but coolly laid @-@ back and almost effortless at the same time " . Today it is one of the most critically and commercially lauded hip @-@ hop / rap songs of all time . It is rated the 134th best song of all time by Acclaimedmusic.net , and the sixth best hip @-@ hop / rap song , and voted in a VH1 poll as the 13th best song of the 1990s .
" Fuck wit Dre Day ( and Everybody 's Celebratin ' ) " was released as the second single on May 20 , 1993 and like the previous single , it was a hit on multiple charts . It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . It sold over 500 @,@ 000 units and the RIAA certified it Gold on October 8 , 1993 . Allmusic writer Steve Huey stated that the song was " a classic hip @-@ hop single " , citing Dr. Dre 's production as " impeccable as ever , uniting his signature whiny synth melodies with a halting , descending bass line , a booming snare , and soulful female vocals in the background " and alluded to Snoop Dogg , stating " Attitude was something Snoop had by the boatload , his drawling , laid @-@ back delivery projecting unassailable control – it sounded lazy even though it wasn 't , and that helped establish Snoop 's don 't @-@ give @-@ a @-@ damn persona . " The track contains direct insults to rappers East coast rapper Tim Dog , 2 Live Crew member Luke , and Dre 's former accomplices Eazy @-@ E & Ice Cube .
" Let Me Ride " was released as a cassette single on September 13 , 1993 . It experienced moderate success on the charts , reaching number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot Rap Singles . The song won Dr. Dre Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1994 Grammy Awards . On this song and " Nuthin but a " G " Thang " , Time magazine noted that Dr. Dre 's verses were delivered with a " hypnotically intimidating ease " and made the songs feel like " dusk on a wide @-@ open L.A. boulevard , full of possibility and menace " .
= = Commercial performance = =
As of 2015 , the album has sold 5 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , and was certified three times Platinum by RIAA on November 3 , 1993 . It is Dr. Dre 's second @-@ bestselling album , as his follow @-@ up album , 2001 , was certified sextuple Platinum . The album first appeared on music charts in 1993 , peaking on the Billboard 200 at number three , and peaking on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number one . The Chronic spent eight months in the Billboard Top 10 . The album 's three singles became top ten Billboard singles . " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number one on both the Hot Rap Singles and Hot R & B Singles charts . " Fuck Wit Dre Day ( And Everybody 's Celebratin ' ) " became a top ten single on four different charts , including the Hot R & B Singles ( number 6 ) and the Hot 100 ( number 8 ) .
The Chronic didn 't chart on the UK Albums Chart until 2000 , eight years after its original release , and peaked at number 43 in July 2004 . It has sold 260 @,@ 814 copies there . The Chronic re @-@ entered the charts in 2003 , peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at number 48 , and on the UK Albums Top 75 in 2004 at number 43 .
= = Critical reception = =
The Chronic received universal widespread critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Rolling Stone 's Havelock Nelson wrote that the album " drops raw realism and pays tribute to hip @-@ hop virtuosity . " Entertainment Weekly said that it " storms with rage , strolls with confidence , and reverberates with a social realism that 's often ugly and horrifying " . The Source claimed that Snoop Dogg 's " Slick Rick @-@ esque style " produces " new ground for West Coast MCs " and that the album is " an innovative and progressive hip @-@ hop package that must not be missed . " USA Today found " Dre 's prowess as beat @-@ master and street preacher " to be " undeniable " . Jonathan Gold of the Los Angeles Times wrote that , although the rappers lack " quick wit " and " rhythmic virtuosity " , Dre 's artistry is " on a par with Phil Spector 's or Brian Wilson 's . " Gold argued that , because Dre recreates rather than samples beats and instrumental work , the finished album 's fidelity is not inflected by that of " scratchy R & B records that have been played a million times " , unlike productions from East Coast hip hop .
In a mixed review , Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune viewed the album as superficial , unrefined entertainment and felt that " Dre combines street potency with thuggish stupidity in equal measure . " Robert Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , dismissed it as " sociopathic easy @-@ listening " and " bad pop music " whose innovation — Dre 's departure from sampling — is not inspired by contemporary P @-@ Funk , but rather blaxploitation soundtracks , which led him to combine trite bass lines with imitations of " Bernie Worrell 's high keyb sustain , a basically irritating sound that in context always signified fantasy , not reality — stoned self @-@ loss or , at a best Dre never approaches , grandiose jive . " He felt that the brutal lyrical threats were vague and lacked detail , although he found Snoop Dogg 's rhymes " drolly " and not dull , unlike Dr. Dre . Select gave the album a two out of five rating , finding that the album was not as strong as releases from other gangster rap artists such as Ice Cube and Da Lench Mob stating that The Chronic was neither as " musically sharp , nor as lyrically smart as the latter . " The review concluded that the album sounded like " all the pedestrian bits from The Predator " but that it was still better than any release Eazy @-@ E had released .
Retrospective reviews of the album were also positive . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that The Chronic and Snoop Dogg 's Doggystyle " made the gangsta life sound like a party occasionally interrupted by gunplay " . AllMusic 's Steve Huey compared Dr. Dre to his inspiration , George Clinton , stating " Dre 's just as effortlessly funky , and he has a better feel for a hook , a knack that improbably landed gangsta rap on the pop charts " . Rhapsody writer Brolin Winning named the album as " an untouchable masterpiece of California Gangsta Rap " and that it had " track after track of G @-@ Funk gems " . On Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , it was noted that " Dre funked up the rhymes with a smooth bass @-@ heavy production style and the laid @-@ back delivery of then @-@ unknown rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg . " Time magazine 's Josh Tyrangiel states that Dr. Dre created " a sound that defined early 90 's urban L.A. in the same way that Motown defined 60 's Detroit " . Laura Sinagra , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , said that The Chronic " features system @-@ busting Funkadelic beats designed to rumble your woofer while the matter @-@ of @-@ fact violence of the lyrics blows your smoke @-@ filled mind " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1994 , " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " and " Let Me Ride " were nominated at the 36th Grammy Awards , with the latter winning Best Rap Solo Performance for Dr. Dre . That year , readers of Hip Hop Connection voted it the fourth best album of all time , leading the magazine to speculate , " In a few years ' time , it could even be remembered as the best rap album of all time . "
The Chronic was included in Vibe magazine 's " 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century " and it was ranked at number six in their " Top 10 Rap Albums of All Time " . Rolling Stone ranked it at number 138 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The record ranked at number eight in Spin magazine 's " 90 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s " and in 2005 , it was ranked at number thirty @-@ five in their " 100 Greatest Albums , 1985 – 2005 " . The Source magazine originally gave the album four and a half mics out of five and it was added to The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . It was later revealed that while everybody at the magazine knew it was an instant classic , the music editor at that time had a strict policy of staying away from a perfect rating . In 2005 , MTV Networks listed The Chronic as the third greatest hip hop album in history . In 2006 , Time magazine ranked it as one of the 100 greatest albums of all time and it was listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In a retrospective issue , XXL magazine awarded The Chronic a perfect " XXL " rating .
= = Influence = =
Having split from N.W.A , Dr. Dre 's first solo album established him as one of the biggest hip hop stars of his era . Yahoo ! Music writer S.L. Duff wrote of the album 's impact on his status in hip hop at the time , stating " Dre 's considerable reputation is based on this release , alongside his production technique on Snoop 's Doggystyle " and his early work with N.W.A. Whatever one thinks of the over @-@ the @-@ top bravado rapping , the tracks and beats Dre assembled are beyond reproach " . The Chronic brought G @-@ funk to the mainstream – a genre defined by slow bass beats and melodic synthesizers , topped by P @-@ Funk samples , female vocals , and a laconic , laid @-@ back lyrical delivery referred to as a " lazy drawl " . The album takes its name from a slang term for premium grade cannabis , chronic . The album cover is an homage to Zig @-@ Zag rolling papers . Robert Christgau said that , although he " can 't stand " it , he respects The Chronic " for its influence and iconicity " .
The album launched the careers of West Coast hip hop artists , including Snoop Doggy Dogg , Daz Dillinger , Kurupt , Nate Dogg , and Warren G , Dr. Dre 's stepbrother – all of whom pursued successful commercial careers . The Chronic is widely regarded as the album that re @-@ defined West Coast hip hop , demonstrated gangsta rap 's commercial potential as a multi @-@ platinum commodity , and established G @-@ funk as the most popular sound in hip hop music for several years after its release , with Dr. Dre producing major albums that drew heavily on his production style . The album 's success established Death Row Records as a dominant force in 1990s hip hop . It has been re @-@ released 3 times , first as a remastered CD , then as a remastered DualDisc with enhanced stereo and four videos , and in 2009 as " The Chronic Re @-@ Lit " with a bonus DVD containing a 30 minute interview and 7 unreleased tracks . The singles " Fuck wit Dre Day " and " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " are in best @-@ selling video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas on the fictional radio station Radio Los Santos .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Dr. Dre .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Heart of Glory =
" Heart of Glory " is the 20th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , first broadcast March 21 , 1988 . The story was created by Herbert Wright and D. C. Fontana , and was made into a script in two days by executive producer Maurice Hurley . The episode was directed by Rob Bowman .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the crew rescue three Klingons from a damaged freighter in the neutral zone . Once aboard they befriend Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and attempt to hijack the Enterprise so they can live as true Klingons , forcing Worf to choose between them or Starfleet .
The episode explained the backstory to the character of Lt. Worf , and Michael Dorn was pleased with the outcome . Rob Bowman thought that the episode worked well . He included an overhead shot on the engineering set which had not been done before on the show and tweaked the ending . Shots of the Klingon starship were reused from Star Trek : The Motion Picture , while the freighter model would be reused as various freighters throughout the various Star Trek television series . Guest stars included Vaughn Armstrong as Korris in his first role in the franchise and only appearance in The Next Generation . He appeared in a further eleven roles in the franchise , including the part of Admiral Maxwell Forrest in Star Trek : Enterprise . The episode was watched by 10 @.@ 7 million viewers during the initial broadcast , and reviews by critics were mixed .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise enters the neutral zone , to investigate the distress call of a Talarian freighter . The freighter is badly damaged , and three life forms are detected aboard . An away team beams over and finds three Klingons : Korris ( Vaughn Armstrong ) ; Konmel ( Charles Hyman ) ; and Kunivas ( Robert Bauer ) , who is wounded . The away team returns with them to the Enterprise before the freighter explodes . Kunivas is taken to sickbay and Korris meets with Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The Klingon explains that they were passengers when the freighter was attacked by a Ferengi ship ; the Klingons took over the freighter to fend off and destroy the Ferengi ship , but the damage sustained left the freighter adrift and faltering . As Korris and Konmel are shown to quarters , they are surprised to hear about a fellow Klingon , Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) , who is serving within Starfleet .
Kunivas ' condition worsens , and Korris , Konmel , and Worf are present when he dies , and the three let out a fierce roar as per Klingon custom . As they return to the Klingons ' quarters , Konmel is disappointed that Kunivas did not die in battle , leading Worf to question the nature of the attack on the freighter ; Korris and Konmel quickly change the subject . Worf forces Korris to reveal the truth : the three had commandeered the freighter , in order to seek out a place they could live as true Klingons , and the damage to the freighter was a result of battle with a Klingon ship . When the two are seen near the ship 's battle bridge , hoping to steal the drive section and escape the crew on the saucer , they are placed in the brig .
The Enterprise is soon met by a Klingon battlecruiser , captained by Commander K 'Nera ( David Froman ) , who demands the return of the fugitive Klingons . Knowing that Korris and Konmel will be tried and executed if they are returned , Worf argues instead for their exile to a hostile planet , but K 'Nera refuses . Korris and Konmel use parts secreted on their uniforms to assemble a disruptor pistol and escape from the brig ; Konmel is killed as Korris takes over the Engineering deck . Picard and Worf race to Engineering , and Worf tries to reason with Korris who is threatening to destroy the warp core and take the Enterprise with him . Korris attempts to persuade Worf to come with him and conquer the galaxy as a true Klingon , and then accuses Worf of being weak when he refuses . Worf fires on Korris , killing him . K 'Nera is told of the deaths of the fugitives , and Worf declares that they " died well " when asked of their manner of death . Worf accepts an offer to serve aboard the Klingon battlecruiser after his service aboard the Enterprise is complete , but when communications with K 'Nera are broken off , assures the bridge crew he was just being polite .
= = Production = =
Writer and executive producer Maurice Hurley thought that " Heart of Glory " was the closest experience he had on the show to directly placing his own personal philosophy into a script . He later credited fellow executive producer Rick Berman with helping to write the script for " Heart of Glory " , saying " When I had a problem , I could go in and we could sit there , close the door , yell and scream . I 'd pace , he 'd make suggestions . The two of us made stories work in that room that had to be shot within a couple of days . We were under enormous time pressure , and we were working hand in glove . We had a wonderful time , on that show , especially . " Hurley wrote the screenplay in two days from a story created by Herbert Wright and D. C. Fontana . Because of the delays , the Klingon language portions of the script didn 't make any actual sense in translation and were simply Klingon sounding words created by Hurley .
The story explained Lt. Worf 's background for the first time in the series , including the story of Romulan betrayal at Khitomer which saw the death of his parents . While his foster parents were first mentioned in this episode , they were not seen until the fourth season episode " Family " and his stepbrother didn 't appear on the show until the seventh season episode " Homeward " . Michael Dorn was pleased with the outcome of this episode as he felt it showed the producers that the fans were just as interested in his character as the others in the main cast . He felt that it could have been taken further and wanted there to be an epic battle at the end of the episode . The Klingon battlecruiser seen in " Heart of Glory " was footage re @-@ used from Star Trek : The Motion Picture , while the freighter was a general model which would come to be reused throughout The Next Generation and other Star Trek television series .
Director Rob Bowman made bold decisions in designing the confrontation sequence . The scripted version showed the fight between Worf and Korris taking place entirely on the first deck of the engineering section . Instead , Bowman had them fight on the upper deck and , using camera angles never before seen the show , filmed vertical sequences in that part of the set . He also altered the script so that Konmel needed to be hit by three phaser blasts . Bowman used a steadicam to film the scenes on the freighter in order to give a rough effect to the footage . He was pleased with the outcome , describing it as the easiest of all of the Next Generation episodes he directed . He said that it was a show where " every hand we had was a 21 . It just worked . "
Guest stars in this episode included Robert Bauer as Kunivas , who had previously been in a band with Michael Dorn . Stuntman Dennis Madalone made his second appearance in The Next Generation with this episode , having previously appeared earlier in the season in " Where No One Has Gone Before " . He would continue to appear as various crewmen through the rest of the series . " Heart of Glory " was the only appearance in The Next Generation for actor Vaughn Armstrong . He would , however , go on to play a further eleven different roles in the Star Trek franchise , including as the recurring character of Admiral Maxwell Forrest in Star Trek : Enterprise .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Heart of Glory " was first broadcast in the United States on March 21 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 7 million on the first broadcast , which was an increase over the 10 @.@ 1 million received by the previous episode , " Coming of Age " . Only the episode " Symbiosis " received a higher rating by the end of the season .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in July 2011 . DeCandido is a novellist and has produced works based in the Star Trek universe , and describes himself as " the Klingon guy " as far as Star Trek novellists are concerned . However , he was not overly pleased with the episode , describing the plot as being slow and said that Michael Dorn 's acting skills at this point were " mediocre " but would get " much much better " later in the series . He praised David Froman as K 'Nera , describing him as having " tremendous presence " and thought that although Vaughn Armstrong was excellent as Admiral Forrest in Enterprise , in this early episode he was " overly histrionic " . He described the overhead shot of Worf after the death of Korris as " just silly " , and thought that the episode overall was a " forgettable mess " . He gave it a rating of four out of ten . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , thought that the first act of " Heart of Glory " was slow , but it improved after that and said that " while it 's not exactly a tear jerker , it allows Worf the dignity the character needs to work . " He had mixed feelings about the Klingon death ritual , but felt that it was justified at the end of the episode as the complex nature of the character of Korris made the sense of loss feel earned . He gave the episode a grade of B + .
Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation in August 2007 , and described it as one of her favourite episodes from the first season . She thought it laid the groundwork for later episodes in The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine , and Voyager regarding the Klingon culture . However , she felt that the drama seemed artificial and that the writers forced a situation where Worf had to kill one of the Klingons as if " justifying the brutality as necessary for the good of Starfleet " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " also thought that the drama with Worf deciding whether or not to join the Klingons was problematic . He thought it was hard to believe that the crew seemed to know Worf as little as they did at this point in the series , but praised it for being the starting point for all future Klingon @-@ based stories in the franchise . He gave it a score of three out of four .
The first home media release of " Heart of Glory " was on VHS cassette , appearing on November 11 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
|
= 1998 FA Charity Shield =
The 1998 Football Association Charity Shield ( also known as the AXA FA Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 76th FA Charity Shield , an annual English football match organised by The Football Association and played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup competitions . It was contested on 9 August 1998 by Arsenal – who won a league and FA Cup double the previous season – and Manchester United – who finished runners @-@ up in the league . Watched by a crowd of 67 @,@ 342 at Wembley Stadium , Arsenal won the match 3 – 0 .
This was Manchester United 's 18th Charity Shield appearance to Arsenal 's 14th . Manchester United began the game more strongly , but Arsenal took the lead when Marc Overmars scored 11 minutes before half @-@ time . They extended their lead in the second half , as Overmars and Nicolas Anelka found Christopher Wreh , who put the ball into an empty net at the second attempt . In the 72nd minute , Arsenal scored a third goal , when Anelka got around Jaap Stam in the penalty box and shot the ball past goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel .
Arsenal 's victory marked Manchester United 's first Shield defeat in 13 years . The teams later faced each other in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , which was won by Manchester United in a replay . Manchester United finished the league season one point ahead of Arsenal and went on to win the FA Cup and UEFA Champions League , thereby completing a treble of trophies in the 1998 – 99 season .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Charity Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . The match was played at Wembley Stadium , which first hosted the Shield in 1974 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1998 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1997 – 98 FA Premier League . Although they were 12 points behind league leaders Manchester United by the end of February 1998 , a nine @-@ match winning streak , culminating in a 4 – 0 win over Everton on 3 May 1998 , ensured Arsenal won the title . Arsenal beat Newcastle United 2 – 0 in the 1998 FA Cup Final to complete the domestic double . Given they won both honours , the other Charity Shield place went to league runners @-@ up Manchester United .
The most recent meeting between the two teams was in the Premier League on 14 March 1998 , when a second @-@ half goal by Marc Overmars gave Arsenal a 1 – 0 win at Old Trafford . Arsenal were the only team in the 1997 – 98 league to beat United home and away , with the corresponding home fixture ending 3 – 2 . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger acknowledged the Shield game was the " only opportunity to play our first @-@ team men together against top @-@ class opposition " before their league campaign commenced the following week . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson was preoccupied with the team 's match against ŁKS Łódź in the second qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League three days later . He felt the contest with Arsenal would get his " players ' sharpness up and provide plenty of benefit " for their upcoming matches .
The match was officially referred to as " The AXA FA Charity Shield " as part of a sponsorship deal between The Football Association and French insurance group AXA , agreed in July 1998 . The deal also saw the FA Cup referred to as " The AXA Sponsored FA Cup " for its four @-@ year duration .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Manchester United winger Jesper Blomqvist was ruled out with an ankle injury , but Roy Keane was fit enough to start his first competitive match since damaging his ligaments eleven months previously . Defender Jaap Stam , who signed for United in May 1998 , made his competitive debut for the club , partnering centre @-@ back Ronny Johnsen . For Arsenal , new signing Nelson Vivas began the match on the substitutes ' bench , in spite of being expected to make his full debut , while Dennis Bergkamp started alongside Nicolas Anelka up front .
Arsenal employed a traditional 4 – 4 – 2 formation : a four @-@ man defence ( comprising two centre @-@ backs and left and right full @-@ backs ) , four midfielders ( two in the centre , and one on each wing ) and two centre @-@ forwards . Manchester United organised themselves slightly differently , with Paul Scholes playing ahead of the midfield in a supporting role behind the main striker , Andy Cole . The team lined up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation .
= = = Summary = = =
In pitch @-@ side temperatures of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , Manchester United enjoyed their best spell of the match early on , while Arsenal 's pair Patrick Vieira and Emmanuel Petit adjusted themselves . United fashioned their first chance through David Beckham , who was booed throughout the match on account of many fans blaming him for England 's elimination from the 1998 FIFA World Cup . His pass eventually met Scholes , whose attempt forced Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman to clear . In spite of United 's promising start , it was Arsenal who scored the opening goal . Vieira played the ball down the right side of the penalty area in the direction of Bergkamp and Anelka . Bergkamp got there first and back @-@ heeled the ball to Anelka , but the Frenchman was unable to take control ; however , he was able to put pressure on Johnsen in the Manchester United defence and blocked the Norwegian 's attempted clearance . The ball ran across the edge of the penalty area to Overmars , who lashed it right @-@ footed past Manchester United goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel into the net . A shot by Keane from 25 yards ( 23 m ) prompted a save from Seaman in the 42nd minute .
Arsenal began dominating in the second half , and increased their lead after 57 minutes . From the left wing , Overmars used his pace to get the better of Gary Neville and passed the ball to Anelka , who turned and passed to an unmarked Christopher Wreh . Schmeichel blocked the Liberian 's initial shot with his feet , but he was unable to stop the second attempt or Wreh 's acrobatic celebration . Despite the setback , United continued to press Arsenal ; defender Martin Keown almost put the ball into his own goal from Ryan Giggs 's corner . Both teams made mass substitutions in the final third of the game , notably Teddy Sheringham and Luís Boa Morte coming on for Cole – who rarely threatened – and Petit , respectively . Arsenal scored their third in the 72nd minute – Parlour 's pass found Anelka , who got around Stam and shot the ball past Schmeichel from a narrow angle , inside the goalkeeper 's near post . Near the end , Sheringham wasted a goal @-@ scoring opportunity , shooting wide .
= = = Details = = =
Source :
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The result marked Manchester United 's first Shield defeat in 13 years , and was the ninth time Arsenal had won the Charity Shield . Arsenal became the first southern club since Tottenham Hotspur in 1962 to win the Shield outright . Wenger described the scoreline as " unexpected " and cited the first goal as crucial in the match , given the weather conditions . He was content with how his international players , who had been in the World Cup , coped with the game 's physicality . Wenger believed the result gave Arsenal a psychological boost for the Champions League campaign , as the club planned to stage their home matches at Wembley Stadium . Bergkamp felt the result showed that Arsenal had what it took to retain the Premier League title : " We 've still got the same mentality and that will be the basis for this year 's challenge . This is a good start . It is harder to retain the trophy . "
Ferguson admitted his team had been beaten by the better side and agreed with Wenger that the first goal was important . He was pleased that Keane got through the match after 11 months out of action and was confident his team would fare better against ŁKS Łódź , the following Wednesday . Schmeichel felt the upcoming Champions League qualifier was more important than the Charity Shield game , which he considered as a pre @-@ season match . Ferguson anticipated another challenge from Arsenal in the league : " I think you could make a strong case for four teams to challenge for the Premiership but I think Arsenal pose the biggest threat . "
Three days after the Charity Shield match , United beat ŁKS Łódź 2 – 0 and qualified for the Champions League group stage following a goalless match a fortnight later . Arsenal had the upper hand in their two league meetings with United during the season , winning 3 – 0 at Highbury in September 1998 , before a 1 – 1 draw at Old Trafford in February 1999 . The two teams went into the final day of the 1998 – 99 FA Premier League vying for the title , but United 's 2 – 1 win against Tottenham meant they finished one point above Arsenal . The two sides met twice more that season in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , which was settled in a replay after the original match finished goalless . Manchester United won in extra time – the winning goal scored by Giggs . United then went on to defeat Newcastle United 2 – 0 in the 1999 FA Cup Final . Whereas Arsenal failed to progress past the group stage of the Champions League , Manchester United went on to reach the final , where they beat Bayern Munich to win the competition for the second time . Ferguson 's team therefore completed a treble of trophies in one season .
|
= Raëlism =
Raëlism ( also known as Raëlianism or the Raëlian movement ) is a UFO religion that was founded in 1974 by Claude Vorilhon ( b . 1946 ) , now known as Raël . The Raëlian Movement teaches that life on Earth was scientifically created by a species of extraterrestrials , which they call the Elohim . Members of this species appeared human when having personal contacts with the descendants of the humans that they made . They purposefully misinformed early humanity that they were angels , cherubim , or gods . Raëlians believe that messengers , or prophets , of the Elohim include Buddha , Jesus , and others who informed humans of each era . The founder of Raëlism , members claim , received the final message of the Elohim and that its purpose is to inform the world about Elohim and that if humans become aware and peaceful enough , they wish to be welcomed by them .
The Raëlian Church has a quasi @-@ clerical structure of seven levels . Joining the movement requires an official apostasy from other religions . Raëlian ethics include striving for world peace , sharing , democracy and nonviolence . Sexuality is also an important part of the Raëlian doctrine and its liberal views of sexuality have attracted some of its priests and bishops from other religions .
Raël founded Clonaid ( originally Valiant Venture Ltd Corporation ) in 1997 , but then handed it over to a Raëlian bishop , Brigitte Boisselier in 2000 . In 2002 the company claimed that an American woman underwent a standard cloning procedure that led to the birth of a daughter , Eve ( b . 26 December 2002 ) . Although few believe the claim , it nonetheless attracted national authorities and the mainstream media to look further into the Raëlians ' cult status .
The Raëlians frequently use the swastika as a symbol of peace , which halted Raëlian requests for territory in Israel , and later Lebanon , for establishing an embassy for extraterrestrials . The religion also uses the swastika embedded on the Star of David . Starting around 1991 , this symbol was often replaced by a variant star and swirl symbol as a public relations move , particularly toward Israel .
= = History = =
The beginnings of Raëlism are rooted in the claims of a French former automobile journalist and race car driver Claude Vorilhon . In his books The Book Which Tells the Truth ( 1974 ) and Extraterrestrials Took Me to their Planet ( 1975 ) , Vorilhon alleges that he had alien encounters with beings who gave him knowledge of the origins of all major religions .
The movement traces its beginnings to a conference in Paris , France of two thousand people in 1974 . From there , the MADECH organization was born . The name MADECH is a double acronym in the French language ; it stands both for " Movement for the Welcoming of the Elohim , Creators of Humanity " ( Mouvement pour l ‘ accueil des Elohim , créateurs de l 'humanité ) and for " Moses Preceded Elijah and the Christ " ( Moise a devancé Élie et le Christ ) . By 1976 , Claude Vorilhon ( called Raël ) transformed MADECH into the International Raelian Movement .
From 1980 to 1992 Raël and his movement became increasingly global . In 1980 Claude Raël 's fifth Raëlian book Sensual Meditation was published and formal publication of the Raëlian Messages in the Japanese language began as part of the Raëlian mission to Japan . Two years later , Africa became another target area in the mission to spread the Raëlian messages .
On 26 December 2002 , Brigitte Boisselier , a Raëlian Bishop and CEO of a biotechnology company called Clonaid announced the birth of baby Eve , supposedly the first @-@ ever human clone . The announcement ignited much media attention , ethical debate , doubt , criticism , and claims of a hoax . Spokespeople for the movement , including Claude Vorilhon , have suggested that this is one of the first steps in achieving a more important agenda . They claim that through cloning they can combine an accelerated growth process with some form of mind transfer , and in such , may achieve eternal life .
= = Member hierarchy = =
The structure of the Raëlian Church is hierarchical , with seven levels ascending from level 0 to level 6 . The top four levels consist of " Guides " . The level 6 guide , known as the " Guide of Guides " , has the final say on who becomes a level 5 " Bishop Guide " or a level 4 " Priest Guide " . Bishops and priests promote lower @-@ level members one level at a time during annual seminars . Each bishop or priest can propose a new guide as long as the candidate is from a level below his or her own . Guides can assist " Regional Guides " — level 3 and above — in their assigning of non @-@ guide members to levels 3 ( " Assistant Priests " ) , 2 ( " Organizers " ) and 1 ( " Assistant Organizers " ) .
Members of the Raëlian structure begin as level 0 " trainees " during annual seminars . The Raelian structure claimed in 2007 to have about 2 @,@ 300 members , 170 " Raëlian guides " , and 41 bishops . Claude Vorilhon has held the highest position for three seven @-@ year terms .
= = = Women @-@ only groups = = =
Women make up only a third of the membership in the Raëlian Church , though two anecdotes in the Raëlian Contact newsletter report female majorities joining the movement 's Asian Mongolian chapter . Women such as Brigitte Boisselier , the Chief Executive Officer of Clonaid , play a powerful role in the Raëlian Church . There are two major groups of women in the Raëlian Church .
The Order of Angels , founded in the 1990s , consists of over a hundred Raëlian women who call for femininity and refinement for all of humanity . The initiation rites include declaring an oath or making a contract in which one agrees to become defender of the Raëlian ideology and its founder Raël . The Order of Angels has its own hierarchy of " rose angels " and " white angels " which , as of 2003 , are six and 160 women , respectively . After the Clonaid human cloning claim made the headlines , the Daily Telegraph wrote that members of the order not only provided sexual pleasure for Raël , but also helped donate eggs for efforts towards human cloning . A few days later , Time magazine wrote that French chemist Brigitte Boisselier was an Order of Angels member . Around this time , cult specialist Mike Kropveld called the Order of Angels " one of the most transparent movements " he had witnessed , though he was alarmed by the women 's promise to defend Raël 's life with their own bodies .
Raël has instructed some women members to play a pro @-@ sex feminist role in the Raëlian Church . " Rael 's Girls " is another group of women in the movement which are against the suppression of feminine acts of pleasure , including sexual intercourse with men or women . Rael 's Girls solely consists of women who work in the sex industry . The women of Rael 's Girls say there is no reason to repent for performing striptease or being a prostitute . This organization was set up " to support the choice of the women who are working in the sex industry " . Rael 's Girls and its founder Raël were featured in a pictorial in the October 2004 issue of Playboy .
= = Rites and practices = =
= = = Initiation = = =
= = = = Ceremony = = = =
The major initiation rite in the Raëlian Church is the " baptism " or " transmission of the cellular plan " and is performed by upper @-@ level members in the Raëlian clergy known as guides . In 1979 , Raël introduced the " Act of Apostasy " as an obligation for those preparing for their Raëlian baptism .
The Raëlian baptism is known as transmission of the cellular plan where " cellular " refers to the organic cells of the body and the " plan " refers to the genetic makeup of the individual . This Raëlian baptism involves a guide member laying water onto the forehead of the new member . The practice began on " the first Sunday in April " of 1976 when Raël baptised 40 Raëlians . Raëlians believe that their genetic information is recorded by a remote computer and would become recognized during their final hour when they will be judged by the extraterrestrial Elohim .
= = = = Ceremonial dates = = = =
Baptisms can only be performed on four special days in the year . The dates mark anniversaries in the Raëlian calendar .
The dates are 6 August , which marks the anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 , 13 December , marking the day that Raël in 1973 says he had his first personal encounter with one of the extraterrestrial Elohim , 7 October in which the Elohim , Raël says , took him up in a spacecraft in 1975 and the following day had meals with Jesus , Buddha , and other past religious figures and the first Sunday in April , which Raëlians believe is the date when dark @-@ skinned extraterrestrials created Adam and Eve .
= = = Sensual Meditation = = =
Sensual Meditation is the set of exercises made public by Claude Vorilhon in his book La méditation sensuelle . It is practiced by members of International Raelian Movement ( IRM ) . The first of these exercises is usually taught in Raëlian Seminars .
= = Other activities , outreach and advocacy = =
Throughout the history of Raëlism , members of the Raëlian Church have toured public settings advocating masturbation , condoms and birth control . Raëlians hope that genetically modified food and nanotechnology will allow humankind to eliminate the obligation to work , in a world that embraces science and technology .
Raëlians have founded Clonaid , a company that envisions that someday human beings can be scientifically recreated though a process of human cloning , and Clitoraid , an organization whose mission is to oppose female genital mutilation .
= = = UFO exhibits = = =
Raëlian structure members have set up exhibitions about their beliefs of extraterrestrial intelligent designers sending crop circles , UFOs , and spaceships for their arrival at an embassy . While there have been smaller meetings of Raëlians and non @-@ Raëlians , annual Raëlian seminars have been typically larger .
= = = Seminars = = =
Raëlian structure members who run the seminars have organized group exercises involving meditation with the senses . James R. Lewis , an authority on fringe religious movements , spoke of Raëlians who practiced a Raëlian exercise called Sensual Meditation and discovered " playing fields " where " radical self @-@ reconstruction , " " new forms of authority , " and " new modes of self @-@ relating " were encouraged .
Music has been a feature of large gatherings , where at night , Raëlians have had multiethnic cabaret performances . Seminarists have used colored bracelets to indicate whether they wanted to be alone , be in a couple , or simply meet people .
On a yearly basis , Raëlian members organize seminars that are often attractive to the sexually adventurous . News KNBC called the annual Raëlian seminars " a cross between a nudist camp and new @-@ age retreat . " A Spanish television agency reported Raëlian men and women in cross @-@ dressing plays . Activities such as observations of one 's own genitals and masturbation with them disturbed Brigitte McCann , a Calgary Sun reporter who entered one of the Raëlian seminars . Susan J. Palmer said a French journalist went to a Raëlian Seminar in 1991 and taped couples having sexual intercourse in tents . These tapes gained widespread negative publicity — with news stories that described these practices as perverted and a form of brainwashing . The tents were actually put up for the privacy of attendees who were sharing dormitories , and the person was ejected by the Raëlians for misrepresentation of their so @-@ called research for the sake of sensationalism . So @-@ called infiltration is encouraged by the Raëlians to clear up myths perpetrated by the media and rogue researchers .
= = = Activism = = =
Raëlians routinely advocate sex @-@ positive feminism and genetically modified food . They also have protested against wars and the Catholic Church .
Pro @-@ GMO : On 6 August 2003 , the first day of Raëlian year 58 AH , a tech article on the USA Today newspaper mentions an " unlikely ally " of the Monsanto Company , the Raëlian Movement of Brazil . The movement gave vocal support in response to the company 's support for genetically modified organisms particularly in their country . Brazilian farmers have been using Monsanto 's genetically engineered soy plant as well as the Roundup herbicide to which it was artificially adapted . The Raëlians spoke against the Brazilian government 's ban on GMOs .
Anti @-@ war : In 2006 , About 30 Raëlians , some topless , took part in an anti @-@ war demonstration in Seoul , Korea . In 2003 , Raëlians in white alien costumes bore signs bearing the message " NO WAR ... ET wants Peace , too ! " to protest the 2003 Invasion of Iraq .
Anti @-@ Catholic : In 1992 Catholic schools in Montreal , Canada objected to a proposed condom vending machine as contrary to their mission . In response , Raëlian guides , in an event dubbed " Operation Condom " , gave the Catholic students ten thousand condoms . The Commissioner of Catholic schools for Montreal said they could do nothing to stop them .
In July 2001 , Raëlians on the streets attracted Italians and Swiss people as they gave leaflets protesting the existence of over a hundred child molesters among Roman Catholic clergy in France . They recommended that parents should not send their children to Catholic confession . The Episcopal vicar of Geneva sued the Raëlian Church for libel but did not win . The judge did not accept the charges for the reason that the Raëlians were not attacking the whole of the Catholic Church . In October 2002 , Raëlians in a Canadian anti @-@ clerical parade handed out Christian crosses to high school students . The students were invited to burn the crosses in a park not far from Montreal 's Mount Royal and to sign letters of apostasy from the Roman Catholic Church . The Quebec Association of Bishops called this " incitement to hatred " , and several school boards attempted to prevent their students from meeting Raëlians .
= = = Converts from other religions = = =
Raëlians do not believe in a god ( or other deity ) , but in extraterrestrials . Former clergy of mainstream religions have joined the Raëlian Church , especially in Quebec . The structure of the movement had promoted some of them to the level of Priest or Bishop due to " extensive Bible training and teaching skills " .
Two ex @-@ Roman Catholic Priests , Victor Legendre and Charles @-@ Yvan Giroux converted to Raëlianism . A former bishop of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) joined the Raelian Movement so he could be openly gay . The Raëlian , Mark Woodgate , stated that 8 % of Raëlians worldwide are former Latter @-@ day Saints . Religiously mixed couples are common , especially with spouses who are Christians or Buddhists .
= = = Intentional controversy = = =
Susan J. Palmer , a sociologist from Canada , has studied the movement since 1987 and says the movement intentionally stirs a moderate level of controversy to maintain membership . For example , Rael and the group attempt to tie their views with topical matters , ranging from Tiger Woods ' promiscuity to strained relations in the Middle East , in regular online postings and press releases . This view is shared by Mike Kropveld — the executive director of an anti @-@ cult organization with the name Info @-@ Cult — who says the controversy leads to criticism by both religious and non @-@ religious people .
Raëlian organizers made deliberate attempts to " shock , titillate , and capture the media 's imagination " . The book Yes to Human Cloning ( 2001 ) attracted media attention after its release , including segments on 20 / 20 and 60 Minutes . Biophysicist Gregory Stock described the Raëlian Clonaid project as " sufficiently quirky to command instant media attention . " It has been estimated that the group received free publicity worth US $ 500 million as a result of the Clonaid claim . Mark Hunt , a lawyer and politician who wished to clone his dead son with the help of the Clonaid services , was overwhelmed by the volume of media attention and in an interview said that Clonaid 's chief executive had become a " press hog " .
= = Beliefs = =
Theologian of new religious movements George D. Chryssides described the Raëlian Church as being in an " early developmental stage " and that their beliefs distance it from a " dominant intellectual climate " . Raëlism claims that all life on Earth , humans included , was created scientifically by Elohim , members of an extraterrestrial race who appeared similar to small humans and so were often depicted as angels , cherubs , or gods . Raëlians , who are not monotheists , believe the correct historical meaning of the word Elohim is the plural sense , " those who came from the sky " . Belief in extraterrestrial Elohim play a central part in Clonaid 's claim of offering cloning services for homosexual and infertile couples who want a child cloned from a partner 's DNA .
Chryssides states that Raëlism is discernible from other UFO religions for its heavy support for physicalism and repudiation of supernaturalism . Susan J. Palmer , a social scholar who had long contacts with Raëlians , associated epiphenomenalism with the belief in Raëlism that mind transfer coupled with human cloning can implant mind and personality into a new and disease free body . Raëlians publicly deny the existence of the ethereal soul and a supernatural god , but they believe that humanity for many generations past will be resurrected , albeit in a scientific way .
Raëlians believe that throughout the ages , members of the Elohim civilization sent different prophets , including Moses , Jesus , Buddha and many others whose role was to guide humanity and to prepare humans for the future , all of whom were created as a result of a sexual union between a human woman and one of the Elohim . To Raëlians , this was possible because the Elohim had advanced DNA synthesis and genetic engineering . The Elohim later reduced the frequent visits so that humans were largely left to progress on their own , until the time of the Apocalypse / Revelation when they would send their final messenger and disclose themselves at an extraterrestrial embassy , establishing political and economic ties .
Raëlians believe that sex is a normal , natural and healthy part of life and encourage people to be true to their natural sexuality . They promote healing from damaging messages from strict puritanical belief systems and social stigmas that stifle one 's natural sexuality . Acceptance of masturbation , homosexuality , bisexuality , pansexuality , naturism and any legal , safe and consensual adult activity is promoted as part of a healthy and long life , and this is used to attract young converts to the religion . Raelians believe that sexuality is a gift of pleasure to mankind from the Elohim . The Raëlian book Let 's Welcome our Fathers From Space says that new advanced extraterrestrial civilizations will ultimately practice a final religion or " religion of the infinite " that involves ubiquitous practice of Sensual Meditation .
According to Giancarlo Genta and Jason Colavito , writers who have influenced Raëlian beliefs include Zechariah Sitchin and Erich von Däniken .
= = = Voluntarism = = =
Raëlians are encouraged to do as they feel right , whether that matches the rules of the culture in which they live or not . According to Susan J. Palmer , a majority of loosely affiliated Raëlian Movement members have often strayed from following rules concerning " diet , drugs , and sexual activity " as described in the Raëlian books . Sometimes , they will not attend monthly meetings or pay a tithe in proportion to their income . Only the more committed members who do follow such rules can remain in the movement 's structure .
According to Michel Beluet , the former director of a Raëlian @-@ built museum called UFOland , the only pressure exerted on members is to attend annual Raëlian seminars , which allows members convinced of Raël 's enthusiasm to voluntarily tithe . Palmer cited Raël , who claimed that more than 60 % of the Raëlian Movement 's members do not tithe . Dawson College students conducted a survey of the membership in Canada 1991 which found that only one @-@ third of respondents tithed .
= = = Human cloning = = =
As opposed to the scientific definition of reproductive cloning which is simply the creation of a genetically identical living thing , Raëlians seek to both genetically clone individuals , rapidly accelerate growth of the clone to adulthood through a process like guided self @-@ assembly of rapidly expanded cells or even nanotechnology and then transfer the mind and personality of the donor into the clone . Raëlians believe humanity can attain eternal life through the science of cloning .
Claude Vorilhon told lawmakers that banning the development of human cloning was comparable to outlawing medical advances such " antibiotics , blood transfusions , and vaccines . "
= = = = Clonaid = = = =
Raël founded Valiant Venture Ltd Corporation in 1997 , to research human cloning . The company name was later changed to Clonaid and handed over to Raëlian bishop Brigitte Boisselier in 2000 . In 2002 , Boisselier , as chief executive of Clonaid , claimed that a human baby was conceived through cloning technology . Around this time , Clonaid 's subsidiary BioFusion Tech claimed to have in possession a cell fusion device that assisted the cloning of human embryos . The Vatican said that experimenters expressed " brutal mentality " for attempting to clone human beings . Pope John Paul II criticized the experiment which he believes threatens the dignity of human life . In response , the leader of the Raëlian Church dismissed the Pope 's ethical concerns , calling them an " accumulation of religious prejudices . "
In response to Raël 's association with Clonaid , South Korean immigration authorities at the airport denied him entry into their country in 2003 . This decision led to the quick cancellation of the planned Raëlian seminar which seven hundred registered for . Raëlians of South Korea were instructed by Raël to protest near the Ministry of Health and Welfare that ordered him to leave . Officials detained Raël for nine hours at Incheon International Airport before he and his wife Sophie de Niverville left for Tokyo from where they took another plane on their way back to Canada . Raël responded by saying that Korean officials treated him like a " North Korean " and that he would wait for an apology before coming back to Korea .
= = = Ethics = = =
= = = = LGBT issues = = = =
The Raelian movement defends the rights and freedoms of gays and lesbians , recognises gay marriage and ordains gay clergy . Some Raelian leaders have performed licensed same @-@ sex marriages .
= = = = Sensuality and pleasure = = = =
According to the book Maitreya by Claude Vorilhon , love involves experiencing different varieties and possibilities that allow one to break habits in order to make life more pleasant and interesting and that it is the only thing which can stop war and injustice that persists in today 's world . Raëlians believe in the right to form new religions or new political parties as long as they do not promote violence . As individualists , Raëlians believe that the one who gives the order to harm others is less at fault than the one who executes it .
Raëlians say they encourage adult homosexual , bisexual , and heterosexual relationships and that society should recognize them legally . Some Swiss government authorities responded to Raëlians ' views about Sensual Meditation with a fear that Raëlians are a threat to public morals for supporting liberalized sex education for children . They express the view that such liberalized sex education teaches youngsters how to obtain sexual gratification which would encourage sexual abuse of underage children .
= = = = Views on pedophilia = = = =
Sexual predators and guides who force missionary ideas against members are excommunicated by the Raëlian Church for a minimum of seven years — the amount of time Raëlians believe it takes for all of a person 's biological cells to be regenerated . In 2006 Raëlians in Los Angeles , California condemned acts of pedophilia which Raelians consider a disease , particularly those associated with celibate Catholic priests , saying that minors and adults should not be mixed in the act of sex . Authorities of the Swiss canton of Valais claimed that Raëlians support a doctrine of " complete sexual liberty " , and they denied an application by Raël to live in their area . The website Raelianews.org denied that sexual freedom between consenting adults in any way implies pedophilia .
= = = Structure of the Universe = = =
Raëlian cosmology as proposed in 1973 by Raël states that the observable universe has no creator and is infinite in time and finite in size and surrounded by infinite space .
In Raëlian cosmology , our observable universe is an " atom " of a much larger level of matter ( and possibly organism ) and subatomic particles in our bodies also possess universes like our own , but on a much smaller scale . This pattern , atom within universe within atom , is believed to be infinitely repetitive , from the infinitely small , to the infinitely large . The Raëlian Messages by Raël state that humanoid extraterrestrials , who were originally called under the name Elohim ( singular : Eloha ) , verified this cosmology scientifically .
Because of the difference of mass , the activity of life inside in a living thing 's atoms would undergo many millennia before enough time passes for that living thing to take a single step . Raëlians believe the universe is infinite in time and space and lacks a center . Because of this , one could not imagine where an ethereal soul would go .
The Raëlian cosmology is meditated upon during the fourth activity in the rite of Sensual Meditation .
= = = Intelligent Design = = =
= = = = Creation of life on Earth by extraterrestrials = = = =
In his book The Message Given to me by Extraterrestrials ( now republished as Intelligent Design : Message from the Designers 2006 ISBN 2 @-@ 940252 @-@ 20 @-@ 3 ) , Claude Vorilhon claims that on 13 December 1973 , he found a spacecraft shaped like a flattened bell that landed inside Puy de Lassolas , a volcano near the capital city of Auvergne . A 25 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old human @-@ like extraterrestrial inside the spacecraft named Yahweh said that Elohim was the name that primitive people of Earth called members of his extraterrestrial race — who were seen as " those who came from the sky " . Yahweh explained that Earth was originally void of life , with thick clouds and shallow seas , but the Elohim came , broke apart the clouds , exposed the seas to sunlight , built a continent , and synthesized a global ecosystem . Solar astronomy , terraformation , nanotechnology , and genetic engineering allowed Elohim to adapt life to Earth 's thermal and chemical makeup .
Yahweh gave materialistic explanations of the following :
the Garden of Eden : a large laboratory that was based on an artificially constructed continent
Noah 's Ark : a spaceship that preserved DNA that was used to resurrect animals through cloning
the Tower of Babel : a rocket that was supposed to reach the creators ' planet ;
the Great Flood : the byproduct of a nuclear missile explosion that the Elohim sent . After tidal wave floods following the explosions receded , Elohim scattered the Israelites and had them speak the language of other tribes .
According to Vorilhon , Elohim contacted about forty people to act as their prophets on Earth , including Moses , Elijah , Ezekiel , Buddha , John the Baptist , Jesus , Muhammad , and Joseph Smith . The religions thought to be from Elohimic origins include Judaism , Buddhism , Christianity , Islam , and Mormonism .
From the Raëlian point of view , religious texts indicate that the Elohim would return at the age of Apocalypse or Revelation ( unveiling of the truth ) . Humans from another world would appear to drop down from the sky and meet in the embassy they have asked Raël to build for them and share their advanced scientific knowledge with humanity . Thus , one of the stated main goals of the Raëlian movement is to inform as many people as possible about this extraterrestrial race .
= = = = Humanity 's chance of creating life on other planets = = = =
Raëlians believe that humanity would be able to create life on other planets only if humanity is peaceful enough to stop war . In that case , humanity could travel the distances between stars and create life on another planet . Progress in terraforming , molecular biology , and cloning would enable these teams to create continents and life from scratch . Progress in social engineering would ensure that this creation would have a better chance of both surviving and having the potential to understand its creators . Research on how civilization would occur on another planet would allow scientists to decide what traces of their origin should be left behind so that their role in life creation would someday be revealed . The progress achieved by the science teams would ultimately sustain a perpetual chain of life .
= = = A coming judgment = = =
Raëlians do not believe that an ethereal soul exists free of physical confinement . Raëlians believe that advanced supercomputers of the Elohim are right now recording the memories and DNA of human beings . When Elohim release this information for the coming resurrection , people would be brought back from the dead and the judgments upon them would be realized based on actions in their past life . People excluded from physical re @-@ creation would include those who achieved nothing positive but were not evil . Vorilhon expressed an interest in cloning Hitler for war trials and retroactive punishment . Raël also mentioned cloning as the solution to terrorism by suicide attacks , as the perpetrators would not be able to escape punishment by killing themselves if the Elohim recreated them after their attacks .
= = = Embassy for Extraterrestrials = = =
Raëlians believe that life on Earth — as well as many religions of the world — was the work of extraterrestrials . They believe these were scientists and that ancient people saw them as " gods " and gave the name " Elohim " . Raëlians believe that the Embassy for Extraterrestrials or " Third Temple " is to support an official contact with Extraterrestrial Elohim and their messengers of the main religions at the " New Jerusalem " .
The Raëlian Embassy for Extraterrestrials is the vision of the International Raëlian Movement to establish an embassy , at a base cost of $ 20 million , with a landing pad that would serve as spaceport for extraterrestrial spaceships . Its location is intended to be in neutral territory , preferably Jerusalem , and would be surrounded by acres of campground capable of supporting about 144 @,@ 000 people or more than twice the estimated Raëlian membership as of 2005 .
On 16 April 1987 , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times estimated the funding for the " cosmic kibbutz " at $ 1 million . In 1997 – 1998 , the funding had risen to $ 7 million . By 2001 , $ 9 million had been saved for the embassy , and in October 2001 , the funding had reached $ 20 million .
= = = = Proposed architecture and location = = = =
The International Raëlian Movement envisions having an entrance with an aseptic chamber leading to a conference room for twenty @-@ one people as well as a dining room of the same capacity . In the plan are seven rooms for the purpose of receiving human guests into the embassy . The embassy building , along with the swimming pool , would be in the center of a large park and protected from trespassing by a wall — a maximum of two stories — to surround the entire complex 's circumference . Trees and bushes are to be planted in the outskirts of the wall 's area . The walls are to have a northern and southern entrance . The landing pad for the embassy should be able fit a spaceship of twelve meters of diameter or 39 ' 4 " on its terrace . The terrace is to be above the rooms in the torus , which are for extraterrestrials only . The seven rooms directly underneath the landing pad would be protected from occupants of other rooms with a thick metal door . Finally , the International Raëlian Movement wants to avoid military and radar surveillance of the airspace above the embassy . Buildings for administration , food and water provisions , and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art sanitation and communication systems are part of this vision . A nearby replica of the Raëlian Embassy for Extraterrestrials open to the public is expected to show visitors what it is like inside the real one .
On 13 December 1997 , the leader of the International Raëlian Movement had decided to extend the possibility of building the embassy outside of Jerusalem and also allow that a significant portion of the embassy property be covered with water . The area of the proposed embassy property is still envisioned at a minimum of 3 @.@ 47 square kilometers , with a radius of at least 1 @.@ 05 kilometers .
= = = A form of meritocracy = = =
In his book Geniocracy , Raël outlined his plan for a peaceful worldwide political union that , while democratic , would require members of the electorate to meet a minimum standard of intelligence . The thresholds proposed by the Raëlians are 50 % above average for a candidate and 10 % above average for a voter . The world government would also have a global currency , a common language , and a transformation of militaries of the world into civil police .
Raelians deride the current state @-@ system as inadequate for dealing with contemporary global issues that are typical of Globalisation , such as Environmentalism , Social Justice , Human Rights , and the current economic system . In line with this , Geniocracy proposes a different economic model called Humanitarianism .
Raël recommends a world government with 12 regions . Inhabitants would vote for which region they want to be part of . After the regions are defined , they are further divided into 12 sectors after the same principle of democracy is applied . While sectors of the same region are defined as having equal numbers of inhabitants , the regions themselves may have different levels of population , which would be proportional to its voting power .
= = = = Status = = = =
The current difficulty in the ideas of Geniocracy is that the means of assessing intelligence are ill @-@ defined . One idea offered by Rael in Geniocracy is to have specialists such as psychologists , neurologists , ethnologists , etc . , perfect or choose among existing ones , a series of tests that would define each person 's level of intelligence . They should be designed to measure intellectual potential rather than accumulation of knowledge .
The lack of scientific rigour necessary for inclusion of Geniocracy as properly testable political ideology can be noted in number of modern and historical dictatorships as well as oligarchies . Because of the controversies surrounding Geniocracy , Raël presents the idea as a classic utopia or provocative ideal and not necessarily a model that humanity will follow .
In Raël 's book , Extraterrestrials took me to their planet , Raël claims that an extraterrestrial gave him the idea of Economic Humanitarianism . Under the establishment of Economic Humanitarianism , people would not have ownership of businesses or exploitable goods created by others . Instead , people would rent each of them for a period of 49 years . The founders would be able to receive the rents for up to 49 years or when they die , whichever is later . Any rents not inherited by relatives after 49 years would go to the State . By balancing inheritances , children would be born with enough financial means to forsake menial tasks for endeavors that may benefit the whole of humanity . Family houses could be inherited from generation to generation , free of rent .
In his much later book , Maitreya , Raël says the road to a world without money is capitalism and globalisation , as opposed to communism . Capitalism would allow those who contribute much to society to also contribute to its scientific and technological development . Under capitalism , society would produce as much money as it can . The money would become important in the short run as nanotechnology quickly lowers the cost of goods while putting many people out of work .
= = = Religious symbol = = =
Raelians believe in reclaiming the swastika by restoring its historical meaning as a symbol of peace and good luck . Swastika has been used for millennia in the East as a religious symbol of peace and harmony .
In 1991 , a Montreal anti @-@ cult organization called Info @-@ Cult made statements against the Raëlian Church with an article on Le Devoir , branding Raëlians as promoters of fascism and racism , due to the church 's use of the swastika as part of their logo and the Raëlian description of an extraterrestrial global government in which those less than ten percent above average intelligence are excluded from the electorate . Outside Info @-@ Cult 's office , Raëlians spoke against the act of discriminating against a religious minority . On 2 January 1992 , a dozen people protested against the use of the swastika in the Raëlian logo in Miami 's Eden Roc Hotel . The use of the swastika and other Raelian practices has led to criticism from the group Hineni of Florida , a Jewish anti @-@ cult organization .
In February 1991 , the Raëlian Church modified their symbol . The official reason given was a request from the Elohim to change the symbol in order to help in negotiations with Israel for the building of the Extraterrestrial Embassy to greet the anticipated Elohim space vessels , although the country continued to deny their request . In 2005 , the Israeli Raëlian Guide Kobi Drori stated that the Lebanese government was discussing proposals by the Raëlian movement to build their interplanetary embassy in Lebanon . However , one condition was that the Raëlians not display their logo on top of the building because it mixes a swastika and a Star of David . According to Drori , the Raëlians involved declined this offer , as they wished to keep the symbol as it was . From 1991 to 2007 , the official Raëlian symbol in Europe and America did not have the original swastika , but Raël , founder and leader of the Raëlian Movement decided to make the original symbol , the Star of David intertwined with a swastika , the only official symbol of the Raelian Movement worldwide .
= = Reception = =
In 1995 , a parliamentary commission issued a report through the National Assembly of France that categorized the Raelian Movement ( Mouvement Raëlien ) as a secte ( French word for " cult " ) , but did not give reasons for this classification . In 1997 , a parliamentary inquiry commission issued a report through the Belgian Chamber of Representatives that categorized the Belgian Raelian Movement ( Mouvement Raëlien Belge ) as a sect . Glenn McGee , professor at the University of New Haven , stated that part of the sect is a cult while the other part is a commercial website that collects large sums of money from those interested in human cloning . The Bureau of Democracy , Human Rights , and Labor of the United States Department of State and sociologist Susan J. Palmer have classified the International Raëlian Movement as a religion .
In 2005 , two Wired News reporters were welcomed into a Raëlian seminar and had permission to videotape it . They believe the footage they took makes it clear that the Raelian Movement is a cult which should disband . A Raëlian guide said in a Wired interview that he was not ashamed of what is shown and that he has no concerns about this incident .
The estranged former wife of Vorilhon characterised him as a " cult leader " and claimed he brought groups of female Raëlians home and held orgies which affected the children from an early age .
|
= Russula virescens =
Russula virescens is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula , and is commonly known as the green @-@ cracking russula , the quilted green russula , or the green brittlegill . It can be recognized by its distinctive pale green cap that measures up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter , the surface of which is covered with darker green angular patches . It has crowded white gills , and a firm , white stipe that is up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) tall and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . Considered to be one of the best edible mushrooms of the genus Russula , it is especially popular in Spain and China . With a taste that is described variously as mild , nutty , fruity , or sweet , it is cooked by grilling , frying , sautéeing , or eaten raw . Mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates and proteins , with a low fat content .
The species was described as new to science in 1774 by Jacob Christian Schaeffer . Its distribution encompasses Asia , North Africa , Europe , and Central America . Its presence in North America has not been clarified , due to confusion with the similar species Russula parvovirescens and R. crustosa . R. virescens fruits singly or scattered on the ground in both deciduous and mixed forests , forming mycorrhizal associations with broadleaf trees such as oak , European beech , and aspen . In Asia , it associates with several species of tropical lowland rainforest trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae . R. virescens has a ribonuclease enzyme with a biochemistry unique among edible mushrooms . It also has biologically active polysaccharides , and a laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry .
= = Taxonomy = =
Russula virescens was first described by German polymath Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 as Agaricus virescens . The species was subsequently transferred to the genus Russula by Elias Fries in 1836 . According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank , Russula furcata var. aeruginosa ( published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796 ) and Agaricus caseosus ( published by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1883 ) are synonyms of Russula virescens . The variety albidocitrina , defined by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1876 , is no longer considered to have independent taxonomic significance . According to Rolf Singer 's 1986 classification of Russula , R. virescens is the type species of subsection Virescentinae in section Rigidae , a grouping of mushrooms characterized by a cap surface that breaks into patches of bran @-@ like ( furfuraceous ) particles . In a molecular phylogenetic analysis of European Russula , R. virescens formed a clade with R. mustelina ; these two species were sister to a clade containing R. amoenicolor and R. violeipes .
The specific epithet virescens is Latin for " becoming green " . The characteristic pattern of the cap surface has earned the species common names such as the green @-@ cracking russula , the quilted green russula , and the green brittlegill . In the mid @-@ Atlantic United States , it is also known locally as the moldy russula .
= = Description = =
Described by mushroom enthusiast Antonio Carluccio as " not exactly nice to look at " , the cap is at first dome or barrel @-@ shaped , becoming convex and flattened with age with a diameter of up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) . The cap center is often depressed . The cuticle of the cap is green , most profoundly in the center , with patches of the same color dispersed radially around the center in an areolate pattern . The color of the cuticle is often of variable shade , ranging from gray to verdigris to grass @-@ green . The extent of the patching of the cuticle is also variable , giving specimens with limited patches a resemblance to other green @-@ capped species of Russula , such as R. aeruginea . The green patches of the cap lie on a white to pale green background . The cap , while frequently round , may also exhibit irregular lobes and cracks . The cap cuticle is thin , and can be readily peeled off the surface to a distance of about halfway towards the cap center . The gills are white to cream colored , and fairly crowded together ; they are mostly free from attachment to the stipe . Gills are interconnected at their bases by veins . The stipe is cylindrical , white , and of variable height , up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) tall and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide ; it is roughly the same thickness at both the top and the base . The top portion of the stipe may be farinose — covered with a white , mealy powder . It may turn slightly brown with age , or when it is injured or bruised from handling . Like other mushrooms in the Russulales , the flesh is brittle , owing to the sphaerocyst cytoarchitecture — cylindrical cells that contrast with the typical fibrous , filamentous hyphae present in other orders of the basidiomycota .
The spores of R. virescens are elliptical or ellipsoid with warts , translucent ( hyaline ) , and produce a white , pale or pale yellow spore print ; the spore dimensions are 6 – 9 by 5 – 7 µm . A partial reticulum ( net @-@ like pattern of ridges ) interconnects the warts . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped and have dimensions of 24 – 33 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm ; they are colorless , and each hold from two to four spores . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 40 – 85 by 6 – 8 µm and end abruptly in a sharp point .
= = = Similar species = = =
Russula parvovirescens , found in the eastern United States , can be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller stature , with caps measuring 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) wide and stipe up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Compared to R. virescens , it tends to be more bluish @-@ green , the patches on its cap are larger , and it has a lined cap margin . Microscopically , the terminal cells in the cap cuticle of R. parvovirescens are more swollen than those of R. virescens , which has tapered and elongated terminal cells . Another green @-@ capped Russula is R. aeruginea , but this species may be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller size and smooth cap . Other green russulas with a smooth cap include R. heterophylla and R. cyanoxantha var. peltereaui . Russula crustosa , like R. virescens , also has an areolate cap , but the cap becomes sticky ( viscid ) when moist , and its color is more variable , as it may be reddish , yellowish , or brown . Also , the spore print of R. crustosa is a darker yellow than R. virescens . R. redolens has a cap that is " drab @-@ green to blue @-@ green " , but unlike R. virescens , is smooth . R. redolens has an unpleasant taste and smells of parsley .
= = Edibility = =
Russula virescens is an edible mushroom considered to be one of the best of the genus Russula , and is popular in Europe , particularly in Spain . In an 1875 work on the uses of fungi , English mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke remarked about the mushroom that " the peasants about Milan are in the habit of putting [ it ] over wood embers to toast , and eating [ it ] afterwards with a little salt . " The mushroom is often sold as a dried product in Asia , and in China , it can be found in roadside markets . Its smell is not distinctive , but its taste has been described as mild , nutty , fruity , or even sweet . Old specimens may smell of herrings . Drying the mushrooms enhances the nutty flavor . Mushrooms can be sautéed ( the green color disappears with cooking ) , and young specimens that are prepared this way have a potato taste that pairs well with shallots . They are also fried or grilled , or used raw in salads . Young specimens are pale and can be hard to identify , but the characteristic pattern of older fruit bodies makes them hard to confuse with other species . When collecting R. virescens for consumption , caution is of vital importance to avoid confusion with the dangerously poisonous Amanita phalloides ( known as the death cap ) , a mushroom that can be most easily identified by its volva and ring .
A lady amateur mycophagist of the writer 's acquaintance , ... who is especially fond of the green Russula , is never at a loss for this especially prized tidbit as a reward for her daily stroll among the trees . A visitor may often see upon her buffet a small glass dish filled with the mushrooms , nicely scraped and cut in pieces — an ever @-@ present relish between meals . For even in their natural state , as she discriminatingly says , they are " as sweet as chestnuts " . This is especially the case with the " buttons " or younger specimens .
The nutritional components of R. virescens mushrooms have been characterized . Fresh mushrooms contain about 92 @.@ 5 % moisture . A 100 @-@ gram ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) sample of dried mushroom ( 100 g dw ) has 365 kcal ( 1527 kilojoules ) . Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the fruit bodies , comprising 62 % of the dry weight ; 11 @.@ 1 % of the carbohydrates are sugars , the large majority of which ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) is mannitol . The total lipid , or crude fat , content makes up 1 @.@ 85 % of the dry matter of the mushroom . The proportion of fatty acids ( expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids ) are 28 @.@ 78 % saturated , 41 @.@ 51 % monounsaturated , and 29 @.@ 71 % polyunsaturated . The most prevalent fatty acids include : palmitic acid , 17 @.@ 3 % of total fatty acids ; stearic acid , 7 @.@ 16 % ; oleic acid , 40 @.@ 27 % ; and linoleic acid , 29 @.@ 18 % . Several bioactive compounds are present in the mushroom . One hundred grams ( dry weight ) contains 49 @.@ 3 micrograms ( µg ) of tocopherols ( 20 @.@ 0 µg alpha , 21 @.@ 3 µg beta , and 8 @.@ 0 µg gamma ) and 0 @.@ 19 milligrams ( mg ) of the carotenoid pigment lycopene . There are 4 @.@ 46 g of organic acids per 100 g of dry mushrooms , including oxalic acid ( 0 @.@ 78 g ) , malic acid ( 2 @.@ 71 g ) , citric acid ( 0 @.@ 55 g ) , and fumaric acid ( 0 @.@ 23 g ) . Mushrooms have 22 @.@ 6 mg / 100 g dw of the phenolic compound 4 @-@ hydroxybenzoic acid , and 15 @.@ 8 mg / 100 g dw of cinnamic acid .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Russula virescens can be found fruiting on soil in both deciduous forests and mixed forests , forming ectomycorrhizal symbiotic relationships with a variety of trees , including oaks ( Quercus ) , European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) , and aspen ( Populus tremula ) . Preliminary investigations suggest that the fungus also associates with at least ten species of Dipterocarpaceae , an important tree family prevalent in the tropical lowland forests of Southeast Asia . Fruit bodies may appear singly or in groups , reappear in the same spots year after year , and are not common . In Europe , fruiting occurs mainly during the months of summer to early autumn . A Mexican study of the seasonal occurrence of several common mushroom species in subtropical forests in Xalapa showed that the fruiting period of R. virescens occurred in April , before the onset of the rainy season .
The distribution of R. virescens in North America is subject to debate , where a number of similar species such as R. parvovirescens and R. crustosa are also recognized . One author even suggests that R. virescens " is strictly a European species " , citing Buyck and collaborators ( 2006 ) , who say " the virescens @-@ crustosa group is much more complex than suspected and embraces at least a dozen taxa in the eastern US " . As in Europe , Russula virescens has a widespread distribution in Asia , having been recorded from India , Malaysia , Korea , the Philippines , Nepal , China , Thailand , and Vietnam . It is also found in North Africa and Central America .
= = Chemistry = =
Russula virescens has a limited capacity to bioaccumulate the micronutrients iron , copper , and zinc from the soil . The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stipes . A 300 @-@ gram ( 11 oz ) meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16 % of the recommended daily allowance ( RDA ) of copper for an adult male or female ( ages 19 – 50 ) ; 16 % or 7 @.@ 3 % of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female , respectively ; and 16 – 22 % of the adult RDA of zinc . The mushroom is a poor bioaccumulator of the toxic heavy metals arsenic , cadmium , lead , mercury , and nickel .
Biologically active mushroom polysaccharides have been a frequent research topic in recent decades due to their possible stimulatory effect on innate and cell @-@ mediated immune responses , antitumor activities , and other activities . Immunostimulatory activity , antioxidant activity , cholesterol @-@ lowering , and blood sugar @-@ lowering effects have been detected in extracts of R. virescens fruit bodies , which are attributed to polysaccharides . A water @-@ insoluble beta @-@ glucan , RVS3 @-@ II , has been isolated from the fruit bodies . Sulfated derivatives of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor cell lines . RVP , a water @-@ soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom , is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity .
Ribonucleases ( or RNases ) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) , and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes . A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways : it has a co @-@ specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C , compared to the monospecific RNases of the others ; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE – cellulose as the adsorbent ; it has a pH optimum of 4 @.@ 5 , lower than all other species ; and , it has a " distinctly different " N @-@ terminal amino acid sequence . The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry , such as bromothymol blue , eriochrome black T , malachite green , and reactive brilliant blue . Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye wastewater .
|
= Manhattan Project =
The Manhattan Project was a research and development project that produced the first nuclear weapons during World War II . It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada . From 1942 to 1946 , the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ; physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs . The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District ; " Manhattan " gradually superseded the official codename , Development of Substitute Materials , for the entire project . Along the way , the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart , Tube Alloys . The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939 , but grew to employ more than 130 @,@ 000 people and cost nearly US $ 2 billion ( about $ 26 billion in 2016 dollars ) . Over 90 % of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissile materials , with less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons . Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada .
Two types of atomic bomb were developed during the war ; a relatively simple gun @-@ type fission weapon was made using uranium while a more complex plutonium implosion @-@ type weapon was designed concurrently . For the Gun @-@ Type weapon development uranium @-@ 235 ( an isotope that makes up only 0 @.@ 7 percent of natural uranium ) was required . Chemically identical to the most common isotope , uranium @-@ 238 , and with almost the same mass , it proved difficult to separate the two . Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment : electromagnetic , gaseous and thermal . Most of this work was performed at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium . Reactors were constructed at Oak Ridge and Hanford , Washington , in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium . The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium . The gun @-@ type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so the implosion @-@ type weapon was developed in a concerted design and construction effort at the project 's principal research and design laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico .
The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project . Through Operation Alsos , Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe , sometimes behind enemy lines , where they gathered nuclear materials and documents , and rounded up German scientists . Despite the Manhattan Project 's tight security , Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program .
The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion @-@ type bomb at the Trinity test , conducted at New Mexico 's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945 . Little Boy , a gun @-@ type weapon , and Fat Man , an implosion @-@ type weapon , were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , respectively . In the immediate postwar years , the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads , developed new weapons , promoted the development of the network of national laboratories , supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy . It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947 .
= = Origins = =
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility . There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries . In August 1939 , physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein – Szilárd letter , which warned of the potential development of " extremely powerful bombs of a new type " . It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions . They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter . Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939 , which was attended by Szilárd , Wigner and Edward Teller . The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium " would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known . "
Briggs proposed that the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) spend $ 167 @,@ 000 on research into uranium , particularly the uranium @-@ 235 isotope , and the recently discovered plutonium . On 28 June 1941 , Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807 , which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , with Vannevar Bush as its director . The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research . The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee of the OSRD ; the word " uranium " was soon dropped for security reasons .
In Britain , Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 in June 1939 . Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) , which was small enough to be carried by a bomber of the day . Their March 1940 Frisch – Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee , which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb . In July 1940 , Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research , and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments . He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British , and not as far advanced .
As part of the scientific exchange , the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States . One of its members , the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant , flew to the United States in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the Maud Committee had not reached key American physicists . Oliphant then set out to find out why the committee 's findings were apparently being ignored . He met with the Uranium Committee , and visited Berkeley , California , where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence . Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium . He in turn spoke to James B. Conant , Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram . Oliphant 's mission was therefore a success ; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb .
At a meeting between President Roosevelt , Vannevar Bush , and Vice President Henry A. Wallace on 9 October 1941 , the President approved the atomic program . To control it , he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself — although he never attended a meeting — Wallace , Bush , Conant , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , and the Chief of Staff of the Army , General George C. Marshall . Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy , as the Army had the most experience with management of large @-@ scale construction projects . He also agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British , and on 11 October he sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill , suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters .
= = Feasibility = =
= = = Proposals = = =
The S @-@ 1 Committee held its first meeting on 18 December 1941 " pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency " in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent United States declaration of war upon Japan and then on Germany . Work was proceeding on three different techniques for isotope separation to separate uranium @-@ 235 from uranium @-@ 238 . Lawrence and his team at the University of California , Berkeley , investigated electromagnetic separation , while Eger Murphree and Jesse Wakefield Beams 's team looked into gaseous diffusion at Columbia University , and Philip Abelson directed research into thermal diffusion at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and later the Naval Research Laboratory . Murphree was also the head of an unsuccessful separation project using gas centrifuges .
Meanwhile , there were two lines of research into nuclear reactor technology , with Harold Urey continuing research into heavy water at Columbia , while Arthur Compton brought the scientists working under his supervision from Columbia , California and Princeton University to join his team at the University of Chicago , where he organized the Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using graphite as a neutron moderator . Briggs , Compton , Lawrence , Murphree , and Urey met on 23 May 1942 to finalize the S @-@ 1 Committee recommendations , which called for all five technologies to be pursued . This was approved by Bush , Conant , and Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer , the chief of staff of Major General Brehon B. Somervell 's Services of Supply , who had been designated the Army 's representative on nuclear matters . Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $ 54 million for construction by the United States Army Corps of Engineers , $ 31 million for research and development by OSRD and $ 5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943 . The Top Policy Group in turn sent it to the President on 17 June 1942 and he approved it by writing " OK FDR " on the document .
= = = Bomb design concepts = = =
Compton asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California , Berkeley , to take over research into fast neutron calculations — the key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation — from Gregory Breit , who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security . John H. Manley , a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory , was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by contacting and coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country . Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois examined the problems of neutron diffusion — how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction — and hydrodynamics — how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave . To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions , Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California , Berkeley , in July 1942 with theoretical physicists Hans Bethe , John Van Vleck , Edward Teller , Emil Konopinski , Robert Serber , Stan Frankel , and Eldred C. Nelson , the latter three former students of Oppenheimer , and experimental physicists Emilio Segrè , Felix Bloch , Franco Rasetti , John Henry Manley , and Edwin McMillan . They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible .
There were still many unknown factors . The properties of pure uranium @-@ 235 were relatively unknown , as were those of plutonium , an element that had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team . The scientists at the Berkeley conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium @-@ 238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium @-@ 235 atoms . At this point no reactor had been built , and only tiny quantities of plutonium were available from cyclotrons . Even by December 1943 , only two milligrams had been produced . There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass . The simplest was shooting a " cylindrical plug " into a sphere of " active material " with a " tamper " — dense material that would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency . They also explored designs involving spheroids , a primitive form of " implosion " suggested by Richard C. Tolman , and the possibility of autocatalytic methods , which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded .
Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled — at least until more experimental data was available — the Berkeley conference then turned in a different direction . Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb : the " super " , now usually referred to as a " hydrogen bomb " , which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium . Teller proposed scheme after scheme , but Bethe refused each one . The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs . Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might " ignite " the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei . Bethe calculated that it could not happen , and a report co @-@ authored by Teller showed that " no self @-@ propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started . " In Serber 's account , Oppenheimer mentioned it to Arthur Compton , who " didn 't have enough sense to shut up about it . It somehow got into a document that went to Washington " and was " never laid to rest " .
= = Organization = =
= = = Manhattan District = = =
The Chief of Engineers , Major General Eugene Reybold , selected Colonel James C. Marshall to head the Army 's part of the project in June 1942 . Marshall created a liaison office in Washington , D.C. , but established his temporary headquarters on the 18th floor of 270 Broadway in New York , where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers ' North Atlantic Division . It was close to the Manhattan office of Stone & Webster , the principal project contractor , and to Columbia University . He had permission to draw on his former command , the Syracuse District , for staff , and he started with Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols , who became his deputy .
Because most of his task involved construction , Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division , Major General Thomas M. Robbins , and his deputy , Colonel Leslie Groves . Reybold , Somervell and Styer decided to call the project " Development of Substitute Materials " , but Groves felt that this would draw attention . Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located , Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army 's component of the project the Manhattan District . This became official on 13 August , when Reybold issued the order creating the new district . Informally , it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District , or MED . Unlike other districts , it had no geographic boundaries , and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer . Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole , but was supplanted over time by " Manhattan " .
Marshall later conceded that , " I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant , much less four of them for $ 90 million . " A single TNT plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $ 128 million . Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude , which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests . A survey team from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants . The War Production Board recommended sites around Knoxville , Tennessee , an isolated area where the Tennessee Valley Authority could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors . After examining several sites , the survey team selected one near Elza , Tennessee . Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized , awaiting the results of Conant 's reactor experiments before taking action . Of the prospective processes , only Lawrence 's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence .
Marshall and Nichols began assembling the resources they would need . The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project . The top ratings were AA @-@ 1 through AA @-@ 4 in descending order , although there was also a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies . Ratings AA @-@ 1 and AA @-@ 2 were for essential weapons and equipment , so Colonel Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources , felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA @-@ 3 , although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose . Nichols and Marshall were disappointed ; AA @-@ 3 was the same priority as Nichols ' TNT plant in Pennsylvania .
= = = Military Policy Committee = = =
Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall 's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously , specifically the failure to acquire the Tennessee site , the low priority allocated to the project by the Army and the location of his headquarters in New York City . Bush felt that more aggressive leadership was required , and spoke to Harvey Bundy and Generals Marshall , Somervell , and Styer about his concerns . He wanted the project placed under a senior policy committee , with a prestigious officer , preferably Styer , as overall director .
Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post , informing him on 17 September of this decision , and that General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general , as it was felt that the title " general " would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project . Groves ' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold , with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves . Groves established his headquarters in Washington , D.C. , on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building , where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office . He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September . Later that day , he attended a meeting called by Stimson , which established a Military Policy Committee , responsible to the Top Policy Group , consisting of Bush ( with Conant as an alternate ) , Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell . Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves ' scientific advisers .
On 19 September , Groves went to Donald Nelson , the chairman of the War Production Board , and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required . Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President . Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary . It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA @-@ 3 rating was too low . After a long campaign , Groves finally received AA @-@ 1 authority on 1 July 1944 . According to Groves , " In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority . Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority . That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority " .
One of Groves ' early problems was to find a director for Project Y , the group that would design and build the bomb . The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads , Urey , Lawrence , or Compton , but they could not be spared . Compton recommended Oppenheimer , who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts . However , Oppenheimer had little administrative experience , and , unlike Urey , Lawrence , and Compton , had not won a Nobel Prize , which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have . There were also concerns about Oppenheimer 's security status , as many of his associates were Communists , including his brother , Frank Oppenheimer ; his wife , Kitty ; and his girlfriend , Jean Tatlock . A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director . Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943 .
= = = Collaboration with the United Kingdom = = =
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts . Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in 1941 to strengthen cooperation with its own project , codenamed Tube Alloys , because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb . An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo @-@ American project was poorly treated , and Churchill did not reply to the letter . The United States as a result decided as early as April 1942 that if its offer was rejected , they should proceed alone . The British , who had made significant contributions early in the war , did not have the resources to carry through such a research program while fighting for their survival . As a result , Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. and on 30 July 1942 , Sir John Anderson , the minister responsible for Tube Alloys , advised Churchill that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none . " That month Churchill and Roosevelt made an informal , unwritten agreement for atomic collaboration .
The opportunity for an equal partnership no longer existed , however , as shown in August 1942 when the British unsuccessfully demanded substantial control over the project while paying none of the costs . By 1943 the roles of the two countries had reversed from late 1941 ; in January Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas . While the British were shocked by the abrogation of the Churchill @-@ Roosevelt agreement , head of the Canadian National Research Council C. J. Mackenzie was less surprised , writing " I can 't help feeling that the United Kingdom group [ over ] emphasizes the importance of their contribution as compared with the Americans . " As Conant and Bush told the British , the order came " from the top " .
The British bargaining position had worsened ; the American scientists had decided that the United States no longer needed outside help , and they wanted to prevent Britain exploiting post @-@ war commercial applications of atomic energy . The committee supported , and Roosevelt agreed to , restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war — especially not bomb design — even if doing so slowed down the American project . By early 1943 the British stopped sending research and scientists to America , and as a result the Americans stopped all information sharing . The British considered ending the supply of Canadian uranium and heavy water to force the Americans to again share , but Canada needed American supplies to produce them . They investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program , but determined that it could not be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe .
By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project . James Chadwick and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them , despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets . In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement , which resulted in a resumption of cooperation between scientists working on the same problem . Britain , however , agreed to restrictions on data on the building of large @-@ scale production plants necessary for the bomb . The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement in September 1944 extended this cooperation to the postwar period . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States , United Kingdom and Canada . Stimson , Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee , Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Sir John Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .
When cooperation resumed after the Quebec agreement , the Americans ' progress and expenditures amazed the British . The United States had already spent more than $ 1 billion ( $ 13 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) , while in 1943 , the United Kingdom had spent about £ 0 @.@ 5 million . Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandon any hopes of a British project during the war . With Churchill 's backing , he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored . The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr , Otto Frisch , Klaus Fuchs , Rudolf Peierls , and Ernest Titterton . More scientists arrived in early 1944 . While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944 , the 35 working with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and stayed until the end of the war . The 19 sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups , primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly , but not the plutonium @-@ related ones . Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 , Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee .
The Combined Policy Committee created the Combined Development Trust in June 1944 , with Groves as its chairman , to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets . The Belgian Congo and Canada held much of the world 's uranium outside Eastern Europe , and the Belgian government in exile was in London . Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore , as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research . In 1944 , the Trust purchased 3 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo . In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project , a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies . Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947 , Groves deposited a total of $ 37 @.@ 5 million into the Trust 's account .
Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project , but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them . He also said that Churchill was " the best friend the atomic bomb project had [ as ] he kept Roosevelt 's interest up ... He just stirred him up all the time by telling him how important he thought the project was . "
The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom 's independent nuclear weapons program after the war when the McMahon Act of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation .
= = Project sites = =
= = = Oak Ridge = = =
The day after he took over the project , Groves took a train to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there , and Groves was impressed . On 29 September 1942 , United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) of land by eminent domain at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . An additional 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) was subsequently acquired . About 1 @,@ 000 families were affected by the condemnation order , which came into effect on 7 October . Protests , legal appeals , and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail . By mid @-@ November U.S. Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors , and construction contractors were moving in . Some families were given two weeks ' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations ; others had settled there after being evicted to make way for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s or the Norris Dam in the 1930s . The ultimate cost of land acquisition in the area , which was not completed until March 1945 , was only about $ 2 @.@ 6 million , which worked out to around $ 47 an acre . When presented with Public Proclamation Number Two , which declared Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission , the Governor of Tennessee , Prentice Cooper , angrily tore it up .
Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range , the site was officially renamed the Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) in early 1943 . While Stone and Webster concentrated on the production facilities , the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill designed and built a residential community for 13 @,@ 000 . The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge , from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name . The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District . One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change . In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary , the Roane @-@ Anderson Company ( for Roane and Anderson Counties , in which Oak Ridge was located ) . Chemical engineers , including William J. Wilcox Jr. and Warren Fuchs , were part of " frantic efforts " to make 10 % to 12 % enriched uranium 235 , known as the code name " tuballoy tetroxide " , with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials . The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans , and peaked at 75 @,@ 000 in May 1945 , by which time 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 10 @,@ 000 by Roane @-@ Anderson .
Respected fine @-@ arts photographer , Josephine Herrick , and her colleague , Mary Steers , helped document the developing stages of the bomb in Oak Ridge .
= = = Los Alamos = = =
The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered , but in the end it was decided that it should be in a remote location . On Oppenheimer 's recommendation , the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque , New Mexico , where Oppenheimer owned a ranch . In October 1942 , Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan Project was sent to survey the area , and he recommended a site near Jemez Springs , New Mexico . On 16 November , Oppenheimer , Groves , Dudley and others toured the site . Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic , while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding . The party then moved on to the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School . Oppenheimer was impressed and expressed a strong preference for the site , citing its natural beauty and views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains , which , it was hoped , would inspire those who would work on the project . The engineers were concerned about the poor access road , and whether the water supply would be adequate , but otherwise felt that it was ideal .
Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942 , authorizing $ 440 @,@ 000 for the purchase of the site of 54 @,@ 000 acres ( 22 @,@ 000 ha ) , all but 8 @,@ 900 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 ha ) of which were already owned by the Federal Government . Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted use of some 45 @,@ 100 acres ( 18 @,@ 300 ha ) of United States Forest Service land to the War Department " for so long as the military necessity continues " . The need for land for a new road , and later for a right of way for a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) power line , eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45 @,@ 737 acres ( 18 @,@ 509 @.@ 1 ha ) , but only $ 414 @,@ 971 was spent . Construction was contracted to the M. M. Sundt Company of Tucson , Arizona , with Willard C. Kruger and Associates of Santa Fe , New Mexico , as architect and engineer . Work commenced in December 1942 . Groves initially allocated $ 300 @,@ 000 for construction , three times Oppenheimer 's estimate , with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943 . It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was greater than expected , and by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943 , over $ 7 million had been spent .
Because it was secret , Los Alamos was referred to as " Site Y " or " the Hill " . Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe . Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army . Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel 's uniform , but two key physicists , Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi , balked at the idea . Conant , Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department .
= = = Argonne = = =
An Army @-@ OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a pilot plant for plutonium production in Red Gate Woods southwest of Chicago . In July , Nichols arranged for a lease of 1 @,@ 025 acres ( 415 ha ) from the Cook County Forest Preserve District , and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer . It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area , and it was decided to build the plant at Oak Ridge , and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago .
Delays in establishing the plant in Red Gate Woods led Compton to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago . The reactor required an enormous amount of graphite blocks and uranium pellets . At the time , there was a limited source of pure uranium . Frank Spedding of Iowa State University were able to produce only two short tons of pure uranium . Additional three short tons of uranium metal was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant which was produced in a rush with makeshift process . A large square balloon was constructed by Goodyear Tire to encase the reactor . On 2 December 1942 , a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as Chicago Pile @-@ 1 . The point at which a reaction becomes self @-@ sustaining became known as " going critical " . Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington , D.C. , by a coded phone call , saying , " The Italian navigator [ Fermi ] has just landed in the new world . "
In January 1943 , Grafton 's successor , Major Arthur V. Peterson , ordered Chicago Pile @-@ 1 dismantled and reassembled at Red Gate Woods , as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area . At the Argonne site , Chicago Pile @-@ 3 , the first heavy water reactor , went critical on 15 May 1944 . After the war , the operations that remained at Red Gate moved to the new Argonne National Laboratory about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away .
= = = Hanford = = =
By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center ( Knoxville ) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident . Groves recruited DuPont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex . DuPont was offered a standard cost plus fixed fee contract , but the President of the company , Walter S. Carpenter , Jr . , wanted no profit of any kind , and asked for the proposed contract to be amended to explicitly exclude the company from acquiring any patent rights . This was accepted , but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon . After the war , DuPont asked to be released from the contract early , and had to return 33 cents .
DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge . In December 1942 , Groves dispatched Colonel Franklin Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites . Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland , Washington , was " ideal in virtually all respects " . It was isolated and near the Columbia River , which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors that would produce the plutonium . Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works ( HEW ) , codenamed " Site W " .
Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February , allocating $ 5 million for the acquisition of 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 ha ) of land in the area . The federal government relocated some 1 @,@ 500 residents of White Bluffs and Hanford , and nearby settlements , as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area . A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops , which had already been planted before the land was acquired . Where schedules allowed , the Army allowed the crops to be harvested , but this was not always possible . The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946 .
The dispute did not delay work . Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project , a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25 @,@ 000 workers , half of whom were expected to live on @-@ site . By July 1944 , some 1 @,@ 200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51 @,@ 000 people were living in the construction camp . As area engineer , Matthias exercised overall control of the site . At its peak , the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state . Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses , more than the city of Chicago . Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge , Richland was a gated community with restricted access , but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown : the military profile was lower , and physical security elements like high fences , towers and guard dogs were less evident .
= = = Canadian sites = = =
= = = = British Columbia = = = =
Cominco had produced electrolytic hydrogen at Trail , British Columbia , since 1930 . Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water . To the existing $ 10 million plant consisting of 3 @,@ 215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power , secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2 @.@ 3 % to 99 @.@ 8 % . For this process , Hugh Taylor of Princeton developed a platinum @-@ on @-@ carbon catalyst for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel @-@ chromia one for the fourth stage tower . The final cost was $ 2 @.@ 8 million . The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942 . Trail 's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956 . Heavy water from Trail was used for Chicago Pile 3 , the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium , which went critical on 15 May 1944 .
= = = = Ontario = = = =
The Chalk River , Ontario , site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area . A new community was built at Deep River , Ontario , to provide residences and facilities for the team members . The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec , and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base , Camp Petawawa . Located on the Ottawa River , it had access to abundant water . The first director of the new laboratory was John Cockcroft , later replaced by Bennett Lewis . A pilot reactor known as ZEEP ( zero @-@ energy experimental pile ) became the first Canadian reactor , and the first to be completed outside the United States , when it went critical in September 1945 , ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970 . A larger 10 MW NRX reactor , which was designed during the war , was completed and went critical in July 1947 .
= = = = Northwest Territories = = = =
The Eldorado Mine at Port Radium was a source of uranium ore .
= = = Heavy water sites = = =
Although DuPont 's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator , DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup , in case the graphite reactor design proved infeasible for some reason . For this purpose , it was estimated that 3 long tons ( 3 @.@ 0 t ) of heavy water would be required per month . The P @-@ 9 Project was the government 's code name for the heavy water production program . As the plant at Trail , which was then under construction , could produce 0 @.@ 5 long tons ( 0 @.@ 51 t ) per month , additional capacity was required . Groves therefore authorized DuPont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works , near Morgantown , West Virginia ; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works , near Dana and Newport , Indiana ; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works , near Childersburg and Sylacauga , Alabama . Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under Ordnance Department contracts , they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers . The American plants used a process different from Trail 's ; heavy water was extracted by distillation , taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water .
= = Uranium = =
= = = Ore = = =
The key raw material for the project was uranium , which was used as fuel for the reactors , as feed that was transformed into plutonium , and , in its enriched form , in the atomic bomb itself . There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940 : in Colorado , in northern Canada , in Joachimstal in Czechoslovakia , and in the Belgian Congo . All but Joachimstal were in allied hands . A November 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project 's requirements . Nichols arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated for the purchase of 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo . He negotiated with Eldorado Gold Mines for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope , Ontario , and its shipment in 100 @-@ ton lots . The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company 's stock until it acquired a controlling interest .
While these purchases assured a sufficient supply to meet wartime needs , the American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries ' interest to gain control of as much of the world 's uranium deposits as possible . The richest source of ore was the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo , but it was flooded and closed . Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with Edgar Sengier , the director of the company that owned the mine , Union Minière du Haut Katanga . The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee . As 30 percent of Union Minière 's stock was controlled by British interests , the British took the lead in negotiations . Sir John Anderson and Ambassador John Winant hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1 @,@ 720 long tons ( 1 @,@ 750 t ) of ore to be purchased at $ 1 @.@ 45 a pound . To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore , Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation 's stockpile in Uravan , Colorado . Uranium mining in Colorado yielded about 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of ore .
Mallinckrodt Incorporated in St. Louis , Missouri , took the raw ore and dissolved it in nitric acid to produce uranyl nitrate . Ether was then added in a liquid – liquid extraction process to separate the impurities from the uranyl nitrate . This was then heated to form uranium trioxide , which was reduced to highly pure uranium dioxide . By July 1942 , Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day , but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult for contractors Westinghouse and Metal Hydrides . Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low . A special branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa , under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives . This became known as the Ames Project , and its Ames process became available in 1943 .
= = = Isotope separation = = =
Natural uranium consists of 99 @.@ 3 % uranium @-@ 238 and 0 @.@ 7 % uranium @-@ 235 , but only the latter is fissile . The chemically identical uranium @-@ 235 has to be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope . Various methods were considered for uranium enrichment , most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge .
The most obvious technology , the centrifuge , failed , but electromagnetic separation , gaseous diffusion , and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project . In February 1943 , Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others .
= = = = Centrifuges = = = =
The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942 . Jesse Beams had developed such a process at the University of Virginia during the 1930s , but had encountered technical difficulties . The process required high rotational speeds , but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart . It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds . In 1941 he began working with uranium hexafluoride , the only known gaseous compound of uranium , and was able to separate uranium @-@ 235 . At Columbia , Urey had Cohen investigate the process , and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit , which Westinghouse undertook to construct .
Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge . Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 per day would require up to 50 @,@ 000 centrifuges with 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) rotors , or 10 @,@ 000 centrifuges with 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) rotors , assuming that 4 @-@ meter rotors could be built . The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting , and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus , he obtained only 60 % of the predicted yield , indicating that more centrifuges would be required . Beams , Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase the efficiency of the process . However , frequent failures of motors , shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant . In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee following a recommendation by Conant , Nichols and August C. Klein of Stone & Webster .
= = = = Electromagnetic separation = = = =
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory . This method employed devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . The name was derived from the words California , university and cyclotron . In the electromagnetic process , a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass . The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient . Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor , an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials , require more manpower to operate , and cost more to build . Nonetheless , the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk . Moreover , it could be built in stages , and rapidly reach industrial capacity .
Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5 @,@ 000 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 tonnes ) of copper , which was in desperately short supply . However , silver could be substituted , in an 11 : 10 ratio . On 3 August 1942 , Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6 @,@ 000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository . " Young man , " Bell told him , " you may think of silver in tons but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces ! " Eventually , 14 @,@ 700 short tons ( 13 @,@ 300 tonnes ; 430 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 troy ounces ) were used .
The 1 @,@ 000 @-@ troy @-@ ounce ( 31 kg ) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets and taken to Phelps Dodge in Bayway , New Jersey , where they were extruded into strips 0 @.@ 625 inches ( 15 @.@ 9 mm ) thick , 3 inches ( 76 mm ) wide and 40 feet ( 12 m ) long . These were wound onto magnetic coils by Allis @-@ Chalmers in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . After the war , all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver . In the end , only 1 / 3,600,000th was lost . The last silver was returned in May 1970 .
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y @-@ 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S @-@ 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first @-@ stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in October , the 14 @-@ ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets , and had to be fastened more securely . A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out . In December Groves ordered a magnet to be broken open , and handfuls of rust were found inside . Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned . A pickling plant was established on @-@ site to clean the pipes and fittings . The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944 , the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March , and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April . The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944 .
Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y @-@ 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis , with a fee of $ 22 @,@ 500 per month plus $ 7 @,@ 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4 @,@ 000 per additional racetrack . The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate . They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education . Nichols compared unit production data , and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his PhDs . They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost , a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors . The girls were " trained like soldiers not to reason why " , while " the scientists could not refrain from time @-@ consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials . "
Y @-@ 12 initially enriched the uranium @-@ 235 content to between 13 % and 15 % , and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944 . Only 1 part in 5 @,@ 825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product . Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process . Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 % of the uranium @-@ 235 feed by January 1945 . In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) feed from the new S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant . The next month it received enhanced ( 5 % ) feed from the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant . By August K @-@ 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks .
= = = = Gaseous diffusion = = = =
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion . Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass , so in a box containing a semi @-@ permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases , the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules . The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules , while the residual gas is somewhat depleted . The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes , with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture . Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey , Karl P. Cohen and John R. Dunning .
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 @-@ stage gaseous diffusion plant . On 14 December , M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant , which was codenamed K @-@ 25 . A cost plus fixed fee contract was negotiated , eventually totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million . A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project , headed by Percival C. Keith , one of Kellogg 's vice presidents . The process faced formidable technical difficulties . The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride would have to be used , as no substitute could be found , and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas . The biggest problem was the design of the barrier , which would have to be strong , porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride . The best choice for this seemed to be nickel . Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel . A six @-@ stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process , but the Norris @-@ Adler prototype proved to be too brittle . A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex , the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation . In January 1944 , Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production .
Kellex 's design for K @-@ 25 called for a four @-@ story 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long U @-@ shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six @-@ stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K @-@ 27 plant completed after the war , came to $ 480 million .
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 % enrichment and the output of the S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 % enrichment . In August , the last of the 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants .
= = = = Thermal diffusion = = = =
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory , which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient , the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end . Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall , this can be used as a means of isotope separation . This process was first demonstrated by H. Clusius and G. Dickel in Germany in 1938 . It was developed by US Navy scientists , but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project . This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility , but the inter @-@ service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part .
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction , but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944 , when Captain William S. Parsons , the naval officer who was in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos , brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion . Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y @-@ 12 . Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis , Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea , and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $ 3 @.@ 5 million could enrich 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of uranium per week to nearly 0 @.@ 9 % uranium @-@ 235 . Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944 .
Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland , Ohio , to build the thermal diffusion plant , which was designated S @-@ 50 . Groves ' advisers , Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil , estimated that it would take six months to build . Groves gave Ferguson just four . Plans called for the installation of 2 @,@ 142 48 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks . Inside each column were three concentric tubes . Steam , obtained from the nearby K @-@ 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch ( 690 kPa ) and temperature of 545 ° F ( 285 ° C ) , flowed downward through the innermost 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) nickel pipe , while water at 155 ° F ( 68 ° C ) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe . Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes .
Work commenced on 9 July 1944 , and S @-@ 50 began partial operation in September . Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve . The plant produced just 10 @.@ 5 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of 0 @.@ 852 % uranium @-@ 235 in October . Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months , but in June 1945 it produced 12 @,@ 730 pounds ( 5 @,@ 770 kg ) . By March 1945 , all 21 production racks were operating . Initially the output of S @-@ 50 was fed into Y @-@ 12 , but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series . S @-@ 50 became the first stage , enriching from 0 @.@ 71 % to 0 @.@ 89 % . This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K @-@ 25 plant , which produced a product enriched to about 23 % . This was , in turn , fed into Y @-@ 12 , which boosted it to about 89 % , sufficient for nuclear weapons .
= = = Aggregate U @-@ 235 production = = =
About 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of uranium enriched to 89 % uranium @-@ 235 was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945 . The entire 50 kg , along with some 50 % -enriched , averaging out to about 85 % enriched , were used in Little Boy
= = Plutonium = =
The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used the fissile element plutonium . Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature , the best way to obtain large quantities of the element is in a nuclear reactor , in which natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons . The uranium @-@ 238 is transmuted into uranium @-@ 239 , which rapidly decays , first into neptunium @-@ 239 and then into plutonium @-@ 239 . Only a small amount of the uranium @-@ 238 will be transformed , so the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium , from any initial impurities , and from fission products .
= = = X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor = = =
In March 1943 , DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site at Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford , it included the air @-@ cooled X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor , a chemical separation plant , and support facilities . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) , surrounded by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield .
The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides . These somehow had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system . The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a hot dipping process without success . Meanwhile , Alcoa tried canning . A new process for flux @-@ less welding was developed , and 97 % of the cans passed a standard vacuum test , but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50 % . Nonetheless , production began in June 1943 . The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of General Electric , which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943 .
Watched by Fermi and Compton , the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 long tons ( 30 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 long tons ( 37 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 018 oz ) of plutonium was created . Modifications over time raised the power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 . X @-@ 10 operated as a production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities .
= = = Hanford reactors = = =
Although an air @-@ cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction , it was recognized that this would be impractical for the much larger production reactors . Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling , before they determined that a water @-@ cooled reactor would be simpler , cheaper and quicker to build . The design did not become available until 4 October 1943 ; in the meantime , Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford site by erecting accommodations , improving the roads , building a railway switch line , and upgrading the electricity , water and telephone lines .
As at Oak Ridge , the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs , which commenced at Hanford in March 1944 . They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities , dipped in molten bronze , tin , and aluminum @-@ silicon alloy , canned using hydraulic presses , and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere . Finally , they were subjected to a series of tests to detect holes or faulty welds . Disappointingly , most canned slugs initially failed the tests , resulting in an output of only a handful of canned slugs per day . But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs would be available to start Reactor B on schedule in August 1944 .
Work began on Reactor B , the first of six planned 250 MW reactors , on 10 October 1943 . The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F , with B , D and F sites chosen to be developed first , as this maximised the distance between the reactors . They would be the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project . Some 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of steel , 17 @,@ 400 cubic yards ( 13 @,@ 300 m3 ) of concrete , 50 @,@ 000 concrete blocks and 71 @,@ 000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) high building .
Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944 . Watched by Compton , Matthias , DuPont 's Crawford Greenewalt , Leona Woods and Fermi , who inserted the first slug , the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944 . Over the next few days , 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical . Shortly after midnight on 27 September , the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production . At first all appeared well but around 03 : 00 the power level started to drop and by 06 : 30 the reactor had shut down completely . The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination . The next day the reactor started up again , only to shut down once more .
Fermi contacted Chien @-@ Shiung Wu , who identified the cause of the problem as neutron poisoning from xenon @-@ 135 , which has a half @-@ life of 9 @.@ 2 hours . Fermi , Woods , Donald J. Hughes and John Archibald Wheeler then calculated the nuclear cross section of xenon @-@ 135 , which turned out to be 30 @,@ 000 times that of uranium . Fortunately , DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory 's original design in which the reactor had 1 @,@ 500 tubes arranged in a circle , and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners . The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money , but Fermi realized that by loading all 2 @,@ 004 tubes , the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium . Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945 .
= = = Separation process = = =
Meanwhile , the chemists considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known . Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942 , a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a lanthanum fluoride process for separating uranium and plutonium , which was chosen for the pilot separation plant . A second separation process , the bismuth phosphate process , was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson . This process worked by toggling plutonium between its + 4 and + 6 oxidation states in solutions of bismuth phosphate . In the former state , the plutonium was precipitated ; in the latter , it stayed in solution and the other products were precipitated .
Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride , and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants . Once X @-@ 10 began producing plutonium , the pilot separation plant was put to the test . The first batch was processed at 40 % efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90 % .
At Hanford , top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area . This contained buildings for testing materials , preparing uranium , and assembling and calibrating instrumentation . One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs , while another contained a small test reactor . Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it , work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities , and wartime shortages of labor and materials .
Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200 @-@ West and 200 @-@ East . This was subsequently reduced to two , the T and U plants , in 200 @-@ West and one , the B plant , at 200 @-@ East . Each separation plant consisted of four buildings : a process cell building or " canyon " ( known as 221 ) , a concentration building ( 224 ) , a purification building ( 231 ) and a magazine store ( 213 ) . The canyons were each 800 feet ( 240 m ) long and 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide . Each consisted of forty 17 @.@ 7 @-@ by @-@ 13 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) cells .
Work began on 221 @-@ T and 221 @-@ U in January 1944 , with the former completed in September and the latter in December . The 221 @-@ B building followed in March 1945 . Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved , all work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed @-@ circuit television , something unheard of in 1943 . Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools . The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process , and it was less radioactive . The 224 @-@ T and 224 @-@ U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944 , and 224 @-@ B followed on 10 February 1945 . The purification methods that were eventually used in 231 @-@ W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944 , but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year . On 5 February 1945 , Matthias hand @-@ delivered the first shipment of 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 6 ozt ) of 95 % -pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles .
= = = Weapon design = = =
In 1943 , development efforts were directed to a gun @-@ type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man . Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron @-@ generated plutonium @-@ 239 , which was extremely pure , but could only be created in very small amounts . Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X @-@ 10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem : the reactor @-@ bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium @-@ 240 , resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium . Seaborg had correctly predicted in March 1943 that some of the plutonium @-@ 239 would absorb a neutron and become plutonium @-@ 240 .
This made reactor plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun @-@ type weapon . The plutonium @-@ 240 would start the chain reaction too quickly , causing a predetonation that would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with a minimal amount of plutonium reacted ( a fizzle ) . A faster gun was suggested but found to be impractical . The possibility of separating the isotopes was considered and rejected , as plutonium @-@ 240 is even harder to separate from plutonium @-@ 239 than uranium @-@ 235 from uranium @-@ 238 .
Work on an alternative method of bomb design , known as implosion , had begun earlier at the instigation of the physicist Seth Neddermeyer . Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form . When the fissile atoms are packed closer together , the rate of neutron capture increases , and the mass becomes a critical mass . The metal needs to travel only a very short distance , so the critical mass is assembled in much less time than it would take with the gun method . Neddermeyer 's 1943 and early 1944 investigations into implosion showed promise , but also made it clear that the problem would be much more difficult from a theoretical and engineering perspective than the gun design . In September 1943 , John von Neumann , who had experience with shaped charges used in armor @-@ piercing shells , argued that not only would implosion reduce the danger of predetonation and fizzle , but would make more efficient use of the fissionable material . He proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on .
By July 1944 , Oppenheimer had concluded plutonium could not be used in a gun design , and opted for implosion . The accelerated effort on an implosion design , codenamed Fat Man , began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion . Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon , X ( for explosives ) Division headed by George Kistiakowsky and G ( for gadget ) Division under Robert Bacher . The new design that von Neumann and T ( for theoretical ) Division , most notably Rudolf Peierls , had devised used explosive lenses to focus the explosion onto a spherical shape using a combination of both slow and fast high explosives .
The design of lenses that detonated with the proper shape and velocity turned out to be slow , difficult and frustrating . Various explosives were tested before settling on composition B as the fast explosive and baratol as the slow explosive . The final design resembled a soccer ball , with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses , each weighing about 80 pounds ( 36 kg ) . Getting the detonation just right required fast , reliable and safe electrical detonators , of which there were two for each lens for reliability . It was therefore decided to use exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators , a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by Luis Alvarez . A contract for their manufacture was given to Raytheon .
To study the behavior of converging shock waves , Robert Serber devised the RaLa Experiment , which used the short @-@ lived radioisotope lanthanum @-@ 140 , a potent source of gamma radiation . The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses , which in turn were inside in an ionization chamber . This allowed the taking of an X @-@ ray movie of the implosion . The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests . In his history of the Los Alamos project , David Hawkins wrote : " RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design " .
Within the explosives was the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) thick aluminum pusher , which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer , the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) thick tamper of natural uranium . Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible , but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core . Some part of it might fission as well . To prevent predetonation by an external neutron , the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron . A polonium @-@ beryllium modulated neutron initiator , known as an " urchin " because its shape resembled a sea urchin , was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment . This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project . Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium , which Monsanto was able to deliver . The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak .
The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere . The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results . At first contamination was believed to be the cause , but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium . The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures . Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 ° C to 450 ° C range . It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum , but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles , which would exacerbate the pre @-@ ignition problem . The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium @-@ gallium alloy , which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape . As plutonium was found to corrode readily , the sphere was coated with nickel .
The work proved dangerous . By the end of the war , half the experienced chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element appeared in their urine . A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town , and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy , which became known as the DP @-@ site . The hemispheres for the first plutonium pit ( or core ) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945 . Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later .
= = = Trinity = = =
Because of the complexity of an implosion @-@ style weapon , it was decided that , despite the waste of fissile material , an initial test would be required . Groves approved the test , subject to the active material being recovered . Consideration was therefore given to a controlled fizzle , but Oppenheimer opted instead for a full @-@ scale nuclear test , codenamed " Trinity " .
In March 1944 , planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge , a professor of physics at Harvard , working under Kistiakowsky . Bainbridge selected the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield as the site for the test . Bainbridge worked with Captain Samuel P. Davalos on the construction of the Trinity Base Camp and its facilities , which included barracks , warehouses , workshops , an explosive magazine and a commissary .
Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate committee , so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed " Jumbo " was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure . Measuring 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , it was fabricated at great expense from 214 long tons ( 217 t ) of iron and steel by Babcock & Wilcox in Barberton , Ohio . Brought in a special railroad car to a siding in Pope , New Mexico , it was transported the last 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the test site on a trailer pulled by two tractors . By the time it arrived , however , confidence in the implosion method was high enough , and the availability of plutonium was sufficient , that Oppenheimer decided not to use it . Instead , it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the weapon as a rough measure of how powerful the explosion would be . In the end , Jumbo survived , although its tower did not , adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion .
A pre @-@ test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments . A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards ( 730 m ) from Ground Zero and piled with 100 long tons ( 100 t ) of TNT spiked with nuclear fission products in the form of an irradiated uranium slug from Hanford , which was dissolved and poured into tubing inside the explosive . This explosion was observed by Oppenheimer and Groves 's new deputy commander , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell . The pre @-@ test produced data that proved vital for the Trinity test .
For the actual test , the weapon , nicknamed " the gadget " , was hoisted to the top of a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) steel tower , as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber . Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target , and generated less nuclear fallout . The gadget was assembled under the supervision of Norris Bradbury at the nearby McDonald Ranch House on 13 July , and precariously winched up the tower the following day . Observers included Bush , Chadwick , Conant , Farrell , Fermi , Groves , Lawrence , Oppenheimer and Tolman . At 05 : 30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT , leaving a crater of Trinitite ( radioactive glass ) in the desert 250 feet ( 76 m ) wide . The shock wave was felt over 100 miles ( 160 km ) away , and the mushroom cloud reached 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) in height . It was heard as far away as El Paso , Texas , so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field .
= = Personnel = =
In June 1944 , the Manhattan Project employed some 129 @,@ 000 workers , of whom 84 @,@ 500 were construction workers , 40 @,@ 500 were plant operators and 1 @,@ 800 were military personnel . As construction activity fell off , the workforce declined to 100 @,@ 000 a year later , but the number of military personnel increased to 5 @,@ 600 . Procuring the required numbers of workers , especially highly skilled workers , in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult . In 1943 , Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the War Manpower Commission . In March 1944 , both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority .
Tolman and Conant , in their role as the project 's scientific advisers , drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project . Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work . At the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Stanislaw Ulam gave one of his students , Joan Hinton , an exam early , so she could leave to do war work . A few weeks later , Ulam received a letter from Hans Bethe , inviting him to join the project . Conant personally persuaded the explosives expert George Kistiakowsky to join the project .
One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself , particularly the Army Specialized Training Program . In 1943 , the MED created the Special Engineer Detachment ( SED ) , with an authorized strength of 675 . Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED . Another source was the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material , the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well . On 1 February 1945 , all military personnel assigned to the MED , including all SED detachments , were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit , except at Los Alamos , where military personnel other than SED , including the WACs and Military Police , were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit .
An Associate Professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine , Stafford L. Warren , was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps , and appointed as chief of the MED 's Medical Section and Groves ' medical advisor . Warren 's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge , Richland and Los Alamos . The Medical Section was responsible for medical research , but also for the MED 's health and safety programs . This presented an enormous challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , working with high voltages , and performing experiments involving explosives , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Yet in December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . Between January 1943 and June 1945 , there were 62 fatalities and 3 @,@ 879 disabling injuries , which was about 62 percent below the rate of private industry .
= = Secrecy = =
A 1945 Life article estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings " probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project , and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved . " The magazine wrote that the more than 100 @,@ 000 others employed with the project " worked like moles in the dark " . Warned that disclosing the project 's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 131 @,@ 000 today ) fine , they saw enormous quantities of raw materials enter factories with nothing coming out , and monitored " dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place " without knowing the purpose of their jobs .
Oak Ridge security personnel considered any private party with more than seven people as suspicious , and residents — who believed that US government agents were secretly among them — avoided repeatedly inviting the same guests . Although original residents of the area could be buried in existing cemeteries , every coffin was reportedly opened for inspection . Everyone , including top military officials , and their automobiles were searched when entering and exiting project facilities . One Oak Ridge worker stated that " if you got inquisitive , you were called on the carpet within two hours by government secret agents . Usually those summoned to explain were then escorted bag and baggage to the gate and ordered to keep going . " Nonetheless , despite being told that their work would help end the war and perhaps all future wars , not seeing or understanding the results of their often tedious duties — or even typical side effects of factory work such as smoke from smokestacks — and the war in Europe ending without the use of their work , caused serious morale problems among workers and caused many rumors to spread . One manager stated after the war :
Well it wasn 't that the job was tough ... it was confusing . You see , no one knew what was being made in Oak Ridge , not even me , and a lot of the people thought they were wasting their time here . It was up to me to explain to the dissatisfied workers that they were doing a very important job . When they asked me what , I 'd have to tell them it was a secret . But I almost went crazy myself trying to figure out what was going on .
Another worker told of how , working in a laundry , she every day held " a special instrument " to uniforms and listened for " a clicking noise " . She learned only after the war that she had been performing the important task of checking for radiation with a geiger counter . To improve morale among such workers Oak Ridge created an extensive system of intramural sports leagues , including 10 baseball teams , 81 softball teams , and 26 football teams .
= = = Censorship = = =
Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project . After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military @-@ related research , and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles . William L. Laurence of The New York Times , who wrote an article for The Saturday Evening Post in September 1940 on atomic fission , later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue . The Soviets noticed the silence , however . In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals ; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project .
The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers , especially Germany , to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project . The government 's Office of Censorship , by contrast , relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published , and the project at first avoided notifying the office . By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington based on public records , and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy . In June the Office of Censorship asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing " atom smashing , atomic energy , atomic fission , atomic splitting , or any of their equivalents . The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials , heavy water , high voltage discharge equipment , cyclotrons . " The office also asked to avoid discussion of " polonium , uranium , ytterbium , hafnium , protactinium , radium , rhenium , thorium , deuterium " ; only uranium was sensitive , but was listed with other elements to hide its importance .
= = = Soviet spies = = =
The prospect of sabotage was always present , and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures . While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees , there were no confirmed instances of Axis @-@ instigated sabotage . However , on 10 March 1945 , a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line , and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down . With so many people involved , security was a difficult task . A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project 's security issues . By 1943 , it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project . Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash , the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command , investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley . Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley , Haakon Chevalier , about passing information to the Soviet Union .
The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs , a member of the British Mission who played an important part at Los Alamos . The 1950 revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States ' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada . Subsequently , other instances of espionage were uncovered , leading to the arrest of Harry Gold , David Greenglass and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg . Other spies like George Koval and Theodore Hall remained unknown for decades . The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify , as the principal constraint on the Soviet atomic bomb project was a shortage of uranium ore . The consensus is that espionage saved the Soviets one or two years of effort .
= = Foreign intelligence = =
In addition to developing the atomic bomb , the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project . It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore , but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons . At the instigation of the Manhattan Project , a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German @-@ occupied Norway . A small mission was created , jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence , OSRD , the Manhattan Project , and Army Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) , to investigate enemy scientific developments . It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons . The Chief of Army Intelligence , Major General George V. Strong , appointed Boris Pash to command the unit , which was codenamed " Alsos " , a Greek word meaning " grove " .
The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned staff of the physics laboratory at the University of Rome following the capture of the city in June 1944 . Meanwhile , Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in Operation Overlord . Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General Dwight D. Eisenhower and send an officer to brief his chief of staff , Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith . Under the codename Operation Peppermint , special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use .
Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies , Pash and Calvert interviewed Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie about the activities of German scientists . They spoke to officials at Union Minière du Haut Katanga about uranium shipments to Germany . They tracked down 68 tons of ore in Belgium and 30 tons in France . The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Oranienburg , 20 miles north of Berlin , so Groves arranged for it to be bombed on 15 March 1945 .
An Alsos team went to Stassfurt in the Soviet Occupation Zone and retrieved 11 tons of ore from WIFO . In April 1945 , Pash , in command of a composite force known as T @-@ Force , conducted Operation Harborage , a sweep behind enemy lines of the cities of Hechingen , Bisingen and Haigerloch that were the heart of the German nuclear effort . T @-@ Force captured the nuclear laboratories , documents , equipment and supplies , including heavy water and 1 @.@ 5 tons of metallic uranium .
Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including Kurt Diebner , Otto Hahn , Walther Gerlach , Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker , who were taken to England where they were interned at Farm Hall , a bugged house in Godmanchester . After the bombs were detonated in Japan , the Germans were forced to confront the fact that the Allies had done what they could not .
= = Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki = =
= = = Preparations = = =
Starting in November 1943 , the Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field , Ohio , began Silverplate , the codename modification of B @-@ 29s to carry the bombs . Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field , California , and the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California . Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , General Henry H. Arnold , in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets . The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long Thin Man or the 59 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster , but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance . Groves hoped that the American Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress could be modified to carry Thin Man by joining its two bomb bays together . Arnold promised that no effort would be spared to modify B @-@ 29s to do the job , and designated Major General Oliver P. Echols as the USAAF liaison to the Manhattan Project . In turn , Echols named Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson as his alternate , and Wilson became Manhattan Project 's main USAAF contact . President Roosevelt instructed Groves that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended , he should be ready to drop them on Germany .
The 509th Composite Group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . This base , close to the border with Nevada , was codenamed " Kingman " or " W @-@ 47 " . Training was conducted at Wendover and at Batista Army Airfield , Cuba , where the 393d Bombardment Squadron practiced long @-@ distance flights over water , and dropping dummy pumpkin bombs . A special unit known as Alberta was formed at Los Alamos under Captain William S. Parsons as part of the Manhattan Project to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs . Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Alberta met with Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on Guam in February 1945 to inform him of the project . While he was there , Ashworth selected North Field on the Pacific Island Tinian as a base for the 509th Composite Group , and reserved space for the group and its buildings . The group deployed there in July 1945 . Farrell arrived at Tinian on 30 July as the Manhattan Project representative .
Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USS Indianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July . Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine . The remaining components , which included six uranium @-@ 235 rings , were delivered by three C @-@ 54 Skymasters of the 509th Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron . Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B @-@ 29s . The first plutonium core went in a special C @-@ 54 . A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets , and recommended Kokura , Hiroshima , Niigata and Kyoto . At this point , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened , announcing that he would be making the targeting decision , and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance . Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets , but from targets for conventional bombing as well . One of Kyoto 's substitutes was Nagasaki .
= = = Bombings = = =
In May 1945 , the Interim Committee was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy . The committee was chaired by Stimson , with James F. Byrnes , a former US Senator soon to be Secretary of State , as President Harry S. Truman 's personal representative ; Ralph A. Bard , the Under Secretary of the Navy ; William L. Clayton , the Assistant Secretary of State ; Vannevar Bush ; Karl T. Compton ; James B. Conant ; and George L. Harrison , an assistant to Stimson and president of New York Life Insurance Company . The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton , Fermi , Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues . In its presentation to the Interim Committee , the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb , but on its probable military and political impact .
At the Potsdam Conference in Germany , Truman was informed that the Trinity test had been successful . He told Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , that the US had a new superweapon , without giving any details . This was the first official communication to the Soviet Union about the bomb , but Stalin already knew about it from spies . With the authorization to use the bomb against Japan already given , no alternatives were considered after the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration .
On 6 August 1945 , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress ( Enola Gay ) of the 393d Bombardment Squadron , piloted and commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets , lifted off from North Field , and Little Boy in its bomb bay . Hiroshima , the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division and a port of embarkation , was the primary target of the mission , with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives . With Farrell 's permission , weaponeer Captain William S. Parsons completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks during takeoff . The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1 @,@ 750 feet ( 530 m ) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT . An area of approximately 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) was destroyed . Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 – 7 % damaged . About 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 people , of whom 20 @,@ 000 were Japanese combatants and 20 @,@ 000 were Korean slave laborers , or some 30 % of the population of Hiroshima , were killed immediately , and another 70 @,@ 000 injured .
On the morning of 9 August 1945 , a second B @-@ 29 ( Bockscar ) , piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron 's commander , Major Charles W. Sweeney , lifted off with Fat Man on board . This time , Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target . Sweeney took off with the weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged . When they reached Kokura , they found cloud cover had obscured the city , prohibiting the visual attack required by orders . After three runs over the city , and with fuel running low , they headed for the secondary target , Nagasaki . Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured , but a last @-@ minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered . The Fat Man was dropped over the city 's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi @-@ Urakami Ordnance Works in the north . The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT , roughly the same as the Trinity blast , but was confined to the Urakami Valley , and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills , resulting in the destruction of about 44 % of the city . The bombing also crippled the city 's industrial production extensively and killed 23 @,@ 200 – 28 @,@ 200 Japanese industrial workers and 150 Japanese soldiers . Overall , an estimated 35 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 people were killed and 60 @,@ 000 injured .
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August , with three more in September and a further three in October . Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied , and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August . At Los Alamos , technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core . Although cast , it still needed to be pressed and coated , which would take until 16 August . It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August . On 10 August , Truman secretly requested that additional atomic bombs not be dropped on Japan without his express authority . Groves suspended the third core 's shipment on his own authority on 13 August .
On 11 August , Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki . A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren , with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki , who acted as a translator . They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October . This and other scientific missions to Japan would provide valuable scientific and historical data .
The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians . Some questioned whether an " atomic diplomacy " would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive . The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee 's scientific panel . The Szilárd petition , drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project , was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons .
= = After the war = =
Seeing the work they had not understood produce the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs amazed the workers of the Manhattan Project as much as the rest of the world ; newspapers in Oak Ridge announcing the Hiroshima bomb sold for $ 1 ( $ 13 today ) . Although the bombs ' existence was public , secrecy continued , and many workers remained ignorant of their jobs ; one stated in 1946 , " I don 't know what the hell I 'm doing besides looking into a — — — and turning a — — — alongside a — — — . I don 't know anything about it , and there 's nothing to say " . Many residents continued to avoid discussion of " the stuff " in ordinary conversation despite it being the reason for their town 's existence .
In anticipation of the bombings , Groves had Henry DeWolf Smyth prepare a history for public consumption . Atomic Energy for Military Purposes , better known as the " Smyth Report " , was released to the public on 12 August 1945 . Groves and Nichols presented Army – Navy " E " Awards to key contractors , whose involvement had hitherto been secret . Over 20 awards of the Presidential Medal for Merit were made to key contractors and scientists , including Bush and Oppenheimer . Military personnel received the Legion of Merit , including the commander of the Women 's Army Corps detachment , Captain Arlene G. Scheidenhelm .
At Hanford , plutonium production fell off as Reactors B , D and F wore out , " poisoned " by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the Wigner effect . The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium , rendering them unusable . In order to maintain the supply of polonium for the urchin initiators , production was curtailed and the oldest unit , B pile , was closed down so at least one reactor would be available in the future . Research continued , with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a redox solvent extraction process as an alternative plutonium extraction technique to the bismuth phosphate process , which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered .
Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division , named for its director , Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias from Los Alamos . Z Division was initially located at Wendover Field but moved to Oxnard Field , New Mexico , in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos . This marked the beginning of Sandia Base . Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B @-@ 29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests . By October , all the staff and facilities at Wendover had been transferred to Sandia . As reservist officers were demobilized , they were replaced by about fifty hand @-@ picked regular officers .
Nichols recommended that S @-@ 50 and the Alpha tracks at Y @-@ 12 be closed down . This was done in September . Although performing better than ever , the Alpha tracks could not compete with K @-@ 25 and the new K @-@ 27 , which had commenced operation in January 1946 . In December , the Y @-@ 12 plant was closed , thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 500 and saving $ 2 million a month .
Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos , where there was an exodus of talent . Much remained to be done . The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were like laboratory pieces ; work would be required to make them simpler , safer and more reliable . Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method , and composite uranium @-@ plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply because of the problems with the reactors . However , uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay . Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement . In fact , Bradbury would remain in the post for the next 25 years . Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply , three hundred houses , and recreation facilities .
Two Fat Man – type detonations were conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships . Able was detonated on 1 July 1946 . The more spectacular Baker was detonated underwater on 25 July 1946 .
After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki , a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons . In the face of the destructiveness of the new weapons and in anticipation of the nuclear arms race several project members including Bohr , Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons . The Baruch Plan , unveiled in a speech to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission ( UNAEC ) in June 1946 , proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority , but was not adopted .
Following a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project . It established civilian control over atomic development , and separated the development , production and control of atomic weapons from the military . Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) . Although the Manhattan Project ceased to exist on 31 December 1946 , the Manhattan District would remain until it too was abolished on 15 August 1947 .
= = Cost = =
The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $ 1 @.@ 845 billion , equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending , and was $ 2 @.@ 191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947 . Total allocation was $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . Over 90 % of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials , and less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons .
A total of four weapons ( the Trinity gadget , Little Boy , Fat Man , and an unused bomb ) were produced by the end of 1945 , making the average cost per bomb around $ 500 million in 1945 dollars . By comparison , the project 's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90 % of the total spent on the production of US small arms ( not including ammunition ) and 34 % of the total spent on US tanks during the same period .
= = Legacy = =
The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound and far @-@ reaching . William Laurence of the New York Times , the first to use the phrase " Atomic Age " , became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945 . In 1943 and 1944 he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Office of Censorship to permit writing about the explosive potential of uranium , and government officials felt that he had earned the right to report on the biggest secret of the war . Laurence witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases prepared for them . He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon . His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and the Soviet Union .
The wartime Manhattan Project left a legacy in the form of the network of national laboratories : the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , Los Alamos National Laboratory , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Argonne National Laboratory and Ames Laboratory . Two more were established by Groves soon after the war , the Brookhaven National Laboratory at Upton , New York , and the Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque , New Mexico . Groves allocated $ 72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946 – 1947 . They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large @-@ scale research that Alvin Weinberg , the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory , would call Big Science .
The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion , and sought to create its own nuclear project . In May 1946 , Nimitz , now Chief of Naval Operations , decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project . A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge , the most senior of whom was Captain Hyman G. Rickover , who became assistant director there . They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy , laying the foundations for a nuclear @-@ powered navy . A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing nuclear aircraft . Their Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft ( NEPA ) project ran into formidable technical difficulties , and was ultimately cancelled .
The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard @-@ of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine in the immediate postwar years . Starting in mid @-@ 1946 , Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities . Most of the orders were for iodine @-@ 131 and phosphorus @-@ 32 , which were used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer . In addition to medicine , isotopes were also used in biological , industrial and agricultural research .
On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission , Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project :
Five years ago , the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream . You have made that dream a reality . You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities . You have built cities where none were known before . You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a precision heretofore deemed impossible . You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives . With regard to peacetime applications , you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world .
In 2014 , the United States Congress passed a law providing for a national park dedicated to the history of the Manhattan Project . The Manhattan Project National Historical Park was established on 10 November 2015 .
|
= Jane Joseph =
Jane Marian Joseph ( 31 May 1894 – 9 March 1929 ) was an English composer , arranger and music teacher . She was a pupil and later associate of the composer Gustav Holst , and was closely concerned in the organisation and management of various of the music festivals which Holst sponsored . Many of her works were composed for performance at these festivals and similar occasions . Her early death , which prevented the full realisation of her talents , was considered by her contemporaries as a considerable loss to English music .
Holst first observed Joseph 's potential when he was teaching her composition at St Paul 's Girls ' School . She began to act as his amanuensis in 1914 , when he was composing The Planets , her special responsibility being the preparation of the score for the " Neptune " movement . She continued to assist Holst with transcriptions , arrangements and translations , and was his librettist for the choral ballet The Golden Goose . During her short professional life she became an active member of the Society of Women Musicians , was the prime mover behind the first Kensington Musical Competition Festival , and helped to found the Kensington Choral Society . She also taught music at a girls ' school , where Holst 's daughter Imogen was one of her pupils , and became a leading figure in the musical life of Morley College .
Much of Joseph 's compositional oeuvre was never published and has been lost . Of her published works , two early short orchestral pieces , Morris Dance and Bergamask won considerable critical praise , although neither became part of the general orchestral repertory . Two choral works , A Festival Venite and A Hymn for Whitsuntide were admired during her lifetime , but seldom performed thereafter . Her carol " A Little Childe There is Ibore " was thought by Holst to be among the best of its kind . In the eight decades after her death there were no commercial recordings of Joseph 's music , but there have been occasional broadcast performances .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early childhood = = =
Jane Joseph was born on 31 May 1894 at 23 Clanricarde Gardens , in the Notting Hill district of the Borough of Kensington , London , to a prosperous Jewish family . Her father , George Solomon Joseph ( 1844 – 1917 ) , a solicitor in his family 's firm , had married Henrietta , née Franklin ( 1861 – 1938 ) in 1880 . Jane was their fourth child ; the youngest of her three brothers was seven years older than her . George Joseph had a deep interest in music , which he passed on to his children ; two sons , Frank ( 1881 – 1944 ) and Edwin ( 1887 – 1975 ) , became competent string players , while Jane learned piano ( she took her first examination at the age of seven ) and later , double @-@ bass . In time , Frank 's musical children , with Jane and friends , formed the basis of a " Josephs orchestra " that performed concerts at Frank 's home for many years .
= = = St Paul 's Girls ' School and Gustav Holst = = =
In 1909 Joseph won a scholarship to St Paul 's Girls ' School ( SPGS ) in Hammersmith . The school had opened in 1904 , as an offshoot of the long @-@ established St Paul 's School for boys . Its high mistress , Frances Ralph Gray , was a formidable figure with traditional views about female education , who nevertheless provided a lively and varied learning environment in which Joseph excelled . Apart from her academic successes , Joseph played double @-@ bass in the school orchestra , gave an acclaimed piano performance of Bach 's D minor keyboard concerto , began to compose , and won a prize for sight @-@ reading . While at the school she composed " The Carrion Crow " , a song setting which , in 1914 , became her first published work . Outside music she supported the school 's Literary Society , where she presented papers on Charlotte Brontë and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . She also won Honours in the examinations of the Royal Drawing Society .
Among the music teachers at SPGS , most significantly in terms of her musical development , Joseph encountered the emergent composer Gustav Holst , then little known , who taught her composition . After leaving the Royal College of Music in 1898 Holst had earned his living as an organist , and as a trombonist in various orchestras , while awaiting critical recognition as a composer . In 1903 he gave up his orchestral appointments to concentrate on composing , but found that he needed a regular income . He became a music teacher , initially at the James Allen 's Girls ' School in Dulwich ; in 1905 he was recommended to Frances Gray by Adine O 'Neill , a former pupil of Clara Schumann , who taught piano at SPGS . He was first appointed on a part @-@ time basis to teach singing , and later extended his activities to cover the school 's wider music curriculum including conducting and composition . According to the composer Alan Gibbs , Joseph quickly came under Holst 's spell , and adopted his principles as her own . Holst later described her as the best girl pupil he ever had : " From the first she showed an individual attitude of mind and an eagerness to absorb all that was beautiful " .
= = = Student , scribe and teacher , 1913 – 18 = = =
= = = = Girton = = = =
In the autumn of 1913 , at the age of 19 , Joseph began studying Classics at Girton College , Cambridge . At that time , under Cambridge University regulations that were not fully repealed until 1948 , women were ineligible to receive degrees , although they could sit the degree examinations , in Joseph 's case the Classical Tripos . She soon found much in the university 's life to divert her from her regular studies : debating , drama and , above all , music . In her first term she became a double @-@ bass player in the Cambridge University Musical Society orchestra , under its conductor Cyril Rootham . She also sang alto in the society 's choir , and may have participated in a performance of Berlioz 's La damnation de Faust that was praised in the Cambridge Review of 17 June 1914 . During vacations she continued her composition studies under Holst ; in 1916 her " Wassail Song " , a companion piece to " The Carrion Crow " , was published . At Girton she wrote incidental music for a performance of W. B. Yeats 's verse play The Countess Cathleen , in which she acted the part of the First Dragon .
From 1915 Joseph 's association with Holst became closer . Overextended by his teaching duties and other commitments , Holst required assistance in the task of organising his music for publication and performance , and used a group of young women volunteers — his " scribes " — to make fair copies of his scores , write out instrumental or vocal parts , or prepare piano arrangements . In 1915 the composer was working on his largest and best @-@ known work , the orchestral suite The Planets , and invited Joseph , in her vacations , to join his scribes . Among these were Vally Lasker , a piano teacher from SPGS , and Nora Day , who had been a pupil with Joseph at the school and since 1913 had been teaching there . Joseph 's main assignment for The Planets was to copy the " Neptune " movement , of which almost the entire original manuscript is written in her hand . For the rest of her career she remained one of Holst 's most regular amanuenses , and he came to rely on her more than on any other . Her commitments to musical activities at Girton , combined with her work for Holst , had an adverse effect on her formal studies . In the 1916 Classical Tripos examinations she was awarded only a Class III pass , a disappointing result duly noted in her parting testimonial from the college .
= = = = Early career = = = =
When Joseph left Girton , the First World War was at a critical state ; the Battle of the Somme had begun on 1 July 1916 . Joseph wanted to assist the war effort , and after considering work on the land or in a munitions factory , took up part @-@ time welfare work in Islington . In the autumn of 1916 she began teaching at Eothen , a small private school for girls in Caterham , founded and run by the Misses Catharine and Winifred Pye . In 1917 Holst 's ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter Imogen started at the school ; soon , under Joseph 's guidance the young pupil was composing her own music . Joseph extended her own musical activities by joining the orchestra at Morley College , where Holst was the director of music and where her brother Edwin had played the cello before the war . At first she played the double @-@ bass , but later took French horn lessons , possibly from Adolph Borsdorf ; later still , at very short notice , she taught herself the timpani part for a summer concert . By 1918 she was a member of the Morley committee that on 9 March organised and produced an opera burlesque , English Opera as She is Wrote , in which English , Italian , German , French and Russian opera styles were parodied in successive scenes . The performance was a great success and was repeated at several venues . It may have inspired Holst to use parody in his own opera , The Perfect Fool , which he began composing in 1918 . In her spare time Joseph founded and ran a choir for Kensington nannies , which took part in local singing contests as the " Linden Singers " .
Joseph increased her teaching commitments by often deputising for Holst , both at James Allen 's and at SPGS . She also continued in her role of the composer 's amanuensis , and was invited to attend the private premiere of The Planets , on 29 September 1918 at the Queen 's Hall , where Adrian Boult conducted the Queen 's Hall orchestra . She later wrote : " From the moment of Mars ... to the last sound of Neptune , it was a big thing that will last all our lives , I think " . She was able to draw on her classical education at Girton when she helped to translate the apocryphal work The Acts of John from the original Greek , to provide the text for Holst 's Hymn of Jesus ( 1917 ) ; for the same work she prepared a vocal score and an arrangement for piano , strings and organ . She and Holst combined to produce a women 's voices version ( two sopranos and an alto ) of William Byrd 's Mass for Three Voices , and Joseph worked alone to produce an orchestral accompaniment for Samuel Wesley 's Sing Aloud with Gladness . This latter work was prepared for the 1917 Whitsun musical festival , one of an annual series of such festivals that Holst masterminded , first at his home town of Thaxted , in later years at assorted venues including Dulwich , Chichester and Canterbury . Joseph became a key figure in these festivals , as organiser , performer and composer . At Thaxted in 1918 two of her compositions were performed : Hymn for female voices ( now lost ) , and an orchestral piece , Barbara Noel 's Morris , which Joseph wrote to mark her friendship with the daughter of Conrad Noel , Thaxted 's vicar .
The years 1917 and 1918 also brought personal sadness . On 22 October 1917 Joseph 's father died from a heart attack . On 27 May the following year , just after the Whitsun festival , her brother William was killed in action on the western front ; in September , Edwin was severely wounded in the final Allied offensive of the war . In his monograph on Joseph 's life and music , the composer Alan Gibbs writes that " there is no hint in Jane 's letters of the effect these events had on her " . Gibbs quotes Duff Cooper , who wrote of those times : " ... if we wept — as weep we did — we wept in secret " .
= = = Teacher , facilitator and composer , 1918 – 28 = = =
= = = = Postwar years = = = =
In 1919 , seeking to consolidate her musical career , Joseph joined the Society of Women Musicians ( SWM ) , founded in 1911 by the violinist and musicologist Marion Scott and others to promote the interests of women in music . Scott was known to Joseph , having been leader of the Morley orchestra . Joseph became a member of the SWM 's Composers ' Sectional Committee , and occasionally gave lectures to the society on subjects such as " The Necessity of Practical Experience for Composers " , and " The Composer as Pupil " . In the summer of 1919 she took conducting lessons from Adrian Boult , whom she described as " the most chinless man I have ever met " . The purpose of the lessons was to enable her to conduct her orchestral work Bergamask , which was performed at the Coliseum Theatre under a scheme devised by Sir Oswald Stoll to showcase new British music . In that same summer she met Ralph Vaughan Williams , a close friend of Holst . She played him some of her music , probably a piano reduction of Bergamask , and described him as " a very appreciative critic " .
Towards the end of 1918 Holst had asked Joseph to provide a libretto for his opera The Perfect Fool , feeling that she might possess the required light touch that he thought his own writing lacked . It is not clear whether she declined , or whether Holst changed his mind , but he eventually wrote the text himself . Joseph did , however , write the story for a ballet based on Holst 's music The Sneezing Charm ; the ballet , entitled A Magic Hour , was performed at Morley in October 1920 . Meantime , Joseph 's works were being performed at SWM concerts : two songs , probably from her Mirage cycle , in January 1920 , and some of her settings of Walter de la Mare poems in December .
At Eothen , Joseph continued to supervise Imogen Holst 's musical education , aspects of which had earlier been causing Holst some concern . In a letter to his wife dated February 1919 , written when he was serving as YMCA musical organiser for British troops stationed in the Eastern Mediterranean , Holst reported that " I 've had a very kind and wise letter from Jane about Imogen " . Whatever issues had troubled Holst were resolved satisfactorily , and Joseph became Imogen 's theory teacher : " Theory with Jane is ripping " , the young pupil enthused . In the summer term of 1920 , with help from Joseph , Imogen devised and composed a " Dance of Nymphs and Shepherds " which was performed at the school on 9 July . At the beginning of 1921 Imogen started at SPGS ; before becoming a boarder at Bute House ( one of the school 's residences for pupils ) , she stayed in the Joseph family home .
The Whitsun festivals , suspended during Holst 's absence , resumed at Dulwich in 1920 . Joseph 's part in this event is unrecorded , but she made a major contribution to the following year 's festivities , which began beside the Thames at Isleworth and concluded on Whit Monday at SPGS in the gardens of Bute House . For the Monday 's celebrations Joseph devised a presentation of Purcell 's semi @-@ opera from 1690 , Dioclesian . Writing of the occasion after Joseph 's death , Holst recalled that she had woven Purcell 's music and Thomas Betterton 's text , both long neglected , " into a delightful out @-@ door pageant founded on a fairy story , complete with lost princess , dragon and princely hero " . Not satisfied with planning every aspect of the outdoor performance , Joseph prepared an indoors version of the entertainment , should the weather require this . The production was a great success , and was repeated that summer in Hyde Park and , in October 1921 , at the Old Vic theatre . Throughout this considerable organisational task , Holst wrote , " Jane gave the minimum of worry to each person concerned by giving herself the maximum of hard work and forethought " .
= = = = Career zenith = = = =
In November 1921 Joseph organised the Morley forces to perform a large @-@ scale pageant , celebrating the bicentenary of the church of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields . The text was by Laurence Housman and the music , directed by Holst , was taken from the Morley repertory . In the following year Joseph 's increasing recognition as a composer was confirmed when her Seven Two @-@ Part Songs were performed at a SWM concert that included works by Ethel Smyth and other women composers . Two of Joseph 's works , A Hymn for Whitsuntide and A Festival Venite were introduced during the 1922 Whitsun festival at All Saints ' church , Blackheath , with Holst conducting . After the Venite premiere Joseph wrote appreciatively to Holst : " Do you suppose for one moment that any other conductor takes trouble like that ? If you do , you are quite wrong " . The Venite was performed on 13 June 1923 at the Queen 's Hall , by the Philharmonic Choir under Charles Kennedy Scott ; the Spectator 's critic thought it a " very notable addition to modern British music " . Amidst her compositional and other activities , Joseph found time , in 1922 , to organise the first Kensington Musical Competition Festival , and to orchestrate many of the competition songs . In due course this festival became an important annual event in Kensington ; Vaughan Williams was among the adjudicators . On 12 October 1922 , Vaughan Williams 's 50th birthday , Joseph organised a choir which gave an early @-@ morning surprise performance in the composer 's garden of a song she had written to mark the occasion .
As early as 1919 , Joseph had written to her brother Edwin expressing concern about Holst 's health . When following a physical breakdown in 1923 Holst gave up his duties at Morley College , Joseph wrote him a supportive letter congratulating him on his decision which would enable him to concentrate on composition . The following years were particularly fruitful for Holst , and Joseph assisted in many of the works he produced in the 1924 – 28 period . She helped him prepare the score for his Choral Symphony , for which assistance he presented her with his original draft sketches , as a gesture of gratitude . Together with Lasker and Day she worked to prepare vocal and full scores for the opera At the Boar 's Head , and attended the rehearsals in March 1925 . After the opera 's premiere on 3 April she wrote to Holst with mildly critical comments on some of the singers , though with praise for the conductor , the young Malcolm Sargent . When Holst composed a short choral piece to celebrate the 21st birthday of the Oriana Madrigal Society , Joseph provided words which humorously reflected the conductor Kennedy Scott 's working methods ; the work was greatly appreciated by the choir . In that same year , 1925 , she helped to found the Kensington Choral Society . By this time the Joseph home in Kensington , where Jane lived for her whole life , was becoming a recognised musical gathering @-@ place ; a visitor recalled meeting Vaughan Williams , Boult , and the harpist Sidonie Goossens there , among others .
In 1926 Joseph provided Holst with the libretto for his choral ballet The Golden Goose , based on a story by the Brothers Grimm , and arranged its first performance at the 1926 Whitsun festival , held at the James Allen school . Joseph also assisted Holst and the librettist Steuart Wilson in the production of a second choral ballet , The Morning of the Year — the first work commissioned by the BBC 's newly formed music department — which was performed at the Royal Albert Hall in March 1927 . The Morley College Annual Report of 1927 recorded the formation of a folk dance club , and noted Joseph 's " skilful direction " of the group . Her increasing interest in dance led her , that year , to join the English Folk Dance Society and the Kensington Dance Club .
= = = Illness , death and tributes = = =
The main feature of the 1928 Whitsun festival , held at Canterbury , was a religious drama , The Coming of Christ , commissioned by George Bell , then Dean of Canterbury , and written by John Masefield . Holst provided the incidental music . In a photograph described by Gibbs , taken of the festival 's organisers and performers , Joseph is sitting between Holst and Mrs Bell , " taller than either , an efficient @-@ looking lady in her early thirties , clearly of some importance to the festival " . This was Joseph 's last Whitsun . Towards the end of the year her health began to fail ; there is a mention in Holst 's diary for 29 November 1928 , " Jane 's concert 8 @.@ 15 " , but no indication is given of whether she was a performer . In February 1929 she paid off the final amount owing to the piano manufacturer C. Bechstein , for Morley 's new piano for which she had been fundraising since 1926 . On 9 March 1929 Joseph died at home , in Kensington , of kidney failure . After a private funeral she was buried in Willesden Jewish Cemetery .
Holst was in Venice when the news of Joseph 's death reached him ; although Imogen records that he received it stoically , he was privately devastated . Joseph had , wrote Imogen , " come nearest to his ideal of clear thinking and clear feeling " . In his own tribute , Holst drew attention to Joseph 's " infinite capacity for taking pains which amounts to genius " . No Whitsun festival was held in 1929 , but in early July , at an open @-@ air production of Holst 's The Golden Goose at Warwick Castle , a special performance of his St Paul 's Suite was played in Joseph 's memory . On 5 December 1929 , at a competitive music festival , Vaughan Williams conducted the choir in Joseph 's Hymn for Whitsuntide while the audience stood in tribute . The same hymn was played at the first resumed Whitsun festival , at Chichester in May 1930 . In July 1931 Holst included her music in a concert that he conducted at Chichester Cathedral , alongside works by William Byrd , Thomas Weelkes and Vaughan Williams . Over the course of the next few years Joseph 's works were played at concerts and events organised by Morley College , the SWM , SPGS and the English Folk Dance Society . At Eothen a " Jane Joseph Memorial Prize " was established , and music scholarships were endowed in her name at Eothen and SPGS .
A friend who expressed personal sadness on hearing of Joseph 's death revealed another aspect of her character : " England won 't be the same without Jane . She was terribly difficult to get to know at all , and awfully lonely , I thought , in spite of all her friends — don 't you think so ? — but I can 't imagine Music without her " .
= = Music = =
Much of Joseph 's music was written for performances at modest @-@ scale events by amateur performers . As such it was never published , and over the years many works have been lost . The published works and the few others that survive , Gibbs believes , place Joseph in the category of " progressive " English composers . Although her first few compositions were mainly songs , she demonstrated early abilities as an orchestral composer . Gibbs finds in her two short pieces , Morris Dance ( 1917 ) ( originally Barbara Noel 's Morris ) and Bergamask ( 1919 ) , three and five minutes respectively , a " fine feeling for orchestral sound " . The Morris Dance has added sparkle from a glockenspiel , while Bergamask has a festive Italianate feel . The music writer Philip Scowcroft praises Joseph 's confident handling of the sizeable orchestral forces required for the Morris Dance , while the composer Havergal Brian , Holst 's contemporary , found Bergamask " exhilarating " and " full of promise " . Gibbs suggests that these two works presage Holst 's late choral ballets , and comments : " That these carefree pieces did not find a permanent place in the repertory is unfortunate " .
In Joseph 's Mirage song cycle of 1921 ( five songs with string quartet accompaniment ) , a Holstian influence is evident alongside her own distinctive compositional voice . Gibbs highlights the first in the cycle , " Song " , which initially echoes " To Varuna " from Holst 's Rig Veda hymns , but evolves into " a different creation , distinguished by its own uncluttered quartet writing in which the viola has a special part to play " . The final song , " Echo " , has as much in common with Brahms as with Holst . Joseph 's Festival Venite from 1922 is an example of her use of the Modern Dorian mode ( an ascending scale from D to the next D on the white piano keys ) , which became a feature of some of her later works . Scowcroft and Gibbs both point to Tudor influences in the Venite in which also , says Gibbs , " the congenial influence of Vaughan Williams in melody and harmony is felt " . The orchestral score for this work lost , but an organ accompaniment has been devised . Joseph 's unaccompanied choral Hymn for Whitsuntide also uses the Dorian Mode in what Holst described as a " flawless little motet " ; this was first work of Joseph 's to be broadcast , in 1968 . A Short String Quartet in A minor was performed by the Winifred Smith Quartet in December 1922 and was accepted for publication by J.B. Cramer and Co . However , it was not published , and subsequently disappeared .
Joseph 's carol " A Little Childe There is Ibore " , is a setting of a 15th @-@ century poem for three female voices and piano or strings . Holst considered this " the best of Jane 's many carols , and perhaps the hardest to perform well . " Written in alternate bars of five and seven beats , it was praised by Brian for its originality . It was eventually broadcast by the BBC on 21 December 1995 . Brian was also an admirer of Joseph 's many instructional piano pieces : " pleasingly simple and unaffected " . These were published between 1920 and 1925 ; Gibbs writes that these pieces " focus on technical aspects in tuneful and often modal contexts " , with occasional excursions into other forms such as chaconne and rondo .
|
= Washington State Route 302 =
State Route 302 ( SR 302 ) is a 16 @.@ 87 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 15 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , connecting the communities of Allyn @-@ Grapeview and Purdy on the Kitsap Peninsula , located in Mason and Pierce counties . The highway travels southeast from SR 3 in Allyn @-@ Grapeview along North Bay and turns east along Henderson Bay to Purdy . SR 302 intersects its spur route and turns south , ending at an interchange with SR 16 at the north end of Gig Harbor . The highway was created during the 1964 highway renumbering to replace Secondary State Highway 14A ( SSH 14A ) between Allyn and Purdy .
= = Route description = =
SR 302 begins as the Victor Cutoff Road at an intersection with SR 3 south of North Mason High School , located in the community of Allyn @-@ Grapeview in Mason County . The highway travels south along the North Bay of Case Inlet into Pierce County and east across the Key Peninsula toward Henderson Bay . SR 302 continues east through Wauna and across a sandspit on the 550 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 170 m ) Purdy Bridge into the community of Purdy ; the two @-@ lane hollow box girder bridge crosses Burley Lagoon and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In Purdy , the highway turns south onto Purdy Drive at an intersection with its spur route and ends at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with SR 16 , located within Gig Harbor city limits .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was Purdy Drive between the Purdy Bridge and SR 16 , serving 26 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was in the Allyn @-@ Grapeview area , serving 1 @,@ 500 vehicles .
= = History = =
The Purdy Bridge , serving the community of Purdy on the Burley Lagoon , was constructed as a wooden swing bridge in 1892 by Pierce County . The wooden bridge was replaced in 1905 after the timber pilings collapsed and rebuilt in 1920 to include a steel swing span . The current two @-@ lane hollow box girder span was opened on September 29 , 1937 at a cost of $ 62 @,@ 000 and became part of SSH 14A during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways . SSH 14A was extended west from Allyn to Belfair in 1955 , extending along a 19 @.@ 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 31 @.@ 30 km ) route to connect Belfair and Allyn to Purdy . SSH 14A was replaced by SR 3 from Belfair to Allyn and SR 302 from Allyn to SR 16 in Purdy during the 1964 highway renumbering as part of the creation of a new state highway system . SR 16 was moved to a freeway bypass of Purdy in the late 1970s and the old alignment on Purdy Drive was split between SR 302 , heading south , and a new spur route , heading north . During the 2001 Nisqually earthquake , a 6 @.@ 2 magnitude earthquake that occurred on February 28 , 2001 , a section of SR 302 between Allyn and the Key Peninsula was damaged and closed . The highway was repaired with federal emergency relief funds and state funding at a cost of $ 1 million , opening to traffic in 2003 after being replaced by a temporary gravel road . WSDOT is , as of January 2013 , planning to widen SR 302 between the Key Peninsula and Purdy and SR 302 Spur within Purdy as part of safety and congestion improvements scheduled to begin construction in spring 2014 . A corridor study was conducted by WSDOT between 2008 and 2012 and proposed that a new highway north of Henderson Bay to bypass Purdy and have a more direct connection with SR 16 be constructed .
= = Spur route = =
SR 302 Spur , known locally as Purdy Drive , begins its short , 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) route through Purdy at the east end of the Purdy Bridge , which carries SR 302 from Wauna . The highway travels north along Burley Lagoon from Peninsula High School before ending at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with SR 16 . WSDOT conducted a series of surveys to measure traffic volume in terms of AADT and calculated that between 1 @,@ 900 and 11 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the spur route in 2011 .
The spur route was originally part of a Primary State Highway 14 ( PSH 14 ) branch connecting Port Orchard to Tacoma that later became SR 16 during the 1964 highway renumbering . SR 16 was moved to a freeway bypass of Purdy in the late 1970s and the former route was split between SR 302 and the newly created SR 302 Spur .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Meet the Quagmires =
" Meet the Quagmires " is the 18th and final episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox on May 20 , 2007 . The episode features Peter after he goes back in time , in order to live the single life a little longer , before he meets future wife Lois . This causes Quagmire to make his own move on Lois , and they ultimately end up marrying and having children ; Peter is horrified by this " alternate timeline " and resolves to go back in time again and set things right .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Dan Povenmire and Chris Robertson . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 1 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Luke Adams , Jeff Bergman , Adam Carolla , Beth Littleford and Will Sasso , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
After hearing Quagmire brag about his sexual exploits , Peter feels that he has missed out on enjoying the single lifestyle . Death is summoned to The Drunken Clam on a false alarm ( thinking that Horace had died ) , and decides to grant Peter 's wish by sending him , along with Brian , back to 1984 for one night . He notices his friend Cleveland , in his ' 80s look , who high @-@ fives him around the pool . He then sees 18 @-@ year @-@ old Lois Pewterschmidt walking around the country club pool , taking her high @-@ heeled shoes off and jumping off the diving board into the pool with " Mr. Night " playing in the background , a reference to the movie , Caddyshack . Appearing to others as his 18 @-@ year @-@ old self , Peter cancels his scheduled movie date to see Zapped ! with Lois , instead accepting an invitation from Cleveland to go and party at a bar . Peter enjoys the evening , and ends up making out with actress Molly Ringwald before Death appears to return him to the present .
Back in the present day , Peter discovers that his past actions have had drastic effects on the world : he and Molly have been married for 20 years ; Judd Nelson crashes at their house once or twice a week ; Lois is married to Quagmire ; Al Gore is now President ; Chris , Meg , and Stewie have Quagmire 's chin , nose , and mannerisms ; and Chevy Chase is the host of The Tonight Show . Brian explains to Peter that by missing out on his date with Lois and making out with Molly , he altered the time line . Despite Brian 's objections about leaving the " perfect " world ( in which there are flying cars that run on vegetable oil and Gore has killed Osama bin Laden by strangling him with his bare hands ) , Peter wants to go back to the past so he can undo his mistake . Brian says that this is impossible because Death can only be summoned if someone dies and thanks to Gore 's universal health care , people are living much longer along with a strong , well @-@ funded educational system and zero tolerance gun control that has eliminated street crime . However , when Jane Jetson suddenly falls on the sidewalk and dies , Death arrives and again grants Peter 's wish to return to the past . Back in the past , Peter is determined to accept Lois ' invitation but repeatedly blows his opportunity and ends up repeatedly asking Death for a do @-@ over . When Peter finally gets it right , he forgets a few hours later and parties with Cleveland instead of keeping the date . He asks Death for another chance but Death , fed up with Peter 's continued blunders , tells him that he will have to fix the problem on his own .
When Peter tries to apologize the next day , Lois is still upset with him for missing their date and has decided to go to the country club dance with Quagmire . Later that night , Peter and Brian sneak into the dance to prevent the kiss that caused Lois to fall in love with Quagmire . They get in by crawling through the air vent , but crash through and kill one of the guys playing in the band on the stage , so Brian has to play guitar and sing . Peter tries to convince Lois that they belong together but she stubbornly informs Peter that he had his chance and blew it , and therefore she loves Quagmire now . Peter almost gives up but Brian notices Chris , Stewie , and Meg disappearing from a family picture , indicating that they have fallen off the plane of existence and tells Peter it is his last chance to do something that proves he loves Lois . Peter then demonstrates his passion by punching Quagmire and kissing Lois , showing that he cares deeply for her and wins back her love . He asks her to marry him and she accepts . In honor of this success , Brian and the band play " Never Gonna Give You Up " by Rick Astley . The episode ends with things seemingly back to normal , with the exception of Roger from American Dad ! apparently living with the family .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series regular and future showrunner Mark Hentemann , and directed by Chris Robertson and series regular Dan Povenmire , who left the series after completing the episode , in order to create his own series for the Disney Channel entitled Phineas and Ferb , which has since been nominated for three Emmy Awards . Peter Shin , James Purdum and Chris Robertson acted as supervising director . Series creator Seth MacFarlane , David A. Goodman , Danny Smith , Mark Hentemann , Steve Callaghan and Chris Sheridan acted as executive producers . Alec Sulkin , Wellesley Wild , Alex Borstein and Mike Henry worked as supervising producers . Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and Patrick Meighan worked as executive story editors . The episode 's original premise was based on Cleveland 's divorce from his wife , Loretta , with Cleveland going on to become a hot bachelor in Quahog , causing Peter to become jealous , and desiring to become single again . Due to Warner Bros. ' s ownership of Hanna – Barbera , the scene involving The Jetsons was completely reanimated by Povenmire , including the backgrounds and scenery for the sequence .
Meet the Quagmires , along with four other episodes from the fifth season , and the first seven episodes of the sixth season , were released under the title " Volume 6 " by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on October 21 , 2008 , five months after they had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release also features bonus material including deleted scenes , commentaries , and a ' making of ' featurette .
In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest performances by voice actors Luke Adams and Jeff Bergman , actors Adam Carolla and Beth Littleford , and comedian and actor Will Sasso . Recurring guest voices include Alex Breckenridge , voice actors Johnny Brennan and Chris Cox , and writers Mark Hentemann , Alec Sulkin , and John Viener .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Horace the bartender is suddenly knocked unconscious after falling off a ladder , causing Death to appear . After it is discovered that Horace is not actually dead , Death complains that he never likes to be too far from journalist Mike Wallace . Wallace was still alive as of the original airing date .
The Back to the Future trilogy is parodied and referenced throughout the episode , along with many other movies and famous people throughout the 1980s . Other cultural references include how after going back in time , Peter becomes excited about his new prospects in life , and states to Cleveland that he is going to " raise more hell than Hellraiser " from the 1987 horror film Hellraiser . It also depicts Pinhead as weak and ridiculous , stating that the worst he can do is unscrew a salt shaker and trick someone into using it , causing salt to come out all over their food . The first scene where Lois appears at the swimming pool is a reference to a scene from the 1980 film Caddyshack , featuring the song " Mr. Night " by Kenny Loggins . Once Lois appears , she asks Peter if he would like to see the 1982 film Zapped ! . Rejecting her offer , Peter decides to go partying with Cleveland instead and play the video game Menstrual Ms. Pac @-@ Man , in addition to making out with actress Molly Ringwald . While there , Brian gets into a fight , and instructs the bar patron to meet him on top of the World Trade Center to fight him at eight A.M. on September 11 , 2001 . While downstairs in the alternate universe , Peter makes a reference to the Twilight Zone episode , " The Eye of the Beholder . " The joke about the World Trade Center has been edited from current versions of the show accessible on Netflix as of January 2012 . Returning to the present , Peter and Brian decide to watch television , and are shocked to discover that actor Chevy Chase is now the host of The Tonight Show . They also discover that former Vice President Al Gore is now President of the United States , and flying cars running on vegetable oil exist . A parody of the 1962 ABC animated series , Hanna @-@ Barbera 's The Jetsons , is then shown . In the alternate reality , Death refers to the Dick Cheney hunting accident , explaining that the " Chairman of Halliburton " accidentally shot and killed Karl Rove , Antonin Scalia , and Tucker Carlson ( Brian groans that Peter and he can 't change this wonderful future , but Peter flatly says " I don 't know who any of those people are " ) . The main plot of the episode , complete with the scene in which Peter and Brian are in the living room , with Brian explaining to Peter what happened using a chalk board , is a reference to the alternate universe scene in Back to the Future Part II .
In the past once again , Peter suggests to Lois that they see the 1983 film Krull instead . Later , Peter and Cleveland , dressed up as Michael Jackson in the iconic red jacket of his video clip " Thriller , " dance to the Beverly Hills Cop theme . In order to make everything right about the future , Peter and Brian decide to sneak into the prom through a vent . While inside it , Peter recites a line from the 1988 action film Die Hard . The sequence that follows is a parody of the 1985 film Back to the Future . After crashing through the vent to the stage , the band begins playing " Earth Angel " by The Penguins , and , after Peter kisses Lois , Brian sings the 1987 single " Never Gonna Give You Up " by musician Rick Astley . While Brian sings " Never Gonna Give You Up " , Rick Astley 's cousin Marvin calls him to say he 's found the " mediocre , generic sound " that Astley has been looking for , a reference to Back to the Future . In the closing scene of the episode Roger the alien from series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! suddenly appears in the Griffin family home , inquiring about Pecan Sandies .
= = Reception = =
In a significant improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 15 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly being edged out by The Simpsons , while significantly winning over American Dad ! , in both rating and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mostly positive , noting its ability to " capture some of the appeal from the pre @-@ cancellation days . " Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the episode 's story , writing that it had " a great storyline and the right combination of irrelevant and relevant jokes " , giving the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . In another positive review , Brett Love of TV Squad called the episode " solid , " and praised the scenes set in 1984 , and the alternate world . Love went on to state , " The show has lost a little of the luster that it once had , but that 's no reason to count them out . There were enough bright spots to give hope for a return to that old form when season six comes around in the fall . " He graded " Meet the Quagmires " 5 out of 7 .
The episode was voted # 10 on BBC Three 's list of Top Ten Family Guy episodes .
|
= Tiberius =
Tiberius ( Latin : Tiberius Caesar Dīvī Augustī Fīlius Augustus ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD ) was a Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD . Born Tiberius Claudius Nero , a Claudian , Tiberius was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian , later known as Augustus , in 39 BC , making him a step @-@ son of Octavian .
Tiberius would later marry Augustus ' daughter ( from his marriage to Scribonia ) , Julia the Elder , and even later be adopted by Augustus , by which act he officially became a Julian , bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar . The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the following thirty years ; historians have named it the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty , Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus , grand @-@ uncle of Caligula , paternal uncle of Claudius , and great @-@ grand uncle of Nero .
Tiberius was one of Rome 's greatest generals ; his conquest of Pannonia , Dalmatia , Raetia , and temporarily , parts of Germania , laid the foundations for the northern frontier . But he came to be remembered as a dark , reclusive , and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor ; Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum , " the gloomiest of men . "
After the death of Tiberius ’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD , he became more reclusive and aloof . In 26 AD Tiberius removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro .
Caligula , Tiberius ' grand @-@ nephew and adopted grandson , succeeded Tiberius upon his death .
= = Early life = =
= = = Background = = =
Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . In 39 BC his mother divorced his biological father and remarried Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus shortly thereafter , while still pregnant with Tiberius Nero 's son . In 38 BC his brother , Nero Claudius Drusus , was born .
Little is recorded of Tiberius 's early life . In 32 BC Tiberius made his first public appearance at the age of nine , delivering the eulogy for his biological father . In 29 BC , both he and his brother Drusus rode in the triumphal chariot along with their adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium .
In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again . Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus ' heir became most acute , and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death , the ambiguity of succession became Augustus ' chief problem .
In response , a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected , among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus . In 24 BC at the age of seventeen Tiberius entered politics under Augustus ' direction , receiving the position of quaestor , and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law . Similar provisions were made for Drusus .
= = = Civil and military career = = =
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate , and it is presumably here that his interest in Greek rhetoric began . In 20 BC , Tiberius was sent East under Marcus Agrippa . The Parthians had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus ( 53 BC ) ( at the Battle of Carrhae ) , Decidius Saxa ( 40 BC ) , and Marc Antony ( 36 BC ) .
After a year of negotiation , Tiberius led a sizable force into Armenia , presumably with the goal of establishing it as a Roman client @-@ state and ending the threat it posed on the Roman @-@ Parthian border . Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned , and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers .
After returning from the East in 19 BC , Tiberius was married to Vipsania Agrippina , the daughter of Augustus ’ s close friend and greatest general , Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . He was appointed to the position of praetor , and sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west . While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier , Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul , conquering Raetia . In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube , and soon afterwards the bend of the middle course . Returning to Rome in 13 BC , Tiberius was appointed as consul , and around this same time his son , Drusus Julius Caesar , was born .
Agrippa 's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession . At Augustus ’ request in 11 BC , Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder , Augustus ' daughter and Agrippa 's widow . This event seems to have been the breaking point for Tiberius ; his new marriage with Julia was never a happy one , and produced only a single child who died in infancy .
Reportedly , Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again , and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging forgiveness ; soon afterwards , Tiberius met with Augustus , and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again . Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus , and after Agrippa 's death and his brother Drusus ' death in 9 BC , seemed the clear candidate for succession . As such , in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania ; both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy .
In 6 BC , Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni . Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions , Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade the Marcomanni from the east . Meanwhile , general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions , pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory , and attack the Marcomanni from the west . The campaign was a resounding success , but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome 's new conquests in Germania .
He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC , and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) and control in the East , all of which mirrored positions that Agrippa had previously held . However , despite these successes and despite his advancement , Tiberius was not happy .
= = = Retirement to Rhodes ( 6 BC ) = = =
In 6 BC , on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second most powerful man in Rome , Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes . The precise motives for Tiberius 's withdrawal are unclear . Historians have speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had adopted Julia 's sons by Agrippa Gaius and Lucius , and seemed to be moving them along the same political path that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden .
Tiberius 's move thus seemed to be an interim solution : he would hold power only until his stepsons would come of age , and then be swept aside . The promiscuous , and very public , behavior of his unhappily married wife , Julia , may have also played a part . Indeed , Tacitus calls it Tiberius ' intima causa , his innermost reason for departing for Rhodes , and seems to ascribe the entire move to a hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania . Tiberius had found himself married to a woman he loathed , who publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the Forum , and forbidden to see the woman he had loved .
Whatever Tiberius 's motives , the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus 's succession plans . Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens , and Augustus , now 57 years old , had no immediate successor . There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus 's death , nor a guarantee that his family , and therefore his family 's allies , would continue to hold power should the position of princeps survive .
Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay , even going so far as to stage a serious illness . Tiberius 's response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived , then sailing straightway for Rhodes . Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times , but each time Augustus refused his requests .
= = = Heir to Augustus = = =
With Tiberius 's departure , succession rested solely on Augustus ' two young grandsons , Lucius and Gaius Caesar . The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius . Augustus , with perhaps some pressure from Livia , allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more . In AD 4 , Gaius was killed in Armenia , and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius .
The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus . Tiberius was adopted as full son and heir and in turn , he was required to adopt his nephew , Germanicus , the son of his brother Drusus and Augustus ' niece Antonia Minor . Along with his adoption , Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus 's maius imperium , something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had .
In AD 7 , Agrippa Postumus , a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius , was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa , to live in solitary confinement . Thus , when in AD 13 , the powers held by Tiberius were made equal , rather than second , to Augustus 's own powers , he was for all intents and purposes a " co @-@ princeps " with Augustus , and in the event of the latter 's passing , would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval .
However , according to Suetonius , after a two @-@ year stint in Germania , which lasted from 10 − 12 AD , " Tiberius ' returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed , accompanied also by his generals , for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia . And before turning to enter the Capitol , he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father , who was presiding over the ceremonies . ” " Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him , he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies . "
Thus according to Suetonius , these ceremonies and the declaration of his " co @-@ princeps " took place in the year 12 AD , after Tiberius return from Germania . " But he was at once recalled , and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive , he spent an entire day with him in private . " Augustus died in AD 14 , at the age of 75 . He was buried with all due ceremony and , as had been arranged beforehand , deified , his will read , and Tiberius confirmed as his sole surviving heir .
= = Emperor ( 14 – 37 AD ) = =
= = = Early reign = = =
The Senate convened on 18 September , to validate Tiberius 's position as Princeps and , as it had done with Augustus before , extend the powers of the position to him . These proceedings are fully accounted by Tacitus . Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps , all he lacked were the titles — Augustus , Pater Patriae , and the Civic Crown ( a crown made from laurel and oak , in honor of Augustus having saved the lives of Roman citizens ) .
Tiberius , however , attempted to play the same role as Augustus : that of the reluctant public servant who wants nothing more than to serve the state . This ended up throwing the entire affair into confusion , and rather than humble , he came across as derisive ; rather than seeming to want to serve the state , he seemed obstructive . He cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps , stated he did not wish the position , and then proceeded to ask for only a section of the state . Tiberius finally relented and accepted the powers voted to him , though according to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the titles Pater Patriae , Imperator , and Augustus , and declined the most solid emblem of the Princeps , the Civic Crown and laurels .
This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberius 's entire rule . He seems to have wished for the Senate and the state to simply act without him and his direct orders were rather vague , inspiring debate more on what he actually meant than on passing his legislation . In his first few years , Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act on its own , rather than as a servant to his will as it had been under Augustus . According to Tacitus , Tiberius derided the Senate as " men fit to be slaves . "
= = = Rise and fall of Germanicus = = =
Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps . The Roman legions posted in Pannonia and in Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus , and after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming . Germanicus and Tiberius 's son , Drusus Julius Caesar , were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line .
Rather than simply quell the mutiny however , Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory , stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus . Germanicus 's forces crossed the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe . Additionally , Tacitus records the capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctilius Varus , when three Roman legions and its auxiliary cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes .
Germanicus had managed to deal a significant blow to Rome 's enemies , quell an uprising of troops , and returned lost standards to Rome , actions that increased the fame and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with the Roman people .
After being recalled from Germania , Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17 , the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus 's own in 29 BC . As a result , in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire , just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before , and was clearly the successor to Tiberius . Germanicus survived a little over a year before dying , accusing Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso , the governor of Syria , of poisoning him .
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians , and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia , the mother of Tiberius . Germanicus 's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps . Piso was placed on trial and , according to Tacitus , threatened to implicate Tiberius . Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown ; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him , Piso committed suicide .
Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point . In AD 22 , he shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus , and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year . In AD 23 , Drusus mysteriously died , and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement . Finally , in AD 26 , Tiberius retired from Rome altogether to the island of Capri .
= = = Tiberius in Capri , with Sejanus in Rome = = =
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15 . As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of Princeps , he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus , and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians . In AD 17 or 18 , Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defense of the city , and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself , giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops .
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus , at least in Tiberius 's eyes , who thereafter refers to him as his ' Socius Laborum ' ( Partner of my labours ) . Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city , and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether . Finally , with Tiberius 's withdrawal in AD 26 , Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome .
Sejanus 's position was not quite that of successor ; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius 's niece , Livilla , though under pressure quickly withdrew the request . While Sejanus 's Praetorians controlled the imperial post , and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius , the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time . Her death in AD 29 changed all that .
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome , removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial ( and his own ) treasury . Germanicus 's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons , Nero Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances . In Sejanus 's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family , Caligula , Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla , and Julia Livilla were the only survivors .
= = = = Plot by Sejanus against Tiberius = = = =
In 31 , Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia , and began his play for power in earnest . Precisely what happened is difficult to determine , but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians , and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line with an eye towards placing himself , as an adopted Julian , in the position of Princeps , or as a possible regent . Livilla was later implicated in this plot , and was revealed to have been Sejanus 's lover for a number of years .
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius , with the support of the Julians , and either assuming the Principate themselves , or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Gaius Caligula . Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with .
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate , where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution . Sejanus was tried , and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week . As commander of the Praetorian Guard , he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro .
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign , now , towards the end of his life , he seemed to do so without compunction . Hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians . Even the imperial magistracy was hit , as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed , their properties seized by the state . As Tacitus vividly describes ,
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury , and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus . There lay , singly or in heaps , the unnumbered dead , of every age and sex , the illustrious with the obscure . Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them , to weep over them , or even to gaze on them too long . Spies were set round them , who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses , till they were dragged to the Tiber , where , floating or driven on the bank , no one dared to burn or to touch them .
However , Tacitus ' portrayal of a tyrannical , vengeful emperor has been challenged by several modern historians . The prominent ancient historian Edward Togo Salmon notes in his work , A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138 :
" In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius ' reign , not more than fifty @-@ two persons were accused of treason , of whom almost half escaped conviction , while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate , not to the Emperor 's tyranny " .
While Tiberius was in Capri , rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there . Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity , including graphic depictions of child molestation , and cruelty , and most of all his paranoia . While heavily sensationalized , Suetonius ' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class , and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule .
= = = Final years = = =
The affair with Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius ' image and reputation . After Sejanus 's fall , Tiberius ' withdrawal from Rome was complete ; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus , rather than through the leadership of the Princeps . Suetonius records that he became paranoid , and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son . Meanwhile , during this period a short invasion by Parthia , incursions by tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several Germanic tribes occurred .
Little was done to either secure or indicate how his succession was to take place ; the Julians and their supporters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus , and his own sons and immediate family were dead . Two of the candidates were either Caligula , the sole surviving son of Germanicus , or his own grandson , Tiberius Gemellus . However , only a half @-@ hearted attempt at the end of Tiberius ' life was made to make Caligula a quaestor , and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor , while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come .
= = = = Death ( 37 AD ) = = = =
Tiberius died in Misenum on 15 March AD 37 , in his seventy eighth year . Tacitus records that upon the news of his death the crowd rejoiced , only to become suddenly silent upon hearing that he had recovered , and rejoiced again at the news that Caligula and Macro had smothered him . This is not recorded by other ancient historians apart from Suetonius and is most likely apocryphal , but some historians consider it indicative of how the senatorial class felt towards the Emperor at the time of his death . After his death , the Senate refused to vote him divine honors , and mobs filled the streets yelling " To the Tiber with Tiberius ! " — in reference to a method of disposal reserved for the corpses of criminals . Instead the body of the emperor was cremated and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum of Augustus , later to be scattered in AD 410 during the Sack of Rome .
In his will , Tiberius had left his powers jointly to Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus . Caligula 's first act on becoming Princeps was to void Tiberius ' will and have Gemellus executed .
Tiberius ' heir Caligula not only spent Tiberius ' fortune of 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sesterces but would also begin the chain of events which would bring about the downfall of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty in AD 68 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Were he to have died prior to AD 23 , he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler . Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterization left by Roman historians , Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death . Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest , he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases , using diplomacy as well as military threats , and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants .
The result was a stronger , more consolidated empire . Of the authors whose texts have survived , only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail : Tacitus , Suetonius , Cassius Dio and Velleius Paterculus . Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder , Strabo and Seneca the Elder . Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as " brief and sketchy , " but this book has been lost .
= = = = Publius Cornelius Tacitus = = = =
The most detailed account of this period is handed down to us by Tacitus , whose Annals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius . Tacitus was a Roman senator , born during the reign of Nero in 56 AD , and consul suffect in AD 97 . His text is largely based on the acta senatus ( the minutes of the session of the Senate ) and the acta diurna populi Romani ( a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital ) , as well as speeches by Tiberius himself , and the histories of contemporaries such as Cluvius Rufus , Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder ( all of which are lost ) .
Tacitus ' narrative emphasizes both political and psychological motivation . The characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative , and gradually worsens as his rule declines , identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son Drusus in 23 AD .
The rule of Julio @-@ Claudians is generally described as unjust and ' criminal ' by Tacitus . Even at the outset of his reign , he seems to ascribe many of Tiberius ' virtues merely to hypocrisy . Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors , corruption , and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome . A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the maiestas law under Augustus . Ultimately , Tacitus ' opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book :
His character too had its distinct periods . It was a bright time in his life and reputation , while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices ; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue , as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive . Again , while his mother lived , he was a compound of good and evil ; he was infamous for his cruelty , though he veiled his debaucheries , while he loved or feared Sejanus . Finally , he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace , when fear and shame being cast off , he simply indulged his own inclinations .
= = = = Suetonius Tranquillus = = = =
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian . The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96 . Like Tacitus , he drew upon the imperial archives , as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus , Cluvius Rufus , Fabius Rusticus and Augustus ' own letters .
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary . The most famous sections of his biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri . Nevertheless , Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius ' actions during his early reign , emphasizing his modesty .
= = = = Velleius Paterculus = = = =
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus , who served under Tiberius for eight years ( from AD 4 ) in Germany and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus . Paterculus ' Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29 . His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor and Sejanus . How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question , but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus .
= = = Gospels , Jews , and Christians = = =
The Gospels mention that during Tiberius ' reign , Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of Pontius Pilate , the Roman governor of Judaea province . In the Bible , Tiberius is mentioned by name only once , in Luke 3 : 1 , which states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign . Many references to Caesar ( or the emperor in some other translations ) , without further specification , would seem to refer to Tiberius . Similarly , the " Tribute Penny " referred to in Matthew and Mark is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius .
During Tiberius ' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens , increasing long @-@ simmering resentments . Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army . Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city .
There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism . Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD . Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate , distinct faith .
= = = Archaeology = = =
The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the Palatine Hill , the ruins of which can still be seen today . No major public works were undertaken in the city during his reign , except a temple dedicated to Augustus and the restoration of the theater of Pompey , both of which were not finished until the reign of Caligula . In addition , remnants of Tiberius ' villa at Sperlonga , which includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculptures were found in fragments , and the Villa Jovis on top of Capri have been preserved . The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across the island , of which Villa Jovis was the largest .
Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god , and allowed only one temple to be built in his honor at Smyrna . The town Tiberias , in modern Israel on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee was named in Tiberius 's honour by Herod Antipas .
= = = In fiction = = =
Tiberius has been represented in fiction , in literature , film and television , and in video games , often as a peripheral character in the central storyline . One such modern representation is in the novel I , Claudius by Robert Graves , and the consequent BBC television series adaptation , where he is portrayed by George Baker . George R. R. Martin , the author of The Song of Ice and Fire series , has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar , and particularly the portrayal by Baker .
In the 1968 ITV historical drama The Caesars , Tiberius ( by André Morell ) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in I , Claudius .
He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry , in which he is played by Max von Sydow . In addition , Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben @-@ Hur ( played by George Relph in his last starring role ) , and in A.D. ( played by James Mason ) .
Played by Ernest Thesiger , he featured in The Robe ( 1953 ) . He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula , portrayed by Peter O 'Toole . He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell 's 1958 novel , Dear and Glorious Physician , a biography of St Luke the Evangelist , author of the third canonical Gospel .
= = Children and family = =
Tiberius was married two times , with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood :
Vipsania Agrippina , daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ( 16 – 11 BC )
Drusus Julius Caesar ( 13 BC – 23 AD )
Julia the Elder , only daughter of Augustus ( 11 – 6 BC )
= = Ancestry = =
( See also Julio @-@ Claudian family tree )
= = = Secondary material = = =
Ehrenberg , V. ; Jones , A.H.M. ( 1955 ) . Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius . Oxford .
Capes , William Wolfe , Roman History , Longmans , Green , and Co . , 1897
Levick , Barbara ( 1999 ) . Tiberius the Politician . Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 21753 @-@ 9 .
Mason , Ernst ( 1960 ) . Tiberius . New York : Ballantine Books . ( Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction author Frederik Pohl )
Seager , Robin ( 1972 ) . Tiberius . London : Eyre Methuen . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 413 @-@ 27600 @-@ 1 .
Seager , Robin ( 2005 ) . Tiberius . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4051 @-@ 1529 @-@ 7 .
Shotter , David ( 1992 ) . Tiberius Caesar . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 07654 @-@ 4 .
Salmon , Edward ( 1968 ) . History of the Roman World , 30 B.C.-A.D.138 , Part II : Tiberius . Methuen . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 416 @-@ 10710 @-@ 4 .
Southern , Pat ( 1998 ) . Augustus . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 16631 @-@ 4 .
Syme , Ronald ( 1986 ) . The Augustan Aristocracy . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814859 @-@ 3 .
|
= Hurricane Gustav ( 2002 ) =
Hurricane Gustav was a Category 2 hurricane that paralleled the East Coast of the United States in September 2002 during the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the seventh named storm and first hurricane of the season . Initially a subtropical depression north of the Bahamas , Gustav passed slightly to the east of the Outer Banks of North Carolina as a tropical storm before moving northeastward and making two landfalls in Atlantic Canada as a Category 1 hurricane . The storm was responsible for one death and $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , mostly in North Carolina . The interaction between Gustav and a non @-@ tropical system produced strong winds that caused an additional $ 240 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage in New England , but this damage was not directly attributed to the hurricane .
Gustav spent the early part of its existence as a subtropical storm , and was the first such storm to be named from the current lists by the National Hurricane Center . Previously , subtropical storms were not given names . The cyclone was also the latest @-@ forming first hurricane of the season since 1941 .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of disturbed weather in association with a weak surface trough and a stronger upper @-@ level trough between the Bahamas and Bermuda developed on September 6 . High pressure ridging strengthened by Tropical Storm Fay caused the trough to become more organized and close off into a broad non @-@ tropical low on September 7 . By September 8 , the system had developed enough convection near its center of circulation to be classified Subtropical Depression Eight while located southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Later that day , data from a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance aircraft indicated that the system had strengthened into a subtropical storm , and the depression was upgraded to Subtropical Storm Gustav .
Gustav moved erratically to the west @-@ northwest toward the North Carolina @-@ South Carolina border over the next two days , it slowly strengthened , acquiring more tropical characteristics . On September 10 , a poorly organized band of stronger winds developed around the center , and Gustav was designated a fully tropical storm shortly before turning toward the north and brushing Cape Hatteras , then accelerating toward the northeast and away from the coast . On September 11 , while under the influence of a non @-@ tropical system over New England , Gustav quickly strengthened into a hurricane , in a process similar to the intensification of Hurricane Michael in 2000 . Gustav reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) later that day .
The hurricane began to slowly weaken and lose tropical characteristics on early September 12 as it moved over colder waters and encountered increasing wind shear . However , the storm was moving quickly enough to make landfall over Cape Breton , Nova Scotia as a Category 1 hurricane on September 12 . Later that morning , Gustav made a second landfall in Newfoundland and became extratropical shortly after . The extratropical low continued moving slowly to the northeast before dissipating over the Labrador Sea on September 15 .
= = Preparations = =
On September 8 , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted that Gustav would approach the North Carolina coast , and issued a tropical storm watch from Cape Fear to the North Carolina – Virginia border . The tropical storm watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 9 , and a new tropical storm watch was issued later that day for areas of southeastern Virginia , from the North Carolina – Virginia border to New Point Comfort . The new watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 10 . As Gustav began to turn to the northeast and away from the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast , the tropical storm warnings were gradually discontinued . The last warning was discontinued on September 11 .
As Gustav approached Atlantic Canada , Environment Canada and the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued heavy rain and wind warnings for southern New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland .
= = Impact = =
= = = North Carolina and Virginia = = =
Although the center of Gustav passed just to the east of Cape Hatteras , areas of North Carolina and southeastern Virginia experienced heavy rain and tropical storm force winds . Parts of the Outer Banks received 2 – 5 inches ( 50 – 125 mm ) of rain and winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and the Coast Guard station at Cape Hatteras reported a wind gust of 78 mph ( 125 km / h ) . The storm produced storm surges of 3 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) along the Outer Banks , and 1 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) along the southeastern coast of Virginia . These surges , combined with strong winds and high sea swells , resulted in minor flooding , mainly in Ocracoke and Hatteras Village , North Carolina . A weak waterspout also touched down on Silver Lake near Ocracoke and moved onshore , but only minor roof damage was reported . Sporadic power outages were also reported . One person died after suffering injuries in the high surf , and 40 other people had to be rescued from riptides and storm surges . Damage in the region amounted to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Although the center of Gustav remained well offshore , the difference in pressure between it and a high pressure area over the central United States caused strong winds in areas of New Jersey on September 11 . Wind gusts ranged from 35 – 45 mph ( 55 – 70 km / h ) , with stronger winds reported near the coast . A maximum wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at Keansburg . The strong winds downed trees and power lines throughout the eastern half of the state , damaging homes and blocking streets . At least 14 @,@ 000 homes in the vicinity of Burlington and Ocean Counties were left without power . In West Windsor Township , a man was killed when the upper section of a concrete wall he was working on blew over and crushed him . The other death occurred in West Amwell Township , where a tree limb fell on two elderly women , killing one and injuring the other . Elsewhere , while there were reports of trees falling on vehicles , no other serious injuries or deaths were reported .
= = = New York and New England = = =
The interaction between Gustav and the non @-@ tropical system caused strong winds that affected areas of coastal New England , mainly in eastern New York and Massachusetts . Some areas reported storm @-@ force wind gusts of over 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , and a maximum wind gust of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) was reported by a weather spotter in Catskill , New York . Wind gusts of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) were reported in areas of Massachusetts . The winds downed trees and power lines , and several homes and cars were damaged by fallen trees . Over 29 @,@ 000 homes were left without power in eastern New York , and 19 @,@ 000 homes lost power in Massachusetts . In all , the winds caused $ 240 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage , but this damage was not directly attributed to Gustav in the National Hurricane Center 's analysis .
In the New York City area , a peak wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at John F. Kennedy International Airport . The winds caused some minor roof damage to buildings , and forced officials in New York City to cordon off parts of Manhattan as debris ranging from wrapping paper to crushed soda cans was blown about . This debris injured four people , one critically , and disrupted a 9 / 11 memorial service , though it continued as planned .
Sustained winds of 25 – 35 mph ( 40 – 55 km / h ) , with gusts up to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , were reported throughout Long Island . Damage on the island was mainly limited to downed trees and power lines , although the Long Island Power Authority reported that at least 93 @,@ 000 homes lost power during the day on September 11 . One person was killed when his boat capsized in the Long Island Sound .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
Despite gradually losing its tropical characteristics , Gustav brought heavy rain , storm and hurricane force winds , and storm surges to areas of Atlantic Canada for several days . Strong winds knocked down trees and damaged docks in Nova Scotia , and a wind gust of 75 mph ( 122 km / h ) was reported on Sable Island . Gusts to over 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported in Newfoundland for several days after the center of Gustav moved out of the area . Rainfall amounts generally ranged from 0 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 7 inches ( 10 – 70 mm ) , with a maximum of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) in Ashdale , Nova Scotia . Several locations set new daily rainfall records . Localized flooding was reported in areas of Prince Edward Island , and 4 @,@ 000 people in Halifax , Nova Scotia and Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island were left without power . Despite the heavy rain and wind , there were no reports of deaths or significant damage in Atlantic Canada .
= = Naming and records = =
Gustav was the first subtropical storm to be given a name from the current name lists by the National Hurricane Center . Prior to the 2002 season , Atlantic subtropical storms were either not named or given a number from a separate numbering list than tropical cyclones .
When Gustav attained hurricane status on September 11 , it became the latest first hurricane to form in any season since the 1941 season , when the first hurricane developed on September 16 . According to climatology , an average of three hurricanes form by September 11 of each year .
|
= Neferhotep I =
Khasekhemre Neferhotep I was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid Thirteenth Dynasty ruling in the second half of the 18th century BC during a time referred to as the late Middle Kingdom or early Second Intermediate Period , depending on the scholar . One of the best attested rulers of the 13th Dynasty , Neferhotep I reigned for 11 years .
The grandson of a non @-@ royal townsman from a Theban family with a military background , Neferhotep I 's relation to his predecessor Sobekhotep III is unclear and he may have usurped the throne . Neferhotep I was likely contemporaneous with kings Zimri @-@ Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon . Little is known of his activities during his decade @-@ long reign and the most important document surviving from his rule is a stela from Abydos recounting the fashion of an image of Osiris and Neferhotep 's determination that it be made " as instructed by the gods at the beginning of time " .
Toward the end of his reign , Neferhotep I shared the throne with his brother Sihathor , a coregency that lasted a few months to a year . Sihathor died shortly before Neferhotep , who may have then appointed another brother , Sobekhotep IV , as coregent . In any case , Sobekhotep IV succeeded Neferhotep I soon afterwards , and reigned over Egypt for almost a decade . The reigns of the two brothers mark the apex of the 13th Dynasty .
= = Family = =
= = = Origins = = =
Neferhotep I seems to have come from a non @-@ royal family of Thebes with a military background . His grandfather , Nehy , held the title " officer of a town regiment " . Nehy was married to a woman called Senebtysy . Nothing is known about her other than that she held the common title " lady of the house " . Their only known son was called Haankhef .
Haankhef always appears in the sources as " God 's father " and " royal sealer " and his wife Kemi as " king 's mother " indicating that neither of them was of royal birth . The parentage of Neferhotep and Haankhef is directly confirmed by a number of scarab seals from El @-@ Lahun where the latter is said to be the father of the former . Haankhef is also explicitly recorded as the father of Neferhotep I in the Turin canon , a king list redacted during the early Ramesside era and which serves as the primary historical source for the rulers of this time period . This is an extremely rare occurrence as the Turin canon normally only names the pharaohs while non @-@ royal people are excluded from the list . Beyond Haankhef , the only other exception to this rule is the father of Sobekhotep II .
Egyptologists have noted that instead of hiding their non @-@ royal origins , Neferhotep I , his predecessor Sobekhotep III , and his successor Sobekhotep IV , remarkably proclaimed them on their stelae and scarab seals . This is at odds with the traditional Egyptian system where the legitimation of the new king rests mainly on his filiation . These proclamations of non @-@ royal origins were possibly made to dissociate these kings from their immediate predecessors , in particular Seth Meribre whose monuments have been usurped and defaced . The reason for this remains unknown .
= = = Descendants and succession = = =
Inscriptions from Aswan indicate that Neferhotep I had at least two children named Haankhef and Kemi like his parents , whom he had with a woman called Senebsen . He also possibly had another son named Wahneferhotep . In spite of this , Neferhotep I named his brother Sihathor as coregent in the last months of his reign and when both Sihathor and Neferhotep I died around the same time , they were succeeded by another brother , Sobekhotep IV .
Sobekhotep IV , whose reign marks the apex of the 13th Dynasty , mentions on a stela ( Cairo JE 51911 ) that was placed in the temple of Amun at Karnak that he was born in Thebes :
My majesty [ came ] to the Southern City since I wanted to see the august god ; it is my city in which I was born . ... I saw the vigor of his majesty ( i.e. Amun ) at every single feast when I was a child who could not yet conceive .
Similarly , Neferhotep I could well have been born in Thebes ; even though the capital of Egypt during the 13th Dynasty was still Itjtawy in the north , near the modern village of el @-@ Lisht .
= = Reign = =
= = = Attestations = = =
Artefacts
Neferhotep I is known from a relatively high number of objects found over a large area , from Byblos to the North to the Egyptian fortresses of Buhen and Mirgissa in Lower Nubia to the South through all parts of Egypt , especially in the southern portion of Upper Egypt . A single attestation is known from Lower Egypt , a scarab from Tell el @-@ Yahudiya . Other attestations include over 60 scarab seals , 2 cylinder @-@ seals , a statue from Elephantine , and 11 rock inscriptions from Wadi el Shatt el @-@ Rigal , Sehel Island , Konosso and Philae . The inscriptions record the members of Neferhotep 's family as well as two high officials serving him " The royal acquaintance Nebankh " and the " Treasurer Senebi " . Two stelae are known from Abydos one of which , usurped from king Wegaf and dated to his 4th regnal year , forbids the construction of tombs on the sacred processional way of Wepwawet . Two naoses housing two statues each of Neferhotep as well as a pedestal bearing Neferhotep 's and Sobekhotep IV 's cartouches have been found in Karnak . There are also a few attestations from the Faiyum region where the capital of Egypt was located at the time , in particular a statuette of the king dedicated to Sobek and Horus of Shedet , now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Bologna .
King lists
Beyond these contemporary attestations , Neferhotep is listed on the 34th entry of the Karnak king list as well as the 7th column , 25th row of the Turin canon . The Turin king list credits Neferhotep with a reign of 11 years and 1 to 4 months , the second or third longest of the dynasty after Merneferre Ay ( 23 years ) and Sobekhotep IV ( 9 – 12 years ) .
= = = Chronology = = =
Neferhotep I 's relative chronological position is secured thanks to the Turin canon as well as contemporary attestations . He was the successor of Sobekhotep III and predecessor of Sobekhotep IV . Since his father Haankhef and mother Kemi are also well attested and not known to have had any title beyond those of " God 's father " and " King 's mother " , respectively , Egyptologists such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker believe that Neferhotep I was of non @-@ royal birth and usurped the throne . The military background of his family may have played a role in this .
At the opposite , the absolute chronological position of Neferhotep is debated with Ryholt and Baker seeing him respectively as the 26th and 27th pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty while Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath contend that he was only the 22nd ruler . Similarly , the absolute datation of Neferhotep 's reign varies by as much as 40 years between the scholars , with Kim Ryholt dating the beginning of his reign c . 1740 BC and Thomas Schneider c . 1700 BC .
= = = Extent of rule = = =
Whether Neferhotep I usurped the throne at the expense of Sobekhotep III or inherited it , he possibly acceded to power over a fragmented Egypt . The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt believes that the Canaanite 14th Dynasty was already in existence at the time , forming an independent realm controlling at least the Eastern Nile Delta . This could explain why Neferhotep 's only attestation in Lower Egypt is a single scarab seal . While this analysis is accepted by some scholars , among whom are Gae Callender , Janine Bourriau and Darrell Baker , it is rejected by others , including Manfred Bietak , Daphna Ben @-@ Tor and James and Susan Allen , who contend that Neferhotep I reigned over the whole of Egypt . Possible vindications of this are the several attestations of Neferhotep found northeast of Egypt , in the Levant , in particular the stela of the Governor of Byblos Yantinu and 4 scarab seals from Canaan , indicating that he retained enough power to maintain trade relations with this region .
Alternatively , recent excavations have yielded seals of Neferhotep 's brother Sobekhotep IV in proximity with seals of the powerful Hyksos king Khyan of the 15th Dynasty ( c.1650 – 1550 BC ) in a closed archaeological context , possibly indicating that the two were contemporary . If this is so , Neferhotep I would have been contemporary with either Khyan or one of his predecessors , such as Sakir @-@ Har , and would not have reigned over the Nile Delta . This conclusion is strongly debated at the moment since Sobekhotep IV and Khyan are separated by c . 100 years in the conventional Egyptian chronology .
= = = Activities = = =
In spite of the numerous attestations left by Neferhotep I , relatively little is known of the activities he undertook during his decade @-@ long reign . The pedestal of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV as well as the naos of Neferhotep discovered by Georges Legrain in Karnak indicate that he undertook some building works there . This is further confirmed by the 2005 discovery in Karnak of a second naos housing a 1 @.@ 80 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tall double statue of Neferhotep holding hands with himself . The naos was located beneath the foundations of the northern obelisk of Hatshepsut .
The most important monument of the king surviving to this day is a large , heavily eroded stela dating to the second regnal year of Neferhotep and found in Abydos . The inscription on the stela is one of the few ancient Egyptian royal texts to record how a king might conceive of and order the making of a sculpture . As usual , the stela begins with Neferhotep 's titulary :
The Majesty of the Horus : Founder of the Two Lands , He of the Two Ladies : Revealing the Truth , Falcon of Gold : Lasting of Love , King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khasekhemre , Son of Ra Neferhotep , born to the king 's mother Kemi , granted life , stability , and dominion like Ra forever .
It then describes how Neferhotep , residing in his palace " Exalted of Beauty " likely located in Itjtawy , desires that an image of Osiris be made in order for it to participate in the yearly festival held in the god 's honour in Abydos in Upper Egypt . To this end , Neferhotep first enquires to his officials about instructions regarding the making of divine images said to be contained in " the primeval writings of Atum " . His officials then bring him to a temple library where the writings are located and he orders a messenger , the " Custodian of the Royal Property " , to be sent to the Abydos festival . Meanwhile , or possibly before sending the messenger , the statue of Osiris is made of silver , gold and copper , the work being carried out under the supervision of the king . Finally , the king himself goes to Abydos to celebrate the festival of Osiris .
More generally , Neferhotep 's time on the throne was likely prosperous as there are many private monuments datable to his reign and that of his brother , and especially in sculpture some remarkably high quality art works were produced .
= = = Tomb = = =
As of 2014 , the tomb of Neferhotep I has not been located yet . Nicolas Grimal proposes that he was buried in a pyramid at el @-@ Lisht , close to that of Senusret I , an opinion shared by Michael Rice . This remains conjectural , as no artefact permitting the identification of Neferhotep as the owner of such a pyramid has been found . Grimal 's hypothesis relies only on indirect evidence : the presence of scarabs of Neferhotep in Lisht as well as the discovery of a shawabti of a prince Wahneferhotep " ( King ) Neferhotep endures " close to the northern gateway of the mortuary temple of the pyramid complex of Senusret I. The shawabti was wrapped in linen and placed in a miniature coffin , which is dated to the 13th Dynasty on stylistic grounds . This together with the name of Wahneferhotep and his title of " King 's son " indicate that Wahneferhotep was likely a son of Neferhotep I , who may have been buried in the vicinity of his father 's pyramid .
Dawn Landua @-@ McCormack suggested that the Southern South Saqqara pyramid could have been a candidate for Neferhotep 's burial site . This pyramid , datable to the middle 13th Dynasty , was provided with two elaborate sarcophagus chambers which might have been destined for two wealthy brother kings of the dynasty such as Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV .
In 2015 Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania suggested that Sobekhotep IV could have been buried in Abydos in a tomb ( S10 ) belonging to a late Middle Kingdom @-@ Second Intermediate Period royal necropolis which is located just next to the funerary complex of Senusret III of the 12th Dynasty , at the foothills of the so @-@ called Mountain of Anubis ; on that basis , Wegner suggested that the anonymous , large , neighboring tomb S9 could have belonged to Neferhotep I.
= = Coregencies = =
It is not known under which circumstances Neferhotep I died after his reign of eleven years . His successor was his brother , Sobekhotep IV , who is perhaps the most important ruler of the 13th Dynasty . Another brother , Sihathor , appears in the Turin canon as successor , but it seems that he only reigned for a few months as coregent with Neferhotep I and never became an independent ruler , likely because he predeceased his elder brother . After this , it is possible that Neferhotep I designated his younger brother Sobekhotep IV as coregent . There are two inscriptions from Sehel showing Neferhotep I , Sihathor and Sobekhotep IV , which could mean that they reigned for some time together , although Sihathor is declared dead on both lists . Another piece of evidence is an inscription from the Wadi Hammamat showing the cartouches of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV on par , next to each other . Some Egyptologists see this as evidence of a coregency between these two kings , while others , including Ryholt , reject this interpretation and believe the inscription was made by Sobekhotep to honour his deceased brother .
= = Historical synchronism = =
A stela bearing Neferhotep I 's name is of great importance to archaeologists and historians alike as it enables a concordance between the Egyptian and Near Eastern chronologies . This stela depicts the " Governor of Byblos , Yantinu ... who was begotten by Governor Yakin " seated upon a throne in front of which are the nomen and prenomen of Neferhotep I. This is significant for two reasons : first , Yakin is plausibly identifiable with a Yakin @-@ Ilu of Byblos known from a cylinder seal of Sehetepibre , indicating that this king and Neferhotep are separated by a generation . Second , a " King of Byblos Yantin- ' Ammu " is known from the archives of Mari who is most likely the same person as the Governor of Byblos Yantinu of the stela . Indeed , Byblos was a semi @-@ autonomous Egyptian governorate at the time and " the king of Byblos " must be the Semitic king of the city ruling it in the name of the pharaoh . The archives of Mari predominantly date to the reign of the last king of the city , Zimri @-@ Lim , a contemporary of Hammurabi who ultimately sacked Mari . This provides the synchronism Neferhotep I – Yantinu – Zimri @-@ Lim – Hammurabi .
Egyptologist David Rohl in his alternative New Chronology identifies this pharaoh as the one whose daughter adopted Moses .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.