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= Banksia aemula =
Banksia aemula , commonly known as the wallum banksia , is a shrub of the family Proteaceae . Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney on the Australian east coast , it is encountered as a shrub or a tree to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in coastal heath on deep sandy soil , known as Wallum . It has wrinkled orange bark and shiny green serrated leaves , with green @-@ yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , appearing in autumn . The flower spikes turn grey as they age and large grey follicles appear . Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody base , known as a lignotuber , after bushfires .
First described by the botanist Robert Brown in the early 19th century , it derives its specific name " similar " from its resemblance to the closely related Banksia serrata . No varieties are recognised . It was known for many years in New South Wales as Banksia serratifolia , contrasting with the use of B. aemula elsewhere . However , the former name , originally coined by Richard Anthony Salisbury , proved invalid , and Banksia aemula has been universally adopted as the correct scientific name since 1981 . A wide array of mammals , birds , and invertebrates visit the inflorescences and are instrumental in pollination ; honeyeaters are particularly prominent visitors . Grown as a garden plant , it is less commonly seen in horticulture than its close relative B. serrata .
= = Description = =
Banksia aemula is generally a gnarled shrub or small tree to 8 m ( 26 ft ) , although usually smaller . Conversely , individual wallum banksias have been measured at 8 @.@ 3 β 12 @.@ 1 m ( 27 β 40 ft ) high , with a maximum diameter at breast height of 44 cm ( 17 in ) in forest on North Stradbroke Island . The trunk has thick orange @-@ brown wrinkled and warty bark , and the new growth is hairy but becomes smooth as it ages . New shoot growth is in spring and summer . The shiny green leaves are obovate to oblong in shape and measure 3 β 22 cm ( 1 1 β 4 β 8 3 β 4 in ) in length , and 1 β 2 cm ( 1 β 2 β 3 β 4 in ) in width . The leaf ends are truncate and the margins flat and serrated . Flowering is in autumn , from March to June ; the green @-@ yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , are terminal , found on the ends of branches and emerging from the foliage . Measuring 4 to 20 cm ( 1 1 β 2 to 8 in ) in height and 8 to 9 cm ( 3 1 β 4 to 3 1 β 2 in ) in width , they are various shades of pale and greenish yellow . Anywhere from 800 to 1700 individual small flowers arise from a central woody spike ( or rachis ) . Initially tipped with white conical pollen presenters , the flowers open sequentially from the bottom to the top of the flower spike over one to two weeks , in a process known as sequential anthesis . Each flower produces nectar for around seven days after opening . The flower spikes turn grey as they age and up to 25 finely furred grey follicles appear , which can be very large , measuring 3 β 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 1 β 4 β 1 3 β 4 in ) long , 2 β 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 β 4 β 1 1 β 2 in ) high , and 2 β 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 β 4 β 1 1 β 2 in ) wide . They split open either after bushfire or spontaneously , and release oval seeds 4 β 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 1 β 2 β 1 3 β 4 in ) in length , composed of a wedge @-@ shaped body 1 β 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 β 8 β 5 β 8 in ) long and 1 @.@ 1 β 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 β 8 β 5 β 8 in ) wide , and curved wing 2 β 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 β 4 β 1 1 β 4 in ) wide . Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber after fire .
B. aemula closely resembles Banksia serrata , but the latter can be distinguished by a greyer , not orange @-@ brown , trunk , and adult leaves wider than 2 cm ( 3 β 4 in ) in diameter . Inflorescences of serrata are generally a duller grey @-@ yellow in colour , and have longer ( 2 β 3 mm ) , more fusiform ( spindle @-@ shaped ) or cylindrical pollen presenters tipping unopened flowers . Finally , the follicles are smaller .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia aemula was called wallum by the Kabi people of the Sunshine Coast , giving rise not only to its common name of wallum banksia but also to the name of the ecological community it grows in . Frederick Manson Bailey reported in 1913 that the indigenous people of Stradbroke Island knew it as mintie . Banyalla is another aboriginal name for the species .
Banksia aemula was collected by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in June 1801 in the vicinity of Port Jackson , and published by him in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen . The specific name , Latin for " similar " , refers to its similarity to B. serrata . Brown also collected a taller tree @-@ like specimen from Sandy Cape which he called Banksia elatior ; the specific name is the comparative form of the Latin adjective ΔlΔtus " elevated " .
For many years in New South Wales , the wallum banksia had gone by the scientific name of Banksia serratifolia . Richard Anthony Salisbury had published this binomial name in 1796 , which was followed by Otto Kuntze , and then Karel Domin in 1921 . Botanist and banksia authority Alex George conclusively established aemula as the correct name to be used in his 1981 revision of the genus . He pointed out that Salisbury 's original described the leaves only , was insufficient to diagnose the species and is hence a nomen dubium β the description could have fit juvenile leaves of B. paludosa as well . In fact , Brown himself had been unsure whether serratifolia applied to what he called Banksia aemula . Salisbury 's taxon appeared as Banksia serraefolia in Knight 's 1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , but that entry might also refer to serrata . Where Salisbury got his material is unclear , but John White had sent material to James Edward Smith now held in the Linnean Society marked as B. serratifolia Salisb. as well as B. aemula R.Br.
Under Brown 's taxonomic arrangement , B. aemula and B. elatior were placed in subgenus Banksia verae , the " True Banksias " , because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , and demoted to sectional rank by Carl Meissner in his 1856 classification . Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series , with B. aemula placed in series Quercinae on the basis of its toothed leaves . When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis , he discarded Meissner 's series , replacing them with four sections . B. aemula was placed in Orthostylis , a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species . This arrangement would stand for over a century .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. aemula as Sirmuellera serratifolia . The challenge failed , and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved .
= = = Current placement = = =
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections . B. aemula was placed in B. sect . Banksia , and this was further divided into nine series , with B. aemula placed in B. ser . Banksia . He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia serrata and then B. ornata , and that the three formed a link with western species . Since Brown 's original publication had treated all of Fraser 's specimens as syntypes ( shared type specimens ) for the species , George also chose a lectotype ( a single specimen to serve as the type specimen ) .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. aemula in series Banksia , placing it in B. subser . Banksia along with serrata as its sister taxon ( united by their unusual seedling leaves ) and ornata as next closest relative . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. aemula 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Banksia
B. serrata
B. aemula
B. ornata
B. baxteri
B. speciosa
B. menziesii
B. candolleana
B. sceptrum
In 2002 , a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed the three eastern species to form a group , but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia . Instead , they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae , Ochraceae , Tetragonae ( including Banksia elderiana ) , Banksia lullfitzii and Banksia baueri .
In 2005 , Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete . In the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. aemula is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia aemula is found along the east coast of Australia from around 70 km ( 43 mi ) north of Bundaberg in central Queensland down to Sydney . Specifically , its southernmost occurrence is at La Perouse on the northern side of Botany Bay . It is also found on Fraser , Moreton and North Stradbroke Islands . Almost all populations are within a few kilometres of the coast , except for one at Agnes Banks in western Sydney , and two just north and south of Grafton at Coaldale and Glenreagh , and a last around 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Bundaberg .
B. aemula is most commonly found in deep sandy soils , either on dunes or flattish areas which may be seasonally wet . On coastal dunes in southern Queensland , it replaces Banksia serrata , which occupies the same niche to the south . The latter areas , with open woodland or heathland , are known as wallum . In Queensland it is found with Banksia robur , with the latter species found in flatter wetter areas and B. aemula found on rises . It is also found with Banksia oblongifolia in Queensland . In some areas of wallum , it may grow as a small tree , along with mallee forms of the red bloodwood ( Corymbia gummifera ) . In Cooloola National Park , it is an occasional emergent plant ( along with Melaleuca quinquenervia and Eucalyptus umbra ) in closed graminoid heathland , a community of shrubs 0 @.@ 5 β 2 m ( 1 3 β 4 β 6 1 β 2 ft ) high containing Xanthorrhoea fulva , Empodisma minus , Petrophile shirleyae , and Hakea and Leptospermum species . On the New South Wales Central Coast , it generally grows as a 1 β 2 m ( 3 1 β 4 β 6 1 β 2 ft ) high shrub and is a canopy component of Banksia aemula open heathland , located on coastal headlands on highly leached Pleistocene white sands overlying Triassic and Permian strata . Areas include Wybung Head in Munmorah State Conservation Area , and near Myall Lakes . Other plants it grows in association with include Ricinocarpos pinifolius , Brachyloma daphnoides , Dillwynia glaberrima , D. retorta , Allocasuarina distyla , Bossiaea ensata , Aotus ericoides , Phyllota phylicoides , and Empodisma minus . Sandmining has eradicated much of the community around Redhead . In less leached yellower sands , the community ( and B. aemula ) is replaced by a taller heath containing B. serrata and B. oblongifolia .
At the southern end of its range , B. aemula is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub ( ESBS ) , designated an endangered ecological community . This community is found on younger , windblown sands than the heathlands to the north .
The Agnes Banks Woodland in western Sydney has been recognised by the New South Wales Government as an Endangered Ecological Community . Here Banksia aemula is an understory plant in low open woodland , with scribbly gum ( Eucalyptus sclerophylla ) , narrow @-@ leaved apple ( Angophora bakeri ) and B. serrata as canopy trees , and B. oblongifolia , Conospermum taxifolium , Ricinocarpus pinifolius , Dillwynia sericea and nodding geebung ( Persoonia nutans ) as other understory species .
On North Stradbroke Island , B. aemula is one of three canopy tree species of Eucalyptus signata @-@ dominated forest 12 β 15 m ( 39 1 β 4 β 49 1 β 4 ft ) high , the third species being E. umbra . This forest is found on a ridge 100 m ( 330 ft ) above sea level formed from an ancient sand dune . Here bracken ( Pteridium esculentum ) dominates the understory . Other tall shrubs associated include Persoonia cornifolia and Acacia concurrens .
= = Ecology = =
Most Proteaceae and all Banksia species , including B. aemula , have proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . A study of six wallum species , including B. aemula , found they have adapted to very low levels of phosphorus and are highly sensitive to increased levels of the element , leading to phosphorus toxicity . Some evidence suggests they are efficient at using potassium , and sensitive to calcium toxicity as well . A field study on North Stradbroke Island noted increased root growth in autumn ( around April ) , but that overall root growth was more constant than other species looked at , possibly because its deeper roots had more regular access to groundwater .
A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park in northern New South Wales found that B. aemula inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as yellow @-@ footed antechinus ( Antechinus flavipes ) , and rodents such as pale field rat ( Rattus tunneyi ) , Australian swamp rat ( R. lutreolus ) and grassland melomys ( Melomys burtoni ) and even the house mouse ( Mus musculus ) . These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds , making them effective pollinators . Grey @-@ headed flying foxes ( Pteropus poliocephalus ) were also observed visiting B. aemula and their heads and bellies were noted to contact stigmas while feeding . Bird species that have been observed feeding at the flowers of B. aemula include rainbow lorikeet and scarlet and Lewin 's honeyeaters . Several other honeyeaters were recorded on B. aemula inflorescences for The Banksia Atlas , including the New Holland , brown , white @-@ cheeked , and tawny @-@ crowned honeyeaters , noisy miner , little wattlebird and noisy friarbird . The Bundjalung field study found the brown honeyeater carried much higher loads of B. aemula pollen than other species measured , which included white @-@ cheeked and yellow @-@ faced honeyeaters and silvereyes . Insects such as ants and bees ( including the introduced honeybee ) have also been recorded .
Banksia aemula resprouts from a lignotuber or shoots from epicormic buds after fire . Fire management of Banksia aemula heath in Southeast Queensland recommends 7- to 20 @-@ year fire intervals . Intervals of 10 β 15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub , as longer leads to overgrowth by Leptospermum laevigatum . Experimenting with seed germination and early growth of B. aemula showed that phosphorus was toxic to seedlings , inhibiting growth at double normal soil concentrations and causing seedling death at quadruple normal soil concentrations . The addition of potassium or magnesium ameliorated these effects a little although potassium in high concentrations impacted on growth as well . Overall , seedlings grow slowly over the first 21 weeks of life compared with other plant species , the reasons for which are unclear , although it may be that it offers an increased chance of survival in a nutrient- or water @-@ poor environment . Seed was killed by exposure to 150 Β° C , but survived seven @-@ minute exposure to 100 Β° C.
A study of coastal heaths on Pleistocene sand dunes around the Myall Lakes found B. aemula grew on ridges ( dry heath ) and B. oblongifolia on slopes ( wet heath ) , and the two species did not overlap . Manipulation of seedlings in the same study area showed that B. aemula grows longer roots seeking water and that seedlings do grow in wet heath , but it is as yet unclear why the species does not grow in wet heath as well as dry heath . Unlike similar situations with banksia species in Western Australia , the two species did not appear to impact negatively on each other . A field study on seedling recruitment conducted at Broadwater National Park and Dirrawong Reserve on the New South Wales North Coast showed that generally Banksia aemula produced seedlings in low numbers but the attrition rate was low , and that seedlings had a greater survival rate on dry rather than wet heaths . Field work including the experimental planting out of seedlings at Crowdy Bay National Park showed that Banksia aemula seedling roots reach the water table within six months of germination , and that they can germinate in the presence or absence of recent bushfire . The reasons for bradyspory ( that is fewer seeds with greater percentage of survival ) is unclear , but may be a defence against seed @-@ eating animals . Similarly in field work on North Stradbroke Island , B. aemula was noted to shed its winged seeds over time between ( as well as after ) fire , and germinate and grow readily with little predation by herbivores .
= = Cultivation = =
In 1788 , Banksia aemula was one of the first banksias to be cultivated in England , where it was illustrated in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine and its rival , The Botanical Register . Its shiny green leaves , showy flower spikes , huge follicles , and wrinkled bark are attractive horticultural features . It is also a bird- and insect @-@ attracting plant .
Trials in Western Australia and Hawaii have shown B. aemula to be resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback . It requires a well drained slightly acid ( pH 5 @.@ 5 β 6 @.@ 5 ) soil , preferably fairly sandy and a sunny aspect . Summer watering is also prudent , as it does not suffer water stress well . Slow @-@ growing , the plant takes four to six years to flower from seed . It is less commonly grown than Banksia serrata . An investigation into optimum temperatures for germination found a nighttime temperature of 20 β 28 Β° C , and a daytime of 24 β 33 Β° C gave best results , and recommended summer planting times .
It has also been used as a rootstock for grafting Banksia speciosa , and has potential in bonsai . The red textured timber has been used in cabinet @-@ making .
= = Cultural references = =
Although Banksia attenuata was the common banksia in Australian children 's author May Gibbs ' own childhood in Western Australia , the old flower spikes of Banksia aemula with their large follicles are thought to have been the inspiration for the villains of her Snugglepot and Cuddlepie books , the " Big Bad Banksia Men " .
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= Maryland Toleration Act =
The Maryland Toleration Act , also known as the Act Concerning Religion , was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians . Passed on April 21 , 1649 , by the assembly of the Maryland colony , in St. Mary 's City . It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty . Specifically , the bill , now usually referred to as the Toleration Act , granted freedom of conscience to all Christians . ( The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws , the first in 1636 , which prohibited religious persecution including against non @-@ Trinitarians ; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state . ) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States . The Calvert family , who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics , sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies .
The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland , but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus . It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne , a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell and was a staunch advocate for the Anglican Church . When the Calverts regained control of Maryland , the Act was reinstated , before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution , and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland . As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America , it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which enshrined religious freedom in American law .
= = Origin of the law = =
The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634 . Like his father George Calvert , who had originated the efforts that led to the colony 's charter , Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church . The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants . Many of Maryland 's first settlers were Catholic , including at least two Catholic priests , one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony 's history . But whatever Calvert 's intentions , Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation . Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church . Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers . Thus , by 1649 when the law was passed , the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants , and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics , rather than the reverse .
From Maryland 's earliest days , Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind . Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony , he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics . He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible , so as not to disturb that peace . The Ordinance of 1639 , Maryland 's earliest comprehensive law , expressed a general commitment to the rights of man , but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind . Peace prevailed until the English Civil War , which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert 's control of Maryland . In 1647 , after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert , Protestants seized control of the colony . Cecil Calvert , 2nd Baron Baltimore , quickly regained power , but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable . This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence , now Annapolis , by guaranteeing their freedom of worship . Partially to confirm the promises he made to them , Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it . They did so on April 21 , 1649 .
= = Description = =
The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance , allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished , but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time . It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity . The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians :
... no person or persons ... professing to believe in Jesus Christ , shall from henceforth be anyways troubled , Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province ...
Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands . That meant that Jews , Unitarians , and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives . Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary , the apostles , or the evangelists could be whipped , jailed , or fined . Otherwise , Trinitarian Christians ' right to worship was protected . The law outlawed the use of " heretic " and other religious insults against them . This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech .
The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non @-@ Christian . In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks . Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things , but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him . He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed , and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert 's rule following the English Civil War .
The law had its detractors , even among those groups protected by it . Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist . They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert , who was Catholic , they were being required to submit to the Pope , whom they considered to be the antichrist . Some Anglicans also opposed the law , believing that the Church of England should be the colony 's sole established church .
= = Repeal and legacy = =
In 1654 , only five years after its passage , the Act was repealed . Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War . In the early stages of that conflict , the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King . Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies , and two of them , the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett , took control of the colonial government in St. Mary 's City in 1652 . In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen , Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion . Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants , and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly . This time , it would last more than thirty years , until 1692 .
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England , when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne , a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert 's rule . They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism , and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule . In fact , the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718 . The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715 , but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism . His political control remained tenuous enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics . It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland .
While the law did not secure religious freedom , and while it included severe limitations , it was nonetheless a significant milestone . It predates the Enlightenment , which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root , and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history . Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom , including the British Act of Toleration of 1689 , the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania , and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina , may have been influenced by its example . According to historian Robert Brugger , " ... the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression . " It was not until the passage of the First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee , but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase , " free exercise thereof " . Thus , despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad @-@ based tolerance , the law is , " a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty . "
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= The Time of Angels =
" The Time of Angels " is the fourth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on 24 April 2010 on BBC One . It is the first episode of a two @-@ part story written by showrunner Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith ; the second episode was " Flesh and Stone " . Moffat utilised the two @-@ part episode to bring back a couple of his previous creations : the Weeping Angels from his series three episode " Blink " , and River Song ( Alex Kingston ) from the series four episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . The episode is partly set in the 51st century .
The Doctor β a time travelling alien played by Matt Smith β and his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) are summoned by River Song , a mysterious woman from the Doctor 's future . She takes them to the planet Alfava Metraxis , where the spaceship Byzantium has crashed . Hidden inside is a Weeping Angel , a creature that can only move when unobserved by others . With the help of Father Octavian ( Iain Glen ) and his militarised clerics , the Doctor , Amy and River Song travel through a stone labyrinth to reach the ship . On the way , they discover that all the statues in the maze are Angels , which are slowly restoring and planning to trap them in the labyrinth .
Inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens , Moffat wrote the episode as a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " . It was the first episode to be filmed in the series ; filming began 20 July 2009 at Southerndown beach , Vale of Glamorgan which was used as the surface of Alfava Metraxis . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 59 million viewers in the United Kingdom , received the highest Appreciation Index given to the fifth series at time of broadcast and was acclaimed by critics as one of the best episodes of the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor and Amy travel to the Delirium Archive , a museum in the distant future and discover a message from Dr. River Song , engraved in Old High Gallifreyan , the language of the Doctor 's home planet , on a damaged flight recorder from the starship Byzantium 12 @,@ 000 years in the relative past . The Doctor takes the TARDIS to rescue her before the ship crashes on the planet Alfava Metraxis . After the TARDIS lands on the planet via River 's guidance , Amy learns from both the Doctor and River that they have a unique relationship owing to the nature of time travel ; Dr. Song has met the Doctor numerous times before in her timestream , while the Doctor still barely knows who she is .
River warns the Doctor that the Byzantium 's cargo hold contains a deadly Weeping Angel , which can move only when unobserved by others . She calls down the orbiting Father Octavian and his militarised " clerics " to help her capture the Angel before the radiation leaked from the ship makes it too powerful , and to protect a large human colony on the planet . River , the Doctor and Amy review a four @-@ second loop of security footage of the Angel in the Byzantium vault as the soldiers set up base camp . Outside the trailer , the Doctor and River look through a book written by a madman about the Angels and find the words , " That which holds the image of an Angel becomes itself an Angel " . Meanwhile , Amy has returned to the viewing room ; each time she turns away the Angel from the footage moves and it begins to emerge from the screen , trapping her in the room . The Doctor and River attempt to free Amy ; the Doctor warns Amy not to look directly into the eyes of the Angel because the book compared eyes to the doors of the soul and the Angels may enter there . Amy is able to turn off the image on a loop break , causing the Angel to disappear and saving herself . As they head toward the crashed ship , Amy continually feels something in her eye .
To access the Byzantium and locate the Angel , the group must travel through a " Maze of the Dead " , a stone labyrinth with numerous statues erected by the native race , among which the Angel could easily hide . After launching a gravity globe near the roof of the Maze to provide illumination , the group splits up , with some soldiers left to guard the entrance . While the Doctor and River Song discuss the two @-@ headed natives who built the catacombs , it suddenly occurs to them that all the statues have only one head : they must therefore be Weeping Angels . Each of these is slower and weaker than the Byzantium 's captured Angel , having had no beings to consume over the centuries , but they are now absorbing energy from the crashed ship ; the Doctor surmises that the Angel purposely crashed the Byzantium to rescue its kind . As the group tries to escape , Amy believes that she cannot move because her hand has become stone and she cannot release its grip on the wall of the cave . The Doctor explains that her perception has been influenced by the Angel through her direct eye contact , and she is still fine ; he proves it by biting her hand , which allows her to flee . The group soon finds that the Angels have killed their rear guard and are using the consciousness of one soldier , Bob , to speak to the Doctor . The Angels reveal they have lured the group to the highest point of the maze , directly under the crashed ship , and are planning to kill and use their essences to further regenerate . The Doctor tells the Angels that they should have never put him in the trap , and prepares the group to jump once he destroys the gravity globe .
= = = Continuity = = =
This episode sees the return of River Song , the woman from the Doctor 's future who was previously seen in " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . " The Time of Angels " takes place in her relative past , where she is a doctor , having not yet become a professor . She shows the ability to fly the TARDIS , which she says she learned from " the best " and then teases the Doctor it was not him . ( In " Let 's Kill Hitler " , it will be shown that the TARDIS taught her to fly it . ) In addition , the words she inscribed on the home box in Old High Gallifreyan ( " Hello , Sweetie ! " ) are the same words by which she greets the Tenth Doctor in " Silence in the Library " . The crash of the Byzantium was first mentioned in " Silence in the Library " , when River asks the Tenth Doctor , after consulting her diary , if they 've done that yet .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by lead writer and executive producer Steven Moffat . He designed the two @-@ part episode as a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " , an episode he had written for the third series . He compared the relationship to the film Alien and its sequel Aliens , with the former being more low @-@ key and the latter more " highly coloured " . Moffat thought that Aliens was " the best conceived movie sequel ever " and decided to use it as a model . He also intended to portray the Angels and their actions differently ; in " Blink " they were barely surviving and resembled scavengers , while in " The Time of Angels " he wanted them to have a plan that could become " almost like a war " . The two @-@ part story was intended to show the worst possible instance that could occur with the Weeping Angels , which was the inability to see , as explored in the second part , " Flesh and Stone " , when Amy must keep her eyes closed . Executive producer Piers Wenger thought that the Delirium Archive , the museum the Doctor and Amy visited at the beginning of the episode , needed to be explained , therefore Moffat named it " the final resting place of the Headless Monks " and sent it to him via text message . The Headless Monks themselves appeared in the mid @-@ series finale of the next series , " A Good Man Goes to War " .
Moffat also brought back the character of River Song from his fourth series episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . In the former , River asks the Doctor if he had done the " crash of the Byzantium " with her yet . Actress Alex Kingston did not expect the return , but stated that Moffat " always intended that she would come back " . Moffat was influenced by Audrey Niffenegger 's novel , The Time Traveler 's Wife , in which a woman falls in love with a man who unintentionally moves through time . Moffat used this inspiration in his episode " The Girl in the Fireplace " , but Alex Kingston , as well as reviewers have compared River to The Time Traveler 's Wife .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" The Time of Angels " was the first episode of the series to be produced . The read @-@ through for the episode took place on 15 July 2009 . Filming began on 20 July 2009 on Southerndown beach , Vale of Glamorgan , which was used as the surface of Alfava Metraxis . Torrential rain halted filming the following day , and about three pages of the script were never filmed , including the scene Gillan had read for her audition . The gap was replaced by the scene of River flying the TARDIS after the Byzantium , which was filmed as a pick @-@ up . Steven Moffat later reflected on the replacement being " a lovely scene , and a much better start to the show " . During the CGI shot of the TARDIS flying through the Time Vortex in that scene , an older TARDIS model from the David Tennant era was accidentally used instead of the new one .
Director Adam Smith , new to Doctor Who , felt pressure in making the episode be a worthy sequel to " Blink " , which he called a " brilliant , brilliant , brilliant episode " , but also said that it was great to work with the Weeping Angels . He decided to have the interaction between the Doctor and River Song resemble that of an old married couple , bickering like " mum and dad arguing over directions in the car " . Actress Alex Kingston stated that it was " great fun " on set and she enjoyed working with Matt Smith , although her relationship with Smith was different from his predecessor and her former co @-@ star , David Tennant . In the script it was not written in that River would land on the Doctor when she flew into the TARDIS ; it was an idea that Matt Smith came up with in rehearsal that proved difficult to film . In the episode , there is a moment in the viewing room where the Doctor hangs on a strap attached to the ceiling and it breaks . This was originally an accident during one of the takes , but director Adam Smith liked it and filmed it again , with Matt Smith doing it on purpose .
Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks , costumes , and paint that took two to three hours to apply . Adam Smith called them " an absolute nightmare to film with " because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time . Smith wished River Song 's entrance to be a shocking surprise to the audience . A stunt double was used for some shots of the scene where River flies out of the Byzantium 's airlock , but Kingston wished to do some of it herself . The scene was filmed on a greenscreen with Kingston hooked up on wires that pulled her up and backwards as a wind machine was blown to create the effect of the airlock . Kingston said she " absolutely loved " filming the scene . For the scene in which sand pours out of Amy 's eye as she rubs it , an eye patch containing sand that would be released when Gillan rubbed it was placed over her eye .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Time of Angels " was first broadcast on BBC One on Saturday , 24 April 2010 from 6 : 20 p.m. to 7 : 05 p.m. In the United States it was shown on sister station BBC America on 8 May 2010 . In the UK , preliminary overnight viewing figures showed that 6 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , which made it second for the night behind Britain 's Got Talent . This was also the second highest overnight figure for a fourth episode over the last five series , " The Girl in the Fireplace " taking the top position . When final consolidated ratings were calculated , another 1 @.@ 81 million timeshifted viewers were added , bringing the total up to 8 @.@ 59 million , the highest viewing figure for the series since " The Eleventh Hour " . This made it the fifth most watched programme on BBC One and the 12th most watched across all UK TV channels for the week ending 25 April 2010 . It was also given an Appreciation Index of 87 , the highest for the fifth series so far at its time of broadcast .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing " The Time of Angels " together with the following episodes " Flesh and Stone " and " The Vampires of Venice " was released on 5 July 2010 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Banner incident = = =
During the cliffhanger ending of the first broadcast of " The Time of Angels " , an animated graphic was shown in some regions , showing Graham Norton revealing a banner trailing his show Over the Rainbow . According to the BBC , the overlay graphic was run 20 seconds too early . The BBC apologised after receiving over five thousand complaints . The incident received attention on Twitter , with SFX magazine reporting that it had " caused a minor Twitter earthquake " , citing tweets from Charlie Brooker , Matthew Graham and Simon Pegg . The incident was lampooned on Brooker 's panel game You Have Been Watching , where he described it as " a travesty " . BBC drama writer and co @-@ creator of Life on Mars and Ashes to Ashes Matthew Graham criticised the BBC for " cheapen [ ing ] " itself and mentioned he wrote emails to " a few interested parties " .
Graham Norton himself went on to parody the incident in his own show by placing a similar banner at the bottom of the screen and having a Dalek exterminate his own cartoon caricature .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received widespread acclaim from television critics . Daniel Martin , writing for The Guardian called it " an astonishing achievement " and " absolutely bloody terrifying " . He praised the way Moffat handled River Song 's story , as well as for making it an " intricate romp jammed with ideas that make a truly cinematic piece of drama " . Gavin Fuller 's review for The Daily Telegraph praised the suspense and " the revelation that all the statues were Angels " which he called " genuinely shocking " . Though he commented it " took a while to get going " , once it did he thought it had turned into the " first genuine chiller " of the series . He wrote that the " only real disappointment " was the " inference that the TARDIS doesn 't really have to make its celebrated ' vworp , vworp ' noise on landing " , asking " How can you do that to us long @-@ time fans , Steven Moffat β that sound is part of the warp and weft of the programme ! " .
Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , described the episode as " simply superb television " and claimed that " Matt Smith really is shaping up to be the best Doctor since Tom Baker " , praising him for being " simultaneously intense and subtle " . He thought it started out with " arguably the most impressive opener to any Doctor Who yet " and also praised Amy for being " cheerfully free of the emotional baggage that mired her predecessors " so far . Matt Wales of IGN gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating , calling it " huge , silly , scary , gorgeous , gripping and β most importantly β fun " . Although he wrote it " never quite matched the relentless tension of ' Blink ' " , he commented that it was " flawlessly paced and , when it mattered , genuinely scary " . Unlike Fuller , he praised the TARDIS " vworp vworp " joke , asking " Who could possibly not love the sheer audacity in suggesting the TARDIS 's iconic whirring noise was the result of the Doctor leaving the brakes on for the last 45 years ? "
SFX magazine reviewer Dave Golder gave the episode five out of five stars , praising it for being " superbly paced , the changes in tone happening gradually and organically " . He also commended the directing and sound effects . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a grade of A- , praising the scary atmosphere and the development of the Weeping Angels . He commented that he was a little " fuzzy " on the Doctor and River Song 's relationship , but he expected that he was supposed to be .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Michael Tritter =
Detective Michael Tritter is a recurring fictional character in the medical drama series House , portrayed by David Morse . He is the main antagonist of the third season , which ran between 2006 and 2007 . Tritter is a police detective , who tries to get Dr. Gregory House ( Hugh Laurie ) to apologize for leaving him in an examination room with a thermometer in his rectum . After House refuses to apologize , Tritter researches House 's background and discovers his Vicodin addiction . Tritter turns people close to House against him and forces House to go to rehab . When the case ultimately comes to court , the judge sentences House to one night in jail , for contempt of court , and to finish his rehabilitation , telling Tritter that she believes House is not the drug addict he tried to make him out to be .
The character was created as somebody who could go " toe @-@ to @-@ toe " with House . Morse , who had never seen the show before , was unsure if he could portray the character and was not impressed after familiarizing himself with the show . The excited reaction of his friends to the opportunity convinced him to take the role . Initial critical responses to the character were mostly positive , but critics later felt that the seven @-@ episode Tritter story arc became " boring " ; however , Morse was praised for his portrayal and gained an Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Emmy Award nomination for his appearance in the episode " Finding Judas " . Morse stated in a 2006 TV Guide interview that , although he had discussed it with writers of the show , bringing the character back on the show would be " practically impossible " .
= = Storyline = =
Tritter first appears in the episode " Fools for Love " . His character is a police detective who suffers from a severe irritation in the area of his groin , which he believes to be caused by a sexually transmitted disease , and who becomes a patient of the walk @-@ in clinic . Although House diagnoses Tritter with dry skin , a common side effect of the nicotine gum that Tritter is chewing , Tritter requests that a sample be tested . House declines on the grounds that he has already met this month 's quota for indulging " stubborn idiots " . After Tritter causes House to trip , the doctor feigns acquiescence , but insists he has to take Tritter 's temperature rectally . After inserting the thermometer , House leaves the room , with no intention of returning . Tritter later complains about his treatment to House 's boss , Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) , saying that he would rather " beat the crap out of " House than sue him ; however , House refuses to apologize . Later that night , Tritter pulls House over for a traffic violation and arrests him after finding Vicodin pills in his pocket .
In the next episode , " Que SerΓ‘ SerΓ‘ " , Tritter searches House 's apartment and finds a large quantity of Vicodin pills and two apparently forged prescriptions that bear the name of House 's friend James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) . During " Son of Coma Guy " and " Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole " , Tritter pressures Wilson and members of House 's diagnostic team to testify against him , but they all refuse . In " Finding Judas " , Cuddy finds Tritter spending his day off looking through the hospital 's log for evidence against House . She accuses him of not having a life and " personalizing every slight " . Tritter responds that " nobody [ at the hospital ] is innocent " , as everyone allows House to treat patients despite knowing of his Vicodin addiction and that it takes a police detective to uncover what the doctors are deliberately hiding . At the end of the episode , Wilson visits Tritter and indicates his willingness to testify .
In " Merry Little Christmas " , Tritter and Wilson work out a deal to allow House to continue practicing medicine if he pleads guilty and spends two months in rehab . Meanwhile , House uses a dead patient 's name to obtain Oxycodone pills as a Vicodin replacement drug . When he visits Tritter early the next morning to agree to the deal , Tritter says the deal is off , after going through the pharmacy 's log and reading that House signed for a dead man 's drugs .
In the final days leading up to House 's court case , House realizes the severity of the situation and finally apologizes to Tritter ( episode " Words and Deeds " ) . When Tritter refuses to accept the apology , House goes into rehab , putting on a show for Tritter and the judge , but Tritter cites his experiences with addicts as evidence House has not changed . The judge tells Tritter that she does not believe House to be the drug dealer that Tritter tried to show him to be and orders Tritter to move on after House is exonerated due to Cuddy committing perjury . Just before the bailiff escorts House out of the courtroom , Tritter tells him : " Good luck . I hope I 'm wrong about you . "
= = Personality = =
The main antagonist of the third season , Tritter is a " stubborn " , " vengeful " , and extremely determined police detective . According to David Morse , the offensive thermometer incident in " Fools for Love " made it easy for Tritter to stand up to House ; as House 's equal , Tritter " gets who House is on all levels and can really shake his foundation " . Tritter 's experiences with drug addicts color his view of House , and he becomes so obsessed with House that , according to executive producer Katie Jacobs , the story arc turns into " a battle of egos " between them . The character shows a manipulative streak when he forms a plan to coerce each member of House 's team to testify separately in " Finding Judas " . Robert Bianco of USA Today described Tritter as an initially " legitimately , if belligerently , aggrieved adversary " character who later morphs into " some kind of insane supercop , tearing his way through the hospital and the Constitution at will " .
= = Creation and casting = =
The Tritter character was created as someone to go " toe @-@ to @-@ toe " with House . The producers envisioned a character with an inner strength , intelligence , and single @-@ mindedness to match that of House . In 2006 , House creator David Shore contacted actor David Morse , with whom he had previously worked on Hack , for a guest @-@ starring episode arc on the show . According to Ellen Gray of the Philadelphia Daily News , Morse 's earlier portrayals of " scary " cops ( in 16 Blocks and Hack ) helped him clinch the role .
Morse was unfamiliar with the show . After watching several House episodes , he was surprised that the show had a strong audience with " [ such ] a total jerk " as the lead character . It was not until Morse told a few long @-@ time friends about the job offer that their enthusiastic reaction convinced him to take the role . Katie Jacobs , executive producer of House , was impressed by Morse 's performance . In a 2006 TV Guide interview , Morse said that , although he discussed the possibility with House writers , it would be " practically impossible " to get the character to return in any later seasons .
= = Reception = =
Initial responses to the character were mostly positive . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune declared Tritter the best male villain of the fall of 2006 . Lisa Edelstein , who portrays Lisa Cuddy on House , named David Morse as one of her favorite House guest stars , saying that he did a great job portraying the character . Barbara Barnett from Blog Critics Magazine and Charles McGrath of The New York Times compared Tritter to Inspector Javert of Les MisΓ©rables , and Alynda Wheat from Entertainment Weekly stated that Tritter annoyed House more than any other character , surpassing other antagonists such as Amber Volakis ( Anne Dudek ) , Stacy Warner ( Sela Ward ) , and Lucas Douglas ( Michael Weston ) . Variety 's Stuart Levine considered Tritter a " worthy foe " for House .
However , the continued character arc increasingly bored critics . Staci Krause of IGN found the first few episodes of Season 3 , in which House recovers from being shot , more interesting . In a review of " Que Sera Sera " , Entertainment Weekly 's Michelle Kung noted that while David Morse is a fine actor , " his cop is so ridiculously one @-@ note and revenge @-@ bent that his scenes are often just excruciating to sit through " . In a review for " Fools for Love " , Sara Morrison of Television Without Pity doubted that Tritter 's revenge on House was worth his time and aggravation , and later called the Tritter arc an " insane quest for ass @-@ thermometer justice " . The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall stated that " pitting House against a comedy @-@ impaired cop was both dull and not a fair fight " .
The show 's fans had shown dislike for other antagonists with multi @-@ episode guest @-@ starring arcs , and critics suspected that Tritter 's character would receive similar disdain . The conclusion of the storyline , and Tritter 's departure from the show , were described by USA Today critic Robert Bianco as a Christmas gift for fans of the show . Morse jokingly stated after his departure that various fans had told him of their hate for Tritter after what the character had done to Dr. House .
Morse , however , gained mainly positive responses to his portrayal of Tritter . The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall called Morse a " superb actor " , and Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune stated that Morse 's " understated performance " made Tritter all the more scary . Zap2it 's Daniel Fienberg regarded Morse as " one of our very best character actors " . Cynthia Littleton of Variety , who already considered Morse 's work in St. Elsewhere Emmy @-@ worthy , was glad that Morse 's submission of the episode " Finding Judas " for a 2007 Emmy Awards consideration was accepted in the category of " Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series " . The award eventually went to John Goodman for Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip .
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= Paul Gondjout =
Paul Marie Indjendjet Gondjout ( 4 June 1912 β 1 July 1990 ) was a Gabonese politician and civil servant , and the father of Laure Gondjout , another prominent Gabonese politician . Gondjout was a member of the Mpongwe ethnic group , and served in the French colonial administration from 1928 , and founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des Γ©voluΓ©s de Port @-@ Gentil in 1943 . He was a delegate to the French Senate from 1949 to 1958 , and founded the Gabonese Democratic Bloc ( BDG ) . In 1954 , LΓ©on M 'ba joined the party and eventually overthrew Gondjout as leader .
In 1960 , then President M 'ba reshuffled the government without consulting Parliament . When Gondjout filed a motion of censure he was charged with attempting a coup d 'Γ©tat and sentenced to two years in prison . Following his release , M 'ba appointed him to the largely symbolic post of President of the Economic Council , in part to silence the threat he represented .
Gondjout served as Minister of State during the abortive 1964 Gabon coup d 'Γ©tat but was acquitted of all charges during his subsequent trial . He lived outside public view from his 1966 acquittal to his death on 1 July 1990 and there is little record of his life during this period .
= = Early life and political career = =
Gondjout was born on 4 June 1912 , to a Mpongwe family . He had a younger brother named Edouard . The elder Gondjout began his service in the French colonial administration in 1928 . In 1943 he founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des Γ©voluΓ©s de Port @-@ Gentil ( roughly translated as Mutual Friends for the Evolution of Port @-@ Gentil ) , an organization that enchouraged and utilised the talents of educated Gabonese . With the assistance of Mpongwe businesspeople , In 1945 he established the Gabonese Democratic Party alongside Emile Issembe .
Gondjout was elected to the Senate of France on 24 July 1949 and re @-@ elected on 18 May 1952 β both times as an independent candidate β serving until the end of his term on 7 June 1958 . On 18 December 1953 , he became the father of Laure Gondjout . She would later become a prominent politician as would his son , Vincent de Paul Gondjout , and nephew , Georges Rawiri .
In August 1953 Gondjout 's PDG merged with the Gabonese Mixed Committee to form the Gabonese Democratic Bloc ( BDG ) . Over the course of the following seven years , the party published a newspaper which caught the eye of the aspiring politician LΓ©on M 'ba , whom Gondjout had earlier helped to elect to the Gabonese council of government . The two formed an alliance supported by the Mpongwe business community , the wealthy coastal Fangs ( like M 'ba ) , and the French , which managed to overpower Jean @-@ Hilaire Aubame and fellow members of the Gabonese Democratic and Social Union . Gondjout , the self @-@ appointed secretary of the BDG , decreed M 'ba to be the secretary @-@ general . He and M 'ba both believed that Gabon should not have full political independence , stating shortly before it was obtained :
I affirm my belief that it would be premature now for Gabon to achieve total independence , for this would precipitate it irreparably into anarchy or , what would be even worse , into a sort of neocolonialism .
M 'ba overthrew Gondjout as head of the BDG and Goundjout aligned with Aubame on several issues , such as opposing M 'ba 's amount of power . Nonetheless , when Gabon gained its independence on 17 August 1960 Gondjout was named President of the National Assembly by the new President of Gabon , Leon M 'ba . In November 1960 or 1961 , Gondjout called for a constitutional amendment to allow him more executive power . When M 'ba reshuffled his cabinet without consulting Parliament , Gondjout filed a motion of censure . He supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage , and to model Gabon after the Western democracies . M 'ba , who did not share these ideas , reacted repressively .
On 16 November , under the pretext of a conspiracy , M 'ba declared a state of emergency , ordering the internment of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after . Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961 . Gondjout himself was sentenced to two years in prison . He was imprisoned in a remote village under house arrest , where he was supplied , according to U.S. ambassador to Gabon , Charles Darlington , " with all the whisky and beer he [ could ] drink and all the girls he want [ ed ] " . Unable to fulfill his position , it was given to Louis Bigmann . Upon Gondjout 's release , M 'ba appointed him to the mostly symbolic post of President of the Economic Council , in part to silence any threat to M 'ba 's power .
= = 1964 Gabon coup d 'Γ©tat = =
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964 , 150 members of the Gabonese military , gendarmerie , and police , headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and ValΓ©re Essone , seized the presidential palace . They arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann , French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer , several ministers , and President M 'ba , who was dragged from his bed at gunpoint . On Radio Libreville , the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d 'Γ©tat had taken place , asked for technical assistance , and told the French not to interfere in this matter . M 'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat , in which he said , " The D @-@ Day is here , the injustices are beyond measure , these people are patient , but their patience has limits . It came to a boil . "
No blood was shed during the event , and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval . Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government . The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG , such as Gondjout . During the coup , he served as Minister of State . The coup 's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians . The small Gabonese army did not intervene ; composed mostly of French officers , they remained in their barracks .
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M 'ba to NdjolΓ© , Aubame 's electoral stronghold . However , due to heavy rain , the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village . The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to LambarΓ©nΓ© . Several hours later , they returned to Libreville . The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran , to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention . In Paris , President Charles de Gaulle decided against the plea .
M 'ba was one of France 's most loyal African allies , and during a visit to France in 1961 , declared , " all Gabonese have two fatherlands : France and Gabon . " Moreover , under his regime , Europeans were particularly well treated . The French authorities therefore decided , in accordance with signed Franco @-@ Gabon agreements , to restore the legitimate government . Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon . Since M 'ba was imprisoned , the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon , Paul @-@ Marie Yembit , who had not been arrested . However , he remained unaccounted for ; therefore , they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention , that Yembit would later sign . Less than 24 hours later , French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M 'ba to power . During the operation , a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died .
= = Post coup d 'Γ©tat = =
Aubame and Gondjout fled Libreville , but were captured sometime before 20 February . In August a trial of the rebels and provisional government was opened in LambarΓ©nΓ© . A " state of precations " was imposed , which decreed that local government keep surveillance on suspected troublemakers and , if necessary , order curfew , and special permits were required to travel through the town . The trial was held in a school building overlooking the Ogooue River , which was near Albert Schweitzer 's hospital . Space at the hearing was limited , so members of the public were disallowed from attending . Permits were required to attend the trial , and family members were restricted to one permit each . Press coverage was limited , and journalists were allowed only if they represented a high @-@ profile news agency . In addition , there were restrictions on the defence of the accused .
During a trial which carried the death sentence as a maximum , the prosecution called 64 separate witnesses . Aubame claimed he had formed his provisional government in a constitutional manner ; at the request of members of the " putschists " . He argued that the French intervention was effectively an illegal act of interference ; a belief shared by both Gondjout and the former education minister , Jean Mare Ekoh . On 9 September , without consulting M 'ba , Leon Auge handed down a verdict acquitting both Ekoh and Gondjout of all charges .
Little is known of Goundjout 's life between his 1966 acquittal and death on 1 July 1990 , in Libreville . He is buried in Libreville near his wife Odette ( d . 2006 ) , a former fashion model . A secondary school has been established in his name .
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= Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War =
During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence , members of the Pakistani military and supporting Bihari and Bengali Razaker militias from Jamaat e Islami raped between two and four hundred thousand Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape . During the war , a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali ' freedom fighters ' were Hindus and that their women could be taken as the ' booty of war ' . Imams and Muslim religious leaders publicly declared that the Bengali women were ' gonimoter maal ' ( war booty ) and thus they openly supported the rape of Bengali women by the Pakistani Army . The activists and leaders of Islamic parties were also involved in the rapes and abduction of women . Scholars have suggested that rape was used to terrorise both the Bengali @-@ speaking Muslim majority and the Hindu minority of Bangladesh . The rapes caused thousands of pregnancies , births of war babies , abortions , incidents of infanticide and suicide , and , in addition , led to ostracisation of the victims . Recognised as one of the major occurrences of war crimes anywhere , the atrocities ended after surrender of the Pakistani military and supporting Razaker militias . Initially India claimed its support for the Mukti Bahini and later intervention was on humanitarian grounds , but after the UN rejected this argument , India claimed intervention was needed to protect its own security , and it is now widely seen as a humanitarian move . Despite the Pakistani government 's attempts to censor news during the conflict , reports of atrocities filtered out , attracting international media and public attention , and drawing widespread outrage and criticism .
During the war Bengali nationalists also committed mass rape of ethnic Bihari Muslim women , since the Bihari Muslim community supported Pakistan .
In 2009 , almost 40 years after the events of 1971 , a report published by the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee of Bangladesh accused 1 @,@ 597 people of war crimes , including rape . Since 2010 the International Crimes Tribunal ( ICT ) has indicted , tried and sentenced several people to life imprisonment or death for their actions during the conflict .
The stories of the rape victims have been told in movies and literature , and depicted in art .
= = Background = =
Following the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan the East and West wings were not only separated geographically , but also culturally . The authorities of the West viewed the Bengali Muslims in the East as " too Bengali " and their application of Islam as " inferior and impure " , and this made them unreliable . To this extent the West began a strategy to forcibly assimilate the Bengalis culturally . The Bengali @-@ speaking people of East Pakistan were chiefly Muslim , but their numbers were interspersed with a significant Hindu minority . Very few spoke Urdu , which in 1948 had been declared the national language of Pakistan . To express their opposition , activists in East Pakistan founded the Bengali language movement in February 1952 . Earlier , in 1949 , other activists had founded the Awami League as an alternative to the ruling Muslim League in West Pakistan . In the next decade and half , Bengalis became gradually disenchanted with the balance of power in Pakistan , which was under military rule during much of this time ; eventually some began to call for secession . By the late 1960s , a perception had emerged that the people of East Pakistan were second @-@ class citizens . It did not help that General A. A. K. Niazi , head of Pakistani Forces in East Pakistan , called East Pakistan a " low @-@ lying land of low , lying people " .
There had been opposition to military rule in West Pakistan as well . Eventually the military relented , and in December 1970 the first ever elections were held . To the surprise of many , East Pakistan 's Awami League , headed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , won a clear majority . The West Pakistani establishment was displeased with the results . In Dacca following the election a general said " Don 't worry , we will not allow these black bastards to rule over us " . Soon President Yahya Khan banned the Awami League and declared martial law in East Pakistan .
With the goal of putting down Bengali nationalism , the Pakistan Army launched Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971 . According to Eric Heinze the Pakistani forces targeted both Hindus and Bengali @-@ speaking Muslims . In the ensuing 1971 Bangladesh genocide , the army caused the deaths of up to 3 million people , created up to 10 million refugees who fled to India , and displaced a further 30 million within East Pakistan .
Rounaq Jahan alleges elements of racism in the Pakistan army , who he says considered the Bengalis " racially inferior β a non @-@ martial and physically weak race " , and has accused the army of using organised rape as a weapon of war . According to the political scientist R J Rummel , the Pakistani army looked upon the Bengalis as " subhuman " and that the Hindus were " as Jews to the Nazis , scum and vermin that best be exterminated " . This racism was then expressed in that the Bengalis , being inferior , must have their gene pool " fixed " through forcible impregnation . BelΓ©n MartΓn Lucas has described the rapes as " ethnically motivated " .
= = Pakistani Army actions = =
The attacks were led by General Tikka Khan , who was the architect of Operation Searchlight and was given the name the " butcher of Bengal " by the Bengalis for his actions . Khan said β when reminded on 27 March 1971 that he was in charge of a majority province β " I will reduce this majority to a minority " . Bina D 'Costa believes an anecdote used by Khan is significant , in that it provides proof of the mass rapes being a deliberate strategy . In Jessore , while speaking with a group of journalists Khan was reported to have said , " Pehle inko Mussalman karo " ( First , make them Muslim ) . D 'Costa argues that this shows that in the highest echelons of the armed forces the Bengalis were perceived as being disloyal Muslims and unpatriotic Pakistanis .
The perpetrators conducted nighttime raids , assaulting women in their villages , often in front of their families , as part of the terror campaign . Victims aged 8 to 75 were also kidnapped and held in special camps where they were repeatedly assaulted . Many of those held in the camps were murdered or committed suicide , with some taking their own lives by using their hair to hang themselves , the soldiers responded to these suicides by cutting the women 's hair off . Time magazine reported on 563 girls who had been kidnapped and held by the military ; all of them were between three and five months pregnant when the military began to release them . Some women were forcibly used as prostitutes . While the Pakistani government estimated the number of rapes in the hundreds , other estimates range between 200 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 . The Pakistani government had tried to censor reports coming out of the region , but media reports on the atrocities did reach the public worldwide , and gave rise to widespread international public support for the liberation movement .
In what has been described by Jenneke Arens as a deliberate attempt to destroy an ethnic group , many of those assaulted were raped , murdered and then bayoneted in the genitalia . Adam Jones , a political scientist , has said that one of the reasons for the mass rapes was to undermine Bengali society through the " dishonoring " of Bengali women and that some women were raped until they died or were killed following repeated attacks . The Pakistani army also raped Bengali males . The men , when passing through a checkpoint , would be ordered to prove they were circumcised , and this is where the rapes usually happened . The International Commission of Jurists concluded that the atrocities carried out by the Pakistan armed forces " were part of a deliberate policy by a disciplined force " . The writer Mulk Raj Anand said of the Pakistani army actions , " The rapes were so systematic and pervasive that they had to be conscious Army policy , " planned by the West Pakistanis in a deliberate effort to create a new race " or to dilute Bengali nationalism " . Amita Malik , reporting from Bangladesh following the Pakistan armed forces surrender , wrote that one West Pakistani soldier said : " We are going . But we are leaving our Seed behind " .
Not all Pakistani military personnel supported the violence : General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan , who advised the president against military action , and Major Ikram Sehgal both resigned in protest , as did Air Marshal Asghar Khan . Ghaus Bakhsh Bizenjo , a Balochi politician , and Khan Abdul Wali Khan , leader of the National Awami Party , protested over the actions of the armed forces . Those imprisoned for their dissenting views on the violence included Sabihuddin Ghausi and I. A. Rahman , who were both journalists , the Sindhi leader G. M. Syed , the poet Ahmad Salim , Anwar Pirzado , who was a member of the air force , Professor M. R. Hassan , Tahera Mazhar and Imtiaz Ahmed . Malik Ghulam Jilani , who was also arrested , had openly opposed the armed action in the East ; a letter he had written to Yahya Khan was widely publicised . Altaf Hussain Gauhar , the editor of the Dawn newspaper , was also imprisoned . In 2013 Jilani and Faiz Ahmad Faiz , a poet , were honoured by the Bangladeshi government for their actions .
= = = Militias = = =
According to Peter Tomsen , a political scientist , Pakistan 's secret service the Directorate for Inter @-@ Services Intelligence , in conjunction with the political party Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , formed militias such as Al @-@ Badr ( " the moon " ) and the Al @-@ Shams ( " the sun " ) to conduct operations against the nationalist movement . These militias targeted non @-@ combatants and committed rapes as well as other crimes . Local collaborators known as Razakars also took part in the atrocities . The term has since become a pejorative akin to the western term " Judas " .
Members of the Muslim League , such as Nizam @-@ e @-@ Islam , Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and Jamiat Ulema Pakistan , who had lost the election , collaborated with the military and acted as an intelligence organisation for them . Members of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and some of its leaders collaborated with the Pakistani forces in rapes and targeted killings . The atrocities by Al @-@ Badr and the Al @-@ Shams garnered worldwide attention from news agencies ; accounts of massacres and rapes were widely reported .
= = International reaction = =
There is an academic consensus that the events of the nine @-@ month conflict were a genocide . The atrocities in East Pakistan were the first instances of war rape to attract international media attention , and Sally J. Scholz has written that this was the first genocide to capture the interest of the mass media . The women 's human rights organisation Bangladesh Mahila Parishat took part in the war by publicising the atrocities being carried out by the Pakistani army .
Owing to the scale of the atrocities , US embassy staff had sent telegrams indicating that a genocide was occurring . One , which became known as the Blood telegram , was sent by Archer Blood , the US Consul General in Dhaka , and was signed by him as well as US officials from USAID and USIS who at the time were serving in Dhaka . In it , the signatories denounced American " complicity in Genocide " . In an interview in 1972 , Indira Gandhi , the Indian prime minister , justified the use of military intervention , saying , " Shall we sit and watch their women get raped ? " The events were discussed extensively in the British House of Commons . John Stonehouse proposed a motion supported by a further 200 members of parliament condemning the atrocities being carried out by the Pakistani armed forces . Although this motion was presented twice before parliament , the government did not find time to debate it .
Before the end of the war the international community had begun to provide aid in large quantities to the refugees living in India . Although humanitarian aid was given , there was little support for the war crimes trials which Bangladesh proposed at the end of the war . Critics of the United Nations have used the atrocities of 1971 to argue that military intervention was the only thing to stop the mass murder . Writing to The New York Times , a group of women said in response to women being shunned by family and husbands , " It is unthinkable that innocent wives whose lives were virtually destroyed by war are now being totally destroyed by their own husbands " . International aid was also forthcoming owing to the issue of war rape .
According to Susan Brownmiller , mass rape during wartime is not a new phenomenon . She argues that what was unique to the Bangladesh Liberation War was that the international community , for the first time , recognised that systematic rape could be used as a weapon to terrorise the people .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the war , one pressing problem was the very high number of unwanted pregnancies of rape victims . Estimates of the number of pregnancies resulting in births range from 25 @,@ 000 to the Bangladeshi government 's figure of 70 @,@ 000 , while one publication by the Centre for Reproductive Law and Policy gave a total of 250 @,@ 000 . A government @-@ mandated victim relief programme was set up with the support of the World Health Organization and International Planned Parenthood Federation , among whose goals it was to organise abortion facilities to help rape victims terminate unwanted pregnancies . A doctor at a rehabilitation centre in Dhaka reported 170 @,@ 000 abortions of pregnancies caused by the rapes , and the births of 30 @,@ 000 war babies during the first three months of 1972 . Dr. Geoffrey Davis , an Australian doctor and abortion specialist who worked for the programme , estimated that there had been about 5 @,@ 000 cases of self @-@ induced abortions . He also said that during his work he heard of numerous infanticides and suicides by victims . His estimate of the total number of rape victims was 400 @,@ 000 , twice as high as the official estimate of 200 @,@ 000 cited by the Bangladeshi government . Most of the victims also contracted sexual infections . Many suffered from feelings of intense shame and humiliation , and a number were ostracised by their families and communities or committed suicide .
The feminist writer Cynthia Enloe has written that some pregnancies were intended by the soldiers and perhaps their officers as well . A report from the International Commission of Jurists said , " Whatever the precise numbers , the teams of American and British surgeons carrying out abortions and the widespread government efforts to persuade people to accept these girls into the community , testify to the scale on which raping occurred " . The commission also said that Pakistani officers not only allowed their men to rape , but enslaved women themselves .
Following the conflict the rape victims were seen as a symbol of " social pollution " and shame . Few were able to return to families or old homes because of this . Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called the victims birangona ( " heroine " ) , but this served as a reminder that these women were now deemed socially unacceptable as they were " dishonored " , and the term became associated with barangona ( " prostitute " ) . The official strategy of marrying the women off and encouraging them to be seen as war heroines failed as few men came forward , and those who did expected the state to provide a large dowry . Those women who did marry were usually mistreated , and the majority of men , once having received a dowry , abandoned their wives .
On 18 February 1972 the state formed the Bangladesh Women 's Rehabilitation Board , which was tasked with helping the victims of rape and to help with the adoption programme . Several international agencies took part in the adoption programme , such as Mother Teresa 's Sisters of Charity . The majority of the war babies were adopted in the Netherlands and Canada as the state wished to remove the reminders of Pakistan from the newly formed nation . However , not all women wanted their child taken , and some were forcibly removed and sent for adoption , a practice which was encouraged by Rahman , who said , " I do not want those polluted blood in this country " . While many women were glad for the abortion programme , as they did not have to bear a child conceived of rape , others had to go full term , filled with hatred towards the child they carried . Others , who had their children adopted out so as to return to " mainstream life " , would not look at their newborn as it was taken from them . In the 1990s many of these children returned to Bangladesh to search for their birth mothers . In 2008 , D 'Costa attempted to find those who had been adopted , however very few responded , one who did said " I hated being a kid , and I am angry at Bangladesh for not taking care of me when I needed it most . I don β t have any roots and that makes me cry . So that is why I am trying to learn more about where I was born . "
Forty years after the war , two sisters who had been raped were interviewed by Deutsche Welle . Aleya stated she had been taken by the Pakistani army when she was thirteen , and was gang raped repeatedly for seven months . She states she was tortured and was five months pregnant when she returned to her home . Her sister , Laily , says she was pregnant when she was taken by the armed forces , and lost the child . Later she fought alongside the Mukti Bahini . Both say that the state has failed the birangona , and that all they received was " humiliation , insults , hatred , and ostracism . "
= = = Pakistani government reaction = = =
After the conflict , the Pakistani government decided on a policy of silence regarding the rapes . They set up the Hamoodur Rahman Commission , a judicial commission to prepare an account of the circumstances surrounding the atrocities of the 1971 war and Pakistan 's surrender . The commission was highly critical of the army . The chiefs of staff of the army and the Pakistan Air Force were removed from their positions for attempting to interfere with the commission . The Commission based its reports on interviews with politicians , officers and senior commanders . The final reports were submitted in July 1972 , but all were subsequently destroyed except for one held by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , the Pakistani president . The findings were never made public .
In 1974 the commission was reopened and issued a supplementary report , which remained classified for 25 years until published by the magazine India Today . The report said that 26 @,@ 000 people were killed , rapes numbered in the hundreds , and that the Mukti Bahini rebels engaged in widespread rape and other human rights abuses . Sumit Ganguly , a political scientist , believes that the Pakistani establishment has yet to come to terms with the atrocities carried out , saying that , in a visit to Bangladesh in 2002 , Pervez Musharraf expressed regret for the atrocities rather than accepting responsibility .
= = = War Crimes prosecutions = = =
In 2008 , after a 17 @-@ year investigation , the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee released documentation identifying 1 @,@ 597 people who had taken part in the atrocities . The list included members of the Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party , a political group founded in 1978 . In 2010 the government of Bangladesh set up the ICT to investigate the atrocities of that era . While Human Rights Watch has been supportive of the tribunal , it has also been critical of reported harassment of lawyers representing the accused . Brad Adams , director of the Asia branch of Human Rights Watch , has said that those accused must be given the full protection of the law to avoid the risk of the trials not being taken seriously , and Irene Khan , a human rights activist , has expressed doubt about whether the mass rapes and killings of women will be addressed . Khan has said of her government 's reaction :
A conservative Muslim society has preferred to throw a veil of negligence and denial on the issue , allowed those who committed or colluded with gender violence to thrive , and left the women victims to struggle in anonymity and shame and without much state or community support .
The deputy leader of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , Delwar Hossain Sayeedi , the first person to face charges related to the conflict , was indicted by the ICT on twenty counts of war crimes , which included murder , rape and arson . He denied all charges . On 28 February 2013 , Sayeedi was found guilty of genocide , rape and religious persecution , and was sentenced to death by hanging . Four other members of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami Bangladesh , including Motiur Rahman Nizami , have also been indicted for war crimes . Abul Kalam Azad , a member of the Razakars , was the first person to be sentenced for crimes during the war . He was found guilty of murder and rape in absentia , and was sentenced to death . Muhammad Kamaruzzaman , senior assistant secretary general of Bangladesh Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , faced seven charges of war crimes , including planning and advising on the rape of women in the village of Shohaghpur on 25 July 1971 . The ICT sentenced him to death by hanging on 9 May 2013 . In July 2013 Ghulam Azam was given a ninety @-@ year sentence for rape and mass murder during the conflict . Abdul Quader Molla , A member of the Rajakar militia during the war was charged with abetting the Pakistani army and actively participating in the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities : rape ( including the rape of minors ) and mass murder of Bangladeshis in the Mirpur area of Dhaka during the Bangladesh Liberation War . After the government had amended the war crimes law to allow a sentence to be appealed based on leniency of punishment , prosecutors appealed to the Supreme Court of Bangladesh and asked for it to upgrade Molla 's sentence from life in prison to death . On 17 September 2013 , the Supreme Court accepted the appeal and sentenced Molla to death . Finally he was hanged in Dhaka Central Jail on 12 December 2013 at 22 : 01 .
= = In literature and media = =
A photograph taken during the conflict of a woman who had been assaulted featured in an exhibition in London . Titled Shamed Woman , but also called Brave Woman , the image was taken by a Bangladeshi photographer , Naib Uddin Ahmed . The image is considered by John Tulloch to be as " classical a pose as any Madonna and Child " . One of the more emotive photographs at the exhibition , the woman has her hands clenched , her face completely covered by her hair . Tulloch describes the image as having the " Capability to reveal or suggest what is unsayable "
Orunodoyer Ognishakhi ( Pledge to a New Dawn ) , the first film about the war , was screened in 1972 on the first Bangladeshi Independence Day celebration . It draws on the experiences of an actor called Altaf . While trying to reach safe haven in Calcutta , he encounters women who have been raped . The images of these birangona , stripped and vacant @-@ eyed from the trauma , are used as testimony to the assault . Other victims Altaf meets are shown committing suicide or having lost their minds .
In 1995 Gita Sahgal produced the documentary War Crimes File , which was screened on Channel 4 . In 2011 the film Meherjaan was shown at the Guwahati International Film Festival . It explores the war from two perspectives : that of a woman who loved a Pakistani soldier and that of a person born from rape .
In 1996 the book Ami Birangana Bolchi ( The Voices of War Heroines ) written by Nilima Ibrahim was released . It is a collection of eyewitness testimony from seven rape victims , which she documented while working in rehabilitation centres . The narratives of the survivors in this work , is heavily critical of pre war Bangladeshi society`s failure to support the victims of rape .
Published in 2012 , the book Rising from the Ashes : Women 's Narratives of 1971 includes oral testimonies of women affected by the Liberation War . As well as an account from Taramon Bibi , who fought and was awarded the Bir Protik ( Symbol of Valour ) for her actions , there are nine interviews with women who were raped . The book 's publication in English at the time of the fortieth anniversary of the war was noted in the New York Times as an " important oral history " .
The 2014 movie Children of War tries to capture this horror on celluloid . The film By Mrityunjay Devvrat starring Farooq Sheikh , Victor Banerjee , Raima Sen , among others is meant to " send shivers down the viewers ' spine . We want to make it so repulsive that no one even entertains the thought of pardoning rapists , let alone commit the crime . The shoot took its toll on all of us . "
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= Arthur W. Radford =
Arthur William Radford ( 27 February 1896 β 17 August 1973 ) was a United States Navy admiral and naval aviator . In over 40 years of military service , Radford held a variety of positions including Vice Chief of Naval Operations , commander of the United States Pacific Fleet and later the second Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
With an interest in ships and aircraft from a young age , Radford saw his first sea duty aboard the battleship USS South Carolina during World War I. In the inter @-@ war period he earned his pilot wings and rose through the ranks in duties aboard ships and in the Bureau of Aeronautics . After the U.S. entered World War II , he was the architect of the development and expansion of the Navy 's aviator training programs in the first years of the war . In its final years he commanded carrier task forces through several major campaigns of the Pacific War .
Noted as a strong @-@ willed and aggressive leader , Radford was a central figure in the post @-@ war debates on U.S. military policy , and was a staunch proponent of naval aviation . As commander of the Pacific Fleet , he defended the Navy 's interests in an era of shrinking defense budgets , and was a central figure in the " Revolt of the Admirals , " a contentious public fight over policy . As Chairman of the Joint Chiefs , he continued to advocate for aggressive foreign policy and a strong nuclear deterrent in support of the " New Look " policy of President Dwight Eisenhower .
Retiring from the military in 1957 , Radford continued to be a military adviser to several prominent politicians until his death in 1973 . For his extensive service , he was awarded many military honors , and was the namesake of the Spruance @-@ class destroyer USS Arthur W. Radford .
= = Early life = =
Arthur William Radford was born on 27 February 1896 in Chicago , to John Arthur Radford , a Canadian @-@ born electrical engineer , and Agnes Eliza Radford ( nΓ©e Knight ) . The eldest of four children , he was described as bright and energetic in his youth . When Arthur was six years old the family moved to Riverside , Illinois , where his father took a job as a managing engineer with Commonwealth Edison Company . John Radford managed the first steam turbine engines in the United States , at the Fisk Street Generating Station .
Arthur began his school years at Riverside Public School , where he expressed an interest in the United States Navy from a young age . He gained an interest in aviation during a visit to the 1904 World 's Fair in St. Louis , Missouri . By fourth grade , he frequently drew detailed cross @-@ section diagrams of the USS Maine . He was shy , but performed very well in school . In mid @-@ 1910 , Radford moved with his family to Grinnell , Iowa , and attended Grinnell High School for a year and a half , before deciding to apply to the United States Naval Academy . He obtained the local congressman 's recommendation for an appointment to the academy , and was accepted . After several months of tutoring at Annapolis , Maryland , he entered the academy in July 1912 , at the age of sixteen .
Although Radford 's first year at the academy was mediocre he applied himself to his studies in his remaining years there . He participated in summer cruises to Europe in 1913 and 1914 and passed through the Panama Canal to San Francisco in 1916 . Radford , known as " Raddie " to his fellow students , graduated 59th of 177 in the class of 1916 , and was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy during the First World War .
= = Military career = =
Radford 's first duty was aboard the battleship USS South Carolina , as it escorted a transatlantic convoy to France in 1918 . In his second post he was an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to a battleship division commander , and in his third , a flag lieutenant for another battleship division commander .
In 1920 , Radford reported to Pensacola , Florida , for flight training , and was promoted to lieutenant soon thereafter . During the 1920s and 1930s his sea duty alternated among several aircraft squadrons , fleet staffs , and tours in the U.S. with the Bureau of Aeronautics . It was during this time , while he served under Rear Admiral William Moffett , that he frequently interacted with politicians and picked up the political acumen that would become useful later in his career . While he did not attend the Naval War College , as other rising officers did , Radford established himself as an effective officer who would speak his mind frankly , even to superiors .
Radford achieved the rank of lieutenant commander by 1927 , and served with aircraft units aboard USS Colorado , USS Pennsylvania , and USS Wright . In 1936 , he was promoted to commander and took charge of fighter squadron VF @-@ 1B aboard USS Saratoga . By 1939 , he was given command of Naval Air Station Seattle in Seattle , Washington . On 22 April 1939 , he married Miriam Jean ( Caro ) Spencer at Vancouver Barracks , Washington . Spencer ( 1895 β 1997 ) was a daughter of Simon Caro , and the former wife of ( 1 ) Albert Cressey Maze ( 1891 β 1943 ) , with whom she had a son , Robert Claude Maze Sr. , Major , USMC who was killed in action in 1945 and ( 2 ) Earl Winfield Spencer , Jr . In May 1940 , Radford was appointed executive officer of the USS Yorktown , a post he served in for one year .
In July 1941 , Radford was appointed commander of the Naval Air Station in Trinidad , British West Indies . He protested this appointment because he feared he would remain there for years , sidelined as World War II loomed . In the event he only remained in this station for three months , following an organizational shift in the Bureau of Aeronautics . By mid @-@ 1941 , thanks to a large expansion in the naval aviator program , squadrons could no longer train newly arrived aviators . Further , at that time , the vast difference in the performance of combat aircraft over training aircraft meant that pilots needed more time in combat aircraft before becoming proficient in them . Radford was subsequently visited by Artemus L. Gates , Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air . The latter was so impressed that he ordered Rear Admiral John H. Towers , chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics , to transfer Radford to a newly formed training division .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Aviation Training Division = = = =
Radford took command of the Aviation Training Division in Washington , D.C. on 1 December 1941 , seven days before the attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II . He was appointed as Director of Aviation Training for both the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Bureau of Navigation ; the double appointment helped to centralize training coordination for all naval aviators . With the U.S. mobilizing for war , Radford 's office worked long hours six days a week in an effort to build up the necessary training infrastructure as quickly as possible . For several months , this around @-@ the @-@ clock work took up all of his time , and he later noted that walking to work was his only form of exercise for several months . During this time , he impressed colleagues with a direct and no @-@ nonsense approach to work , while maintaining a demeanor that made him easy to work for . He was promoted to captain soon after .
Throughout 1942 he established and refined the administrative infrastructure for aviation training . Radford oversaw the massive growth of the training division , establishing separate sections for administration ; Physical Training Service Schools ; and training devices ; and sections to train various aviators in flight , aircraft operation , radio operation , and gunnery . The section also organized technical training and wrote training literature . He also engineered the establishment of four field commands for pilot training . Air Primary Training Command commanded all pre @-@ flight schools and Naval reserve aviation bases in the country . Air Intermediate Training Command administered Naval Air Station Pensacola and Naval Air Station Corpus Christi where flight training was conducted . Air Operational Training Command was in charge of all education of pilots between pilot training and their first flying assignments . Finally , Air Technical Training Command trained enlisted men for support jobs in aviation such as maintenance , engineering , aerography , and parachute operations . Radford sought to integrate his own efficient leadership style into the organization of these schools .
Radford was noted for thinking progressively and innovatively to establish the most effective and efficient training programs . He sought to integrate sports conditioning programs into naval aviator training . Radford brought in athletic directors from Ohio State University , Harvard University and Penn State University under football player and naval aviator Tom Hamilton , to whom he gave the remit to develop the conditioning programs . Radford also suggested integrating women into intricate but repetitive tasks , such as running flight simulators . When commanders rejected the idea of bringing women into the service , he convinced Congressman Carl Vinson , chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee of the merit of the idea . This effort eventually led to the employment of the " Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service " , and 23 @,@ 000 WAVES would assist in aeronautical training in the course of the war . Radford also sought to best use the assets of businessmen and professionals who had volunteered for military service , establishing the Aviation Indoctrination School and Air Combat Intelligence School at Naval Air Station Quonset Point so as to enable these advanced recruits to become more experienced naval officers .
= = = = Sea duty = = = =
By early 1943 , with Radford 's training programs established and functioning efficiently , he sought combat duty . In April of that year , he was ordered to report to the office of Commander , Naval Air Forces , Pacific Fleet where he was promoted to rear admiral and tapped to be a carrier division commander . This was an unusual appointment , as most carrier division commanders were appointed only after duty commanding a capital ship . He then spent May and June 1943 on an inspection party under Gates , touring U.S. bases in the south Pacific . Following this , he was assigned under Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman , commander of Carrier Division 2 at Pearl Harbor . Radford spent several weeks observing flight operations and carrier tactics for various ships operating out of Hawaii . He was particularly impressed with how carrier doctrine had evolved in the time since his own assignment on a carrier , and in June 1943 , he was ordered to observe operations on the light aircraft carrier USS Independence , learning the unique challenges of using light carriers .
On 21 July 1943 , Radford was given command of Carrier Division Eleven , which consisted of the new Essex @-@ class carrier USS Lexington as well as the light carriers USS Independence and USS Princeton . These carriers remained at Pearl Harbor through August , training and refining their operations . Radford got his first operational experience on 1 September 1943 , covering a foray to Baker and Howland Islands as part of Task Force 11 under Rear Admiral Willis A. Lee . Radford commanded Princeton , USS Belleau Wood and four destroyers to act as a covering force for Lee 's marines , who built an airfield on the islands . After this successful operation , and at the direction of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , Task Force 11 was joined by Task Force 15 , with Lexington , under Rear Admiral Charles A. Pownall . The two task forces then steamed for Tarawa Atoll to strike it . On the night of 17 September , the carriers launched six strikes of fighter aircraft , dive bombers , and torpedo planes to work over the Japanese defenses .
Next , Radford and his carriers took part in an air attack and cruiser bombardment of Wake Island on 5 to 6 October 1943 . He shifted his flag to Lexington for the operation , which took two days . Though the effects on Japanese positions were not known , Radford and other leaders considered the operations useful for preparing their forces for the major battles to come in the Central Pacific .
= = = = Major combat operations = = = =
Major operations in the Central Pacific began that November . Radford 's next duty was in Operation Galvanic , a campaign into the Gilbert Islands with the objective of capturing Tarawa as well as Makin Island and Apamama Atoll . It would be one of the first times that American carriers would be operating against Japanese land @-@ based air power in force , as U.S. Army troops and U.S. Marines fought the Japanese on the ground . For this mission , Radford 's carrier division was designated Task Group 50 @.@ 2 , the Northern Carrier Group , which consisted of USS Enterprise , Belleau Wood and USS Monterey . He did not agree with this strategy , maintaining until his death that the force should have gone on an offensive to strike Japanese air power instead of being tied to the ground forces . Despite his objections , the force left Pearl Harbor for the Gilbert Islands on 10 November .
The invasion began on 20 November . Radford 's force was occupied with air strikes on Japanese ground targets , and faced frequent attack by Japanese aircraft in night combat , which U.S. aircrews were not well prepared or equipped for . He improvised a unit to counter Japanese night raids , and was later credited with establishing routines for nighttime combat air patrols to protect carriers ; these were adopted fleetwide . He commanded Carrier Division Eleven around Tarawa for several more days , returning to Pearl Harbor on 4 December .
Returning from Tarawa , Radford was reassigned as chief of staff to Towers , who was Commander , Air Force , Pacific Fleet . He assisted in planning upcoming operations , including Operation Flintlock , the invasion of the Marshall Islands . He had hoped to return to combat duty at the end of this assignment , but in March 1944 he was ordered to Washington , D.C. and appointed as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations . He assumed this new duty on 1 April , a role which was primarily administrative in nature . His duties included establishing a new integrated system for aircraft maintenance , supply , and retirement , for which he was appointed the head of a board to study aircraft wear and tear . After six months in this duty , Radford was returned to the Pacific theater by Admiral Ernest J. King , the Chief of Naval Operations ( CNO ) and Commander in Chief , United States Fleet .
Radford returned to Pearl Harbor on 7 October 1944 , where he was appointed as commander of First Carrier Task Force , Carrier Division Six . While flying to his new command , he was held over in Kwajalein and then Saipan , missing the Battle of Leyte Gulf which took place in the Philippines during the layover . He flew to Ulithi where he reported to Vice Admiral John S. McCain , Sr. , commander of Task Force 58 . For the next two months , Radford remained on " make learn " status , again under Sherman 's command , observing the operations and employment of carrier @-@ based air power as a passenger aboard USS Ticonderoga , part of Task Group 38 @.@ 3 . During this time , he observed the strikes on Luzon and the Visayas , as well as air attacks on Japanese shipping and Typhoon Cobra .
On 29 December 1944 , Radford was unexpectedly ordered to take command of Task Group 38 @.@ 1 after its commander , Rear Admiral Alfred E. Montgomery , was injured . The next day the fleet sortied from Ulithi and headed for scheduled air strikes on Luzon and Formosa ( Taiwan ) . Throughout January 1945 , Radford 's fleet operated in the South China Sea striking Japanese targets in French Indochina and Hong Kong . In February , the U.S. Third Fleet was re @-@ designated the U.S. Fifth Fleet , and as a part of this reorganization Radford 's force was redesignated Task Group 58 @.@ 4 . He continued striking Japanese targets in the Inland Sea during March . On 1 April , the force was moved to support the Battle of Okinawa . Over the course of the next two months , his force continued its use of night raids , which by this point were effective in repelling Japanese attacks on U.S. Navy ships . After two months supporting ground forces on Okinawa , Radford 's fleet was detached from that operation .
Returning to the Third Fleet and being re @-@ designated Task Group 38 @.@ 4 , the force began operating off the Japanese Home Islands in July 1945 . It began an intense airstrike campaign against military targets on Honshu and Hokkaido , striking Japanese airfields , merchant shipping , and ground targets . Radford commanded the force in this duty until V @-@ J Day , the end of the war in the Pacific . Upon receipt of the orders to end hostilities , he signaled his ships that he was proud of their accomplishments .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Radford was promoted to vice admiral in late 1945 . For a time he was Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air under Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal . In the post @-@ war period Radford was a strong advocate that naval aviation programs be maintained . When Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King issued a post @-@ war plan calling for the U.S. to maintain nine active aircraft carriers , Radford suggested he double the number , a politically unrealistic proposal .
After the war , Radford was a principal opponent to a plan to merge the uniformed services . A plan existed to split the Army and the Army Air Forces into separate branches and unite them and the Navy under one Cabinet @-@ level defense organization . Fearing the loss of their branch 's influence , Navy commanders opposed the formation of a separate Air Force and favored a more loose defense organization . Radford was picked by Forrestal to form the Secretary 's Committee of Research and Reorganization . Months of discussion resulted in the National Security Act of 1947 , a political victory for the Navy because it created the U.S. Air Force while resulting in a coordinated , not unified , U.S. Department of Defense with limited power and with the Navy maintaining control of its air assets . In 1947 , Radford was briefly appointed commander of the Second Task Fleet , a move he felt was to distance him from the budget negotiations in Washington , but nonetheless preferred .
In 1948 , Radford was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations ( VCNO ) . Debates continued with military leaders about the future of the armed forces as Truman sought to trim the defense budget . Radford was relied on by Navy leaders as an expert who would fiercely defend the Navy 's interests from budget restrictions , but his appointment as VCNO was opposed by Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz , who feared his hard @-@ line stance on the budget would alienate the generals in the other branches of the military . Some historians contend Radford brought strong leadership to the role . Naval aviation assets grew from 2 @,@ 467 aircraft to 3 @,@ 467 during this time , almost all aircraft for fast @-@ attack carriers . He also oversaw the implementation of the " Full Air Program " which envisioned 14 @,@ 500 total aircraft in the naval air force . Along with his predecessor John Dale Price , he favored reducing naval ship strength in order to develop stronger naval aviation capabilities . Then , in 1949 , Truman appointed him as the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands .
= = Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet = =
In April 1949 , Truman appointed Radford to the position of Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet . A staunch anticommunist , Radford saw the greatest threat to U.S. security coming from Asia , not Europe . He traveled extensively throughout the Pacific as well as South Asia and the Far East . He became acquainted with political and military leaders in New Zealand , Australia , the Philippines , Vietnam , Thailand , Malaya , Burma , India , Pakistan , Hong Kong , Formosa , and Japan , and learned about the sociopolitical issues facing each nation and the region as a whole .
= = = " Revolt of the Admirals " = = =
Despite his new office , Radford was soon recalled to Washington to continue hearings on the future of the U.S. military budget . He became a key figure in what would later be called the " Revolt of the Admirals " , which took place during April 1949 when the supercarrier USS United States was cancelled .
At the request of Vinson , Radford strongly opposed plans by Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews to make the Convair B @-@ 36 the Air Force 's principal bomber , calling it a " billion dollar blunder . " Radford also questioned the Air Force 's plan to focus on nuclear weapons delivery capabilities as its primary deterrent to war and called nuclear war " morally reprehensible " . While the United States remained cancelled and the post @-@ war cuts to the Navy were intact , funding was increasing during the Cold War era for conventional forces .
= = = Korean War = = =
Shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 , control of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble 's U.S. Seventh Fleet was transferred from Radford to Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy , who was serving as Commander , Naval Forces , Far East . Joy 's superior was General of the Army Douglas MacArthur of the United Nations Command Korea ( UNC ) . As such , Radford exercised no direct responsibility over forces involved in the conflict .
Radford was an admirer of MacArthur and a proponent of his " Asia First " strategy . He supported Operation Chromite in October 1950 , as well as the United Nations mission of Korean reunification . He attended the Wake Island Conference between MacArthur and Truman on 15 October , and later recalled his belief that , should the Chinese intervene in the war , the U.S. could still prevail provided it was able to strike Chinese bases in Manchuria with air power . When the People 's Volunteer Army did intervene in favor of North Korea the next month , Radford shared MacArthur 's frustration at restrictions placed on the UN force in the war preventing it from striking Chinese soil . Once Truman relieved MacArthur in April 1951 , Radford reportedly gave the general a " hero 's welcome " in Hawaii as he was returning to the United States .
As commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines and Formosa , Radford accompanied President @-@ elect Dwight D. Eisenhower on his three @-@ day trip to Korea in December 1952 . Eisenhower was looking for an exit strategy for the stalemated and unpopular war , and Radford suggested threatening China with attacks on its Manchurian bases and the use of nuclear weapons . This view was shared by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and UNC Commander General Mark W. Clark , but had not been acted on when the armistice came in July 1953 , at a time when the Chinese were struggling with domestic unrest . Still , Radford 's frankness during the trip and his knowledge of Asia made a good impression on Eisenhower , who nominated Radford to be his Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
= = Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff = =
Eisenhower 's official nomination for Radford came in mid @-@ 1953 . Eisenhower was initially cautious about him because of his involvement in the inter @-@ service rivalry and " revolt " in 1949 . Radford 's anticommunist views , however , as well as his knowledge of Asia and his support of Eisenhower 's " New Look " defense policy , made him an attractive nominee , particularly among Republicans , to replace Omar Bradley . Eisenhower was also impressed with his " intelligence , dedication , tenacity , and courage to speak his mind . " During his nomination , Radford indicated a changed outlook from the positions he had taken during the " Revolt of the Admirals " . As chairman , he was eventually popular with both the president and Congress .
= = = Military budget = = =
Radford was integral in formulating and executing the " New Look " policy , reducing spending on conventional military forces to favor a strong nuclear deterrent and a greater reliance on airpower . In this time , he had to overcome resistance from Army leaders who opposed the reduction of their forces , and Radford 's decisions , unfettered by inter @-@ service rivalry , impressed Eisenhower . In spite of his support of the " New Look " , he disagreed with Eisenhower on several occasions when the president proposed drastic funding cuts that Radford worried would render the U.S. Navy ineffective . In late 1954 , for example , Radford testified privately before a congressional committee that he felt some of Eisenhower 's proposed defense cuts would limit the military 's capability for " massive retaliation " , but he kept his disagreements out of public view , working from within and seeking the funding to save specific strategic programs .
In 1956 , Radford proposed protecting several military programs from funding cuts by reducing numbers of conventional forces , but the proposal was leaked to the press , causing an uproar in Congress and among U.S. military allies , and the plan was dropped . In 1957 , after the other Joint Chiefs of Staff again disagreed on how to downsize force levels amid more budget restrictions , Radford submitted ideas for less dramatic force downsizing directly to Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson , who agreed to pass them along to Eisenhower .
= = = Foreign military policy = = =
While Radford remained Eisenhower 's principal adviser for the budget , they differed on matters of foreign policy . Radford advocated the use of nuclear weapons and a firm military and diplomatic stance against China . Early in his tenure , he suggested to Eisenhower a preventive war against China or the Soviet Union while the U.S. possessed a nuclear advantage and before it became entangled in conflicts in the Far East . Eisenhower immediately dismissed this idea .
After France requested U.S. assistance for its beleaguered force at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 , Radford suggested an aggressive stance toward the Viet Minh , recommending the U.S. threaten them with nuclear weapons as it had with the Chinese in Korea . He also advocated U.S. military intervention in the 1955 First Taiwan Strait Crisis as well as the 1956 Suez Crisis , but Eisenhower favored diplomatic approaches and threats of force .
= = Later life = =
After his second term as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs , Radford opted to retire from the Navy in 1957 to enter the private sector . The same year Radford High School in Honolulu was named in his honor . Radford was called upon to serve as military campaign advisor for Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election , and again for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 election .
Radford died of cancer at age 77 on 17 August 1973 at Bethesda Naval Medical Center in Bethesda , Maryland . He was buried with the full honors accorded to a former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Section 3 of the Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington , Virginia . In 1975 , the Navy launched the anti @-@ submarine Spruance @-@ class destroyer USS Arthur W. Radford , named in his honor .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Radford 's awards and decorations include the following :
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= M11 link road protest =
The M11 link road protest was a major anti @-@ road protest in Leytonstone , London , United Kingdom , in the early to mid @-@ 1990s opposing the construction of the " A12 Hackney to M11 link road " , also known as the M11 Link Road , which was part of a significant local road scheme to connect traffic from the East Cross Route to the M11 , avoiding urban streets .
The road had been proposed since the 1960s , as part of the London Ringways , and was an important link between central London and the Docklands to East Anglia . Over the years , though , road protests elsewhere had become increasingly visible , and urban road building had fallen out of favour with the public . Local Member of Parliament Harry Cohen had been a particular vocal opponent of this scheme .
The protests reached a new level of visibility during 1993 as part of a grassroots campaign where protesters came from outside the area to support the local opposition of the road . The initial focus was on the removal of a tree on George Green , east of Wanstead , that attracted the attention of local , then national media . The activity peaked in 1994 with several high @-@ profile protesters setting up micronations on property scheduled for demolition , most notably on Claremont Road in Leyton . The final stage of the protest was a single building on Fillebrook Road in Leytonstone , which , due to a security blunder , became occupied by squatters .
The road was eventually built as planned , and opened to traffic in 1999 , but the increased costs involved in management and policing of protesters raised the profile of such campaigns in the United Kingdom , and contributed to several road schemes being cancelled or reviewed later on in the decade . Those involved in the protest moved on to oppose other schemes in the country , while opinions of the road as built have since been mixed . By 2014 , the road had become the ninth most congested in the entire country .
= = Background = =
The origin of the link road stems from what were two major arterial roads out of London ( the A11 to Newmarket and Norwich , and the A12 to Colchester , Ipswich and Great Yarmouth ) and subsequent improvements . The first of these was the Eastern Avenue improvement , that opened on 9 June 1924 , which provided a bypass of the old road through Ilford and Romford .
Proposals for the route first arose in the 1960s as part of the London Ringways plan , which would have seen four concentric circular motorways built in the city , together with radial routes , with the M11 motorway ending on Ringway 1 , the innermost Ringway , at Hackney Marsh .
A section of Ringway 1 known as the East Cross Route was built to motorway standards in the late 1960s and early 1970s and designated as the A102 ( M ) . A section of the M11 connecting Ringway 2 ( now part of the North Circular Road ) and Eastern Avenue to Harlow was completed in the late 1970s , opening to traffic in 1977 .
The Ringways scheme met considerable opposition ; there were protests when the Westway , an urban motorway elevated over the streets of Paddington , was opened in 1970 , with local MP John Wheeler later describing the road 's presence within 15 metres of properties as " completely unacceptable environmentally , " and the Archway Road public inquiry was repeatedly abandoned during the 1970s as a result of protests . The first Link Road Action Group to resist the M11 link road was formed in 1976 , and for the next fifteen years activists fought government plans through a series of public inquiries . Their alternative was to build a road tunnel , leaving the houses untouched , but this was rejected on grounds of cost . By 1974 , the Greater London Council announced it would not be completing Ringway 1 . Drivers travelling in the areas where the new roads would have been built had to continue using long stretches of urban single @-@ carriageway roads . In particular , the suburbs of Leyton , Leytonstone and Wanstead suffered serious traffic congestion .
The Roads for Prosperity white paper published in 1989 detailed a major expansion of the road building programme and included plans for the M12 Motorway between London and Chelmsford , as well as many other road schemes . Although Harry Cohen , MP for Leyton and Wanstead suggested in May 1989 that the government should scrap the scheme , a public enquiry was held for the scheme in November .
= = The protest campaign in East London = =
By the 1980s , planning blight had affected the area and many of the houses had become home to a community of artists and squatters . Eventually , contractors were appointed to carry out the work and a compulsory purchase of property along the proposed route was undertaken . In March 1993 , in preparation for the construction of the road , the Earl of Caithness , then the Minister of State for Transport , estimated that there would be 263 properties scheduled for demolition , displacing 550 people , of which he estimated 172 were seeking rehousing . Several original residents , who had in some cases lived in their homes all their lives , refused to sell or move out of their properties .
Protesters from the local area against the link road scheme were joined by large numbers of anti @-@ road campaigners from around the UK and beyond , attracted by the availability of free housing along the route . These experienced protesters , who had participated in earlier events such as the Anti @-@ Nazi League riots in Welling , gave impetus to the campaign . The new arrivals used the skills they had developed during prior protests to construct " defences " , blocking the original entrances to the houses and creating new routes directly between them .
Sophisticated techniques were used to delay the construction of the road . Sit @-@ ins and site invasions were combined with sabotage to stop construction work temporarily . This led to large numbers of police and constant security patrols being employed to protect the construction sites , at great expense . By December 1994 , the total cost of construction had been estimated at Β£ 6 million and rising by Β£ 500 @,@ 000 every month .
The protesters were successful in publicising the campaign , with most UK newspapers and TV news programmes covering the protests on a regular basis . Desktop publishing , then in its infancy , was used to produce publicity materials for the campaign and send out faxes to the media . When the government began evicting residents along the route and demolishing the empty houses , the protesters set up so @-@ called " autonomous republics " such as " Wanstonia " in some groups of the houses . Extreme methods were used to force the engineers to halt demolition , including underground tunnels with protesters secured within by concrete .
= = = The chestnut tree on George Green = = =
Until late 1993 , local opposition to the M11 extension had been relatively limited . While opposition had been going for nearly ten years , institutional avenues of protest had been exhausted , and local residents were largely resigned to the road being built . When outside protesters arrived in September 1993 , few residents saw their mission as " their campaign " .
One section of the M11 extension was due to tunnel under George Green in Wanstead . Residents had believed that this would save their green , and a 250 @-@ year @-@ old sweet chestnut tree that grew upon it , but because this was a cut and cover tunnel , this required the tree to be cut down .
Support for the protests started to extend to the local community when Jean Gosling , a lollipop lady in Wanstead , upon learning of the tree 's impending destruction , rallied the support of local children ( and was later fired from her job for doing so while wearing her uniform ) , who in turn recruited their parents into the protests . It was then that the non @-@ resident radicals realised that they had significant local support . When local residents gathered for a tree dressing ceremony on 6 November , they found their way barred by security fencing . With support from the protesters , they pulled it down .
Protesters continued to delay the destruction of the tree . Solicitors for the campaign had even argued in court that receipt of a letter addressed to the tree itself gave it the status of a legal dwelling , causing a further delay , . In the early morning of 7 December 1993 , several hundred police arrived to evict the protesters , which took ten hours to carry out . Protesters made numerous complaints against the police ; police , in turn , denied these allegations , attributing any misbehaviour to the protesters . Media attention started to increase regarding the protest , with several daily newspapers putting pictures of the tree on their front pages .
Local MP Cohen started to become scathing about the scheme and its progress . In March 1994 , he said " the Department of Transport 's pig @-@ headed approach to the M11 link road has been a shambles , and a costly one at that , " and described the ongoing police presence as " a miniature equivalent of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait . " According to him , squatter Hugh Jones had been threatened by demolition men wielding sledgehammers and pickaxes , adding " the project has cost Β£ 500 @,@ 000 in police time alone , to take over and demolish a 250 @-@ year @-@ old chestnut tree and half a dozen houses "
= = = Claremont Road = = =
By 1994 , properties scheduled for demolition had been compulsory purchased , and most were made uninhabitable by removing kitchens , bathrooms and staircases . The notable exception was in one small street , Claremont Road , which ran immediately next to the Central line and consequently required every property on it to be demolished . The street was almost completely occupied by protesters except for one original resident who had not taken up the Department for Transport 's offer to move , 92 @-@ year @-@ old Dolly Watson , who was born in number 32 and had lived there nearly all her life . She became friends with the anti @-@ road protesters , saying " they 're not dirty hippy squatters , they 're the grandchildren I never had . " The protesters named a watchtower , built from scaffold poles , after her .
A vibrant and harmonious community sprung up on the road , which even won the begrudging respect of the authorities . The houses were painted with extravagant designs , both internally and externally , and sculptures erected in the road ; the road became an artistic spectacle that one said " had to be seen to be believed " .
In November 1994 , the eviction of Claremont Road took place , bringing an end to the M11 link road resistance as a major physical protest . Bailiffs , accompanied by the police in full riot gear , carried out the eviction over several days , and the Central line , running adjacent to the road , was suspended . As soon as eviction was completed , the remaining properties were demolished . In the end , the cost to the taxpayer was over a million pounds in police costs alone . Quoting David Maclean , " I understand from the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis that the cost of policing the protest in order to allow bailiffs to take possession of the premises in Claremont road was Β£ 1 @,@ 014 @,@ 060 . " Cohen complained in parliament about police brutality , stating " were not many of my constituents bullied β including vulnerable people , and others whose only crime was living on the line of route ? " The then Secretary of State for Transport , Brian Mawhinney , pointed out that there had already been three public enquiries at which protesters could have lodged their objections against the line of the route .
= = = Towards the end = = =
Following the Claremont Road eviction , non @-@ resident protesters moved on to other sites such as Newbury . Meanwhile , Fillebrook Road near Leytonstone tube station had already had several houses demolished on it due to problems with vandalism . By 1995 , the only house left standing was number 135 . The house was originally scheduled for demolition at the same time as the others , but had been left standing in order to give the tenant additional time to relocate . After they had done so , on 11 April 1995 , the Department for Transport removed the water supply and part of the roof , and left two security guards on duty . When the guards decided to sleep overnight in their cars that evening , leaving the house unoccupied , the protesters moved in . The house was renamed Munstonia ( after The Munsters , thanks to its spooky appearance ) . Like " Wanstonia " , they proclaimed themselves a micro @-@ nation and designed their own national anthem and flag , though author Joe Moran mentions their legitimacy was complicated by the protesters continuing to claim unemployment benefits from the " mother country . "
A tower was built out of the remains of the roof , similar to one that had existed at Claremont Road , and a system of defences and blockades were built . A core of around 30 protesters ensured that there were always people staying there ( a legal requirement for a squatted home , as well as a defence against eviction ) . They were finally evicted on 21 June 1995 , whereupon , as at Claremont Road , the building was immediately demolished . The total cost of removing the protesters from Munstonia was given to be Β£ 239 @,@ 349 @.@ 52 , not including additional costs of security guards .
Construction of the road , already under way by this stage , was then free to continue largely unhindered , although systematic sabotage of building sites by local people continued . It was completed in 1999 and given the designation A12 ; its continuation , the former A102 ( M ) , was also given this number as far as the Blackwall Tunnel .
The official opening of the road in October 1999 took place without fanfare , being opened by the Highways Agency Chief Executive rather than a politician , with only journalists with passes being admitted to the ceremony .
= = Consequences of the protest campaign = =
The M11 link road protest was ultimately unsuccessful in its aim to stop the building of the link road . The total cost of compensation for the project was estimated to be around Β£ 15 million .
Proposals for the M12 motorway were cancelled in 1994 during the first review of the trunk road programme . The most significant response from the government occurred when Labour came into office following the 1997 general election , with the announcement of the New Deal for Trunk Roads in England . This proposal cancelled many previous road schemes , including the construction of the M65 over the Pennines , increased fuel prices , and ensured that road projects would only be undertaken when genuinely necessary , stating " there will be no presumption in favour of new road building as an answer . "
Some protesters went on to join the direct action campaign Reclaim the Streets . A protester arrested and detained on the grounds of breach of the peace unsuccessfully challenged the UK Government 's legislation at the European Court of Justice .
In 2002 , in response to a major new road building programme and expansion of aviation , a delegation of road protest veterans visited the Department for Transport to warn of renewed direct action in response , delivering a D @-@ lock as a symbol of the past protests . One such protestor , Rebecca Lush Blum went on to found Road Block to support road protesters and challenge the government . In 2007 , Road Block became a project within the Campaign for Better Transport
In 2007 , the BBC reported that the cost of the M11 link road doubled due to the intervention of protesters .
Residents in Leytonstone have complained that , following the completion of the road , their streets became rat runs for commuters trying to get ahead of queues .
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= Zoe Carpenter =
Zoe Carpenter is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by ZoΓ« Lister . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 1 September 2006 , as one of three new students at Hollyoaks Community College . It was announced in 2009 that Lister had quit her role in order to pursue other projects ; she subsequently left the series in January 2010 . During Zoe 's time in Hollyoaks she has been portrayed as a bubbly tomboy who often makes the wrong choices in life and has had a number of failed relationships .
Zoe has been involved in storylines including being stalked , entering a relationship with an older man , having sexual relations with her female best friend , being wrongfully imprisoned for the murder of Sarah Barnes and the being victim of a stabbing . Lister 's portrayal saw her nominated for the " Sexiest Female " award at the 2008 British Soap Awards , and also attracted critical praise for her exit storyline .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting = = =
Actress and dancer ZoΓ« Lister was cast in the role of Zoe . On 8 June 2009 , media entertainment website Digital Spy revealed that Lister had quit the soap and would leave towards the end of the year . Speaking of her decision to quit , Lister stated : " It 's scary but also very , very exciting . I think three years in a soap is enough to do and you get to a point where you either make a decision that this is what you do or you want to try something different . " She also revealed that she had been planning to leave the series one year prior to announcement . Lister 's decision to quit matched that of co @-@ star Loui Batley ( Sarah Barnes ) . Hollyoaks officially announced on 23 July 2009 that both Lister and Batley would leave towards the end of the year in a storyline that would see " A tragic curtain call for one of them " , later revealing that either Sarah or Zoe would be killed off in a dramatic storyline . Lister also revealed in an interview with Heat magazine that she was " nervous " , but " very excited " about leaving the show .
Almost a year after filming her final scenes , Lister explained that she felt her exit was the right choice , saying : " It felt it was time to go so I just ran with my instincts . Looking back , I was nervous but now I know I 've done the right thing . I love theatre work . It gives me such a buzz . [ Hollyoaks ] was the break I 'd been praying for . I threw myself into the part and enjoyed every minute of it . I had three superb years and it was brilliant . "
= = = Characterisation = = =
Zoe is a former student at Hollyoaks Community College , where she studied Film Studies . Channel 4 publicity describe Zoe as " the bubbly student " and make note of her many bad choices in life and failed relationships . Discussing these failed relationships , Lister commented during an interview in June 2009 that she believed her character was having a break from men in order to sort out her problems : " I think she 's been in and out of so many relationships and her life is at a bit of a juncture ; she probably needs to sort her head out , sort her career , knuckle down really and not get bogged down into a relationship because everything takes a backseat when you 're in one . "
Zoe is also portrayed as having a tomboy persona . Lister was asked about this " tomboy " personality during an interview with Maxim magazine , agreeing with the label and stating her character doesn 't " glam up " as much as the other Hollyoaks characters . Maxim also noted the character was " pretty popular with the boys " . Lister has also commented that her character is not a stereotypical dizzy blonde , reiterated her character 's tomboy status and added that she is a " very street @-@ smart type of woman . "
= = = Early storylines = = =
One of Zoe 's first and main storylines was being stalked by fellow student Will Hackett ( Oliver Farnworth ) . Lister later commented on the storyline , deciding it was her most memorable : " The most memorable for me was the one with my weird boyfriend Will who stalked me . Like I said , it was a bit weird , but I quite liked it as a storyline . " During a fire safety promotion undertaken with co @-@ star Lena Kaur ( who plays Leila Roy ) , Lister referenced the storyline , commenting : " It 's much easier to test your smoke alarm once a week and plan your escape from fire than it is to escape from a psycho ! " .
In early 2008 during an interview with the Daily Mail , Lister expressed her feelings on the subject of lesbian storylines , stating : " I 'd definitely do a lesbian love scene in Hollyoaks . That would be a really good story . " It was later confirmed by Channel 4 that Lister 's character would be involved in a sexual relationship with Sarah during the new late night series Hollyoaks Later . After the screening of the scenes , Lister explained : " It was quite nerve @-@ wracking actually as I 'm good friends with Loui β it 's quite a strange thing to smooch a really good friend so we had to get over the giggles and think ' right , just do it ! ' " Also commenting on her worries about the scenes , she said : " I thought it was hilarious ! I thought it 'd be interesting , though . I was obviously quite worried about them . Loui [ Batley ] and I chatted a lot when we found out that it was going to be in the late @-@ night eps and we were wondering ' oh no , what does this mean ? ! ' But in the end , they weren 't graphic or anything like that , so it was fine . " She continued : " It was completely mental filming them . Loui and I just had a massive attack of the giggles . I think the crew were more embarrassed than we were ! We were kind of ignored for the day . "
Speaking to entertainment news website Digital Spy about Sarah and Zoe 's relationship , Lister explained : " I don 't think they do have feelings for each other in that way . Last year happened and Zoe put it down to history and experience β one of those things that teenagers get up to occasionally and she was quite happy to leave it there . They 've got through a lot and their relationship is really quite special . There 's a lot of love there but Zoe 's not got anything sexual for Sarah β it 's purely a deep friendship . " Meanwhile , Batley said : " I think that for Sarah , Zoe 's the best friend she 's ever had β a lot of people in her life have let her down but Zoe 's her rock . Even though they 've had their fall @-@ outs , she 's always been there for her and she loves her as a friend . I think Zoe feels the same . But for Sarah it 's something more β she completely relies on her and that turns into love for her as well . "
= = = Imprisonment and exit = = =
After the announcement of Lister 's departure , it was that revealed Loui Batley , who played Sarah Barnes , would also leave the show in a tragic skydiving death , caused by a jealous Lydia Hart ( Lydia Kelly ) . Before the skydiving plot aired , Lister explained the storyline during an interview with Sky TV , stating that at the time Lydia severed a parachute to end her own life , later deciding to cut Zoe 's parachute so she could have Sarah to herself , further explaining that viewers were not permitted to know who would have parachute after they became mixed up in the storyline 's dramatic twist . Speaking on how Zoe 's relationship with Sarah causes Lydia to commit her actions , Lister stated :
Lister explained that she and her fellow cast members filmed on many locations , including army barracks . They filmed at Tatenhill Airfield , where staff had been told to remain secretive about the storyline . She also revealed that she was the only cast member out of her , Batley and Kelly who performed the aired skydiving for real . A Hollyoaks producer released two pictures of funeral wreaths , one reading ' Zoe ' and the other ' Sarah ' , in order to confuse viewers further as to whom the victim would be . On @-@ screen after the skydive and Sarah 's subsequent death , Lydia framed Zoe for the murder she committed , leading to her arrest .
Speaking of Sarah 's death and Zoe 's false imprisonment , Lister stated : " She 's in a very difficult place . She 's lost her best friend and there 's so much history there and she 's finished her degree β well she didn 't even finish her degree , she failed that β so she 's in a limbo land anyway . She 's working silly jobs and she 's not in a very good place at all in any aspect of her life . Oh , and she 's in prison on suspicion of murder ... " When asked during another interview with Digital Spy about how the character is coping with being in prison , Lister stated : " Not very well ! It 's all completely overwhelming for her . She can 't get her head around the fact that her best friend 's dead and the fact that she 's being accused of murdering her is ridiculous . She 's worried that because it 's got this far its ludicrous , so who 's to say that she won 't be sent down ? "
When the character was ultimately found not guilty and was released , Lister stated in an interview with E4 : " I think this is a great storyline , I 've really enjoyed doing it . When Zoe 's obviously released , it 's like a whole new scenario for her because there are people who haven 't really trusted her or believed in her . People that have really let her down , and plus the fact she hasn 't got over Sarah [ ... ] being killed yet either . She hasn 't had the chance to deal with that , so that 's really interesting , and she still wants Lydia to go down ! " The character of Zoe then set out to expose Lydia as Sarah 's killer . She befriended her , and even seduced her in order to gain a confession . During an interview about Zoe 's new scheme , Lister said :
Lister continued , " It all gets really messy from here ! Because Lydia 's really deranged , Lydia starts thinking that because she loved Sarah and Sarah loved Zoe , if she gets with Zoe , that 'll be the final piece in the puzzle and it 'll all work out . " She explained : " Lydia starts becoming obsessed with Zoe and to keep control , Zoe has to go with it . There 's a point where Lydia kisses her ! And then Mike walks in and kicks Zoe out . "
Lydia discovered Zoe 's true intentions for befriending her , and set out to take revenge . In a second interview with E4 , Lister stated : " I was really surprised when I learned about Zoe 's ' master plan ' to get Lydia to confess because I think after everything that Zoe 's been through [ ... ] the last thing she wants to do is ever see Lydia again , let alone try and make friends with her ! But that is her only way , so I think it 's really interesting . " She continued : " The fight and the chase stuff with Lydia in the graveyard was really good , we filmed it at night . I was dressed as Madonna . We were in a cemetery , it was brilliant ! ... "
The culmination of the plot saw Lydia stab Zoe . The storyline was described as a " brutal attack " and at the time producers refused to reveal if Zoe would survive . Describing the terror Lydia causes for Zoe , a spokesperson for the serial stated : " Zoe can β t believe it when Lydia admits the parachute was meant for her . As soon as she realises Lydia wanted her dead she tries to run . That β s when Lydia pulls out a knife and stabs her . " This led to a fight between Lydia and Charlotte who arrives with Dave Colburn ( Elliot James Langridge ) . They both fight to grab the knife while an unconscious Zoe bleeds , ultimately leading to the arrest of Lydia when the police arrive . She is later charged with the murder of Sarah and the attempted murder of Zoe . Several weeks after the character was stabbed , she was seen feeling as if no one wanted to be in her company . After three of her longtime friends snubbed her ideas to make a fresh start elsewhere , ultimately she was she went travelling with her former boyfriend Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Born in 1987 to Graham ( Paul Clarkson ) and Christine Carpenter ( Race Davies ) , Zoe is the older sister of Archie Carpenter ( Stephen Beard ) . During her time at secondary school , Zoe was overweight and self @-@ conscious . She sought comfort in her teacher and fell in love . The pair began an affair , which was never discovered . While at school , Zoe also had a relationship with Joe Spencer ( Matt Millburn ) , who had arrived in Hollyoaks as a student three years before her arrival .
= = = 2006 β 2010 = = =
Zoe arrives as a new student at the college , studying Film Studies . She eventually grows closer to her ex @-@ boyfriend Joe . Zoe , Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) , Joe and Olivia Johnson ( Rochelle Gadd ) are in The Dog in the Pond bar when Sam Owen ( Louis Tamone ) sets it on fire . Zoe escapes but Joe and Olivia die . Zoe has a one @-@ night stand with Zak Ramsey . After rejecting the advances of Will and entering a relationship with Will , Zoe is abused and manipulated by him . He stops Zoe from leaving to study in New York City , resorting to stealing her passport and breaking her hand . He spies on her via web @-@ cam , and drugs her , making it look like a suicide attempt . When Zoe discovers that Will has been spying on her , he ties her up on the college roof and confesses his love for her . Will eventually lets Zoe go and is arrested . A traumatised Zoe leaves to stay with her parents .
Zoe starts a relationship with Darren Osborne ( Ashley Taylor Dawson ) . When Frankie Osborne ( Helen Pearson ) fosters a seven @-@ year @-@ old child called Daisy , Zoe gets on well with her and is angry when Darren has her sent away . Zoe ends their relationship , although they go on to reconcile . Darren becomes addicted to gambling and begins to steal Zoe 's money . He sleeps with Jessica Harris ( Jennifer Biddall ) after they win at a casino . When Zoe discovers this , she ends their relationship again , though helps him through his gambling addiction .
Sarah invites Zoe to move in with her , however her father Mike is angry to find Zoe using Sarah 's sister Amy Barnes ' ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) room . Kathy Barnes ( Sarah Jane Buckley ) begins to suspect an affair between Zoe and Mike , and throws all Zoe 's clothes out into the street . Mike then asks Kathy to move out . He and Zoe sleep together , unknowingly recorded by Ste Hay ( Kieron Richardson ) , who exposes them . Sarah lashes out at Mike and Zoe . She flaunts her older boyfriend Roger Kiddle ( Quentin Tibble ) in Mike 's face , which backfires when Roger makes a pass at Zoe and they become an official couple . Sarah is able to forgive Zoe , and comforts her when she has a pregnancy scare . Mike is very upset about the idea of Zoe being pregnant .
Zoe visits her old school with Sarah and Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) , recalling her relationship with her former teacher . She and Sarah get drunk and sleep together , which they both regret and agree to keep quiet . Their one @-@ night stand is later revealed , however , leaving Mike devastated . He throws them both out , before realising how much he loves Zoe and offering to take her back , only for her to refuse .
When Archie destroys Zoe 's film project , essential for her graduation , lecturer Adrian P. Kennedy ( Richard Lawrence ) gives her an extension . Zoe finds a script belonging to Mike which he wrote 20 years ago about his decision to give Sarah up for adoption . Zoe uses the script and films it , and Adrian screens it in the SU Bar . At the screening , Sarah discovers the planned adoption and is in turmoil . Mike goes to see Adrian to tell him of the plagiarism . Adrian says that if she sleeps with him , he will not tell the university . Zoe considers Adrian 's offer but later claims she would rather be a failure than sleep with him , leading to him failing her project . Zoe then has a brief relationship with Natty ( Danny Tennant ) .
Zoe goes on a parachute jump with Fernando Fernandez ( Jeronimo Best ) , Steph Cunningham ( Carley Stenson ) , Gilly and Sarah . Sarah 's ex @-@ girlfriend Lydia appears and is jealous of Sarah and Zoe 's friendship . Lydia lies to Zoe , telling her that Sarah had attempted suicide after their affair the previous year , and warns her to stay away from Sarah . That night , Sarah and Zoe get drunk and return to their tent , where Sarah makes a pass at Zoe . Sarah reveals that whilst she had not intended to kiss her , Zoe was the only person she had ever been able to rely upon . Zoe and Sarah later discover Lydia 's lies and Sarah decides to end their relationship for good during a discussion with Zoe . Lydia overhears the conversation and sabotages Zoe 's parachute before the jump in an attempt to kill her . When the parachutes are mixed up by accident , Zoe 's deploys successfully , but Sarah falls to her death . Upset , Zoe ends up sleeping with a grieving Mike for comfort . Lydia slits her wrists after planting the knife she had sabotaged the parachute with behind Zoe 's bed . Zoe is then arrested in front of Mike under suspicion of Sarah 's murder and is later charged .
Mike visits Zoe in prison , despite Lydia manipulating him , and Zoe is able to convince him that she was not to blame for Sarah 's death . During her trial , Mike tells the court he believes his daughter committed suicide , and Zoe is found not guilty and is released . She then decides to expose Lydia as Sarah 's killer . Zoe moves in with Mike and Lydia , and tells Lydia that her feelings towards her have changed . The pair share a kiss , just as Mike and Amy walk in . Mike then tells Zoe to leave . Lydia discovers that Zoe is using her , and plots revenge . On New Year 's Eve , she gets Zoe to meet her in a church , so they can admit their ' relationship ' to Sarah . Zoe initially goes along with this , but then changes her mind , runs out and is knocked unconscious . Zoe is able to get a confession from Lydia , before running away again . She is startled to see Sarah 's grave for the first time . Lydia finds Zoe and stabs her as Charlotte Lau ( Amy Yamazaki ) , Dave Colburn ( Elliot James Langridge ) and Mike arrive . Mike then cradles Zoe as he calls an ambulance .
Zoe recovers , and after inspiration from Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) , she decides to go travelling , along with Kris and Zak . Kris and Zak change their minds , however , due to their girlfriends Nancy and Michaela McQueen ( Hollie @-@ Jay Bowes ) . Zoe plans to leave herself , but as she packs her belongings to leave , Mike is convinced to join her . Zoe , Mike and Gilly say their goodbyes and leave the village . In August , six months after leaving Hollyoaks , Zoe gives Kris an offer to come to London and help her organise a party for a rich person .
= = Reception = =
In 2008 , Lister 's role as Zoe saw her nominated for the " Sexiest Female " award at The British Soap Awards , however she lost to co @-@ star Roxanne McKee . Lister was asked in an interview if she was disappointed to not win the award . She replied : " Not at all ! It was lovely to be nominated , and also a bit hilarious , but beyond that , I wasn 't desperate to win . I really wasn 't bothered ! I was more than happy that Roxanne [ McKee ] won it β and I guessed she might do anyway . " When Zoe 's affair with Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) began , there was some controversy over the storyline , due to the age gap between the pair . However , Hirst stated : " I think the controversy has subsided somewhat . It 's not an illicit affair , it 's known about now . It was shocking to some people at the beginning but it wasn 't by any means illegal . There were some complications but they are both grown @-@ ups ! " The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . At the 2010 Inside Soap Awards the storyline gained nominations in the category of " Best Stunt " . Kris Green of Digital Spy described the skydive as one of the best stunts he had seen in a long time , commenting that Zoe 's reaction to Sarah 's death made him shed a tear , and that the episode on a whole was " amazing " . The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . The Daily Mail opined that Zoe took an " interesting turn " when she slept with Sarah . Asian News International included Sarah and Zoe second on their top ten " girl @-@ on @-@ girl kisses on TV " list .
Grace Dent of The Guardian commented on the realism of Zoe 's storyline involving Adrian stating : " hapless Zoe failed her exams after refusing to shag dismal tutor Adrian . Predatory lecturers taking advantage of gullible women ? Actually , that 's a plot line I can get my head around . The problem with being an academic perv these days is that one day sooner or later , the truth will out . " Lesbian culture website AfterEllen.com opined " she doesn 't seem like the type of woman to give up without a fight " where Sarah and Mike are concerned . They also branded her storyline " scandalous " and said " It appears that in the UK , some television writers actually pay attention to what their actors want . " This was in response to Lister suggesting the storyline .
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= Wildfire =
A wildfire or wildland fire is an uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside ( i.e. , not in an urban area ) . Depending on the type of vegetation that is burnt , a wildfire can also be classified as a brush fire , bush fire , forest fire , desert fire , grass fire , hill fire , peat fire , vegetation fire , or veld fire . A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size , the speed at which it can spread out from its original source , its potential to change direction unexpectedly , and its ability to jump gaps such as roads , rivers and fire breaks . Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition , their physical properties such as speed of propagation , the combustible material present , and the effect of weather on the fire .
Bushfires in Australia are a common occurrence ; because of the generally hot and dry climate , they pose a great risk to life and infrastructure during all times of the year , though mostly throughout the hotter months of summer and spring . In the United States , there are typically between 60 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 wildfires that occur each year , burning 3 million to 10 million acres ( 12 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 square kilometres ) of land depending on the year . Fossil records and human history contain accounts of wildfires , as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals . Wildfires can cause extensive damage , both to property and human life , but they also have various beneficial effects on wilderness areas . Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction , although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects .
Strategies of wildfire prevention , detection , and suppression have varied over the years , and international wildfire management experts encourage further development of technology and research . One of the more controversial techniques is controlled burning : permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire . While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions , they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property located in the wildland @-@ urban interface : a zone of transition between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness .
The name wildfire was once a synonym for Greek fire but now refers to any large or destructive conflagration . Wildfires differ from other fires in that they take place outdoors in areas of grassland , woodlands , bushland , scrubland , peatland , and other wooded areas that act as a source of fuel , or combustible material . All wildfires can be characterized by their physical properties , fuel type , or weather 's effect on the fire , regardless of the fire 's cause or outcome . Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels , physical setting , and weather . While wildfires can be large , uncontrolled disasters that burn through 0 @.@ 4 to 400 square kilometres ( 100 to 100 @,@ 000 acres ) or more , they can also be as small as 0 @.@ 001 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 25 acres ; 1 @,@ 000 m2 ) or less . Although smaller events may be included in wildfire modeling , most do not earn press attention . This can be problematic because public fire policies , which relate to fires of all sizes , are influenced more by the way the media portrays catastrophic wildfires than by small fires .
= = Causes = =
Unlike entirely natural features ( such as volcanoes , earthquakes and tropical storms ) , wildfires claaify as " quasi @-@ natural " hazards - humans play a role in their causation . Four major natural causes of wildfire ignitions exist :
lightning
volcanic eruption
sparks from rockfalls
spontaneous combustion
The coal seam fires that burn in their thousands around the world - such as those in Centralia , Burning Mountain , and several coal @-@ sustained fires in China - can also flare up and ignite nearby flammable material . The most common directly human sources of wildfires include arson , discarded cigarettes , sparks from equipment , and power @-@ line arcs ( as detected by arc mapping ) . Ignition of wildland fires via contact with hot rifle @-@ bullet fragments is possible under the right conditions . In societies experiencing shifting cultivation where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility , slash and burn clearing is often considered the least expensive way to prepare land for future use . Forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses , and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors . Annual grassland fires in southern Vietnam stem in part from the destruction of forested areas by US military herbicides , explosives , and mechanical land @-@ clearing and -burning operations during the Vietnam War .
The most common cause of wildfires varies throughout the world . In Canada and northwest China , for example , lightning operates as the major source of ignition . In other parts of the world , human involvement is a major contributor . In Mexico , Central America , South America , Africa , Southeast Asia , Fiji , and New Zealand , wildfires can be attributed to human activities such as animal husbandry , agriculture , and land @-@ conversion burning . Human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires in China and in the Mediterranean Basin . In the United States and Australia , the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities ( such as machinery sparks and cast @-@ away cigarette butts ) . "
In any given year there could be far more acres burnt by wildfires that are started by natural means than by human means - or vice versa . For example , in 2010 human @-@ caused wildfires burned almost 1 @.@ 4 million acres , with over 2 million acres devastated by naturally @-@ caused wildfires . However , in 2011 , almost 5 @.@ 4 million acres were burnt by human @-@ caused wildfires while only about 3 @.@ 4 million acres burnt due to naturally @-@ derived wildfires .
= = Spread = =
The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present and its vertical arrangement . For example , fuels uphill from a fire are more readily dried and warmed by the fire than those downhill , yet burning logs can roll downhill from the fire to ignite other fuels . Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth . Overall , fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows :
Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots , duff and other buried organic matter . This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting . Ground fires typically burn by smoldering , and can burn slowly for days to months , such as peat fires in Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra , Indonesia , which resulted from a riceland creation project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat .
Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low @-@ lying vegetation such as leaf and timber litter , debris , grass , and low @-@ lying shrubbery .
Ladder fires consume material between low @-@ level vegetation and tree canopies , such as small trees , downed logs , and vines . Kudzu , Old World climbing fern , and other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires .
Crown , canopy , or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level , such as tall trees , vines , and mosses . The ignition of a crown fire , termed crowning , is dependent on the density of the suspended material , canopy height , canopy continuity , and sufficient surface and ladder fires in order to reach the tree crowns . For example , ground @-@ clearing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain forest , damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions .
= = Physical properties = =
Wildfires occur when all of the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area : an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation , that is subjected to sufficient heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air . A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation , because higher temperatures are required to evaporate any water within the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade , resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires . Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks . Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil , humidity , or rain . When this balance is not maintained , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable , often a consequence of droughts .
A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion , where unburned material meets active flames , or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material . As the front approaches , the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First , wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 Β° C ( 212 Β° F ) . Next , the pyrolysis of wood at 230 Β° C ( 450 Β° F ) releases flammable gases . Finally , wood can smoulder at 380 Β° C ( 720 Β° F ) or , when heated sufficiently , ignite at 590 Β° C ( 1 @,@ 000 Β° F ) . Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location , heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 Β° C ( 1 @,@ 470 Β° F ) , which pre @-@ heats and dries flammable materials , causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster . High @-@ temperature and long @-@ duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below .
Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread ( FROS ) when burning through dense , uninterrupted fuels . They can move as fast as 10 @.@ 8 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 7 mph ) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour ( 14 mph ) in grasslands . Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front , or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands ( hot wood embers ) and other burning materials through the air over roads , rivers , and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting , and dry ground fuels that surround a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands . Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire . In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the fire front .
Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated , and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new , cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds , and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) . Rapid rates of spread , prolific crowning or spotting , the presence of fire whirls , and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions .
The thermal heat from wildfire can cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders , heat can rapidly expand a boulder and thermal shock can occur , which may cause an object 's structure to fail .
= = Effect of weather = =
Heat waves , droughts , cyclical climate changes such as El NiΓ±o , and regional weather patterns such as high @-@ pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically . Years of precipitation followed by warm periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons . Since the mid @-@ 1980s , earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season in the Western United States . However , one individual element does not always cause an increase in wildfire activity . For example , wildfires will not occur during a drought unless accompanied by other factors , such as lightning ( ignition source ) and strong winds ( mechanism for rapid spread ) . A 2015 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California is attributable to human @-@ induced climate change .
Intensity also increases during daytime hours . Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity , increased temperatures , and increased wind speeds . Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill . At night the land cools , creating air currents that travel downhill . Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys . Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12 : 00 p.m. and 2 : 00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24 @-@ hour fire day that begins at 10 : 00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth .
= = Ecology = =
Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of vegetation but feature extended dry , hot periods . Such places include the vegetated areas of Australia and Southeast Asia , the veld in southern Africa , the fynbos in the Western Cape of South Africa , the forested areas of the United States and Canada , and the Mediterranean Basin . Fires can be particularly intense during days of strong winds , periods of drought , and during warm summer months . Global warming may increase the intensity and frequency of droughts in many areas , creating more intense and frequent wildfires .
Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth , many ecosystems suffer from too much fire , such as the chaparral in southern California and lower elevation deserts in the American Southwest . The increased fire frequency in these ordinarily fire @-@ dependent areas has upset natural cycles , destroyed native plant communities , and encouraged the growth of fire @-@ intolerant vegetation and non @-@ native weeds . Invasive species , such as Lygodium microphyllum and Bromus tectorum , can grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires . Because they are highly flammable , they can increase the future risk of fire , creating a positive feedback loop that increases fire frequency and further destroys native growth .
In the Amazon Rainforest , drought , logging , cattle ranching practices , and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture damage fire @-@ resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush , creating a cycle that encourages more burning . Fires in the rainforest threaten its collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of CO2 . Also , fires in the rainforest , along with drought and human involvement , could damage or destroy more than half of the Amazon rainforest by the year 2030 . Wildfires generate ash , destroy available organic nutrients , and cause an increase in water runoff , eroding away other nutrients and creating flash flood conditions . A 2003 wildfire in the North Yorkshire Moors destroyed 2 @.@ 5 square kilometers ( 600 acres ) of heather and the underlying peat layers . Afterwards , wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil , revealing archaeological remains dating back to 10 @,@ 000 BC . Wildfires can also have an effect on climate change , increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and inhibiting vegetation growth , which affects overall carbon uptake by plants .
In tundra there is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain . Research in Alaska has shown fire @-@ event return intervals , ( FRIs ) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter upland areas .
= = = Plant adaptation = = =
Plants in wildfire @-@ prone ecosystems often survive through adaptations to their local fire regime . Such adaptations include physical protection against heat , increased growth after a fire event , and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate competition . For example , plants of the genus Eucalyptus contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard sclerophyll leaves to resist heat and drought , ensuring their dominance over less fire @-@ tolerant species . Dense bark , shedding lower branches , and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures . Fire @-@ resistant seeds and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation , as embodied by pioneer species . Smoke , charred wood , and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds in a process called serotiny . Exposure to smoke from burning plants promotes germination in other types of plants by inducing the production of the orange butenolide .
Grasslands in Western Sabah , Malaysian pine forests , and Indonesian Casuarina forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire . Chamise deadwood litter is low in water content and flammable , and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire . Cape lilies lie dormant until flames brush away the covering , then blossom almost overnight . Sequoia rely on periodic fires to reduce competition , release seeds from their cones , and clear the soil and canopy for new growth . Caribbean Pine in Bahamian pineyards have adapted to and rely on low @-@ intensity , surface fires for survival and growth . An optimum fire frequency for growth is every 3 to 10 years . Too frequent fires favor herbaceous plants , and infrequent fires favor species typical of Bahamian dry forests .
= = = Atmospheric effects = = =
Most of the Earth 's weather and air pollution resides in the troposphere , the part of the atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) . The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or pyrocumulonimbus can be enhanced in the area of a large wildfire , which can propel smoke , soot , and other particulate matter as high as the lower stratosphere . Previously , prevailing scientific theory held that most particles in the stratosphere came from volcanoes , but smoke and other wildfire emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere . Pyrocumulus clouds can reach 6 @,@ 100 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) over wildfires . Satellite observation of smoke plumes from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding 1 @,@ 600 kilometers ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) . Computer @-@ aided models such as CALPUFF may help predict the size and direction of wildfire @-@ generated smoke plumes by using atmospheric dispersion modeling .
Wildfires can affect climate and weather and have major impacts on atmospheric pollution . To determine climate variability and its impact , tools such as remote sensing , fire danger rating systems , and fire behavior models have been used . Wildfire emissions contain fine particulate matter which can cause cardiovascular and respiratory problems . Increased fire byproducts in the troposphere can increase ozone concentration beyond safe levels . Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0 @.@ 81 and 2 @.@ 57 gigatonnes ( 0 @.@ 89 and 2 @.@ 83 billion short tons ) of CO2 into the atmosphere , which is between 13 % β 40 % of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels . Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15 % .
= = History = =
In the Welsh Borders , the first evidence of wildfire is rhyniophytoid plant fossils preserved as charcoal , dating to the Silurian period ( about 420 million years ago ) . Smoldering surface fires started to occur sometime before the Early Devonian period 405 million years ago . Low atmospheric oxygen during the Middle and Late Devonian was accompanied by a decrease in charcoal abundance . Additional charcoal evidence suggests that fires continued through the Carboniferous period . Later , the overall increase of atmospheric oxygen from 13 % in the Late Devonian to 30 @-@ 31 % by the Late Permian was accompanied by a more widespread distribution of wildfires . Later , a decrease in wildfire @-@ related charcoal deposits from the late Permian to the Triassic periods is explained by a decrease in oxygen levels .
Wildfires during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods followed patterns similar to fires that occur in modern times . Surface fires driven by dry seasons are evident in Devonian and Carboniferous progymnosperm forests . Lepidodendron forests dating to the Carboniferous period have charred peaks , evidence of crown fires . In Jurassic gymnosperm forests , there is evidence of high frequency , light surface fires . The increase of fire activity in the late Tertiary is possibly due to the increase of C4 @-@ type grasses . As these grasses shifted to more mesic habitats , their high flammability increased fire frequency , promoting grasslands over woodlands . However , fire @-@ prone habitats may have contributed to the prominence of trees such as those of the genera Eucalyptus , Pinus and Sequoia , which have thick bark to withstand fires and employ serotiny .
= = = Human involvement = = =
The human use of fire for agricultural and hunting purposes during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages altered the preexisting landscapes and fire regimes . Woodlands were gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel , hunting , seed @-@ gathering and planting . In recorded human history , minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in the Bible and by classical writers such as Homer . However , while ancient Hebrew , Greek , and Roman writers were aware of fires , they were not very interested in the uncultivated lands where wildfires occurred . Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history as early thermal weapons . From the Middle ages , accounts were written of occupational burning as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire . In Germany , regular burning was documented in 1290 in the Odenwald and in 1344 in the Black Forest . In the 14th century Sardinia , firebreaks were used for wildfire protection . In Spain during the 1550s , sheep husbandry was discouraged in certain provinces by Philip II due to the harmful effects of fires used in transhumance . As early as the 17th century , Native Americans were observed using fire for many purposes including cultivation , signaling , and warfare . Scottish botanist David Douglas noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation , to encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes , and to improve foraging for honey and grasshoppers . Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years before the Spanish colonization of the Americas than after the colonization . In the post @-@ World War II Baltic region , socio @-@ economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires that eliminated traditional burning practices .
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature and drought . An increase in fire @-@ related debris flow in alluvial fans of northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200 , coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period . However , human influence caused an increase in fire frequency . Dendrochronological fire scar data and charcoal layer data in Finland suggests that , while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions , an increase in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence . Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years . However , a period of increased fire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia , attributed to human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices . This period was followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century , linked to the expansion of agriculture , increased livestock grazing , and fire prevention efforts . A meta @-@ analysis found that 17 times as much land burned annually in California before 1800 compared to today ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 hectares / year compared to 102 @,@ 000 hectares / year ) .
Invasive species moved by humans have in some cases increased the intensity of wildfires , such as Eucalyptus in California and gamba grass in Australia .
= = Prevention = =
Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods of reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread . Effective prevention techniques allow supervising agencies to manage air quality , maintain ecological balances , protect resources , and to limit the effects of future uncontrolled fires . North American firefighting policies may permit naturally caused fires to burn to maintain their ecological role , so long as the risks of escape into high @-@ value areas are mitigated . However , prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires , since , for example , 95 % of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement . Sources of human @-@ caused fire may include arson , accidental ignition , or the uncontrolled use of fire in land @-@ clearing and agriculture such as the slash @-@ and @-@ burn farming in Southeast Asia .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , explorers from the HMS Beagle observed Australian Aborigines using fire for ground clearing , hunting , and regeneration of plant food in a method later named fire @-@ stick farming . Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in the lands protected by Kakadu National Park to encourage biodiversity . In 1937 , U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign , highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires . Later posters of the program featured Uncle Sam , leaders of the Axis powers of World War II , characters from the Disney movie Bambi , and the official mascot of the U.S. Forest Service , Smokey Bear .
Wildfires are caused by a combination of natural factors such as topography , fuels and weather . Other than reducing human infractions , only fuels may be altered to affect future fire risk and behavior . Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn . Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions .
Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation , thereby reducing the risk of crown fires . Using strategic cuts of trees , fuels may also be removed by handcrews in order to clean and clear the forest , prevent fuel build @-@ up , and create access into forested areas . Chain saws and large equipment can be used to thin out ladder fuels and shred trees and vegetation to a mulch . Multiple fuel treatments are often needed to influence future fire risks , and wildfire models may be used to predict and compare the benefits of different fuel treatments on future wildfire spread .
However , controlled burns are reportedly " the most effective treatment for reducing a fire 's rate of spread , fireline intensity , flame length , and heat per unit of area " according to Jan Van Wagtendonk , a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station . Additionally , while fuel treatments are typically limited to smaller areas , effective fire management requires the administration of fuels across large landscapes in order to reduce future fire size and severity .
Building codes in fire @-@ prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame @-@ resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure . Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters ( 16 to 33 ft ) wide between the forest and their village , and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather . Fuel buildup can result in costly , devastating fires as new homes , ranches , and other development are built adjacent to wilderness areas . Continued growth in fire @-@ prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism .
However , the population growth along the wildland @-@ urban interface discourages the use of current fuel management techniques . Smoke is an irritant and attempts to thin out the fuel load is met with opposition due to desirability of forested areas , in addition to other wilderness goals such as endangered species protection and habitat preservation . The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life . For example , while fuel treatments decrease the risk of crown fires , these techniques destroy the habitats of various plant and animal species . Additionally , government policies that cover the wilderness usually differ from local and state policies that govern urban lands .
= = Policy = =
= = = History of wildfire policy in the U.S. = = =
Since the turn of the 20th century , various federal and state agencies have been involved in wildland fire management in one form or another . In the early 20th century , for example , the federal government , through the U.S. Army and the U.S. Forest Service , solicited fire suppression as a primary goal of managing the nation 's forests . At this time in history fire was viewed as a threat to timber , an economically important natural resource . As such , the decision was made to devote public funds to fire suppression and fire prevention efforts . For example , the Forest Fire Emergency Fund Act of 1908 permitted deficit spending in the case of emergency fire situations . As a result , the U.S. Forest Service was able to acquire a deficit of over $ 1 million in 1910 due to emergency fire suppression efforts . Following the same tone of timber resource protection , the U.S. Forest Service adopted the " 10 AM Policy " in 1935 . Through this policy , the agency advocated the control of all fires by 10 o 'clock of the morning following the discovery of a wildfire . Fire prevention was also heavily advocated through public education campaigns such as Smokey Bear . Through these and similar public education campaigns the general public was , in a sense , trained to perceive all wildfire as a threat to civilized society and natural resources . The negative sentiment towards wildland fire prevailed and helped to shape wildland fire management objectives throughout most of the 20th century .
Beginning in the 1970s public perception of wildland fire management began to shift . Despite strong funding for fire suppression in the first half of the 20th century , massive wildfires continued to be prevalent across the landscape of North America . Ecologists were beginning to recognize the presence and ecological importance of natural , lightning @-@ ignited wildfires across the United States . It was learned that suppression of fire in certain ecosystems may in fact increase the likelihood that a wildfire will occur and may increase the intensity of those wildfires . With the emergence of fire ecology as a science also came an effort to apply fire to ecosystems in a controlled manner ; however , suppression is still the main tactic when a fire is set by a human or if it threatens life or property . By the 1980s , in light of this new understanding , funding efforts began to support prescribed burning in order to prevent catastrophic wildfire events . In 2001 , the United States implemented a National Fire Plan , increasing the budget for the reduction of hazardous fuels from $ 108 million in 2000 to $ 401 million .
In addition to using prescribed fire to reduce the chance of catastrophic wildfires , mechanical methods have recently been adopted as well . Mechanical methods include the use of chippers and other machinery to remove hazardous fuels and thereby reduce the risk of wildfire events . Today the United States ' maintains that , " fire , as a critical natural process , will be integrated into land and resource management plans and activities on a landscape scale , and across agency boundaries . Response to wildfire is based on ecological , social and legal consequences of fire . The circumstance under which a fire occurs , and the likely consequences and public safety and welfare , natural and cultural resources , and values to be protected dictate the appropriate management response to fire " ( United States Department of Agriculture Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy , 13 February 2009 ) . The five federal regulatory agencies managing forest fire response and planning for 676 million acres in the United States are the Department of the Interior , the Bureau of Land Management , the Bureau of Indian Affairs , the National Park Service , the United States Department of Agriculture @-@ Forest Service and the United States Fish and Wildlife Services . Several hundred million U.S. acres of wildfire management are also conducted by state , county , and local fire management organizations . In 2014 , legislators proposed The Wildfire Disaster Funding Act to provide $ 2 @.@ 7 billion fund appropriated by congress for the USDA and Department of Interior to use in fire suppression . The bill is a reaction to United States Forest Service and Department of Interior costs of Western Wildfire suppression appending that amounted to $ 3 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 .
= = = The Condition Class System = = =
The Condition Class System is used in the United States to provide " national @-@ level data on the current condition of fuel and vegetation . " The USDA Forest Service developed this for the purpose of allocating fire funding and resources , prioritizing fuel usage and restoration activities , and evaluating wildfire management progress . There are primary and secondary determinants used to rank forest systems into condition class and fire regimes . Condition Class " indicates the departure from normal fire return intervals " and is categorized as low , medium , or high . The more a fire departs from normal pattern , the higher is its condition class . A fire regime is the " historical pattern of fire in forests " and the Roman numerals I , II , III , IV and V are used for the classification . Primary determinants are the structure of the forest , the amount of trees , tree density and the characteristics of the combustible fuel . The United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of Interior use the Condition Class System in the LANDFIRE project to make assessments of federal land . However , the LANDFIRE project revealed in 2003 that this type of analysis is not detailed enough to use at a local level . Federal agencies are required to take record and report " acres treated " , using different prevention tactics , under the National Fire Plan Operations Reporting System ( NFPORS ) .
= = = Wildland @-@ urban interface policy = = =
An aspect of wildfire policy that is gaining attention is the wildland @-@ urban interface ( WUI ) . More and more people are living in " red zones , " or areas that are at high risk of wildfires . FEMA and the NFPA develop specific policies to guide homeowners and builders in how to build and maintain structures at the WUI and how protect against catastrophic losses . For example , NFPA @-@ 1141 is a standard for fire protection infrastructure for land development in wildland , rural and suburban areas and NFPA @-@ 1144 is a standard for reducing structure ignition hazards from wildland fire . For a full list of these policies and guidelines , see http : / / www.nfpa.org / categoryList.asp ? categoryID = 124 & URL = Codes % 20 & % 20Standards . Compensation for losses in the WUI are typically negotiated on an incident @-@ by @-@ incident basis . This is generating discussion about the burden of responsibility for funding and fighting a fire in the WUI , in that , if a resident chooses to live in a known red zone , should he or she retain a higher level of responsibility for funding home protection against wildfires .
One initiative aimed at helping U.S. WUI communities live more safely with fire is called fire @-@ adapted communities .
= = = Economics of fire management policy = = =
Similar to that of military operations , fire management is often very expensive in the U.S. and the rest of the world . Today , it is not uncommon for suppression operations for a single wildfire to exceed costs of $ 1 million in just a few days . The United States Department of Agriculture allotted $ 2 @.@ 2 billion for wildfire management in 2012 . Although fire suppression offers many benefits to society , other options for fire management exist . While these options cannot completely replace fire suppression as a fire management tool , other options can play an important role in overall fire management and can therefore affect the costs of fire suppression .
The application of fire management tools requires making certain tradeoffs . Below is a sample of some costs and benefits associated with the tools currently used in fire management . Current approaches to fire management are an almost complete turnaround compared to historic approaches . In fact , it is commonly accepted that past fire suppression , along with other factors , has resulted in larger , more intense wildfire events which are seen today . In economic terms , expenditures used for wildfire suppression in the early 20th century have contributed to increased suppression costs which are being realized today . As is the case with many public policy issues , costs and benefits associated with particular fire management tools are difficult to accurately quantify . Ultimately , costs and benefits should be weighed against one another on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis in planning wildland fire management operations .
Depending on the tradeoffs that a land manager is willing to make , a combination of the following fire management tools could be used . For instance , prescribed fire and / or mechanical fuels reduction could be used to help prevent or lessen the intensity of a wildfire thereby reducing or eliminating suppression costs . In addition , prescribed fire and / or mechanical fuels reduction could be used to improve soil conditions in fields or in forests to the benefit of wildlife or natural resources . On the other hand , the use of prescribed fire requires much advanced planning and can have negative impacts on human health in nearby communities .
Costs and Benefits of Wildland Fire Management Tools
= = Detection = =
Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting . Early detection efforts were focused on early response , accurate results in both daytime and nighttime , and the ability to prioritize fire danger . Fire lookout towers were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones , carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s . However , information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology . Early satellite @-@ derived fire analyses were hand @-@ drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite @-@ based fire information in approximately four hours .
Currently , public hotlines , fire lookouts in towers , and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires . However , accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day , time of year , and geographic location . Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to human operator error . A government report on a recent trial of three automated camera fire detection systems in Australia did , however , conclude " ... detection by the camera systems was slower and less reliable than by a trained human observer " . These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence , as suggested by GIS data analyses . An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data , aerial imagery , and personnel position via Global Positioning System ( GPS ) into a collective whole for near @-@ realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers .
A small , high risk area that features thick vegetation , a strong human presence , or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems : detecting temperature , humidity , and smoke . These may be battery @-@ powered , solar @-@ powered , or tree @-@ rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material . Larger , medium @-@ risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires . Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection , and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays .
Satellite and aerial monitoring through the use of planes , helicopter , or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large , low risk areas . These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft @-@ mounted infrared or high @-@ resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires . Satellite @-@ mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote @-@ Sensing Satellite 's Along @-@ Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires , identifying hot spots greater than 39 Β° C ( 102 Β° F ) . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote @-@ sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite ( GOES ) , Moderate @-@ Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations . However , satellite detection is prone to offset errors , anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers ( 1 to 2 mi ) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) for GOES data . Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled , and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time . Cloud cover and image resolution and may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery .
in 2015 a new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Forest Service ( USFS ) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar @-@ orbiting Partnership ( NPP ) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space @-@ based products . The high @-@ resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions . The active fire detection product using data from Suomi NPP 's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite ( VIIRS ) increases the resolution of fire observations to 1 @,@ 230 feet ( 375 meters ) . Previous NASA satellite data products available since the early 2000s observed fires at 3 @,@ 280 foot ( 1 kilometer ) resolution . The data is one of the intelligence tools used by the USFS and Department of Interior agencies across the United States to guide resource allocation and strategic fire management decisions . The enhanced VIIRS fire product enables detection every 12 hours or less of much smaller fires and provides more detail and consistent tracking of fire lines during long duration wildfires β capabilities critical for early warning systems and support of routine mapping of fire progression . Active fire locations are available to users within minutes from the satellite overpass through data processing facilities at the USFS Remote Sensing Applications Center , which uses technologies developed by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Direct Readout Laboratory in Greenbelt , Maryland . The model uses data on weather conditions and the land surrounding an active fire to predict 12 β 18 hours in advance whether a blaze will shift direction . The VIIRS fire detection product has been applied to these models , successfully verifying the wildfire simulations . The state of Colorado decided to incorporate the weather @-@ fire model in its firefighting efforts beginning with the 2016 fire season .
In 2014 , an international campaign was organized in South Africa 's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data . In advance of that campaign , the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria , South Africa , an early adopter of the VIIRS 375m fire product , put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger .
The demand for timely , high @-@ quality fire information has increased in recent years . Wildfires in the United States burn an average of 7 million acres of land each year . For the last 10 years , the USFS and Department of Interior have spent a combined average of about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion annually on wildfire suppression . Large catastrophic wildfires have become common , especially in association with extended drought and extreme weather .
= = Suppression = =
Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs . In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds . In more advanced nations , the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity . Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall , while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation , but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control . While more than 99 % of the 10 @,@ 000 new wildfires each year are contained , escaped wildfires can cause extensive damage . Worldwide damage from wildfires is in the billions of euros annually . Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54 @,@ 500 square kilometers ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ) per year .
Above all , fighting wildfires can become deadly . A wildfire 's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks . Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire , which can make fires particularly dangerous . For example , during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , USA , thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links , became disoriented , and were overtaken by the fire . In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2 @,@ 029 homes and 3 @,@ 500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire .
= = = Wildland firefighting safety = = =
Wildland fire fighters face several life @-@ threatening hazards including heat stress , fatigue , smoke and dust , as well as the risk of other injuries such as burns , cuts and scrapes , animal bites , and even rhabdomyolysis .
Especially in hot weather condition , fires present the risk of heat stress , which can entail feeling heat , fatigue , weakness , vertigo , headache , or nausea . Heat stress can progress into heat strain , which entails physiological changes such as increased heart rate and core body temperature . This can lead to heat @-@ related illnesses , such as heat rash , cramps , exhaustion or heat stroke . Various factors can contribute to the risks posed by heat stress , including strenuous work , personal risk factors such as age and fitness , dehydration , sleep deprivation , and burdensome personal protective equipment . Rest , cool water , and occasional breaks are crucial to mitigating the effects of heat stress .
Smoke , ash , and debris can also pose serious respiratory hazards to wildland fire fighters . The smoke and dust from wildfires can contain gases such as carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide and formaldehyde , as well as particulates such as ash and silica . To reduce smoke exposure , wildfire fighting crews should , whenever possible , rotate firefighters through areas of heavy smoke , avoid downwind firefighting , use equipment rather than people in holding areas , and minimize mop @-@ up . Camps and command posts should also be located upwind of wildfires . Protective clothing and equipment can also help minimize exposure to smoke and ash .
Firefighters are also at risk of cardiac events including strokes and heart attacks . Fire fighters should maintain good physical fitness . Fitness programs , medical screening and examination programs which include stress tests can minimize the risks of firefighting cardiac problems . Other injury hazards wildland fire fighters face include slips , trips and falls , burns , scrapes and cuts from tools and equipment , being struck by trees , vehicles , or other objects , plant hazards such as thorns and poison ivy , snake and animal bites , vehicle crashes , electrocution from power lines or lightning storms , and unstable building structures .
= = Fire retardant = =
Fire retardants are used to help slow wildfires , coat fuels , and lessen oxygen availability as required by various firefighting situations . They are composed of nitrates , ammonia , phosphates and sulfates , as well as other chemicals and thickening agents . The choice of whether to apply retardant depends on the magnitude , location and intensity of the wildfire . Fire retardants are used to reach inaccessible geographical regions where ground firefighting crews are unable to reach a wildfire or in any occasion where human safety and structures are endangered . In certain instances , fire retardant may also be applied ahead of wildfires for protection of structures and vegetation as a precautionary fire defense measure .
The application of aerial fire retardants creates an atypical appearance on land and water surfaces and has the potential to change soil chemistry . Fire retardant can decrease the availability of plant nutrients in the soil by increasing the acidity of the soil . Fire retardant may also affect water quality through leaching , eutrophication , or misapplication . Fire retardant 's effects on drinking water remain inconclusive . Dilution factors , including water body size , rainfall , and water flow rates lessen the concentration and potency of fire retardant . Wildfire debris ( ash and sediment ) clog rivers and reservoirs increasing the risk for floods and erosion that ultimately slow and / or damage water treatment systems . There is continued concern of fire retardant effects on land , water , wildlife habitats , and watershed quality , additional research is needed . However , on the positive side , fire retardant ( specifically its nitrogen and phosphorus components ) has been shown to have a fertilizing effect on nutrient @-@ deprived soils and thus creates a temporary increase in vegetation .
Current USDA procedure maintains that the aerial application of fire retardant in the United States must clear waterways by a minimum of 300 feet in order to safeguard effects of retardant runoff . Aerial uses of fire retardant are required to avoid application near waterways and endangered species ( plant and animal habitats ) . After any incident of fire retardant misapplication , the U.S. Forest Service requires reporting and assessment impacts be made in order to determine mitigation , remediation , and / or restrictions on future retardant uses in that area .
= = = Modeling = = =
Wildfire modeling is concerned with numerical simulation of wildfires in order to comprehend and predict fire behavior . Wildfire modeling can ultimately aid wildfire suppression , increase the safety of firefighters and the public , and minimize damage . Using computational science , wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior . Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past , including simple ellipses and egg- and fan @-@ shaped models . Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity . However , the exact behavior of a wildfire 's front is dependent on a variety of factors , including windspeed and slope steepness . Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and Huygens ' Principle to simulate fire growth as a continuously expanding polygon . Extreme value theory may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires . However , large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses , even though fire policies are more influenced by catastrophic wildfires than by small fires .
Cellular automata models have increasingly been used to model forest fire events . The initial model proposed by Drossel @-@ Schwarbl ( 1992 ) identified forest fires as self @-@ organised critical systems because the frequency @-@ size distribution adheres to a power law relationship . More highly parameterised models have since supported this initial power law claim within forest fire models and real data obtained from forest fires in Australia and the US have shown the power law relationship to hold over a certain range . This has implications for predicting the size of forest fires based on observed frequency in areas where environmental conditions make the area susceptible to wildfire . Cellular automata models have also been used to model the response of forest fire events to changes in type , amount and distribution of combustible material , as well as weather conditions .
= = Human risk and exposure = =
Wildfire risk is the chance that a wildfire will start in or reach a particular area and the potential loss of human values if it does . Risk is dependent on variable factors such as human activities , weather patterns , availability of wildfire fuels , and the availability or lack of resources to suppress a fire . Wildfires have continually been a threat to human populations . However , human induced geographical and climatic changes are exposing populations more frequently to wildfires and increasing wildfire risk . It is speculated that the increase in wildfires arises from a century of wildfire suppression coupled with the rapid expansion of human developments into fire @-@ prone wildlands . Wildfires are naturally occurring events that aid in promoting forest health . The consequence of suppressing wildfires has led to an overgrowth in forest vegetation , which provides excess fuel that increases the severity , range , and duration of a wildfire . Global warming and climate changes are causing an increase in temperatures and more droughts nationwide which also contributes to an increase in wildfire risk .
= = = Regional burden of wildfires in the United States = = =
Nationally , the burden of wildfires is disproportionally heavily distributed in the southern and western regions . The Geographic Area Coordinating Group ( GACG ) divides the United States and Alaska into 11 geographic areas for the purpose of emergency incident management . One particular area of focus is wildland fires . A national assessment of wildfire risk in the United States based on GACG identified regions ( with the slight modification of combining Southern and Northern California , and the West and East Basin ) ; indicate that California ( 50 @.@ 22 % risk ) and the Southern Area ( 15 @.@ 53 % risk ) are the geographic areas with the highest wildfire risk . The western areas of the nation are experiencing an expansion of human development into and beyond what is called the wildland @-@ urban interface ( WUI ) . When wildfires inevitably occur in these fire @-@ prone areas , often communities are threatened due to their proximity to fire @-@ prone forest . The south is one of the fastest growing regions with 88 million acres classified as WUI . The south consistently has the highest number of wildfires per year . More than 50 , 000 communities are estimated to be at high to very high risk of wildfire damage . These statistics are greatly attributable to the South 's year @-@ round fire season .
= = = Wildfires risk to human health = = =
The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property and biomass . However , the release of hazardous chemicals from the burning of wildland fuels significantly impacts health in humans . Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and water vapor . Other common smoke components present in lower concentrations are carbon monoxide , formaldehyde , acrolein , polyaromatic hydrocarbons , and benzene . Small particulates suspended in air which come in solid form or in liquid droplets are also present in smoke . 80 -90 % of wildfire smoke , by mass , is within the fine particle size class of 2 @.@ 5 micrometers in diameter or smaller . Despite carbon dioxides high concentration in smoke , it poses low health risk due to its low toxicity . Carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter , particularly 2 @.@ 5 Β΅m in diameter and smaller , have been identified as the major health threats . Other chemicals are considered to be significant hazards but are found in concentrations that are too low to cause detectable health effects .
The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length , severity , duration , and proximity of the fire . People are exposed directly to smoke via the respiratory tract though inhalation of air pollutants . Indirectly , communities are exposed to wildfire debris that can contaminate soil and water supplies . Firefighters are at the greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure . Due to firefighter 's occupational duties , they are frequently exposed to hazardous chemicals at a close proximity for longer periods of time . A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters , show that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above OSHA permissible exposure limits ( PEL ) and ACGIH threshold limit values ( TLV ) . 5 β 10 % are overexposed . The study obtained exposure concentrations for one wildland firefighter over a 10 @-@ hour shift spent holding down a fireline . The firefighter was exposed to a wide range of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritant ( combination of particulate matter 3 @.@ 5 Β΅m and smaller , acrolein , and formaldehype ) levels . Carbon monoxide levels reached up to 160ppm and the TLV irritant index value reached a high of 10 . In contrast , the OSHA PEL for carbon monoxide is 30ppm and for the TLV respiratory irritant index , the calculated threshold limit value is 1 ; any value above 1 exceeds exposure limits .
Residents in communities surrounding wildfires are exposed to lower concentrations of chemicals , but they are at a greater risk for indirect exposure through water or soil contamination . Exposure to residents is greatly dependent on individual susceptibility . Vulnerable persons such as children ( ages 0 β 4 ) , the elderly ( ages 65 and older ) , smokers , and pregnant women are at an increased risk due to already compromised body systems , even when the exposures are present at low chemical concentrations and for relatively short exposure periods . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) developed the Air Quality Index ( AQI ) , a public resource that provides national air quality standard concentrations for common air pollutants . The public can use this index as a tool to determine their exposure to hazardous air pollutants based on visibility range . Additionally , there is evidence of an increase in material stress , as documented by researchers M.H. O 'Donnell and A.M. Behie , thus affecting birth outcomes . In Australia , studies show that the male infants born with drastically higher average birth weights were born in mostly severely fire @-@ affected areas . This is attributed to the fact that maternal signals directly affect fetal growth patterns .
= = Health effects = =
Inhalation of smoke from a wildfire can be a health hazard . Wildfire smoke is primarily composed of carbon dioxide , water vapor , particulate matter , organic chemicals , nitrogen oxides and other compounds . The principle health concern is the inhalation of particulate matter and carbon monoxide .
Particulate matter ( PM ) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets . They are characterized into two categories based on the diameter of the particle . Coarse particles are between 2 @.@ 5 micrometers and 10 micrometers and fine particles measure 2 @.@ 5 micrometers and less . Both sizes can be inhaled . Coarse particles are filtered by the upper airways and can cause eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing . The fine particles are more problematic because , when inhaled , they can be deposited deep into the lungs , where they are absorbed into the bloodstream . This is particularly hazardous to the very young , elderly and those with chronic conditions such as asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) , cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular conditions . The illnesses most commonly with exposure to fine particle from wildfire smoke are bronchitis , exacerbation of asthma or COPD , and pneumonia . Symptoms of these complications include wheezing and shortness of breath and cardiovascular symptoms include chest pain , rapid heart rate and fatigue .
Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless gas that can be found at the highest concentration at close proximity to a smoldering fire . For this reason , carbon monoxide inhalation is a serious threat to the health of wildfire firefighters . CO in smoke can be inhaled into the lungs where it is absorbed into the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body 's vital organs . At high concentrations , it can cause headache , weakness , dizziness , confusion , nausea , disorientation , visual impairment , coma and even death . However , even at lower concentrations , such as those found at wildfires , individuals with cardiovascular disease may experience chest pain and cardiac arrhythmia . A recent study tracking the number and cause of wildfire firefighter deaths from 1990 β 2006 found that 21 @.@ 9 % of the deaths occurred from heart attacks .
Another important and somewhat less obvious health effect of wildfires is psychiatric diseases and disorders . Both adults and children from countries ranging from the United States and Canada to Greece and Australia who were directly and indirectly affected by wildfires were found by researchers to demonstrate several different mental conditions linked to their experience with the wildfires . These include post @-@ traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) , depression , anxiety , and phobias .
In a new twist to wildfire health effects , former uranium mining sites were burned over in the summer of 2012 near North Fork , Idaho . This prompted concern from area residents and Idaho State Department of Environmental Quality officials over the potential spread of radiation in the resultant smoke , since those sites had never been completely cleaned up from radioactive remains .
= = = Epidemiology = = =
The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of particulate matter in the air , through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring of ambient air quality has been mandated . Due to these monitoring programs and the incidence of several large wildfires near populated areas , epidemiological studies have been conducted and demonstrate an association between human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke .
An increase in PM emitted from the Hayman fire in Colorado in June 2002 , was associated with an increase in respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD . Looking at the wildfires in Southern California in October 2003 in a similar manner , investigators have shown an increase in hospital admissions due to asthma during peak concentrations of PM . Children participating in the Children 's Health Study were also found to have an increase in eye and respiratory symptoms , medication use and physician visits . Recently , it was demonstrated that mothers who were pregnant during the fires gave birth to babies with a slightly reduced average birth weight compared to those who were not exposed to wildfire during birth . Suggesting that pregnant women may also be at greater risk to adverse effects from wildfire . Worldwide it is estimated that 339 @,@ 000 people die due to the effects of wildfire smoke each year .
= = Types of wildfires = =
There are many types of wildfires , most commonly classified as ground , surface , or crown wildfires . Ground fires burn in the humus , and usually burn out by themselves . These burn the roots of plants , mycelium , and other matter in the humus . Only some manage to become surface or crown fires . Surface fires burn above the humus but do not burn tall trees . If they manage to spread into the tallest of trees they are called crown wildfires . Firestorms are another type of wildfire , but they are not one of the base types of wildfires . They have strong gusts of wind created by the way of heat transfer called convection .
= = Notable wildfires = =
Landes Forest 1949 wildfire in South West France ; 50 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 km2 ; 190 sq mi ) of forest land were burnt and 82 people were killed .
2003 Portuguese wildfires
1988 Yellowstone wildfires
Peshtigo Fire , 1871 ; most loss of life in a US wildfire .
Great Fire of 1910 in the US ; shaped 20th @-@ century wildfire policy
2009 SE Australia bushfires
2010 Bolivian forest fires
2010 Russian wildfires
2011 Texas wildfires
2013 Beaver Creek Fire
2015 Southeast Asian haze caused by a wildfire in Riau
2016 Fort McMurray wildfire
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= Dunham Massey =
Dunham Massey is a civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . The parish includes the villages of Sinderland Green , Dunham Woodhouses and Dunham Town , along with Dunham Massey Park , formerly the home of the last Earl of Stamford and owned by the National Trust since 1976 . Dunham Massey was historically in the county of Cheshire , but since 1974 has been part of Trafford Metropolitan Borough ; the nearest town is Altrincham . At the 2001 census , the parish had a population of 475 .
Dunham Massey 's history is reflected in its 45 listed buildings . It was a regionally important place during the medieval period , and the seat of the Massey barons . The Georgian mansion with the remains of an castle in its grounds is a popular tourist attraction . There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Dunham Massey : Dunham Park , located south of Dunham Town , and Brookheys Covert .
= = History = =
The Roman road between Chester and York passing between the Dunham Massey and Bowdon forms the boundary between the two . The name Dunham is derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon dun , meaning hill . The Massey element of the name is a result of its ownership by the Massey family . The manor of Dunham is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having belonged to Aelfward , a Saxon thegn , before the Norman Conquest and to Hamo de Masci afterwards . The Barons de Masci also had control over the manors of Baguley , Bowdon , Hale , Partington , and Timperley . The suffix of " Massey " to the name Dunham reflects the manor 's importance ; Dunham was the seat of the Masseys . The importance of Dunham is further exemplified by the former existence of two de Massey castles : Dunham Castle and Watch Hill Castle on the border with Bowdon ; a third , Ullerwood Castle , was near Hale . The Masseys remained lords of Dunham and its environs until the 14th century , when the family 's male line became extinct . The Booth family inherited most of the Massey family land in 1409 , with Dunham Massey remaining at the heart of the estate .
By the Elizabeth period , Dunham Massey Castle had been demolished . Probably during the medieval period , Dunham Massey Hall became the home of the manorial lord , and a centre of power in the area . The hall was rebuilt in 1616 , leaving no remains of the old medieval manor house . A mill at Dunham was documented in 1353 , although the its present structure dates to the 1860s . It lies on the River Bollin , opposite Little Bollington . The first record of Dunham 's deer park was also in 1353 . The settlement at Dunham Woodhouse ( named after an outlying lodge on the estate ) dates from the 15th century . During the medieval period , the primary source of employment was agriculture , mainly arable farming .
The Warrington and Stockport Railway was constructed through Dunham during 1853 / 54 . Dunham Massey railway station served the area between 1854 and its closure in 1962 . Dunham grew as a result , the population increasing by 57 @.@ 5 % between 1851 and 1881 . Otherwise , the industrial revolution had little effect on Dunham Massey , and it remained a predominantly agricultural area .
= = Dunham Massey Hall = =
The present hall was built in 1616 by Sir George Booth , who received one of the first baronetcies to be created by James I in 1611 ; it was remodelled by John Norris for his descendant , George , 2nd Earl of Warrington between 1732 and 1740 ; it was further altered by John Hope towards the end of the 18th century and again by Joseph Compton Hall between 1905 and 1908 . The hall , stables , and the carriage house of Dunham Massey are all Grade I listed buildings , three of six such buildings in Trafford .
The site is moated and lies immediately west of the village of Dunham , with its deer park to the south . The hall was donated to the National Trust by Roger Grey , 10th and last Earl of Stamford in 1976 . The hall was used as a military hospital during the First World War . Inside is a significant collection of Huguenot silver , the carving The Crucifixion by 17th @-@ century wood carver Grinling Gibbons , and a white marble bust of the Emperor Hadrian ; the head is antique , but the neck and shoulders are 18th @-@ century ; it was probably acquired by the George , Earl of Stamford and Warrington . The hall 's collection of paintings include Allegory with Venus , Mars , Cupid and Time by Guercino ; The Cascade at Terni by Louis Ducros ; and portraits by William Beechey , Francis Cotes , Michael Dahl , A. R. Mengs , Sir Joshua Reynolds , George Romney , Enoch Seeman , and Zoffany . George Harry , Earl of Stamford and Warrington removed a selection of paintings to Enville Hall in the late @-@ 1850s , and it was not until Roger Grey , 10th Earl of Stamford succeeded as Earl , that some were rebought by the family after sales in 1929 and 1931 . The deer park is the only surviving medieval park in Trafford or the surrounding area . The hall and grounds are open to the public and are a popular tourist attraction , with 340 @,@ 000 visitors in 2014 .
= = Governance = =
Dunham Massey was historically in the ecclesiastical parish of Bowdon and the county of Cheshire .
The civil parish of Dunham Massey was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 , and has its own parish council . Dunham Massey became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in Bucklow Rural District . The village is part of the Bowdon electoral ward . The Councillors for Bowdon Ward are Sean Anstee , Karen Barclay , and Michael Hyman , all members of the Conservative Party . Dunham Massey is also a part of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency , and is in the North West England constituency for the European Parliament . Since the formation of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency in 1997 , it has been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady .
= = Geography = =
Dunham Massey lies to the east of Warburton , and to the west of Bowdon , with Altrincham approximately 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the northeast . The landscape is predominantly flat , with some mossland . Dunham Park occupies 192 @.@ 7 acres ( 78 @.@ 0 ha ) of the area . The Roman road running from Chester to York forms the boundary between Dunham and Bowdon . The River Bollin runs to the south , with the Bridgewater Canal running through the area . The local geology is lower keuper marl , with a ridge of sand and gravel running from Dunham to Warburton .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Dunham Massey had a total population of 475 . For every 100 females , there were 96 @.@ 3 males . The average household size was 2 @.@ 36 . According to the census , 0 @.@ 01 % were unemployed and 19 @.@ 24 % were economically inactive . 17 @.@ 89 % of the population were under the age of 16 , and 9 @.@ 89 % were aged 75 and over ; the mean age of the residents of Dunham Massey was 43 @.@ 71 . 75 @.@ 79 % of residents described their health as ' good ' .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Site of Special Scientific Interest = = =
Brookheys Covert
Brookheys Covert is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in the Dunham Park Estate ( grid reference SJ742904 ) . The site is a semi @-@ natural wood consisting mainly of ash , birch , and rowan , with a wetland habitat and several marl pits , which have flooded to form ponds . The reserve spans 5 @.@ 8 acres ( 2 @.@ 3 ha ) and is managed by the Dunham Massey Estates . Brookheys Covert provides a habitat for many animals , including foxes , rabbits , squirrels , and 57 species of bird .
Dunham Park
Dunham Park covers an area of 192 @.@ 7 acres ( 78 @.@ 0 ha ) and is part of the Dunham Park Estate , run by the National Trust ( grid reference SJ740870 ) . The park is mostly " pasture @-@ woodland or park @-@ woodland " and has been since the Middle Ages . Many of the oak trees , which make up the larger part of the woodland , date back to the 17th century . Dunham Park is the only place in the northwest of England with such a concentration of old trees , and one of only a few remaining in England , making it a site of national importance . The park supports a range of animals , including fallow deer and over 500 species of insect .
= = = Grade II listed buildings = = =
Dunham Massey has many grade II listed buildings ; among the most striking is the 18th @-@ century sandstone obelisk at the end of the north vista from Dunham Massey Hall . Tradition has it that it marks the burial site of a race horse .
There are many listed residences in Dunham Massey , most dating from the 18th or early @-@ 19th century , and many feature Flemish bond brickwork and slate roofs . They include : Dunham Massey Lodge , on Dunham Road ; Willow Cottage ; numbers 1 and 2 Barns Lane ; number 1 Orchard View ; The Hollies , on Station Road ; numbers 1 , 3 and 4 Woodhouse Lane ; Big Tree Cottages , on Woodhouse Lane . Agden View , also on Woodhouse Lane , dates from 1725 and has both garden wall bond and Flemish bond brickwork . Big Tree House , on Charcoal Road , dates from the mid @-@ 18th century and features English bond brickwork . Yew Tree Cottage and Lime Tree Cottage are also on Charcoal Lane ; both houses date to the 17th century and exhibit garden wall bond brickwork with slate roofs . Ivy House , on Woodhouse Lane , was built in the early 18th century . Kitchen Garden cottage was built in 1702 . Rose Cottage and Farm Cottage are late @-@ 18th- or early @-@ 19th @-@ century . The Meadows , on School Lane , was built in the 17th century and features garden wall bond brickwork and a thatched roof .
The farm buildings of Home Farm , including its dovecote , were built in the early @-@ 19th century , and feature Flemish bond brickwork . Sinderland House , also dating from the early @-@ 19th century , is another of Dunham Massey 's listed farmhouses . Manor Farmhouse , on Station Road , was built by George Booth , 2nd Earl of Warrington ; the building dates from the mid @-@ 18th century and features both Flemish and garden wall bond brickwork . The farmhouse on Station Road was built in 1752 . The barn on Woodhouse Lane dates from the early 18th century and features garden wall bond brickwork , a slate roof , and upper cruck frames . Dog Farmhouse , also on Woodhouse Lane , was built in the early 19th century ; however it may have been an adaptation of an earlier , possibly 18th @-@ century , farmhouse .
Dunham School was built in 1759 , with additions in 1860 and the 20th century . Above the door is an engraved panel reading " This School was Erected in 1759 For the Benefit of the Township of Dunham Massey . According to the Will of Thomas Walton Gent " . The school is now used as the parish hall . The nearby Dunham School Bridge , over the Bridgewater Canal , was built in 1776 by John Gilbert , who also built the aqueduct for the Bridgewater Canal over the River Bollin , which was opened in 1776 . The other listed bridge , Brick Kiln Lane Bridge , was also built in the 18th century . Bollington watermill , constructed in the 1860s , has an undershot waterwheel .
There are a number of listed structures in the grounds of Dunham Massey Hall , including the 1720 wellhouse that supplied water to the hall until the 1860s , and the early @-@ 18th @-@ century ornamental sundial in front of the hall , depicting a black slave clad in leaves , carrying the sundial above his head . The stable buildings , the slaughterhouse , the deer house , the orangery , and an ashlar shelter to the west of the hall , all date from the 17th or 18th century . Barn Cottages date from at least 1751 . The cottages were originally a single barn , which was converted in the 19th century . Other grade II listed structures in the grounds of the hall include : the lakeside wall ( 18th century ) ; two small piers south of the garden forecourt ( 18th century ) ; a pier north west of the garden forecourt ( 18th century ) ; the gateway opposite the kitchen ( 1750 ) ; the piers at the south of forecourt garden topped with lions ( 18th century ) ; and an obelisk erected by George , 2nd Earl of Warrington , in 1714 in memory of his mother . Near the hall there is a Grade II * listed sawmill , probably built in 1616 .
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= Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! =
" Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! " is the enduring slogan that appeared in magazine , newspaper , and television advertisements for Tareyton cigarettes from 1963 until 1981 . It was the American Tobacco Company 's most visible ad campaign in the 1960s and 1970s .
= = Beginnings = =
The slogan was created by James Jordan of the BBDO advertising agency . The first print advertisement appeared in Life magazine on October 11 , 1963 . The advertisements would appear solely in print between 1963 and 1966 . In 1966 , the first television advertisements with the slogan aired .
The target of the campaign was to create a sense of loyalty amongst Tareyton smokers . That led to the " rather fight than switch " campaign , in which the makeup the models wore made it seem as if they were sporting black eyes , presumably earned in battles with smokers of other cigarettes .
= = Television advertisements = =
Each commercial would begin in a predictable manner ; the protagonist would do something that would be considered defiant ( in one commercial , an old woman rocked sternly in her chair on her porch , while the rest of her development was being razed to make room for a condominium ) . In each commercial , the protagonist would say " Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! " , usually only showing their side profile to the camera . After uttering the slogan , viewers would see the smoker 's face , which had a noticeable " black eye " ( in reality makeup ) , proving their willingness to fight for what they believed in , whether it be their tough decision of the day , or their choice to smoke Tareyton cigarettes . In the aforementioned example , the old woman 's fighting spirit won out , and her house remained where it was , although the condominium was built alarmingly close to her property . Her son came to visit her , and it was revealed that he was a Tareyton smoker as well β he also had a black eye .
= = Later years = =
Due to the success of the advertisement , Tareyton briefly enjoyed robust sales , which put them in the Top 10 of all American cigarette brands , in the mid to late 1960s . The brand declined somewhat , to thirteenth , when the slogan waned in 1979 .
In 1971 , radio and television advertisements for tobacco products were banned from American broadcasting stations , and Tareyton 's television jingles ended . However , after the ban , the slogan continued to be used in magazines and newspapers , due to the slogan and the name recognition the brand received . In 1975 , the slogan was used to advertise for the Tareyton " 100 " .
In 1976 , the American Tobacco Company , which made Tareyton cigarettes , introduced Tareyton Light cigarettes . In the new advertisements , men and women sported " white eyes , " with an updated slogan : " Us Tareyton smokers would rather light than fight ! " The two slogans would be used to sell the two separate variations until 1981 , when market value declined .
This slogan was notable in that it was the final slogan used for the Tareyton brand . Declining sales led to an end of advertising the brand .
= = Cultural impact = =
The then @-@ fresh slogan was adopted by supporters of Barry Goldwater during the 1964 campaign for the presidency . Goldwater appeared to have the nomination in hand as the primary season closed , but supporters of the moderate Republican William Scranton tried to mount a " Draft Scranton " reply . " Goldwater Girls " ( mostly adult women ) were seen at Scranton events wearing bandages and sporting signs saying " We 'd rather fight than switch ! " .
A 1964 single released on the Camp Records label parodied the slogan with the song " I 'd Rather Fight Than Swish , " using the slang term swish , meaning to behave effeminately .
Thomas " TNT " Todd , a civil rights activist , parodied the slogan to make a point regarding the Vietnam War in a 1967 speech . Todd was quoted as saying , " ... Yet our best trained , best educated , best equipped , best prepared troops refuse to fight ! Matter of fact , it 's safe to say that they would rather switch than fight ! " The audio clip of his speech was later used as the prelude to the 1989 Public Enemy single " Fight the Power . "
In April 2013 , an advertisement for the Windows Phone pictured camps of fighting Samsung Galaxy and Apple iPhone users along with the slogan " Don 't fight . Switch . "
= = Famous " Tareyton fighters " = =
Many actors who would later become well known for other reasons appeared in the Tareyton ads . Examples include future entrepreneur Martha Stewart , who appeared in a print ad , and actor Lyle Waggoner , who was featured in a television commercial in 1966 .
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= M @-@ 50 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 50 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . Although designated as an east β west highway , it is nearly a diagonal northwest β southeast route . The western terminus is at exit 52 along Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) near Alto a few miles east of the metro Grand Rapids area , and its eastern terminus is in downtown Monroe at US Highway 24 ( US 24 , Telegraph Road ) . In between the trunkline runs through seven counties of the southern part of the Lower Peninsula mostly through rural farm fields and small communities . The highway also runs through downtown Jackson to connect between two freeway sections of US 127 . In the Irish Hills area of the state southeast of Jackson , M @-@ 50 runs next to Michigan International Speedway .
Dating back to the early days of the state highway system , M @-@ 50 was first signed in the southeastern corner of the state in 1919 . During the 1920s , the highway was extended to the Grand Rapids area and beyond to Lake Michigan , making it a trans @-@ peninsular route connecting that Great Lake with Lake Erie . A rerouting of highways including M @-@ 50 through Grand Rapids in the 1950s created Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) , a business loop through that city that lasted for eight years . Additional changes made during the 1960s rerouted M @-@ 50 to replace its business loop until the highway was shortened to its present western terminus south of Lowell . A pair of truncations in Monroe in 1996 and 2006 are responsible for the present @-@ day eastern terminus .
= = Route description = =
= = = Lowell to Jackson = = =
M @-@ 50 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 96 at exit 52 south of Lowell in southeastern Kent County . The highway proceeds south along with Alden Nash Avenue and turns east on 92nd Street through farms and fields in the rural southeastern corner of the county . As the trunkline runs to the east , it crosses into Ionia County . M @-@ 50 follows Thompson Road , Nash Highway and Tupper Lake Road into Lake Odessa . In Lake Odessa , the road bends around the north side of Jordan Lake , curving to the south into the extreme northeastern Barry County . The highway turns back to the east as it heads towards a junction with M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 43 at the Barry β Eaton county line .
After meeting M @-@ 43 , the two trunklines run concurrently for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before M @-@ 50 breaks off to the southwest near Woodbury . From there , the road continues in its southeasterly path along Clinton Trail through the northeast part of Eaton County as it runs through fields to Charlotte . Just prior to entering the city , the road bends to the south and near the middle of town it has a junction with M @-@ 79 and Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) . After this intersection , M @-@ 50 continues south concurrent with the business loop for a several blocks before turning eastward . On the eastern end of town , it has an interchange with I @-@ 69 at exit 60 .
After heading east past the junction with I @-@ 69 , the highway turns southeast as it heads through rural fields toward Eaton Rapids . Once it reaches the city , M @-@ 50 converges with M @-@ 99 , and the two intersect M @-@ 188 on the south side of the Grand River . The two highways run south out of the city . Immediately prior to entering Jackson County , the two trunklines diverge with M @-@ 99 heading off to the southwest and M @-@ 50 to the southeast .
M @-@ 50 continues its journey through Jackson County , winding its way to the southeast through rural fields and small forests . The landscape transitions to residential neighborhoods as the road approaches the US 127 freeway north of Jackson . In Blackman Township , M @-@ 50 merges with US 127 to run concurrently into the north side of Jackson . After an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 138 , US 127 exits to run east on I @-@ 94 for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , M @-@ 50 and Business US 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) run concurrently into the city as West Avenue passing by the Jackson Crossing shopping mall . The road then proceeds south through the northern side of the city before turning east on Michigan Avenue as it heads towards downtown .
= = = Jackson to Monroe = = =
In downtown Jackson , Michigan Avenue continues into downtown while M @-@ 50 is routed around the city center along paired one @-@ way streets . Washington Street carries eastbound traffic and the Louis Glick Highway . On the east side of downtown , the roads merge near the Jackson Amtrak station and a junction with M @-@ 106 on Cooper Street , where M @-@ 50 turns south and then southeast as Brooklyn Road . On the south side of Jackson , M @-@ 50 and US 127 meet up once again just east of Vandercook Lake . M @-@ 50 follows the US 127 freeway through a pair of conjoined partial interchanges before M @-@ 50 heads east away from Vandercook Lake .
The trunkline then heads southeast to Napoleon , where the road then turns south and heads towards Brooklyn , part of the Irish Hills area of Lenawee County , a region known for its scenery . The road serves as main street for downtown Brooklyn as well as the primary thoroughfare for drivers headed to Michigan International Speedway . M @-@ 50 curves around the north and east side of the race track before intersecting US 12 in Cambridge Junction . After crossing US 12 , the road passes between several lakes of the Irish Hills area including Washington , Little Stony and Marrs lakes before continuing on its southeasterly journey towards Tecumseh .
After leaving the Brooklyn area , the road returns to a rural environment as it cuts through agricultural fields . Before passing through Tipton , M @-@ 50 passes the entrance to Hidden Lake Gardens , a botanical garden and arboretum operated by Michigan State University . After passing Hidden Lake , the road intersects M @-@ 52 and continues into Tecumseh . Known as Chicago Boulevard , the road serves as the main route through the city . After leaving Tecumseh , the highway passes through the communities of Ridgeway and Britton before leaving Lenawee County .
M @-@ 50 begins the final leg of its journey , as it crosses into Monroe county , passing through land that is mostly fields . Prior to reaching its interchange with US 23 , the highway passes to the south of Cabela 's , a 225 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 20 @,@ 900 m2 ) outdoor sports retailer in Dundee . After leaving town , the trunkline continues to the southeast , running to the south of the River Raisin , through rural areas as South Custer Road before entering the outskirts of Monroe where it finally ends its journey at a junction with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) a few miles inland from Lake Erie .
M @-@ 50 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2011 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 50 were the 25 @,@ 770 vehicles daily south of the Springport Road interchange in the Jackson area ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 055 vehicles per day south of the M @-@ 99 concurrency . The only sections of M @-@ 50 that have been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) are the two US 127 concurrencies in the Jackson area and the connection between them through downtown . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , M @-@ 50 started at an intersection with M @-@ 23 ( present @-@ day US 12 ) in Cambridge Junction , south of Brooklyn . From there it ran to the southeast , similar to its present @-@ day routing , through Dundee and Tecumseh into downtown Monroe where it intersected M @-@ 56 . There was a concurrency between M @-@ 50 and M @-@ 65 between Dundee and the Ida area which became an overlap with US 23 after 1926 . By the end of 1927 , M @-@ 50 underwent a major lengthening as its western terminus was extended through Jackson to Eaton Rapids , Charlotte , and Vermontville before intersecting M @-@ 39 just east of Woodbury . From this point , M @-@ 50 was routed over M @-@ 39 to US 16 near Alto . M @-@ 50 then ran concurrently with US 16 into Grand Rapids where it turned to the west and traveled through Allendale before terminating at a junction with US 31 in Agnew . A few years later in 1929 , the route between Charlotte and Woodbury was changed as M @-@ 50 was routed north out of Charlotte to the former M @-@ 39 and replaced it east to Woodbury ; the former routing was turned over to local control .
In 1953 , the route was realigned onto the south and west beltline to bypass Grand Rapids ; the old routing through downtown became Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) . In the late 1950s , when the US 127 freeway bypass east of Jackson opened up , the old routing through town became Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 . At the same time , the concurrency with US 23 between Dundee and the Ida area was dropped after the new US 23 freeway opened ; the old route becomes solely designated M @-@ 50 .
In 1961 , when the I @-@ 96 / US 16 / M @-@ 50 freeway was extended to the northwest in Grand Rapids , the old M @-@ 50 routing around the city became M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 50 was returned to its former alignment along Lake Michigan Drive and Fulton Street , supplanting Bus . M @-@ 50 . In 1964 , the western end of M @-@ 50 was truncated from its junction with US 31 back to I @-@ 96 south of Lowell at exit 52 . The former alignment from exit 40 to Agnew was given the M @-@ 45 designation .
In 1996 , the highway was truncated as the terminus was scaled back to M @-@ 125 in Monroe . Finally on October 4 , 2006 , the section of M @-@ 50 between M @-@ 125 and US 24 was also removed , shortening the highway by about a mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business route = =
Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) was a 11 @.@ 084 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 838 km ) business loop that ran through Grand Rapids . The state trunkline highway was created when M @-@ 50 was rerouted to follow 28th Street and Wilson Avenue around the south and west sides of the city in 1953 . The business loop was decommissioned when M @-@ 50 was returned to its former routing in 1961 . The highway followed Lake Michigan Drive ( now M @-@ 45 ) from the Standale neighborhood of Walker easterly to Fulton Street in Grand Rapids . From there it followed Fulton easterly through downtown Grand Rapids and the east side of the city to a junction with Cascade Road in Grand Rapids Township The last segment followed Cascade Road to the I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 50 freeway where it connected with its parent highway and terminated .
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= Grand Palace =
The Grand Palace ( Thai : ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈ , rtgs : Phra Borom Maha Ratcha Wang ) is a complex of buildings at the heart of Bangkok , Thailand . The palace has been the official residence of the Kings of Siam ( and later Thailand ) since 1782 . The king , his court and his royal government were based on the grounds of the palace until 1925 . The present monarch , King Bhumibol Adulyadej ( Rama IX ) , currently resides at Chitralada Royal Villa in the Dusit Palace , but the Grand Palace is still used for official events . Several royal ceremonies and state functions are held within the walls of the palace every year . The palace is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Thailand .
Construction of the palace began on May 6 , 1782 , at the order of King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke ( Rama I ) , the founder of the Chakri Dynasty , when he moved the capital city from Thonburi to Bangkok . Throughout successive reigns , many new buildings and structures were added , especially during the reign of King Chulalongkorn ( Rama V ) . By 1925 , the king , the Royal Family and the government were no longer permanently settled at the palace , and had moved to other residences . After the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932 , all government agencies completely moved out of the palace .
In shape , the palace complex is roughly rectangular and has a combined area of 218 @,@ 400 square metres ( 2 @,@ 351 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , surrounded by four walls . It is situated on the banks of the Chao Phraya River at the heart of the Rattanakosin Island , today in the Phra Nakhon District . The Grand Palace is bordered by Sanam Luang and Na Phra Lan Road to the north , Maharaj Road to the west , Sanamchai Road to the east and Thai Wang Road to the south .
Rather than being a single structure , the Grand Palace is made up of numerous buildings , halls , pavilions set around open lawns , gardens and courtyards . Its asymmetry and eclectic styles are due to its organic development , with additions and rebuilding being made by successive reigning kings over 200 years of history . It is divided into several quarters : the Temple of the Emerald Buddha ; the Outer Court , with many public buildings ; the Middle Court , including the Phra Maha Monthien Buildings , the Phra Maha Prasat Buildings and the Chakri Maha Prasat Buildings ; the Inner Court and the Siwalai Gardens quarter . The Grand Palace is currently partially open to the public as a museum , but it remains a working palace , with several royal offices still situated inside .
= = History = =
The construction of the Grand Palace began on 6 May 1782 , at the order of King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke ( Rama I ) . Having seized the crown from King Taksin of Thonburi , King Rama I was intent on building a capital city for his new Chakri Dynasty . He decided to move the seat of power from the city of Thonburi , on the west side of the Chao Phraya river , to the east side at Bangkok . The new capital city was turned into an artificial island when canals were dug along the east side . The island was given the name ' Rattanakosin ' . The previous royal residence was the Derm Palace , constructed for King Taksin in 1768 .
The new palace was built on a rectangular piece of land on the very west side of the island , between Wat Pho to the south , Wat Mahathat to the north and with the Chao Phraya river along the west . This location was previously occupied by a Chinese community , whom King Rama I had ordered to relocate to an area south and outside of the city walls ; the area is known today as Yaowarat ( Chinatown ) .
Desperate for materials and short on funds , the palace was initially built entirely out of wood , its various structures surrounded by a simple log palisade . On 10 June 1782 , the king ceremonially crossed the river from Thonburi to take permanent residence in the new palace . Three days later on 13 June , the king held an abbreviated coronation ceremony , thus becoming the first monarch of the new Rattanakosin Kingdom . Over the next few years the king began replacing wooden structures with masonry , rebuilding the walls , forts , gates , throne halls and royal residences . This rebuilding included the royal chapel , which would come to house the Emerald Buddha .
To find more material for these constructions , King Rama I ordered his men to go upstream to the old capital city of Ayutthaya , which was destroyed in 1767 during a war between Burma and Siam . They were tasked with the dismantling and removal of as many bricks as they could find , while not removing any from the temples . They began by taking materials from the forts and walls of the city ; by the end they had completely levelled the old royal palaces . The bricks were ferried down the Chao Phraya by barges , where they were eventually incorporated into the walls of Bangkok and the Grand Palace itself . Most of the initial construction of the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I was carried out by conscripted or corvΓ©e labour . After the final completion of the ceremonial halls of the palace , the king held a full traditional coronation ceremony in 1785 .
The layout of the Grand Palace followed that of the Royal Palace at Ayutthaya in location , organization , and in the divisions of separate courts , walls , gates and forts . Both palaces featured a proximity to the river . The location of a pavilion serving as a landing stage for barge processions also corresponded with that of the old palace . To the north of the Grand Palace there is a large field , the Thung Phra Men ( now called Sanam Luang ) , which is used as an open space for royal ceremonies and as a parade ground . There was also a similar field in Ayutthaya , which was used for the same purpose . The road running north leads to the Front Palace , the residence of the Second King of Siam .
The Grand Palace is divided into four main courts , separated by numerous walls and gates : the Outer Court , the Middle Court , the Inner Court and the Temple of the Emerald Buddha . Each of these court 's functions and access are clearly defined by laws and traditions . The Outer Court is situated on the northwestern part of the Grand Palace ; within are the royal offices and ( formerly ) state ministries . To the northeast is the Temple of the Emerald Buddha , the royal chapel and home of the Emerald Buddha . The Middle Court housed the most important state apartments and ceremonial throne halls of the king . The Inner Court , situated at the most southern end of the complex , was reserved only for females , as it housed the king 's harem .
During the reign of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai ( Rama II ) , the total area of the Grand Palace was expanded southwards up to the walls of Wat Pho . Previously this area was home to offices of various palace officials . This expansion increased the area of the palace from 213 @,@ 674 square metres ( 2 @,@ 299 @,@ 970 sq ft ) to 218 @,@ 400 square metres ( 2 @,@ 351 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . New walls , forts and gates were constructed to accommodate the enlarged compound . Since this expansion , the palace has remained within its walls with new construction and changes being made only on the inside .
In accordance with tradition , the palace was initially referred to only as the Phra Ratcha Wang Luang ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ«ΰΈ₯ΰΈ§ΰΈ ) or ' Royal Palace ' , similar to the old palace in Ayutthaya . However , during the reign of King Mongkut ( Rama IV ) the name Phra Boromma Maha Ratcha Wang or ' Grand Palace ' was first used in official documents . This change of name was made during the elevation of Prince Chutamani ( the king 's younger brother ) to the title of Second King Pinklao in 1851 . The proclamation of his title described the royal palace as the ' supreme ' ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ ; Borom ) and ' great ' ( ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ² ; Maha ) palace . This title was given in order to distinguish the palace from the Second King 's palace ( the Front Palace ) , which was described as the Phra Bovorn Ratcha Wang ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈ ) or the ' glorious ' ( ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ£ ; Bovorn ) palace .
Throughout the period of absolute monarchy , from 1782 to 1932 , the Grand Palace was both the country 's administrative and religious centre . As the main residence of the monarch , the palace was also the seat of government , with thousands of inhabitants including guardsmen , servants , concubines , princesses , ministers and courtiers . The palace 's high whitewashed castellated walls and extensive forts and guard posts mirrored those of the walls of Bangkok itself , and thus the Grand Palace was envisioned as a city within a city . For this reason a special set of Palace Laws were created to govern the inhabitants and to establish hierarchy and order .
By the 1920s a series of new palaces were constructed elsewhere for the king 's use ; these included the more modern Dusit Palace , constructed in 1903 , and Phaya Thai Palace in 1909 . These other Bangkok residences began to replace the Grand Palace as the primary place of residence of the monarch and his court . By 1925 this gradual move out of the palace was complete . The growth and centralization of the Siamese state also meant that the various government ministries have grown in size and were finally moved out of the Grand Palace to their own premises . Despite this the Grand Palace remained the official and ceremonial place of residence as well as the stage set for elaborate ancient ceremonies of the monarchy . The end of the absolute monarchy came in 1932 , when a revolution overthrew the ancient system of government and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy .
Today the Grand Palace is still a centre of ceremony and of the monarchy , and serves as a museum and tourist attraction as well .
= = Outer Court = =
The Outer Court or Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Nork ( ΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ ) of the Grand Palace is situated to the northwest of the palace ( the northeast being occupied by the Temple of the Emerald Buddha ) . Entering through the main Visetchaisri Gate , the Temple of the Emerald Buddha is located to the left , with many public buildings located to the right .
These buildings include the headquarters and information centre of the Grand Palace , the Bureau of the Royal Household and the Office of His Majesty 's Principal Private Secretary . Other important buildings inside the court include the Sala Sahathai Samakhom ( ΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ’ΰΈͺΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ‘ ) , used for important receptions and meetings . The Sala Luk Khun Nai ( ΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΉΰΈ ) is an office building housing various departments of the Royal Household . The main office of the Royal Institute of Thailand was also formerly located here . The Outer Court has a small museum called the Pavilion of Regalia , Royal Decorations and Coins . The Phimanchaisri Gate opens directly unto the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall and is the main portal from the Outer Court into the Middle Court .
Historically this court was referred to as Fai Na ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈ’ΰΈ«ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ² , literally In the front ) , and also served as the seat of the royal government , with various ministerial offices , a theatre , stables for the king 's elephants , barracks for the royal guards , the royal mint and an arsenal . By 1925 , all government agencies and workers had vacated the site and all of the buildings were converted for use by the Royal Household .
= = Temple of the Emerald Buddha = =
The Temple of the Emerald Buddha or Wat Phra Kaew ( ΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ§ ) ( known formally as Wat Phra Si Rattana Satsadaram , ΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ¨ΰΈ£ΰΈ΅ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ ) is a royal chapel situated within the walls of the palace . Incorrectly referred to as a Buddhist temple , it is in fact a chapel ; it has all the features of a temple except for living quarters for monks . Built in 1783 , the temple was constructed in accordance with ancient tradition dating back to Wat Mahathat , a royal chapel within the grounds of the royal palace at Sukhothai , and Wat Phra Sri Sanpetch at Ayutthaya . The famed Emerald Buddha is kept within the grounds of the temple .
The temple is surrounded on four sides by a series of walled cloisters , with seven different gates . Like those ancient royal temples of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya , the Wat Phra Kaew complex is separated from the living quarters of the kings . Within these walls are buildings and structures for diverse purposes and of differing styles , reflecting the changing architecture during the various reigns of the kings . Despite this , most of the buildings within adhere strictly to classical Thai architecture . The establishment of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha dates to the very founding of the Grand Palace and Bangkok itself .
= = Middle Court = =
The largest and most important court is the Middle Court or the Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Klang ( ΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈ ) is situated in the central part of the Grand Palace , where the most important residential and state buildings are located . The court is considered the main part of the Grand Palace and is fronted by the Amornwithi Road , which cuts right across from east to west . The court is further divided into three groups of ' Throne halls ' ( Phra Thinang ; ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang ) and one Siwalai Garden quarter .
= = = Phra Maha Monthien group = = =
The Phra Maha Monthien ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ’ΰΈ£ ) group of buildings are located roughly at the centre of the Middle Court , therefore at the very heart of the Grand Palace itself . The traditional Thai style building group is enclosed by a low wall , as this was once the residential and sleeping abode of kings . Thus it is considered the most important set of throne halls in the entire Grand Palace . All of the buildings within the Maha Monthien face north and are arranged from front to back with the public reception hall being at the front , ceremonial halls in the middle and residential halls at the back , all of them inter @-@ connected to each other .
All Royal coronations since that of King Rama II have taken place within the walls of this building group . Construction began in 1785 at the order of King Rama I , the original buildings only included the Chakraphat Phimarn Throne Hall and the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall . Later King Rama II carried out major constructions including the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall and other extensions . Later in his reign he added the Sanam Chan Pavilion and the Narai Chinese Pavilion . King Nangklao ( Rama III ) renamed the buildings from Chakraphat Phiman ( meaning ' Abode of the Chakravartin ' ) to Maha Monthien ( meaning ' Great Royal Residence ' ) . He carried out major renovations and spent most of his reign residing in these buildings . King Rama IV later added two arch @-@ ways at the north and west side of the walls called the Thevaphibal and Thevetraksa Gate respectively . King Vajiravudh ( Rama VI ) added two portico extensions to eastern and western sides of the Amarin Winitchai Hall . Since then most buildings in its original plan remain , with occasional renovations being made before important anniversaries such as the Bangkok Bicentennial Celebrations in 1982 . Except for the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall , the rest of the complex is closed to the public .
The Thevaphibal Gate is the central entrance to the hall , however the central doorway is reserve exclusively for use by the king , others must enter through the two other doors on either side . The gate is guarded by Chinese @-@ style statues , including mythical warriors and lions . The gate is topped by three Thai @-@ style spires covered in Chinese ceramics .
= = = = Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai = = = =
The Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai Mahaisuraya Phiman ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ£ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ’ΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈ«ΰΈͺΰΈΉΰΈ£ΰΈ’ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ ) or , in brief , the Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ£ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ’ ) is the northernmost and forward building of the Maha Monthien buildings , It is also perhaps the most important . The throne hall was constructed in Thai style as a royal audience chamber , for receiving foreign ambassadors and for conducting important state businesses and ceremonies .
The large throne hall stands on a 50 cm high base , the roof is covered in green and orange tiles . The pediment is decorated with a mural depicting the Hindu god Indra . The main central door is reserved for use by royalty , while others must enter through the adjacent side doors . Within the hall there are two rows of square columns , five on the left and six on the right , adorned with Thai floral designs . The coffered ceiling is decorated with glass mosaic stars .
At the back of the hall is the Bussabok Mala Maha Chakraphat Phiman Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ©ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Butsabok Mala Maha Chakkraphat Phiman ) , flanked by two gilded seven tiered umbrellas . The throne is shaped like a boat with a spired pavilion in the middle . This elevated pavilion represents Mount Meru , the centre of Buddhist and Hindu cosmology . The throne is decorated with coloured enamels and stones as well as deva and garuda figures . The throne was once used for giving royal audiences .
In the front of throne sits another , called the Phuttan Kanchanasinghat Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΉ ) . The throne is topped by the massive Royal Nine @-@ Tiered Umbrella , an important symbol of Thai kingship . The different tiers represents the king 's power and prestige which extends in eight directions : the four cardinal directions and the four sub cardinal directions . The final and ninth tier represents the central direction descending into the earth . These giant umbrellas usually deposited above important royal thrones , and out of the seven of which are currently in Bangkok , six of these umbrellas are situated within the vicinity of the Grand Palace and another is situated above the throne within the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall of the Dusit Palace . The throne is made up of multi @-@ layered squared platforms with a seat in the middle . The throne is used for the first royal audience of each king 's reign and for annual birthday celebrations and other royal receptions . It was from this throne that King Rama II received John Crawfurd ( the first British Envoy to Siam in almost 200 years ) in 1821 . Crawfurd was sent to Bangkok by the Governor @-@ General of India Lord Hastings to negotiate a trade treaty .
= = = = Phra Thinang Phaisan Thaksin = = = =
Directly behind is the Phra Thinang Phaisan Thaksin ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ©ΰΈ΄ΰΈ ) . The rectangular @-@ shaped hall is a ceremonial functions hall , where the most important religious and state ceremonies are held . It is the main venue where royal coronations are performed at the beginning of each king 's reign , the last coronation ceremony held here was on 5 May 1950 for King Rama IX . Formerly the hall was a private reception hall and living space of King Rama I. He often hosted meetings and dinners for his closest ministers and other trusted courtiers here . After his death the hall was converted into a ceremonial space . The long rectangular hall is decorated in rich murals depicting scenes from Buddhist and Hindu mythology .
The hall houses two thrones . The Atthit Utumbhorn Raja Aarn Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ¨ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Attathit U @-@ thumphon Ratcha At ) or the Octagonal Throne is situated to the eastern part of the hall . This unusually shaped wooden throne is in the form of an octagonal prism and is decorated with golden lacquer , topped by a white seven @-@ tiered umbrella . It is used during the first part of the coronation ceremony where the king is anointed with holy water , just prior to the crowning ceremony ; all Chakri kings have gone through this ancient ritual .
Across the hall to the western side is the Phatharabit Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phatthrabit ) . The throne is a chair with a footstool ( more akin to its European counterparts ) with two high tables to its sides . The throne is topped by another Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . This throne is used during the main part of the coronation ceremony , where the King is presented with the various objects , which make up the Royal Regalia and Royal Utensils of Thailand . The king will crown himself , then be ceremonially presented with the objects of the regalia , each reminding him of his duties and responsibilities as king . The regalia are presented to the king by Royal Brahmins . These include : the Great Crown of Victory , the Sword of Victory , the Royal Staff , the Royal Flywisk , the Royal Fan and the Royal Slippers .
Apart from being the setting of these important ceremonies , the hall houses the Phra Siam Thevathiraj ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈͺΰΈ’ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Sayam Thewathirat ) figure . This figure was created during the reign of King Rama IV to symbolise and embody the Kingdom ( of Siam ) , its well @-@ being and safety . It exists as the personification of the nation to be used as a palladium for worship . The golden figure depicts a standing deity , dressed in royal regalia , wearing a crown and holding a sword in its right hand . The figure is about 8 inches tall , and is housed in a Chinese @-@ style cabinet in the middle of the Phaisan Thaksin Hall facing south . There are also other figures of the same scale depicting other Hindu gods and goddesses . The figure was once worshipped almost daily ; today however religious ceremonies are only held to worship the figure during times of great crisis .
= = = = Phra Thinang Chakraphat Phiman = = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakraphat Phiman ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chakkraphat Phiman ) is situated behind the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall and is at the very centre of the Maha Monthien buildings . The hall was built during the reign of King Rama I as the primary apartment and sleeping quarter of the monarch , and is the inner most part of the Grand Palace . The residential hall was formed out of three identical rectangular buildings , all inter @-@ connected to each other . The middle section of the residential hall ( out of the three ) , is a reception room while the other two sections , to the east and west , are divided into the personal apartments of the king . The east section is the primary bedchamber of the monarch ; the hall is divided into two rooms by a golden screen . The northern room contains a canopied bed originally belonging to King Rama I ; above this bed hangs a Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . The southern room contains the dressing and privy chamber , above which hangs another Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . The west section was used as a multi @-@ purpose hall for minor ceremonies and audiences ; however in the reign of King Rama III the hall was converted into a bedroom . After his death it became the storage place for the various weapons and accoutrements of the monarch . The Royal Regalia of Thailand is kept here .
When the Chakraphat Phiman Hall was first built it was entirely roofed with palm leaves ; later these were replaced with ceramic tiles , then with glazed tiles during the reign of King Rama V. There is a tradition that no uncrowned kings are allowed to sleep within this hall . However once they were crowned they were required to sleep there , if only for a few nights , literally on the bed of their forefathers . In 1910 , prior to his coronation , King Rama VI had a well @-@ concealed modern toilet installed near the bedchamber . The king spent many nights here near the end of his life and died here in 1925 . King Prajadhipok ( Rama VII ) and King Rama IX only spent a few nights here after their respective coronations in accordance with tradition .
Between the Chakraphat Phiman and Phaisan Thaksin Halls is a small Front Reception Hall , where the king could receive courtiers while sitting on a small platform . There are two doors on either side of the platform leading into the royal apartments behind . To the rear and south of the Chakraphat Phiman Hall is the Back Reception Hall . This rear hall is flanked by two residential halls . These are reserved for members of the Royal Family and royal consorts from the Inner Court . They are called : Thepsathan Philat Hall ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈ¨ ) ( to the east ) and the Thepassana Philai Hall ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈ₯ ; rtgs : Theppha At Phailai ) ( to the west ) .
= = = = Phra Thinang Dusidaphirom = = = =
Apart from these grand state buildings , there are also several minor structures and pavilions surrounding the Phra Maha Monthien structures . These include four smaller halls at the sides of the Amarin Winitchai Throne hall .
Aside the wall to the northwest is the Phra Thinang Dusidaphirom ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ ΰΈ΄ΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ’ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Dusitaphirom ) . Built on a raised platform , the one @-@ storied hall was used as a robing chamber for the king when arriving and departing the palace either by palanquin or by elephant . Hence the elephant @-@ mounting platform to the west and a palanquin @-@ mounting platform to the north . At first the structure was an open pavilion ; the walls covered with rich murals were added later by King Rama III . The entrance is situated to the east and is lined with steps leading from the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall . The hall is the only structure within the Grand Palace with exterior decorations . The golden lacquer and blue glass mosaic depicts angels carrying a sword .
= = = = Phra Thinang Racharuedee = = = =
To the southeast is the Phra Thinang Racharuedee ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ€ΰΈΰΈ΅ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Ratcha Ruedi ) , a Thai @-@ style pavilion constructed during the reign of King Rama VI as an outdoor audience chamber . The pavilion was constructed for use especially during the birthday celebrations of the king . Originally King Rama IV had a two @-@ storied European @-@ style building constructed . Its purpose was to display gifts from foreign nations ; however when this building became dilapidated King Rama V replaced it with a Chinese @-@ style pavilion which was again dismantled and rebuilt . The present pavilion measures 12 by 7 @.@ 80 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft Γ 25 @.@ 6 ft ) . The pediments are decorated with a gilded figures of Narayana on a garuda against a white mosaic background .
= = = = Phra Thinang Sanam Chan = = = =
The southwest structure is the Phra Thinang Sanam Chan ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ ΰΉ ) . Built during the reign of King Rama II , the pavilion is a traditional Thai pavilion with a raised platform inside . King Rama II used the pavilion for relaxation and for sitting when supervising construction projects . Measuring only 3 @.@ 30 by 4 @.@ 50 metres ( 10 @.@ 8 ft Γ 14 @.@ 8 ft ) , the pavilion was portable and could be moved to different sites . The wooden pediments are decorated with gilded carvings and glass mosaic in a floral design with Chinese and Western influences . The eight columns are inlaid with glass mosaic . The inner platform is decorated with black lacquer and glass mosaic . The top of the platform is made out of a single panel of teak measuring 1 @.@ 50 by 2 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft Γ 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . The pavilion was strengthened and given a marble base by King Rama IX in 1963 .
= = = = Ho Sastrakhom = = = =
To the northeast is the Ho Sastrakhom ( ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ‘ ; rtgs : Ho Sattrakhom ) or the Ho Phra Parit ( ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ£ ) , The hall is the same size as the Dusidaphirom Hall and the two appear to have been constructed concurrently . In accordance with ancient tradition , the hall was built for the use of Mon monks to create Holy water , which was then sprinkled around the palace ground every evening ; this practice was discontinued during the reign of King Rama VII for financial reasons . Currently the ritual is only practiced during Buddhist holy days by Mon monks from Wat Chanasongkhram . The hall is divided into two rooms ; the northern room is a prayer and ritual room for monks , including closets built into the walls for religious texts . The southern room is a storage room for Buddha images and religious artifacts .
During times of war , the potency of weapons was enhanced by the holy water in a special ceremony . The weapons and special amulets were then distributed to soldiers before battle . As a result of this function the windows and doors of the hall are decorated with depictions of ancient weapons .
= = = = Ho Suralai Phiman and Ho Phra That Monthien = = = =
On each side of the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall is a Buddha image hall . On the east side is the Ho Suralai Phiman ( ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ±ΰΈ’ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Ho Phra Suralai Phiman ) , which then connects to the Dusitsasada Gate . The Ho Sulalai Phiman is a small Thai @-@ style building which is attached to the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall through a short corridor . The hall houses important and valuable Buddha images and figures , including one representing each and every reign of the Chakri Dynasty . Some relics of the Buddha are also reportedly kept here .
The Ho Phra That Monthien ( ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ’ΰΈ£ ) is located to the west side of the Phaisan Thaksin Hall and is also connected by a corridor in symmetry to the Suralai Phiman on the other side . The Phra That Montein hall contains several small gilded pagodas containing the ashes of Royal ancestors . Originally named Ho Phra Chao , the name was changed by King Rama II , who installed several valuable and ancient Buddha images in 1812 . King Rama III and King Rama IV also have their own Buddha images installed here and carried out extensive renovations to the interior and exterior .
= = = Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat group = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat buildings are composed of nine major and minor halls , structured in a similar scheme to the Maha Monthien Halls from north to south , however the two building groups contrasts greatly in styles . This group of palaces is situated at the centre , between the Maha Montein and Maha Prasat groups . The whole of the Chakri Maha Prasat group was the work of King Rama V and foreign architects in the 19th century . During the reign of King Rama I the area was once an expansive garden , later named Suan Sai ( ΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈ’ ) or ' Left Garden ' , the twin of Suan Khwa ( ΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ² ) or right garden , now the Siwalai Gardens . The two gardens were named according to their location on the left and the right of the Maha Monthien buildings . During the reign of King Rama III a new residential pavilion called Phra Tamnak Tuek ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ³ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈΆΰΈ ) was constructed for his mother , Princess Mother Sri Sulalai . The new residence was composed of several low @-@ lying buildings and pavilions . King Rama IV expanded the residence and gave it to his consort Queen Debsirindra . Within these buildings King Rama V was born ( in 1853 ) and lived as a child .
When King Rama V ascended the throne in 1868 , he decided to build a new group of grander throne halls to replace the old structures . The first phase of construction began in 1868 , then again in 1876 , and the final phase between 1882 and 1887 . King Rama V resided in the palace until 1910 when he gradually moved to the new Dusit Palace , to the north of the Grand Palace . King Rama VI occasionally stayed in the palace ; however he preferred his other residences in the country . By the reign of King Rama VII the buildings were in dire need of renovations , but due to economic constraints only the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall was renovated . This work was carried out by Prince Itthithepsan Kritakara , an architectural graduate of the Γcole des Beaux @-@ Arts in Paris . Many of his works can still be seen today . During the present reign ( King Rama IX ) , many of the buildings once more became so dilapidated that they needed to be demolished altogether . In their stead new halls were constructed in 2004 to replace them .
Formerly the site hosted eleven different residential halls and pavilions ; in 2012 only three are left ( even though they have been completely reconstructed ) : The Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall , the Moon Satharn Borom Ard Hall and the Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat Hall . Behind these structures lie the grand Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran Hall , which has been recently rebuilt . None of the rooms are opened to the public , as state functions are still carried out within . The changing of the guards occurs at the front courtyard every two hours .
= = = = Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ΅ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chakkri Maha Prasat ) is situated on the northernmost part of the Phra Thinang Chakri group . The throne hall forms the front or the faΓ§ade of the entire building group . In front of the throne hall is the Rathakit Field ; on either side of the throne hall are the Phrom Sopha Gates . The throne hall is constructed in an eclectic style , a blend of Thai and European ( more specifically Renaissance or Italianate ) styles . The lower part of the structure is European , while the upper part is in Thai @-@ styled green and orange tiled roofs and gilded spires or prasats ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) .
After a trip to Singapore and Java , in the East Indies ( present day Indonesia ) in 1875 , King Rama V brought back with him two Englishmen , the architect John Clunich and his helper Henry C. Rose to design and construct the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall . Construction began on the 7 May 1876 . At first the King wanted an entirely European structure with domes . However at the insistence of Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse ( Chuang Bunnag ) , his Chief Minister , the King decided to add the gilded spires and Thai roofs . In 1878 the King personally supervised the raising of the final central spire of the building . The throne hall was completed in 1882 , on the centenary of the House of Chakri and the Grand Palace . Thus the new throne hall was given the name Phra Thinang Chakri , meaning literally ' the seat of the Chakris ' .
The throne was constructed as part of a building group in a rotated ' H ' shape plan , with two parallel buildings running on an east to west axis . In between is an intersecting hall , with an axis running north to south . The northerly end of the structure is the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall ; all other buildings are hidden behind it . The throne hall consists of three stories , with three seven tiered prasats on each of the three major pavilions along the axis . The central pavilion with its portico and roof extensions is taller and larger than the other two on the sides . Owing to a mix of Thai and European styles , the exterior decoration is a mixture of orders and does not follow strict classical lines . The Thai roofs are decorated with the same green and orange titles as the other throne halls , in order for the new building to blend in harmoniously to the existing skyline . The external pediments and gates of the throne hall are decorated with the emblem of the Chakri Dynasty , an intertwined Chakra and Trishula . Above the middle floor windows the western style coat of arms of Siam is used . On the semi @-@ circle pediment at the central hall there is also a portrait of King Rama V.
The incongruous make @-@ up between the Western lower half and Thai roof has been compared with a Farang ( Western ) lady clothed in Victorian costume while wearing a Thai crown . The symbolism of this juxtaposition is the emphasis of the superiority of Thai architecture ( as a crown upon the head ) over those of the West ( the lower half of the body ) . This stylistic innovation was more than an artistic coincidence , as it was supposed to convey a significant political message of Siamese resistance over Western imperialism , both of sovereignty and style . From another perspective , the building itself epitomizes the internal political struggle between the ideas of Westernization and modernity ( led by King Rama V ) against those of the traditional ruling elites ( as led by some of his early ministers ) .
Within the interior , the upper and middle floors are State floors ; they are in turn divided into several reception rooms , throne rooms and galleries complete with royal portraits of every Chakri Monarchs ( including Second King Pinklao ) and their consorts . More specifically , to the east gallery are Buddhist Images and other religious images , while to the west are reception rooms for State guests and other foreign dignitaries . In other parts of the throne hall there are also libraries and rooms where the ashes of Kings ( Rama IV to Rama VIII ) and their Queens are housed . Many of the European @-@ made chandeliers inside the Hall initially belonged to Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse ; however they proved too big for his own residence and he eventually gave them to King Chulalongkron as gifts . The throne hall was also the first structure in Thailand in which electricity was installed , at the insistence of Prince Devavongse Varopakar . The lower floor or ground floor is reserved for servants and the Royal Guards . Currently there is a museum displaying old weapons .
Inside the main hall ( throne room ) , situated at the very centre of the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall , is the Bhudthan Thom Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ ; rtgs : Phuttan Thom ) , a chair on a raised platform . The Throne is flanked by two seven @-@ tiered umbrellas , while the throne itself is topped by a Royal Nine @-@ Tiered Umbrella . Behind the throne is a tapestry depicting a fiery intertwined chakra and trishula or the ' Chakri ' , the emblem of the dynasty . The throne has been used by the king during important state occasions , such as the welcoming or accrediting of foreign diplomats and missions . The room itself has also been used by King Rama IX to welcome foreign dignitaries and heads of state , such as Queen Elizabeth II , President Bill Clinton and Pope John Paul II . Recently the King welcomed over 21 world leaders inside the room during the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC Summit ) held in Bangkok in 2003 . The wall of the throne room is decorated with four paintings , depicting important scenes in the history of Thai foreign relations . On the east wall hang two paintings called ' Queen Victoria receiving King Mongkut 's Ambassador ' and ' King Louis XIV receiving the Ambassador of King Narai of Ayutthaya in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles ' . On the west hangs ' King Mongkut receiving British Envoy Sir John Bowring ' and ' Napoleon III receiving the Siamese Ambassadors at Fontainbleau ' .
= = = = Phra Thinang Moon Satharn Borom Ard = = = =
The Phra Thinang Moon Satharn Borom Ard ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΉΰΈ₯ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Mun Sathan Boromma At ) is situated behind the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall to the east side and was built as a separate wing in 1869 . The hall encompasses the original area where King Rama V was born and had lived as a child . Previously King Rama I had the area set aside as a small mango tree garden . Currently the hall is set out as a small banqueting and reception venue .
= = = = Phra Thinang Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ‘ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ΄ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Sommotti Thewarat Upabat ) is situated on the opposite side of the Moon Santharn Borom Ard Hall to the west of the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall , the wing was also built in 1868 . The hall is divided into several state rooms , for used by the king , there is a reception room and a council room . It was in this hall on the 12th of July 1874 that King Rama V stated to his ministers his intention to abolish slavery in Siam .
= = = = Phra Thinang Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran = = = =
The Phra Thinang Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈ«ΰΈ¬ΰΈ²ΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Boromma Ratcha Sathit Maholan ) , is a massive square shaped structure at the very back of the Chakri Maha Prasat group . Formerly the Damrong Sawad Ananwong Hall and the Niphatpong Thawornwichit Hall . The two halls were also built by King Rama V as a banqueting hall to host foreign guests and dignitaries . By the reign of King Rama IX the building was so run down that the king ordered it to be demolished . Construction of a new hall began in 1996 , but was interrupted by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . Construction was eventually resumed on 1 April 2004 . The new throne hall was built on a raised platform and is composed of several inter @-@ connected buildings forming two internal courtyards . These rooms function as a new banqueting hall and is use for important state functions . On the 13 June 2006 the hall welcomed the royal representatives of 25 monarchies worldwide for the celebration of King Rama IX 's 60th Anniversary on the Throne . This included 12 ruling monarchs , 8 royal consorts and 7 crown princes .
= = = Phra Maha Prasat group = = =
The Phra Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) group is situated on the westernmost part of the Middle Court . The main buildings within this area dates from the reign of King Rama I and contains some of the oldest existing edifice within the Grand Palace . The entire throne hall group is contained within a walled and paved courtyard . Similarly to the other two groups , the Maha Prasat buildings were built , embellished and refurbished over successive reigns . The building formed a single axis from north to south , with the public throne hall to the front and residential halls behind . Surrounding them are lesser functional halls and pavilion for used by the king and his court .
Initially after the construction of the Grand Palace , King Rama I ordered that on this location a copy of the Phra Thinang Sanphet Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) should be built . The ancient throne hall was once located at the old palace in Ayutthaya , which had been destroyed 15 years earlier . This new throne hall was given the name Phra Thinang Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ£ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈ ΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈ©ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Amarinthraphisek Maha Prasat ) . Construction began in 1782 and was finished in 1784 . This was the hall where King Rama I celebrated his full coronation ceremony . However , in 1789 the entire hall was struck by lighting and burnt to the ground . In its place King Rama I ordered the construction of a new hall , however under a different design and name .
As a result of this disaster King Rama I predicted that the Chakri dynasty would last only 150 years from its foundation . This prophecy was recorded in a diary of a princess of the first reign , after reading it many years later , King Rama V remarked that 150 years was too short and that the princess must have inadvertently dropped a nought . This prophecy was again present in the minds of many people , when only three months after the dynasty 's 150th anniversary celebrations the Siamese revolution of 1932 was carried out . The revolution replaced the absolute monarchy of the Chakri monarchs with a constitutional monarchy with Siam 's first constitution .
The ceremonial and residential part was divided between two new halls , the Dusit Maha Prasat and the Phiman Rattaya . Ever since then no coronations were held inside the hall . Upon the king 's death , the hall was used for his official lying @-@ in @-@ state . It has since become a custom that the remains of kings , queens and other high @-@ ranking members of the royal family are to be placed with the hall for an official mourning period .
The entrance to this building group is through one of the three gates at the northern end of the wall . These gates are decorated with Chinese porcelain in floral patterns . Only the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall is open to the public .
= = = = Phra Thinang Dusit Maha Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Dusit Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) dominates the Maha Prasat group . The throne hall was built on a symmetrical cruciform plan , the roof is topped with a tall gilded spire . The hall is considered an ideal archetype of Thai traditional architecture . Every aspect of the exterior decoration of the throne hall is imbuded with symbolism . The hall is build in the shape of a tall mountain to represent Mount Meru , the mythological centre of the universe .
The spire can be divided into three sections . The lower section , which is the base , is formed of seven superimposed layers , each layer representing a level of heaven in accordance with the Traiphum Buddhist cosmology . The middle section is in the shape of a bell ; however the roundness has been flattened to create a four sided shape . This represents the stupa in which the Buddha 's ashes have been interred . The top section is similar to the top of chedis , depicting a tapered lotus bud or the crystal dew drop signifying the escape from the SaαΉsΔra or cycle of rebirths . The spire is supported by garudas on its four sides ; as well as being the symbol of kingship , the garuda represents the mythical creatures of the Himavanta forest surrounding Mount Meru .
The pediments are decorated with the figure of Narayana riding on the back of a garuda , this figure symbolizes kingship and the king 's association with the Hindu deity . According to legend Narayana descended from heaven in human form to help mankind by alleviating them from suffering . Thus the deity represents all the ideal qualities in a king . The throne hall stands on a high base with convex and concave moldings . The bottom layer , according to Thai beliefs resembles a lion 's foot , the lion is a symbol of the Buddha 's family and alludes to the Buddha 's own royal heritage .
The most unusual feature of the throne hall is the small porch , projecting out at the front of the building . Under this porch stands the Busabok Mala Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ©ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ² ) , whose spire echoes that of the larger building itself . The high base of the throne is surrounded by praying deities . During the reign of King Rama I , the throne was used when the king appeared before his vassal states ; later it was used for certain ceremonies . The two doors to the hall is situated at the sides of the throne .
The interior walls of the throne hall are painted with a lotus bud design arranged in a geometric pattern . Within the lotus buds are seated praying deities , a common Thai motif often associated with holy places . The ceiling , which has a coffered octagonal shape section directly below the spire , is decorated with glass mosaic stars . This reinforces the impression of being in a heavenly abode . The interior panel of the door and window shutters depicted standing deities facing each other holding weapons as guards for the king . The thickness of the walls allow further spaces between the shutters and the wall to be decorated , these are decorated with murals depicting trees in Chinese style .
The two arms of the cruciform plan contains different thrones for use in different royal functions ; these included the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ₯ΰΈ₯ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΈΰΈ ) which stands almost at the centre of the hall between the intersecting points of the four arms . The square @-@ shaped throne is entirely inlaid with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , dating from the reign of King Rama I. It was saved from the Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat , when the throne hall burnt down in 1789 . The throne is topped by the Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella .
To the eastern transept is the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Bed ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΈΰΈ ) which was made to match the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne . The bed was once the king 's personal bed and was kept inside the Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya ; however once it was no longer used it was transferred to the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall . The bed is in the form of a high platform with many layers , and small steps leading to the top . When royal ceremonies are carried out within the throne hall , member of the royal family take their seat in the southern transept , while government officials sit to the north , Buddhist monks to the east ; the funeral urn is to the west . During such times the throne and bed were used as altars for Buddha images .
Behind the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne is the Phra Banchon Busabok Mala Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ©ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Phra Banchon Butsabok Mala ) . This half throne protrudes from the southern wall of the throne hall and opens like a window into the hall . The style of the throne is similar to Busabok Mala Throne on the porch outside . The throne was built during the reign of King Rama IV , in order for the palace women to attend important ceremonies through the window but behind a screen , separating them from men arriving from the outside .
= = = = Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya = = = =
The Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈ² ) is located directly behind the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall . The Phiman Rattaya Throne Hall is a residential palace and was built for King Rama I as the main royal apartment . Over time the residential use of the palace declined and was eventually ended . Now the hall is only used as a ceremonial venue . The throne hall was built in the traditional Thai @-@ style of a rectangular shape . The east , west and south sides of the hall are surrounded by a colonnade of columns on the outside . Surrounding the hall are two gardens . During the reign of King Rama VI it was used as a meeting hall for members of the royal family and other familial functions . The hall also provided a venue for the investiture ceremonies where individuals are awarded with State orders and decorations by a member of the royal family . Now the hall is only used , in conjunction with the Dusit Maha Prasat , as the main venue for state funerals .
= = = = Phra Thinang Aphorn Phimok Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Aphorn Phimok Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ ΰΈ£ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Aphon Phimok Prasat ) is an open pavilion , built on a platform on the east wall of the Maha Prasat group . The pavilion was built by King Rama IV as a robing pavilion for the king to change his regalia when entering the Maha Prasat premises . The pavilion was also used as the king 's royal palaquin mounting platform . The pavilion is considered the epitome of the finest qualities of Thai traditional architecture in proportion , style and detail . A smaller replica of the pavilion was exhibited at the Brussels World Fair in 1958 .
The pavilion is built on a cruciform layout with the northern and southern ends being longer . The roof is topped with a spire of five @-@ tiers , making it a prasat rather than a ' maha prasat ' ( which has seven ) . The spire is supported by swans as opposed to the traditional garudas . The eastern pediment depicts the Hindu god Shiva standing on a plinth with one foot raised , holding a sword in his left hand and right hand raised to a blessing . The columns of the pavilion are decorated with gold and silver glass mosaic in a floral pattern ; the capital of these columns take the form of long lotus petals .
= = = = Phra Thinang Rachakaranya Sapha = = = =
The Phra Thinang Rachakaranya Sapha ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Ratcha Karanyasapha ) is located on the southern end of the eastern wall . The closed rectangular building was built as a council chamber for use by the king and his ministers . In 1897 on his first trip to Europe , King Rama V installed Queen Saovabha Bongsri as regent , and she presided over privy council meetings here . This tradition was repeated in 1956 when Queen Sirikit , as regent presided over the privy council while King Rama IX briefly entered the Sangha as a monk . Occasionally the building is still used by the king for private audiences . The peculiar characteristic of this building was the projecting pediments over the roof line . This feature was common during the Ayutthaya period .
= = = = Ho Plueang Khrueang = = = =
The Ho Plueang Khrueang ( ΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΉΰΈΰΈ₯ΰΈ· ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ· ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ ) is a closed pavilion , situated on the western wall of the Maha Prasat group . The pavilion was built by King Rama VI as a robing room . The building is a two @-@ storied Thai style rectangular shaped hall with a walkway leading from the top floor towards the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall .
= = = = Mount Kailasa = = = =
The miniature model of Mount Kailasa ( ΰΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΉΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ³ΰΈ₯ΰΈΰΈ ; rtgs : Khao Krailat Chamlong ) , the mythical abode of Shiva , was built during the reign of King Rama IV . The miniature mountain was used as a setting for an important ceremony called the Royal Tonsure Ceremony . This ancient rite of passage would be performed for the royal prince and princess around the age of thirteen . The ceremony , sometimes lasting seven days of festivities , involves a purifying bath and the cutting of the traditional topknot hair of the royal child . The latter act was done by the king himself , the hair is later thrown into the Chao Phraya river as an offering . For this purpose there is a miniature palace on the summit for the ceremony to take place. the lower part of the mountain is populated with stone sculptures of miniature mythical animals of the Himavanta Forest . The mount is situated behind the walk way between the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall and Ho Plueng Krueng . This area is considered part of the Inner Court and is not opened to the public .
= = = Siwalai Garden = = =
The Siwalai Garden ( ΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ΄ΰΈ§ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ±ΰΈ’ , Suan Siwalai ) is situated to the easternmost part of the Middle court and is considered separate from the other state buildings and throne halls . The garden has been in its present form , since King Rama V , and contains both royal residences and religious buildings . Throughout the years several structures were built and demolished by various kings . The garden was first created at the behest of King Rama I as a private retreat called the Suan Kaew ( ΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ§ ) or ' Crystal Garden ' . The name was changed by Rama II to Suan Khwa or ' Right Garden ' , who also embellished the garden and transformed it into a pleasure garden for the inhabitants of the Inner Court .
The greatest change to the area occurred during the reign of King Rama IV , when the entire garden was turned into a new residential palace . This palace was composed of several interconnected buildings of various styles and sizes for the king 's use . This buildings complex was named the Phra Abhinaowas Niwet ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ ΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ§ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈ§ΰΈ¨ΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phra Aphinao Niwet ) . The building group are on an east to west axis , with reception halls to the east and residential halls in the west . These buildings were built in a combination of Thai and Western styles ; the principal building of the Phra Abhinaowas Niwet group was the Phra Thinang Ananta Samakhom ; this European style grand audience chamber was used by the king to receive various foreign missions . Other buildings included King Rama IV 's primary residential hall , observatory and banqueting hall . By the reign of King Rama V the Phra Abhinaowas Niwet building group became so dilapidated that most were eventually demolished ; the names of some of the halls were later assumed by new royal buildings ( for example the new Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall in the Dusit Palace ) . King Rama V had the area turned once more into a private garden for use by the Inner Court and also gave the garden its present name . The new garden contained some of the old buildings as well as new additions , such as a small lawn in the south western corner called the Suan Tao or ' Turtle Garden ' . The layout of the Siwalai Garden remained mostly unchanged until the present day .
= = = = Phra Thinang Boromphiman = = = =
The Phra Thinang Boromphiman ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Boromma Phiman ) is the largest structure within the Siwalai Garden ; it is located at the northernmost end . The two @-@ storey Neo @-@ Renaissance residence was constructed during the reign of King Rama V from 1897 to 1903 . The new palace was built over the site of an old armoury , after King Rama V had it demolished . The new palace was intended as a gift to the first Crown Prince of Siam , Prince Maha Vajirunhis . It was originally named Phra Thinang Phanumart Chamroon ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ¨ΰΈΰΈ³ΰΈ£ΰΈΉΰΈ ) . However , before the construction was finished the prince died of typhoid at the age of 16 . Once completed the palace was handed to the next heir , Crown Prince Maha Vajiravudh , who ascended the throne in 1910 as Rama VI . He later gave the palace its present name .
Under the supervision of foreign architects , namely the German C. Sandreczki , the Boromphiman Throne Hall became the most modern building within the Grand Palace ; it was also the first to be designed to accommodate carriages and motorcars . The exterior walls are embellished with pilasters and elaborate plaster designs . The triangular and semi @-@ circular pediments are decorated with stuccoed floral motifs . The palace 's distinctive Mansard roof is covered in dark grey slate tiles . On the façade of the building , the main and central pediment show the emblem of the crown prince .
Even though the architectural style and exterior decoration of the building is entirely Western , the interior decorations is entirely Thai . The central hall , situated under a dome , is decorated with murals of the god Indra , Varuna , Agni and Yama β all depicted in Thai style . Below them are Thai inscriptions composed by King Rama VI himself .
After his accession to the throne , King Rama VI occasionally stayed at the palace . King Rama VII stayed at the palace for a few nights before his coronation in 1925 , while King Ananda Mahidol ( Rama VIII ) made the palace his main place of residence upon his return to Thailand from Switzerland in December 1945 . He lived in this palace with his younger brother Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej ( later King Rama IX ) and his mother Princess Sri Sangwan . On the morning of 9 June 1946 the palace bore witness to his mysterious and unexplained death by gunshot . King Rama IX later refurbished the palace and added an extra wing extending south .
Currently the palace is not open to the public , and serves as the official guest house for visiting Heads of State and their entourage . To the southeast of the Boromphiman Throne Hall , there are also two guest houses for use by the entourage of state visitors .
= = = = Phra Thinang Mahisorn Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Mahisorn Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ΄ΰΈ¨ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) is a small pavilion built on the wall between the Siwalai Garden and the Maha Monthien buildings . The pavilion has a mondop style roof and a gilded spire , decorated in glass mosaic . The pavilion was built by King Rama IV as a monument to his father King Rama II . After its completion the ashes of King Rama II was moved and was housed in the pavilion . After the death of King Rama IV the ashes was moved back to the Ho Phra That Monthien Buddha Image Hall , currently the pavilion houses several Buddha images .
= = = = Phra Thinang Siwalai Maha Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Siwalai Maha Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ΄ΰΈ§ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈ±ΰΈ’ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) is located on the southern @-@ eastern end of the Siwalai Garden . The Siwalai Maha Prasat is a Thai @-@ style edifice with a Mondop style spire of seven tiers . Built during the reign of King Rama V in 1878 to house the metal statues of his four predecessors , which were cast in 1869 . The hall was to be used as a royal pantheon , where the lives of previous monarchs were to be commemorated and worshiped . Later King Rama VI had the statues removed and rehoused at the Prasat Phra Thep Bidorn in the Temple of the Emerald Buddha compound , where they would be more assessable to the public . On 6 April 1918 the first ceremony of worship was inaugurated , this ceremony continues to be performed annually . Since the removal of the statues , the Siwalai Maha Prasat has been left vacant .
= = = = Phra Thinang Sitalaphirom = = = =
The Phra Thinang Sitalaphirom ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ΅ΰΈΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈ ΰΈ΄ΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ’ ΰΉ ) is a small open pavilion made of wood , built by King Rama VI . The pavilion is situated on the northern edge of the lawn south of the Boromphiman palace . The pavilion is decorated with a flame motif in gilded black lacquer . The gables bear the insignia of King Rama VI . The king used the pavilion as a place of rest and as a seat during garden parties .
= = = = Phra Buddha Rattanasathan = = = =
The Phra Buddha Rattanasathan ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ ) is a Phra ubosot ( or ordination hall ) , situated at the very centre of the Siwalai Garden . The religious building is a shrine to a Buddha image called the Phra Buddha Butsayarat Chakraphat Pimlom Maneemai ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ©ΰΈ’ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ₯ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ‘ΰΈ±ΰΈ’ ; rtgs : Phra Phuttha Butsayarat Chakkraphat Phimon Manimai ) which was brought from Champasak in Laos . The ubosot was built for this purpose by King Rama IV . The ubosot is built of grey stone and has a two @-@ tier green title roof . At the front there is a portico of pillars . Running around the outside of the ubosot is an open pillared gallery . Religious ceremonies have been performed here in the past .
= = Inner Court = =
The Inner Court or the Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Nai ( ΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΉΰΈ ) , referred to simply as Fai Nai ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈ’ΰΉΰΈ ; rtgs : Fai Nai ; literally ' The Inside ' ) , occupies the southernmost part of the Grand Palace complex . This area is reserved exclusively for use by the king and his harem of queens and consorts ( minor wives ) . These women were often called ' forbidden women ' or Nang harm ( ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ« ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ ; rtgs : nang ham ) by the general populace . Other inhabitants of the court were the king 's children and a multitude of ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting and servants . The king 's royal consorts were drawn from the ranks of the Siamese : royalty and nobility . Usually there were also the daughters of rulers of tributary states . Royal polygamy ended in practice during the reign of King Rama VI , who refused to keep a polygamous household . It was ended officially by King Rama VII in the early 20th century , when he outlawed the practice for all and took only one consort : Queen Rambhai Barni . By this time the inhabitants of the court had dwindled to only a few and finally disappeared within a few decades afterwards . Historically the Inner Court was a town complete within itself , divided by narrow streets and lawns . It had its own shops , government , schools , warehouses , laws and law courts , all exclusively controlled by women for the royal women . Men on special repair work and doctors were admitted only under the watchful eyes of its female guards . The king 's sons were permitted to live inside until they reached puberty ; after their tonsure ceremonies they were sent outside the palace for further education . There are currently no inhabitants within the Inner Court and the buildings within are not used for any purpose ; nevertheless , the entire court is closed to the public .
The population of the Inner Court varied over different periods , but by all accounts it was large . Each queen consort had her own household of around 200 to 300 women . Her various ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting were usually recruited from noble families ; others were minor princesses who would also have a retinue of servants . Each minor wife or consort ( ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ ; Chao Chom ) had a fairly large household ; this would increase significantly if she gave birth to the king 's child , as she would be elevated to the rank of consort mother ( ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ² ; Chao Chom Manda ) . Each royal lady had a separate establishment , the size of which was in proportion to her rank and status in accordance with palace law . Altogether the population of the Inner Court numbered nearly 3 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
The Inner Court was once populated by small low @-@ lying structures surrounded by gardens , lawns and ponds . Over the course of the late 19th century new residential houses were constructed in this space , resulting in overcrowded conditions . Most of the buildings that remain were constructed during the reign of King Rama V in Western styles , mostly Italianate . The residences vary in size and are divided into three categories ; small royal villas or Phra Thamnak ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ³ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ ; rtgs : phra tamnak ) , villas or Thamnak ( ΰΈΰΈ³ΰΈ«ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ ; rtgs : tamnak ) and houses or Ruen ( ΰΉΰΈ£ΰΈ·ΰΈΰΈ ; rtgs : ruean ) . Each was distributed to the inhabitants in accordance with their rank and stature . The court is surrounded and separated from the rest of the Grand Palace by a second set of walls within , parallel to those that ring around the palace as a whole . These walls are punctuated by a set of gates that connects the Middle the Inner Courts to the outside and to each other ; the entrance through these gates were strictly monitored . The three main building groups in the Middle Court are built so that the residential halls of each are situated to the south and straddled the boundary between the Middle and Inner Court . Thus these residential spaces of the king became the focal point of palace life and the lives of the palace women on the inside . Immediately behind these residential halls are the large royal villas of high @-@ ranking consorts such as Queen Sukhumala Marasri and Queen Savang Vadhana . Surrounding them are smaller villas belonging to other consorts such as those belonging to Princess Consort Dara Rasmi . Finally at the lower end ( the southernmost part ) are the row houses or Tao Teng ( ΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ ; rtgs : thaeo teng ) for the middle- and low @-@ ranking consorts . These residences also functioned as a de facto secondary layer of surveillance , at the very edges of the Inner Court .
The Inner Court was governed by a series of laws known as the Palace Laws ( ΰΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ’ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ , Kot Monthien Ban ; literally ' Palace Maintenance Law ' ) . Some of the laws dated back to the times of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya . Most of them deal with the hierarchy and status of the women , while others deal with their behaviour and conduct . The order and discipline of the inhabitants were enforced by a regiment of all @-@ female guards ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈΰΈ₯ΰΈ , Krom Klone ; rtgs : kromma khlon ) . These guards were described by Prince Chula Chakrabongse as " tough looking amazons " . The head of this body was known as the Atibodi Fai Nai ( ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ²ΰΈ’ΰΉΰΈ ; rtgs : Athibodi Fai Nai ) the directress of the inside , under her command were various officials . These officials had specific responsibilities concerning every facet of life within the Inner Court . These responsibilities included duties concerning : discipline and jails , the maintenance of Buddhist images , the guarding of gates , the inner treasury and expenditure . One of their main duties was to accompany men , once they were admitted into the area , and to remain with them until they left . They controlled the traffic of the court and were drilled like regular soldiers . When any person of importance passed along the streets they ran ahead and cleared the way for them . At night they patrolled the streets with lamps or torches . Misbehaviour or indiscretion on behalf of the wives was punishable by death , for the women and the man . The last such punishment was met out in 1859 to a young nobleman and a minor wife , who were having an affair .
Only the children of the king could be born inside the Inner Court . Every detail of the birth of the royal child was recorded , including the time of birth , which was to be used later by court astrologers to cast his or her horoscope . Ceremonies concerning the birth and the rites of passage of the child was performed within the walls of the Inner Court . The birth of a royal child was first announced by a succession of women who proclaimed the news along the Inner Court 's streets . There were two waiting orchestras , one on the inside made of women and one on the outside of men , who would then carry out the official proclamation with conch shell fanfares . If the child was a prince the Gong of Victory was to be struck three times . The children would live with their respective mothers and be educated in special schools within the court .
Although the women of ' The Inside ' could never have the same level of freedom to those on the outside , life inside the Inner Court was not disagreeable , as life was easier than the outside and most necessities were provided for . The women usually entered the palace as girls and remained inside for the rest of their lives . As girls they would be assigned certain duties as pages ; as they grew older and became wives and mothers they would have a household to look after . During the reign of King Rama IV , the women of the palace were for the first time allowed to leave ; however they were required to obtain permission from the directoress first and were strictly chaperoned . Dr. Malcolm A. Smith , physician to Queen Saovabha Bongsri from 1914 to 1919 , wrote that , " there is no evidence to show that they longed for freedom or were unhappy in their surroundings . Even Mrs. Leonowens , fanatical opponent of polygamy that she was , does not tell us that " . Indeed , Anna Leonowens ' book The English Governess at the Siamese Court , published in 1873 , was set inside the Inner Court .
= = Defensive walls = =
The castellated walls of the Grand Palace were constructed during the reign of King Rama I in 1782 . Later during the reign of King Rama II the Grand Palace and its walls were extended towards the south . Cannon emplacements were replaced with guard houses and were given rhyming names . The northern wall measures 410 metres , the east 510 metres , the south 360 metres and the west 630 metres , a total of 1 @,@ 910 metres ( 6 @,@ 270 ft ) . There are 12 gates in the outer walls . Inside the palace , there were over 22 gates and a labyrinth of inner walls ; however some of these has already been demolished . Around the outer walls there are also 17 small forts . On the eastern wall , facing Sanamchai Road , there are two throne halls .
= = = Phra Thinang Chai Chumpol = = =
The Phra Thinang Chai Chumpol ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈΰΈΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ₯ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chai Chumphon ) is located on the north of the eastern wall , opposite the Temple of the Emerald Buddha . The small rectangular pavilion was built on the top of the wall of the palace . The pavilion has a roof of two tiers and is covered with tiles . The exterior is decorated with black lacquer and glass mosaic . The pavilion was built by King Rama IV as a viewing platform , where he could observe royal and religious processions going by along the Sanamchai Road . The pavilion was also used for a time as the main shrine of the Phra Siam Thevathiraj figure , before it was moved to its current shrine in the Phaisan Thaksin Hall .
= = = Phra Thinang Suthaisawan Prasat = = =
Situated on the south eastern wall of the Grand Palace is the Phra Thinang Suthaisawan Prasat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ’ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ²ΰΈ ) ; the hall sits between the Deva Phitak and Sakdi Chaisit Gates on the eastern wall . It was first built by King Rama I in imitation of the " Phra Thinang Chakrawat Phaichayont " ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ§ΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ ΰΉ ΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : ' Phra Thi Nang Chakkrawat Phaichayon ) on the walls of the Royal Palace in Ayutthaya . Originally called the Plubpla Sung or high pavilion , it was made entirely of wood and was an open @-@ air structure . During the reign of King Rama III , a new structure was built out of brick and mortar . This new structure was renamed Phra Thinang Sutthasawan ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ΅ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ± ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ’ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Sutthai Sawan ) . The hall is used by the king to give audiences to the public and view military parades .
The new structure consists of two @-@ stories , the lower in Western style and the top level in Thai design . The central pavilion has a wooden balcony , which is used by the king and royal family for the granting of public audiences . The roof over the central pavilion is topped by a five @-@ tier prasat in Mondop style , decorated in glass mosaic . The hall 's wings stretching from the north to the south , each has nine large windows along the exterior . Later in the reign of King Rama V , the entire structure was refurbished and finally given its present name .
= = = Gates = = =
The Grand Palace has twelve gates ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉ , Pratu , literally a door ) , three along each of the four walls . These massive gates are built of brick and mortar and are topped with a Prang style spire . These gates are all painted in white , with gigantic red doors . Each of these outer gates were given rhyming names , starting from the north west in a clockwise direction around .
North wall
Phiman Deves ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΈ‘ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΉΰΈ§ΰΈ¨ΰΈ£ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Wiman Thewet )
Wiset Chaisri ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈ¨ΰΈ©ΰΉΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈ¨ΰΈ£ΰΈ΅ ; rtgs : Wiset Chai Si )
Manee Noparat ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Mani Noppharat )
East wall
Svasti Sopha ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈͺΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΉΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Sawatdi Sopha )
Deva Phitak ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ© ΰΉ ; rtgs : Thewa Phithak )
Sakdi Chaisit ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈ¨ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ ΰΉ ΰΉΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Sak Chaisit )
South wall
Vichit Banjong ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ ; rtgs : Wichit Banchong )
Anongka Raksa ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ© ΰΉ ; rtgs : Anongkharak )
Phitak Bovorn ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ© ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Phithak Bowon )
West wall
Suthorn Thisa ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ¨ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Sunthon Thisa )
Deva Phirom ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ²ΰΈ ΰΈ΄ΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ’ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Thewaphirom )
Udom Sudarak ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉΰΈΰΈΈΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ© ΰΉ )
= = = Forts = = =
Along the walls of the Grand Palace there are seventeen forts ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ , Pom ) ; originally there were only ten , with later additions made . These small structures are usually small battlements with cannon placements and watchtower . The forts were also given rhyming names .
North wall
Inthorn Rangsan ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : In Rangsan )
Khan Kuenphet ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΉΰΈΰΈ· ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΉΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Khan Khuean Phet )
Padej Dusakorn ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Phadet Datsakon ) ( corner fort )
East wall
Sanchorn Jaiwing ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈͺΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΉΰΈΰΈ§ΰΈ΄ΰΈ ; rtgs : Sanchon Chai Wing )
Sing Kornkan ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Singkhon Khan )
Kayan Yingyut ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ’ΰΈΈΰΈΰΈ ; rtgs : Khayan Ying Yut )
Rithi Rukromrun ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ€ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ£ΰΈΈΰΈΰΉΰΈ£ΰΈ‘ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈ ; rtgs : Ritthi Rut Rom Ran )
Ananda Kiri ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈ£ΰΈ΅ ; rtgs : Ananta Khiri )
Manee Prakarn ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΅ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Mani Prakan ) ( corner fort )
South wall
Pisarn Sima ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈ₯ΰΈͺΰΈ΅ΰΈ‘ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Phisan Sima )
Pupha Suthat ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ ΰΈΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ¨ΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phu Pha Suthat ) ( corner fort )
West wall
Suntha Banpot ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈͺΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈ ; rtgs : Satta Banphot )
Solos Sila ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΉΰΈͺΰΈ¬ΰΈͺΰΈ¨ΰΈ΄ΰΈ₯ΰΈ² ; rtgs : Solot Sila )
Maha Santha Loha ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈ‘ΰΈ«ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΉΰΈ₯ΰΈ«ΰΈ° ; rtgs : Maha Satta Loha )
Thasana Nikorn ( ΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ¨ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ£ ; rtgs : Thatsana Nikon )
= = Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple = =
The Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple ( ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈ§ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΈ¨ΰΈ£ΰΈ΅ΰΈ£ΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ΰΈ²ΰΈ‘ ) , despite its name , is the main artefacts repository of both the Grand Palace and Temple of the Emerald Buddha complex . The museum is located between the Outer and Middle Court and sits opposite the Phra Thinang Maha Prasat Group . A building was constructed on the present location in 1857 during the reign of King Rama IV as the Royal Mint ( ΰΉΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈΰΈ©ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈͺΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ£ , Rong Kasarp Sitthikarn ; rtgs : Rong Kasap Sitthikan ) . King Rama V ordered the mint to be enlarged , but not long after this the building was destroyed by fire and needed to be rebuilt .
The two @-@ storied structure is rectangular in plan . The portico has four Ionic columns with fluted stems and cabbage leaf capitals . The front gables of the building have Renaissance style plaster moulding . The lower part of the exterior walls are made of plastered brick . The upper windows have semi @-@ circular French windows , with pilasters on both sides . In 1902 a new royal mint department was constructed outside the palace 's walls and the old mint building was left vacant . The building was then first converted for use as a royal guards barracks and later as a royal guards officer 's club .
In 1982 , on the bicentennial anniversary year of the founding of Bangkok and the building of the Grand Palace , the building was selected as the site of a new museum . It was established at the instigation of Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn to hold certain architectural elements , which had to be replaced ; various artefacts and Buddha images that were donated to the Grand Palace by the general public .
The ground floor of the museum displays a varied selection of artefacts . These included certain architectural elements , which were removed from various buildings within the Grand Palace during different renovations , as well as were the stone Buddha images and Chinese statues . They included many figures from Thai literature , the Ramakien , such as Supanmacha and Hanuman . The stone figures date from the reign of King Rama III , and were later moved to the museum to prevent damage . In the central hall are the bones of white elephants . These elephants were not actually white but have certain special characteristics such as pinkish colouring and cream eyes . The White elephant was an important symbol of kingship ; the more the monarch possessed the greater was his prestige . This belief and veneration of the animal is common to many other South @-@ east Asian cultures .
The upper floor rooms display more artistic and precious objects . In the main hall are two architectural models of the Grand Palace , the first representing the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I , and another in the reign of King Rama V. Behind these are numerous Buddha images and commemorative coins . In the doorway leading to the main hall is a small mother @-@ of @-@ pearl seating platform known as Phra Thaen Song Sabai ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈΰΈͺΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ’ ) , which was once located in the Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya Throne Hall . The platform was used for informal audiences and dates from the time of King Rama I. At the end of the main hall stands the Phra Thaen Manangsila Throne ( ΰΈΰΈ£ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈ ΰΉ ΰΈΰΈ‘ΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈΰΈΰΈ¨ΰΈ΄ΰΈ₯ΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈͺΰΈ ΰΉ ; rtgs : Phra Thaen Manangkha Sila At ) , which is believed to date to the Sukhothai Kingdom and was brought back to Bangkok , from Sukhothai , by King Rama IV , when he was still a monk . Against the walls on either side of the hall are four different Buddha images of Javanese style ; they were purchased by King Rama V. The room to the right of the Manangsila Throne displays the various seasonal robes of the Emerald Buddha . To the left of the main hall is an lacquer ware screen depicting the crowning of Shiva , king of the gods . The screen was formerly kept in the Phra Thinang Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat ; it was saved from the fire apparently by the hands of King Rama I himself . The rest of the upper floor displays various objets d β² art ( such as a model of Mount Kailasa ) and more Buddha images .
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= Upminster Bridge tube station =
Upminster Bridge is a London Underground station on Upminster Road in the Upminster Bridge neighbourhood of the London Borough of Havering in northeast London , England . The station is on the District line and is the penultimate station on the eastern extremity of that line . The station was opened on 17 December 1934 by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway on the local electrified tracks between Upminster and Barking that were constructed in 1932 . The main station building is of a distinctive polygonal design . It has relatively low usage for a suburban station with approximately 1 million entries and exits during 2011 .
= = History = =
The London , Tilbury and Southend Railway from Fenchurch Street and Barking was constructed through the Upminster Bridge area in 1885 , with stations at Hornchurch and Upminster . The Whitechapel and Bow Railway opened in 1902 and allowed through services of the District Railway to operate to Upminster . The Metropolitan District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham . Delayed by World War I , electrified tracks were extended by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway to Upminster and through services resumed in 1932 . The District Railway was incorporated into London Transport in 1933 , and became known as the District line .
The new tracks built by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway allowed additional intermediate stations to be constructed on the local lines between 1932 and 1935 . Increased local demand was caused by the expansion of the built up area of suburban London during the interwar period . The station at Upminster Bridge opened with platforms on the local electric lines on 17 December 1934 . The station was operated by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway but was only served by District line trains . After nationalisation of the railways in 1948 management of the station passed to British Railways and in 1969 ownership transferred to the London Underground .
= = Design = =
The station consists of a central island platform between the tracks that are elevated on a railway embankment . There are four tracks through the site although there are no platforms for the c2c lines . The full length of the platform is covered by a single station canopy with a central waiting room . The Art Deco red brick ticket office is located below platform level to which it is connected by a subway and stairway . Although similar to the other single @-@ storey station buildings on this part of the route , it is notable for its high atrium roof and polygonal shape . The floor is tiled with a reversed swastika pattern , a popular decorative design at the time the station was constructed . The station is listed as a building of local heritage interest by Havering London Borough Council .
As part of the public β private partnership arrangement for maintenance of the London Underground , the station was refurbished by Metronet during 2005 and 2006 . Works included provision of tactile strips and colour contrasted handrails for the visually impaired , installation of closed @-@ circuit television cameras , passenger help points , new electronic departure information displays on the platforms , a new public address system , and improved lighting . The station does not have step free access from the platforms to the street .
= = Location = =
The station is named after a nearby crossing of the River Ingrebourne . The river was the boundary between the ancient parishes of Hornchurch and Upminster and the station is located on the western Hornchurch side . The station is situated on Upminster Road in the London Borough of Havering and is flanked by a parade of shops . It is situated in a primarily residential area and is near to Havering Sixth Form College and Hornchurch Stadium . London bus routes 248 , 370 and Ensignbus route 26 serve the site of the station , providing connections to Hornchurch , Lakeside , Romford and Upminster . The London Loop key walking route passes outside the station , and it forms the end point of section 22 from Harold Wood and the starting point of section 23 to Rainham . The station is located on the eastern extremity of the District line and is the penultimate station before the terminus at Upminster . Upminster station is 1 @.@ 24 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 mi ) to the east of the station and Hornchurch is 1 @.@ 26 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 78 mi ) to the west .
= = Services = =
The station is in London fare zone 6 . The typical off @-@ peak service from the station is twelve District line trains per hour to Upminster and twelve to Earl 's Court , of which six continue to Ealing Broadway and six continue to Richmond . At peak periods the number of trains per hour increases to fifteen and some trains continue from Earl 's Court to Wimbledon . Services towards central London operate from approximately 05 : 00 to 23 : 30 and services to Upminster operate from approximately 06 : 00 to 01 : 30 . The journey time to Upminster is two minutes ; to Barking is approximately 20 minutes , and to Tower Hill is approximately 42 minutes . Since 2006 , the station has been one of the first on the network to operate without a staffed ticket office . Total number of passenger entries and exits at the station during the year is as follows :
During 2011 there were 990 @,@ 000 passenger entries and exits at the station , continuing a trend of growth over the preceding eight years , but lower than neighbouring stations on the route .
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= Three @-@ dollar piece =
The three @-@ dollar piece was a gold coin produced by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1854 to 1889 . Authorized by the Act of February 21 , 1853 , the coin was designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The obverse bears a representation of Lady Liberty wearing a headdress of a Native American princess and the reverse a wreath of corn , wheat , cotton , and tobacco .
In 1851 , Congress had authorized a silver three @-@ cent piece so that postage stamps of that value could be purchased without using the widely disliked copper cents . Two years later , a bill was passed which authorized a three @-@ dollar coin . By some accounts , the coin was created so larger quantities of stamps could be purchased . Longacre , in designing the piece , sought to make it as different as possible from the quarter eagle or $ 2 @.@ 50 piece , striking it on a thinner planchet and using a distinctive design .
Although over 100 @,@ 000 were struck in the first year , the coin saw little use . It circulated somewhat on the West Coast , where gold and silver were used to the exclusion of paper money , but what little place it had in commerce in the East was lost in the economic disruption of the Civil War , and was never regained . The piece was last struck in 1889 , and Congress ended the series the following year . Although many dates were struck in small numbers , the rarest was produced at the San Francisco Mint in 1870 ( 1870 @-@ S ) ; only one is known with certainty to exist .
= = Inception = =
In 1832 , New York Congressman Campbell P. White sought a means of returning American gold coins to circulation β as gold was overvalued with respect to silver by the government , gold coins had been routinely exported since the start of the 19th century . White 's solution was to have the silver dollar and gold eagle struck at full value , but to have smaller gold and silver coins , including a $ 3 piece , which contained less than their face value in metal . Although Congress , in passing the Coinage Act of 1834 , made adjustments to the ratio between gold and silver , it did not authorize a $ 3 coin at that time .
The Act of March 3 , 1845 authorized the first United States postage stamps and set the rate for local prepaid letters at five cents . In the years following , this rate was seen as too high and an impediment to commerce . Accordingly , Congress on March 3 , 1851 authorized both a three @-@ cent stamp and a three @-@ cent silver coin . Kentucky Representative Richard Henry Stanton believed that the need to make change from a silver half dime with large copper cents might defeat the new scheme , writing to Mint Director Robert M. Patterson that " reduced postage [ rates ] depended on a three @-@ cent coin for use in those states where copper does not circulate . " According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " the main purpose of the new 3 Β’ piece would be to buy postage stamps without using the unpopular , heavy , and often filthy copper cents .
By 1853 , silver was overvalued with respect to gold . This was due to large discoveries of gold , especially in California , and silver was heavily exported . To correct this situation , Secretary of the Treasury Thomas Corwin advocated reducing the precious @-@ metal content of most silver coins to prevent their export . The opposition to the bill was led by Tennessee Representative Andrew Johnson , who believed that Congress had no authority to alter the gold / silver price ratio and , if it did , it should not exercise it . Nevertheless , Congress passed the bill , which became law on February 21 , 1853 . That bill also authorized a three @-@ dollar gold coin ; according to numismatic writer Don Taxay , provision for it had been inserted at the behest of gold interests .
According to Breen , Congress believed the new coin " would be convenient for exchange for rolls or small bags of silver 3 Β’ pieces , and for buying sheets of 3 Β’ stamps β always bypassing use of copper cents " . In 1889 , then @-@ Mint Director James P. Kimball wrote that " it is supposed that the three @-@ dollar piece was designed to be a multiple of the three @-@ cent piece , for the convenience of postal transactions " . Numismatist Walter Hagans in his 2003 article on the three @-@ dollar coin notes and dismisses the postal explanation , writing " the actual reason for the gold $ 3 coin was the abundant supply of gold discovered in California . " Coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers notes that " whether or not the $ 3 denomination was actually necessary or worthwhile has been a matter of debate among numismatists for well over a century . "
= = Preparation and design = =
Much of what is known of the design process for the three @-@ dollar piece is from an August 21 , 1858 , letter from the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , the coin 's designer , to the then @-@ Mint director , James Ross Snowden . This letter is apparently in response to some criticism , and in it , Longacre discussed his views on coin design , especially regarding the three @-@ dollar piece . He noted that he was initially perplexed as to what to put on the coin ; the three @-@ dollar piece was the first time he had been allowed to choose a design . Although he had designed the three @-@ cent piece and other issues before Snowden 's directorship , he had been told what to put on those pieces . The coin weighed 64 @.@ 5 grams , and had a fineness of 900 .
Longacre noted that although those in charge of coinage design had usually dictated adaptations of Roman or Greek art , for the three @-@ dollar coin , he was minded to create something truly American :
Why should we in seeking a type for the illustration or symbol of a nation that need not hold itself lower than the Roman virtue or the Science of Greece prefer the barbaric period of a remote and distant people , from which to draw an emblem of nationality : to the aboriginal period of our own land : especially when the latter presents us with a characteristic distinction not less interesting , and more peculiar than that which still casts its chain over the civilized portion of the older continent ? Why not be American from the spring @-@ head within our own domain ? ... From the copper shores of Lake Superior to the silver mountains of Potosi , from the Ojibwa to the Araucanian , the feathered tiara is a characteristic of the primitiveness of our hemisphere as the turban is of the Asiatic .
Representations of America as a female Native American , or Indian princess , dated back to the 16th century ; cartographers would place a native woman , often wearing a feathered headdress , upon their version of the North American continent . This evolved into an image of an Indian queen , then an Indian princess , and although Columbia eventually came to be the favored female embodiment of the United States , the image of the Indian princess survives in the popular view of such figures as Pocahontas and Sacagawea .
Some sources suggest that Longacre may have based the features of Liberty on those of his daughter , Sarah . This story would be more often associated with Longacre 's Indian Head cent , but the features of Liberty on both coins ( and also the Type I gold dollar , the double eagle , and the three @-@ cent nickel piece ) are nearly identical . To help distinguish the new coin from the quarter eagle or $ 2 @.@ 50 piece , Longacre used a thinner planchet , or blank , to make the piece greater in diameter . He also flattened the planchet of the gold dollar to enlarge it , and gave it the same Indian princess design . The reverse originates Longacre 's " agricultural wreath " of corn , tobacco , cotton , and wheat which would also appear on the gold dollar , Flying Eagle cent , and his revised reverse for the Seated Liberty dime and half dime . This blended the produce of the South and North at a time of intersectional tension . Numismatist Walter Hagans deems the wreathed reverse " as uniquely American as is the Indian maiden on the obverse . "
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that " the one area in which Longacre gave free rein to his imagination was in the matter of fancy headdress for his renderings of Liberty . His caps of feathers , his bonnets of freedom , and his starry diadems are a joy to behold . " Nevertheless , Vermeule disliked the figure on the obverse , " the princess of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontier , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "
At the time of the authorization of the three @-@ dollar piece , the Whig administration of Millard Fillmore was still in office , but two weeks later , Fillmore was succeeded by Democrat Franklin Pierce , and Mint Director George N. Eckert yielded his place to Thomas M. Pettit . Longacre submitted two designs to Pettit , and before the latter died on May 31 , 1853 , he selected one of the two ; relief models quickly followed the approval . Longacre 's models , both for the obverse and reverse , did not have lettering on them , as the legends and numbers were to be punched once a reduction was made . This allowed them to be used multiple times for different denominations . As Longacre was busy with the reduced @-@ weight silver coins ordered by Congress in the same act that had authorized the three @-@ dollar piece , work on dies did not begin until 1854 .
= = Production = =
The first three @-@ dollar pieces were 15 proof coins , delivered to the Secretary of the Treasury , James Guthrie , by Mint Director Snowden on April 28 , 1854 , most likely for distribution to legislators . The Philadelphia Mint then began the largest production of three @-@ dollar pieces the denomination would ever see . Chief Coiner Franklin Peale delivered 23 @,@ 140 pieces on May 8 and 29 @,@ 181 pieces four days later . However , after June 8 , there was only one further delivery by Peale , on November 10 , when the last 22 @,@ 740 of the mintage of 138 @,@ 618 were delivered . In addition to the strikings at Philadelphia , there was branch mint production , with 24 @,@ 000 pieces struck at the New Orleans Mint ( 1854 @-@ O ) and 1 @,@ 120 at Dahlonega ( 1854 @-@ D ) . A pair of dies was sent from Philadelphia to the Charlotte Mint on June 1 , but they were not used . A pair was sent to Dahlonega the same day , arriving on June 10 , with gauges and other necessary equipment following on July 15 . The coinage of the 1854 @-@ D took place in August ; the piece is today a rarity as few were put aside and it was not until decades later that mintmarked coins were saved as distinct varieties . Dies were sent to New Orleans in 1855 , 1856 , 1859 , and 1861 , only to remain unused ; no further strikings took place at any of the three southern branch mints .
Beginning in 1855 , the letters of the word " Dollars " were enlarged , following complaints from the public . The same year , coinage began at the San Francisco Mint , where 6 @,@ 600 were struck as opposed to 50 @,@ 555 at Philadelphia . Mintages at Philadelphia declined for the remainder of the decade , to 7 @,@ 036 by 1860 ; pieces were also struck at San Francisco in 1856 , 1857 , and 1860 . In 1859 , early numismatic writer Montroville W. Dickeson wrote of the three @-@ dollar piece , " it is very unpopular , being frequently mistaken for a quarter eagle , and often counted as a five @-@ dollar piece . It is exceedingly annoying to that portion of the human family whose vision is dependent on artificial aid , and we think its retirement would meet with public approbation . " Perhaps a dozen contemporary numismatists collected three @-@ dollar pieces ; those who were serious ordered proof coins from the Mint . Coins in this condition became easier to obtain from Philadelphia as officials responded to the rise in interest in coin collecting which followed the introduction of the Flying Eagle cent in 1857 .
The coins saw some circulation in the East and Midwest , at least until 1861 , when the economic turmoil caused by the American Civil War caused gold and silver to vanish from commerce there . With gold being hoarded , in December 1861 , banks , and subsequently the Treasury , ceased to pay out gold at face value . The three @-@ dollar piece would never return to circulation in the eastern part of the country . On the West Coast , where gold and silver remained in use , the coin continued in commerce , and might be occasionally encountered . The San Francisco Mint issues were most commonly seen there . Despite the failure to circulate , three @-@ dollar pieces continued to be struck at Philadelphia as it was the policy of Mint Director James Pollock that each denomination should be struck every year , whether it circulated or not . Some Philadelphia Mint pieces migrated west in payment for transactions , as only gold and silver was acceptable money on the West Coast . Until the resumption of specie payments at the end of 1878 , gold pieces were only available from the Philadelphia Mint by paying a premium in banknotes . Pieces not sold were stored there .
In 1870 , a set of dies for the three @-@ dollar piece was sent from the Bureau of the Mint 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to San Francisco . On May 14 , 1870 , Oscar Hugh La Grange , superintendent of the San Francisco Mint , sent a telegram to Mint Director Pollock , informing him that dies for the one- and three @-@ dollar pieces had been received , but lacked the customary " S " mint mark , and asking for guidance . The dies were , per Pollock 's instructions , returned to Philadelphia , but LaGrange informed Pollock that to secure a three @-@ dollar piece to place in the cornerstone of the new San Francisco Mint building , Coiner J.B. Harmistead had engraved an " S " on the reverse die . It is not certain what became of the piece to be placed in the cornerstone , but Harmistead also struck a piece for himself , which was mounted as jewelry at one time , and the existence of which was not known until 1907 . The only unique regular @-@ issue U.S. gold piece by date and mint mark , it last came on the market in 1982 , when it sold for $ 687 @,@ 500 . Today it forms part of the Harry W. Bass , Jr . Collection in the Money Museum of the American Numismatic Association in Colorado Springs . No other three @-@ dollar pieces were struck at San Francisco in 1870 ; dies were sent there most years between 1861 and 1873 , but , with the exception of 1870 , were not used .
On January 18 , 1873 , Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner Archibald Loudon Snowden complained that the " 3 " in the date , as struck by the Mint , too closely resembled an " 8 " , especially on the smaller @-@ sized denominations . In response , Pollock ordered Chief Engraver William Barber to re @-@ engrave the date , opening the arms of the " 3 " wider on most denominations , including the three @-@ dollar piece . Both the Closed 3 and Open 3 varieties are extremely rare , though the official mintage of 25 pieces for 1873 is understated , since more specimens than that are known to exist . In 1875 and 1876 , no pieces were struck for circulation , with only pieces in proof condition being made available to collectors . The official mintage is 20 for 1875 and 45 for 1876 , though an unknown number of pieces may have been later illicitly restruck for each date . Numismatic writer R.W. Julian believes that there were no later restrikes , but as proof pieces were not counted until sold , employees substituted common @-@ date pieces when unsold coins were to be melted . These pieces had been made available to the public only as part of a proof set of all gold denominations , at a price of $ 43 ( a premium of $ 1 @.@ 50 over face value ) . Julian suggests that the relatively large mintages of almost 42 @,@ 000 in 1874 and some 82 @,@ 000 in 1878 were struck in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , but when this finally occurred at the end of 1878 , " there was a loud yawn from the public and the Mint kept most of the pieces on hand , paying them out slowly as stocking stuffers .
= = Final years and termination = =
In the 1880s , despite the return of gold to commerce nationwide with the resumption of specie payments at the end of 1878 , few three @-@ dollar pieces were coined . There was a small speculative boom by the public in putting aside three @-@ dollar pieces ; nevertheless , thousands remained at the Philadelphia Mint . Few were sent to banks ; the coins sold for a small premium when banks had some or when they were purchased from exchange brokers . The coins ' main use was as gifts , or in jewelry . The pieces were struck only at Philadelphia after the 1870 @-@ S rarity , and early numismatist S.H. Chapman noted of the 1879 through 1889 issues , " of the later years of the $ 3 , large numbers were remelted at the Philadelphia Mint . " The Mint apparently favored certain Philadelphia dealers in the distribution of the gold dollar , but the three @-@ dollar piece could be obtained without a premium at the cashier 's window of the Philadelphia Mint . Large numbers of the 1879 three @-@ dollar piece ( mintage 3 @,@ 000 for circulation ) , 1880 ( 1 @,@ 000 ) , and 1881 ( 500 ) were hoarded by early coin collector and dealer Thomas L. Elder , who asked bank tellers to look out for them . Elder could not have obtained them directly from the Mint at the time of issue as he was still a child in 1880 , and did not begin collecting coins until 1887 .
With the rise of collecting interest in the three @-@ dollar piece in the 1880s , unscrupulous employees at the Philadelphia Mint enriched themselves by illicit striking of earlier @-@ date pieces , including the 1873 , 1875 , and 1876 . Bowers , in his sylloge of the Bass Collection , particularly blames these irregularities on Oliver Bosbyshell , chief coiner at Philadelphia from 1876 to 1885 . During that period , quantities of pattern coins , restrikes , and pieces struck in different metals flowed to well @-@ connected collectors and dealers , and Bosbyshell sold a large personal collection of such pieces shortly after leaving office as chief coiner . Although Bosbyshell returned as Philadelphia Mint superintendent from 1889 to 1894 , he does not appear to have resumed his illicit activities .
The relatively large mintage of about 6 @,@ 000 in 1887 was due to a fad sweeping the country whereby men would present their lady friends with a coin with one side ground off and replaced by the woman 's initials . Many wealthy suitors preferred to use a gold coin for this presentation . A larger @-@ than @-@ usual number of proof pieces were struck in 1888 and held by the Mint in anticipation of future trades with collectors for items which the Mint desired for its coin collection . The 1888 piece is the most common proof coin in the series , with an official mintage of 200 pieces .
In 1889 , Mint Director James P. Kimball sent a letter to the House of Representatives Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures urging the abolition of the three @-@ dollar piece . Kimball wrote , " this is a denomination which serves no useful purpose , its present coinage being in fact limited to its production for cabinet [ coin collecting ] purposes . The value of over $ 153 @,@ 000 in three @-@ dollar pieces still on hand at the Mint at Philadelphia can not be disposed of , owing to the unpopularity of this coin as a circulating medium . " The gold dollar and three @-@ dollar piece were not coined after 1889 , and were abolished by Congress on September 26 , 1890 .
In the 1890s , 49 @,@ 087 three @-@ dollar pieces were melted as obsolete at the Philadelphia Mint . Although no list was kept by years , Bowers suggests that many of the pieces were dated 1874 or 1878 ( both years with relatively high mintages ) , or were from the final years of the series . In the 1890s , they typically commanded a premium of 25 or 50 cents at exchange brokers . In the 1920s , three @-@ dollar pieces sold at a premium when other denominations of gold coinage remained at face value . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1854 as the cheapest three @-@ dollar piece in the lowest listed condition ( Very Fine or MS @-@ 20 ) at $ 825 . An 1855 @-@ S in proof is the record holder in sales price for the denomination , selling at auction in 2011 for $ 1 @,@ 322 @,@ 500 .
In 1934 , Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross wrote in her annual report that a total of 539 @,@ 792 three @-@ dollar pieces had been coined , of which 452 @,@ 572 were struck at Philadelphia , 62 @,@ 350 at San Francisco ( not including the 1870 @-@ S ) , 24 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , and 1 @,@ 120 at Dahlonega . According to Breen , three @-@ dollar pieces " represent relics of an interesting but abortive experiment ; today they are among the most highly coveted of American gold coins " . New York coin dealer Norman Stack stated in the 1950s , " All are rare . There is no such thing as a common three @-@ dollar gold piece . "
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= Johnson Creek ( Willamette River ) =
Johnson Creek is a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) tributary of the Willamette River in the Portland metropolitan area of the U.S. state of Oregon . Part of the drainage basin of the Columbia River , its watershed consists of 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) of mostly urban land occupied by about 180 @,@ 000 people as of 2012 . Passing through the cities of Gresham , Portland , and Milwaukie , the creek flows generally west from the foothills of the Cascade Range through sediments deposited by glacial floods on a substrate of basalt . Though polluted , it is free @-@ flowing along its main stem and provides habitat for salmon and other migrating fish .
Prior to European settlement , the watershed was heavily forested and was used by Native Americans of the Chinook band for fishing and hunting . In the 19th century , white settlers cleared much of the land for farming , and the stream is named for one of these newcomers , William Johnson , who in 1846 built a water @-@ powered sawmill along the creek . By the early 20th century , a rail line parallel to the stream encouraged further residential and commercial development . As urban density increased in the floodplain , seasonal floods grew more damaging . In the 1930s the Works Progress Administration of the federal government lined the lower 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Johnson Creek with rock to control the floods . Despite this , the creek flooded 37 times between 1941 and 2006 . Since the 1990s , regional planners have tried to reduce flooding by controlling stormwater runoff , creating stream meanders , reducing erosion , replacing impervious surfaces , and protecting riparian buffers .
The Johnson Creek watershed includes the subwatersheds of Badger Creek , Sunshine Creek , Kelley Creek , Mitchell Creek , Veterans Creek , Crystal Springs Creek , and smaller streams . Parks along the creek and its tributaries include natural areas , a wildlife refuge , a rhododendron garden , a botanical garden , and a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) bicycle and pedestrian rail trail that follows the creek for much of its length .
= = Course = =
Johnson Creek begins near the unincorporated community of Cottrell , in Clackamas County , Oregon , southeast of Gresham in the foothills of the Cascade Range , and flows generally westward about 25 miles ( 40 km ) to its confluence with the Willamette River , a major tributary of the Columbia River . The creek passes through the cities of Gresham , Portland , and Milwaukie and crosses the border between Clackamas County and Multnomah County eight times .
For much of its course , the creek flows at almost right angles to the numbered avenues of southeast Portland and its eastern suburbs . As the creek descends , so do the avenue numbers . The creek begins in uplands in Clackamas County east of Southeast 362nd Avenue and flows swiftly to the west for about 5 miles ( 8 km ) , crisscrossing the border between Clackamas County and Multnomah County 5 times in this upstream stretch , and passing under U.S. Route 26 , the Mount Hood Highway , in Multnomah County at about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the mouth . Shortly thereafter , it receives Badger Creek and Sunshine Creek from the left and the North Fork of Johnson Creek from the right .
Turning sharply , Johnson Creek flows swiftly northwest for about 3 miles ( 5 km ) , entering Gresham and shortly thereafter passing the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) gauge at Regner Road , 16 @.@ 2 miles ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth . Soon the creek enters Main City Park in Gresham , where it again turns sharply and flows slightly south of west . Here the slope flattens , and the stream runs more slowly for the next third of its course . Slightly west of Main City Park , it passes the Gresham Pioneer Cemetery . Just beyond the cemetery , it receives Butler Creek on the left , enters Portland at about 13 miles ( 21 km ) from the mouth , and receives Kelley Creek on the left shortly thereafter . Mitchell Creek , a major tributary of Kelley Creek , enters Kelley Creek about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of Johnson Creek . Shortly thereafter , Johnson Creek passes the USGS gauge station at Sycamore , 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth , and flows under Cedar Crossing Bridge .
Meandering slowly through the Lents neighborhood of Portland , Johnson Creek receives Veterans Creek , which enters on the left from its headwaters in Happy Valley in Clackamas County . Johnson Creek passes under Interstate 205 , and shortly thereafter begins to flow more swiftly again at Southeast 82nd Avenue , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the mouth . It then makes its sixth and seventh county @-@ border crossings , dipping briefly into Clackamas County and back north into Multnomah County , and then runs near the border between Portland and Milwaukie along Johnson Creek Boulevard for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . After passing under Oregon Route 99E ( Southeast McLoughlin Boulevard ) in Portland 's Sellwood neighborhood , the creek turns sharply south about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth .
At Southeast 21st Avenue , it receives Crystal Springs Creek , which enters on the right . This tributary , 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long , begins on the Reed College campus , flows under the Blue Bridge in Reed Canyon , through the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden , and generally south to Johnson Creek . From its confluence with Crystal Springs Creek , Johnson Creek flows south about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing the county border for the eighth and final time . After re @-@ entering Clackamas County , it passes the USGS gauge station at Milwaukie , 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth . Shortly thereafter , Johnson Creek empties into the Willamette River 18 @.@ 5 miles ( 29 @.@ 8 km ) above its confluence with the Columbia River , which in turn flows about another 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the Pacific Ocean at Astoria .
= = Watershed = =
= = = Geology and topography = = =
The floodplain of Johnson Creek is a remnant of large glacial floods known as the Missoula Floods that deposited thick sediments between 18 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 years ago in the Columbia River Basin , including much of the Willamette Valley . Underlying the sediments are substantial thicknesses of basalt lavas from the Columbia River Basalt Group . The lava , exposed mainly in the uplands , has been folded and faulted to form a series of sub @-@ basins , including the Johnson Creek watershed .
The watershed is a roughly rectangular area of about 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) . The topography of the watershed varies greatly from the high point of about 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 335 m ) above sea level in the Boring Hills near the creek 's source to the low point of 26 feet ( 8 m ) where the creek meets the Willamette River .
Slopes in the watershed range generally between 1 and 25 percent . Mount Scott and Powell Butte rise to about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) and have slopes ranging from 10 to 30 percent . Gresham Butte and Hogan Butte , in Gresham , have the steepest slopes , including a few around 50 percent . The Boring Hills , of volcanic origin , rise more than 800 feet ( 244 m ) higher than the terraces to the north and west . The Kelso Slope , a northwest @-@ sloping dissected surface west of the canyon of the Sandy River , tilts down from about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) above sea level near Sandy to about 400 feet ( 122 m ) above sea level east of Gresham .
Formed by the ancestral Columbia and Willamette Rivers , the terraces north of Johnson Creek are generally underlain by permeable sand and gravel . Three isolated hills β Rocky Butte , Mount Tabor , and Kelly Butte β rise about 200 to 400 feet ( 61 to 122 m ) above the surrounding terraces . Except for Powell Butte , the terrain on the creek 's north side is less steep than on the south side , which includes Mount Scott and the Boring Lava Domes .
The eastern half of the watershed is more open and rural than the urban western half , which consists largely of residential areas with pockets of commerce and industry . An estimated 180 @,@ 000 people lived in the watershed as of 2012 .
= = = Soils = = =
The potential for soil erosion varies throughout the watershed . Erosion is not a big threat in the northwestern part of the watershed , where the land is flat and developed , or in the northeast , dominated by low @-@ erosion soils . In the southeast , soils have a medium risk of erosion , and soils around Powell Butte and the Boring Lava Domes have " an extremely high erodibility factor and are sensitive to ground disturbance " .
The watershed 's soils vary in their permeability and ability to retain water . Clays that do not absorb much water dominate the eastern end of the watershed and the lands south of the creek . Northern areas of the watershed tend to be porous and less prone to rapid runoff .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The watershed can be divided into two hydrologic areas with different infiltration rates . The northern area , comprising about 40 percent of the watershed , consists of the Portland Terraces , and the southern consists of the Boring Hills and the Kelso Slope . Most of the rain that falls on the northern area percolates into the ground , and most of the rain that falls on the southern area runs quickly into the creek or its tributaries . Rain that falls on the north generally has a more gradual , longer @-@ lasting effect , sustaining the base flow of the creek during dry periods .
About 40 percent of the tributaries that originally flowed over the surface of the watershed were piped or relocated during urban development , especially on the north side of the main stem . Generally , the remaining free @-@ flowing tributaries begin south of the main stem and run north ; the major exception is Crystal Springs Creek , which begins as a groundwater discharge and flows south . The other major tributaries are Hogan , Kelley , Butler , Sunshine , and Badger creeks . Crystal Springs and Kelley creeks contribute more flow to the main stem than the other tributaries .
Fill at Foster Road and Southeast 111th Avenue usually prevents stormwater runoff from a 9 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 23 km2 ) area of the watershed in the Lents and Powellhurst @-@ Gilbert neighborhoods from flowing directly into the creek . Instead , runoff is routed to sumps , where it percolates into the ground . Normal drainage patterns have also been altered further downstream in the Sellwood , Eastmoreland , Westmoreland , and Woodstock neighborhoods , where runoff flows into the Portland sewer system instead of into the creek .
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
Six local political jurisdictions overlap with the Johnson Creek watershed . In 2000 , 38 percent of the watershed was in Portland 's city limits , 24 percent in unincorporated Clackamas County , 23 percent in Gresham , 11 percent in unincorporated Multnomah County , 4 percent in Milwaukie , and 0 @.@ 1 percent in Happy Valley . None of the cities lies entirely within the watershed . In 2000 , Johnson Creek and its tributaries drained 53 percent of Gresham , 42 percent of Milwaukie , 19 percent of Happy Valley , and 14 percent of Portland . The watershed covered only 1 @.@ 2 percent of unincorporated Multnomah County and less than 1 percent of unincorporated Clackamas County .
Neighboring watersheds on the east side of the Willamette River include Mount Scott Creek and Kellogg Creek , which flow through Milwaukie and drain directly into the Willamette ; the Clackamas River , which drains the southeast suburbs and empties into the Willamette near Oregon City ; the Sandy River , which drains the eastern suburbs and empties into the Columbia ; and Fairview Creek and the Columbia Slough , which drain north Portland and Gresham , emptying into the Columbia .
Nineteenth @-@ century maps also show numerous springs and small streams flowing into a wetland that covered an area of today 's southeast Portland between Powell Boulevard ( U.S. Route 26 ) and Johnson Creek , a distance of 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) . Though most of the wetland complex has been filled in and built upon , remnants exist at the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden on Crystal Springs Creek . Old maps also show two streams flowing into a slough that drained part of the wetland . One flowed through the Clinton Street neighborhood , about six city blocks north of Powell Boulevard , and the other drained the Colonial Heights neighborhood , slightly further north near Ladd 's Addition . These streams and most others in this area were diverted into the city sewer system and no longer appear on the surface . A Johnson Creek near Hoyt Arboretum on the west side of the Willamette River in Portland has no relationship to the Johnson Creek on the east side .
= = = Volunteer group = = =
The Johnson Creek Watershed Council ( JCWC ) is a nonprofit group organized in 1995 to protect the creek and its watershed . Its projects involve such things as controlling invasive species , planting native riparian vegetation , improving fish passage , and creating off @-@ channel flood storage . The council is heavily dependent on volunteers . In 2011 alone , more than a thousand volunteers donated 5 @,@ 500 hours of their time to JWCC activities .
= = = Annual report card = = =
In 2015 , Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) began issuing annual " report cards " for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city . BES assigns grades for each of four categories : hydrology , water quality , habitat , and fish and wildlife . Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely , not dammed or diverted . Water @-@ quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen , E @-@ coli bacteria , temperature , suspended solids , and substances such as mercury and phosphorus . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains , riparian zones , tree canopies , and other variables . The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds , fish , and macroinvertebrates . In 2015 , the BES grades for Johnson Creek are hydrology , B + ; water quality , C + ; habitat , C , and fish and wildlife , D + .
= = History = =
Before settlers moved into the basin , it consisted mainly of upland and wetland forests in which Native Americans fished , hunted , and foraged . Evidence suggests that people lived in the northern Oregon Cascade Range as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . By 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago , settlements in the Clackamas River basin , adjacent to the Johnson Creek watershed , had moved to the river 's lower floodplain . The area was the home of the Clackamas Indians , a subgroup of the Chinookan speakers who lived in the Columbia River Valley from Celilo Falls to the Pacific Ocean . The Clackamas lands included the lower Willamette River from Willamette Falls at what became Oregon City to its confluence with the Columbia River and reached into the foothills of the Cascades . When Lewis and Clark visited the area in 1806 , the Clackamas tribe consisted of about 1 @,@ 800 people living in 11 villages . Epidemics of smallpox , malaria , and measles reduced this population to 88 by 1851 , and in 1855 the tribe signed a treaty surrendering its lands , including Johnson Creek .
By the middle of the 19th century , the European American newcomers had begun to remove vegetation , build sawmills , fell trees , fill wetlands , and farm in the fertile soil along Johnson Creek . The creek is named for one of these newcomers , William Johnson , who in 1846 settled in what later became the Lents neighborhood of Portland and operated a water @-@ powered sawmill . In early 1848 Lot Whitcomb , who would later found Milwaukie , filed a donation land claim and built a sawmill near the confluence of Johnson Creek and the Willamette River . In 1886 , plans were made for train tracks along the creek . In 1903 , the Springwater Division Line , also known as the Portland Traction Company Line , the Cazadero Line , and the Bellrose Line , was built along Johnson Creek to provide rail transport for passengers and freight . Sellwood , Eastmoreland , Lents , and Pleasant Valley were among the new communities that grew up along the line . By the 1920s , housing began to replace creekside farms .
= = Floods = =
By removing the original vegetation , rural and urban development of the Johnson Creek watershed induced more rapid storm runoff and expensive floods . As a flood @-@ control measure in the 1930s , the Works Progress Administration of the federal government cleared and lined with rock about 90 percent of the creek between its mouth and Southeast 158th Avenue , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the mouth , creating an artificial channel 6 feet ( 2 m ) to 10 feet ( 3 m ) deep and 25 feet ( 8 m ) to 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide . Although substantially altering the stream and its aquatic life , this channel failed to prevent overflows , the largest of which damaged 1 @,@ 200 structures in 1964 .
Precipitation patterns in the Johnson Creek watershed have contributed to frequent high flows and floods along the creek , typically between November and February . Based on records from 1961 to 1990 , Portland 's average annual precipitation , as measured at Portland International Airport along the Columbia River , is about 36 inches ( 910 mm ) . About 21 inches ( 530 mm ) falls from November through February and only about 5 inches ( 130 mm ) from June through September . The airport , at about 30 feet ( 9 m ) above sea level , is at essentially the same elevation as the mouth of Johnson Creek . Annual precipitation at higher elevations in the creek 's upper watershed is much higher , more than 70 inches ( 1 @,@ 800 mm ) .
The floods primarily affect four areas in Portland : Tideman Johnson Natural Area at Southeast 45th Avenue , the area west of Southeast 82nd Avenue ; Lents , and lower Powell Butte . The U.S. National Weather Service defines Johnson Creek 's flood stage , measured at USGS station 14211500 at Sycamore in Portland , as 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , equivalent to a flow rate ( discharge rate ) of about 1 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 34 m3 ) per second . The USGS peak streamflow data collected by the stream gauge at that station show that the creek reached or exceeded 1 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 34 m3 ) per second 37 times between 1941 and 2006 ; that is 37 floods in 65 years . Twenty of those floods exceeded 1 @,@ 500 cubic feet ( 42 m3 ) per second . At least seven of the floods caused major property damage . A more recent overflow occurred in December 2007 , when the creek crested at 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) above flood stage . Between 1978 and 1997 , flood insurance claims totaling an estimated $ 2 million were paid for damage along the creek .
The biggest flood measured at Sycamore , 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth of the creek , occurred in 2015 . Exceeding the official flood stage of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) by more than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , the creek reached 15 @.@ 33 feet ( 4 @.@ 67 m ) on December 7 of that year . The second highest level , 15 @.@ 30 feet ( 4 @.@ 66 m ) , occurred in November 1996 , followed by the Christmas flood of 1964 on December 22 , when the creek reached 14 @.@ 68 feet ( 4 @.@ 47 m ) at Sycamore .
As of 2008 , the USGS was monitoring Johnson Creek at Regner Road in Gresham , 16 @.@ 3 miles ( 26 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , and at Milwaukie , 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth , as well as at Sycamore . It also had stream @-@ monitor stations on Kelley Creek and Crystal Springs Creek . The Sycamore station was the oldest , having begun operation in 1941 .
Proposals by agencies such as Metro , the regional government of the Portland metropolitan area , and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the 1970s and 1980s to control Johnson Creek flooding were abandoned after groups of residents objected to every proposal . In 1990 , the City of Portland formed the Johnson Creek Corridor Committee from multiple agencies and citizen groups with varied interests related to the watershed . Led by the city 's Bureau of Environmental Services , the combined groups in 2001 produced the Johnson Creek Restoration Plan to reduce flooding , improve water quality , and improve fish and wildlife habitat . Goals varied from section to section along the creek and included controlling storm water runoff , reducing erosion , replacing or mitigating impervious surfaces , and protecting riparian zones . Through 2007 , at least 75 site @-@ specific restoration projects had been carried out in the Johnson Creek Watershed , ranging from the $ 1 @.@ 2 @-@ million Brookside Project , a constructed wetland , to small riparian repair projects . Most involved voluntary citizen participation in all phases , including the long @-@ term management and care of the sites . In late 2012 , the city completed the East Lents Floodplain Project , which restored 70 acres ( 28 ha ) of the natural floodplain to a low @-@ lying area along the creek .
= = Pollution = =
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) rated Johnson Creek 's water quality between 1986 and 1995 as " very poor " . Monitoring the creek 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) from the mouth , it recorded very high concentrations of nitrates and high concentrations of phosphates . Fecal coliform bacteria , total solids , and biochemical oxygen demand also impaired water quality . These conditions occurred throughout the year , and results for each parameter fell into the " very poor " category . On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The minimal seasonal average for Johnson Creek on this scale was 26 , the second worst in the lower Willamette basin . By comparison , the minimal seasonal average in the nearby Willamette River at the Hawthorne Bridge in downtown Portland was 74 during the same years . Studies suggest that most pollutants of Johnson Creek do not come from point sources but are washed off urban and rural land surfaces during storms .
High temperatures cause problems for aquatic life throughout the watershed . The Oregon standard for maximum temperatures conducive to salmonid rearing in the Willamette Basin is 17 @.@ 8 Β° C ( 64 @.@ 0 Β° F ) , and data show that the mean maximum summertime temperatures in Johnson Creek exceed this standard . The maximum temperature that Coho salmon can survive for short periods is 24 Β° C ( 75 Β° F ) . Thermographs at several locations on Johnson Creek in 1992 recorded maximum average weekly water temperatures higher than 18 Β° C ( 64 Β° F ) in June , July , and August , and an absolute maximum temperature of 24 Β° C ( 75 Β° F ) .
Studies conducted by DEQ , USGS , the City of Gresham , and other public agencies have identified DDT ( dichloro @-@ diphenyl @-@ trichloroethane ) , dieldrin , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCB ) , chlordane , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAH ) as carcinogenic pollutants of Johnson Creek . The creek has been classified as a " waterbody of concern " by the DEQ because of elevated levels of copper , chromium , and nickel in water and sediments . Generally , metal concentrations increase downstream .
= = Biology = =
= = = Macroinvertebrates and fish = = =
A study conducted in 1999 for the City of Portland by researchers from Portland State University found that Johnson Creek had marginal conditions for macroinvertebrates , an important source of food for fish and other aquatic life . The study compared differences in these life forms and in water chemistry from two urban streams , Johnson Creek and Tryon Creek in southwest Portland , with two nearby rural streams and found that benthic communities in the urban streams were degraded compared to the regional reference creeks .
Most fish species in Johnson Creek tolerate warm water and disturbed conditions . These include red @-@ sided shiners , sculpin , suckers , and speckled dace .
Large populations of salmon inhabited the creek before urban construction altered the watershed and the stream channel , and in the 21st century , the creek and its tributaries still provide habitat for smaller numbers of chinook and coho salmon , steelhead , and coastal cutthroat trout . Steelhead populations in Johnson Creek are within the Lower Columbia River steelhead distinct population segment and listed as threatened ( 2011 ) . Chinook and coho salmon are listed as threatened as part of the Lower Columbia River Evolutionary Significant Unit ( 2011 ) .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Before the area became urban , large mammals including bobcats , black bears , foxes , cougars , wolves , and elk thrived in the area . Common species in the 21st century include crow , robin , starling , song sparrow , Bewick 's wren , house finch , cedar waxwing , violet @-@ green swallow , belted kingfisher , great blue heron , mallard , wood duck , bushtit , black @-@ capped chickadee , raccoon , opossum , nutria , and moles . Less developed areas support black @-@ tailed deer , coyotes , deer mice , voles , bats , western flycatchers , black @-@ headed grosbeaks , orange @-@ crowned warblers , common mergansers , and woodpeckers . Other wildlife in the watershed include beaver , river otter , freshwater mussels , and bald eagles . Johnson Creek and its watershed are home to life forms that , under Oregon law , have been listed as " sensitive " species . These are naturally reproducing native animals that may become threatened or endangered throughout all or any significant part of their range in Oregon . Such animals known to live in the Johnson Creek watershed include long @-@ toed , northwestern , and Columbia salamanders , red @-@ legged frogs , painted turtles , great horned owls , toads , hawks , and coyotes . A plant found on Powell Butte , tall bugbane ( Actaea elata ) , is also listed as a sensitive species .
= = = Vegetation = = =
The watershed lies in the Willamette Valley ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . It was covered until the mid @-@ 19th century with Oregon ash , red alder , and western redcedar forests and scattered black cottonwood groves in riparian areas . Douglas @-@ fir and Oregon white oak grew in the uplands . About 57 percent of the watershed is covered with plant life , including grass , trees , and all other forms of vegetation . As of 2000 , about 70 percent of the watershed lay within the urban growth boundary . Of the total land area , 57 percent is single @-@ family residential , 12 percent multi @-@ family , 10 percent commercial , 8 percent rural , and 13 percent parks and open space . In 2000 , of about half of the rural agricultural total in the watershed consisted of cultivated crops or pasture while tree farms and ornamental nurseries made up about 30 percent .
Creek restoration projects since the 1990s have reduced the amount of Himalayan blackberry , an invasive species that had come to dominate much of the landscape near the creek . New plantings include native shrubs and trees such as red @-@ osier dogwood , elderberry , Indian plum , and willow . City parks adjacent to Johnson Creek have areas devoted to marsh with shrubs , cattails , and smartweed , forested wetland , riparian woodland , open meadow , and orchard trees .
= = Parks = =
By 1960 , use of the rail line along Johnson Creek had declined and passenger service was discontinued . By 1990 the City of Portland bought much of the corridor . Working with Metro , it created the Springwater Corridor Trail , a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) bicycle and pedestrian rail trail that follows the creek and extends from the Willamette River to Boring . It became part of the 40 Mile Loop , a hiking and biking trail that circles the Portland metropolitan area and intersects with similar trails .
Creekside parks include Johnson Creek Park , about 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) of natural areas and paths ; the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden , along Crystal Springs Creek ; Tideman Johnson Natural Area , about 7 @.@ 2 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 m2 ) of natural areas and paths ; Leach Botanical Garden , about 16 acres ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) , a public garden dedicated to the study of botany and horticulture with an emphasis on plants of the Pacific Northwest ; Beggars Tick Wildlife Refuge , a wetland of 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) ; Powell Butte Nature Park , about 608 acres ( 2 @.@ 46 km2 ) on an extinct cinder cone volcano , including natural areas and hiking , biking , and equestrian trails ; and Gresham 's Main City Park , about 18 acres ( 73 @,@ 000 m2 ) including sports fields , picnic areas , and trails .
In 2007 Metro bought two parcels of land totaling 102 acres ( 410 @,@ 000 m2 ) for preservation adjacent to Johnson Creek on Clatsop Butte , south of Foster Road near Powell Butte and Portland 's Pleasant Valley neighborhood . The purchases cost $ 10 @.@ 9 million , drawing on bonds approved by a 2006 ballot measure . They were praised by conservationists but questioned by others who thought Metro had paid too much .
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= Episode 4 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 4 " , also known as " The One @-@ Armed Man " , is the fifth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Robert Engels , and directed by Tim Hunter . " Episode 4 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Piper Laurie and Richard Beymer , and introduces series co @-@ creator David Lynch in the role of Gordon Cole .
Hunter 's directing of the episode was inspired by Otto Preminger 's 1945 film Fallen Angel , making use of small sets and long depth of field shots . Engels has identified several 1960s television series β The Wild Wild West , Mayberry R.F.D. and The Fugitive β as being influential to the series as a whole .
First airing on May 3 , 1990 , " Episode 4 " was viewed by approximately 19 percent of the available audience during its broadcast , marking an increase in viewers from the previous week . " Episode 4 " has received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions , including the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) . Cooper experiences a surreal dream in which a dwarf and a woman resembling Laura reveal the identity of the killer . Laura 's cousin Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) arrives in town , while Cooper is introduced to the Bookhouse Boys , the town 's secret society .
= = = Events = = =
Sarah Palmer ( Grace Zabriskie ) describes her vision of Killer Bob ( Frank Silva ) to Deputy Andy Brennan ( Harry Goaz ) , while he sketches the man 's face . She also describes a vision of someone taking Laura 's heart necklace ; Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) winces at this , as she is the one who hid it .
Cooper interviews Laurence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) , a psychiatrist who had been seeing Laura . Jacoby does not wish to breach his confidentiality agreement , but admits that he struggled to understand Laura 's problems . He also casts suspicion on a man driving a red Corvette β Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) .
Gordon Cole ( David Lynch ) calls Cooper at the sheriff 's station , offering insight into Laura 's autopsy . Brennan brings in his sketch , which Cooper identifies as the man from his dream . He also receives a call from Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) , who has located the one @-@ armed man they believe is somehow involved ; the group find him at a motel . The man , Philip Michael Gerard ( Al Strobel ) is a traveling salesman , who denies any involvement or that he knows BOB .
At the same motel , local businessman Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) meets with Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) ; the two are having an affair and planning to burn down the town 's sawmill . The mill is owned by Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) , the widow of Martell 's brother ; Packard is spying on the couple in their motel room . Later , Horne meets with Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) , a violent truck driver , to arrange having the mill destroyed .
Norma Jennings ( Peggy Lipton ) travels to a parole hearing for her husband , Hank ( Chris Mulkey ) . She is uneasy about helping his case as she is seeing Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) , but promises him a job at the diner she owns . Meanwhile , Johnson 's wife Shelley is having an affair with Briggs ; she shows him Johnson 's bloodstained shirt . He takes it , promising to rid them of Johnson for good .
Cooper , Truman and Brennan visit a veterinarian connected to Gerard ; they find twine there of the type used to bind Laura . They believe that the bird that clawed her body is one of the animals being treated there , and confiscate the practice 's files in order to locate the owners of birds being treated there . They learn that the scratches have been caused by a myna , and that drug smuggler Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) owns one . They raid Renault 's home , interrupting Briggs , who is planting Johnson 's bloodied shirt . He flees , undetected ; however , the shirt is recovered as evidence .
At the RR Diner , Hurley meets Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) , Laura 's identical cousin ; the two seem instantly smitten . Norma finds out that Hank has been released from prison ; that evening Packard receives a brief phone call from him that leaves her shaken .
= = Production = =
" Episode 4 " was the first of the series to be written by Robert Engels ; Engels returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by Tim Hunter , who would also go on to helm " Episode 16 " and " Episode 28 " in the second season . Hunter had known series co @-@ creator David Lynch from their time studying together at the American Film Institute . Engels had been brought on board by the other creative force in the series , Mark Frost , who felt that Engels ' sense of humor would be well @-@ suited to the series ' style . Engels found the pace of the series ' writing to be quite fast , noting that Frost and Lynch would outline the plot of an episode in a matter of hours β Engels had previously been used to spending days at a time working on similar amounts of material with writing crews on other programs .
Hunter recalls being pleasantly surprised to learn that Russ Tamblyn and Richard Beymer had been cast as regular characters in the series , having enjoyed the early work of both actors during the 1950s and 1960s . Tamblyn improvised elements of his performance , including a magic trick involving two golf balls , which was something he had learned and wished to include during his role in the episode . The character of Gordon Cole , first played by Lynch in this episode as a voice in a telephone call , was conceived as being hard of hearing ; this was because Lynch liked the idea of delivering his lines in a loud voice , and worked backwards to establish a reason for this . Engels wrote most of Cole 's dialogue over the series , having had experience with his own mother being similarly hard of hearing .
Engels felt that the three largest influences on the series as a whole were the 1960s television series The Wild Wild West , Mayberry R.F.D. and The Fugitive β the inclusion of a one @-@ armed character in Twin Peaks was a direct homage to the latter of these . Engels has also noted that the series would make use of normal , conventional storylines and everyday occurrences as a " familiar " framework , allowing subtle details to seem slightly more unusual against this backdrop β he particularly cites this episode 's parole hearing for Hank Jennings as an example , as it offers nothing out of the ordinary other than the single domino which Jennings is playing with at all times , drawing attention to the item as it is the only thing which seems out of place .
Hunter 's direction in some scenes was inspired by Otto Preminger 's work on the 1945 film noir Fallen Angel . That film featured several scenes shot in tight spaces with a very small mise en scène ; Hunter found himself using several of Preminger 's techniques to make the most out of several of the episode 's smaller sets such as the RR Diner . Several scenes in the episode were also shot using a split diopter lens , allowing for a greater depth of field . For example , a scene featuring Sherilyn Fenn and Richard Beymer talking had the actors at either side of a room ; the split diopter lens allowed for both of them to still be in sharp focus . The episode ends with a shot featuring a Dutch angle ; Hunter was the only director on the series who Frost and Lynch allowed to use this shot , which was otherwise forbidden .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 4 " was first broadcast on the ABC Network on May 3 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 11 @.@ 9 percent of US households , representing 19 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight increase from the previous episode , which had attracted 11 @.@ 3 percent of the population and 18 percent of the available audience . " Episode 4 " was the forty @-@ fourth most watched broadcast on American television that week .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps rated the episode a B , deeming it " a ' normal ' episode for the series " . Phipps praised Al Strobel 's performance , and felt that the episode served to highlight " Cooper 's investigation @-@ by @-@ coincidence technique " , while describing the character of Madeline Ferguson as " an embodiment of this series ' obsession with duality " . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau offered mixed reactions to the episode 's acting ; he found Sheryl Lee , James Marshall and Grace Zabriskie to have been poor , but praised Kyle MacLachlan , Ray Wise and Dana Ashbrook for their performances .
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= Only Happy When It Rains =
" Only Happy When It Rains " is a song written and produced by alternative rock group Garbage for the band 's self @-@ titled debut studio album . The song was recorded at the band 's own recording studio , Smart Studios , in Madison , Wisconsin , being mixed twice before its release . The bleak content of the lyrics was intended as a parody of the angst @-@ filled themes present in mid @-@ 1990s alternative rock , as well as a sarcastic reference to Garbage 's own preference for darker themes .
" Only Happy When it Rains " was released as the third single from the campaign for Garbage in both the United Kingdom ( in September 1995 ) and North America ( in February 1996 ) , being issued in three formats vinyl , CD maxi , and cassette . The song received positive reviews , praising the production and Shirley Manson 's singing , and became the band 's breakthrough single , charting strongly on both the UK Singles Chart and Billboard Hot 100 . It also crossed over to pop radio formats , propelling their debut album into the Top 100 of the Billboard 200 for the first time , and the song 's music video , directed by Samuel Bayer , received much airplay on MTV . " Only Happy When it Rains " has gone on to be an enduring work for the group , being featured in the video game Guitar Hero 5 and receiving covers by Richard Cheese , Katerina Graham and Metallica .
= = Composition and recording = =
" Only Happy When It Rains " was written and recorded between March 1994 and May 1995 , with the composition happening in sessions between band members Duke Erikson , Shirley Manson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig in Marker 's basement recording studio , and the recording itself being done at their own Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin . Bass on " Only Happy When It Rains " was played by Mike Kashou , and additional percussion by Pauli Ryan . In the latter stages of the album recording , Garbage mixed " Only Happy When It Rains " twice before it was sent for mastering . At the last minute , Vig decided to increase the mix of the guitar tracks louder ; he later claimed that the song still did not sound the way he wanted it to , in his head . The mixing was noted for Manson 's voice being at the same volume level as the instruments , while in mainstream pop the singing is louder than the musical backdrop . The song is written in the key of G # minor , set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute , and the chord progression is G # m β F # β E β C # m β E β F # in the verses and C # -F # -G # -A in the chorus .
The song 's bleak lyrics were explained by Marker as a mockery of the angsty " wearing your heart on your sleeve thing " themes prevalent in mid @-@ 1990s alternative rock songs , as well as a self @-@ deprecating reference to Garbage 's own dark lyrics , with Manson explaining that the song was " a dig at ourselves because we like records that don 't make us feel very happy , and at this so @-@ called ' alternative ' scene of ' we 're so weird and more wonderful than everybody else ' " . Vig added that " ' Only Happy When It Rains ' was about what happened with grunge and the angst @-@ filled thing which has dominated the American alternative rock scene . With us there 's self @-@ deprecation , we have to poke fun at ourselves because we 're so incredibly obsessive about the songs and the lyrics , which makes us filled with self @-@ loathing , hurhur . " Garbage said they referenced both the title of The Jesus and Mary Chain song " Happy When It Rains " ( 1987 ) and Manson 's own Scottish psyche . Lyrically , Manson described " Only Happy When It Rains " as " about wanting love but knowing life will always get in the way .... yet not being obliterated by that . It 's a song for people that know what it is like to live on the dark side of life . It 's about devotion but a different kind . A devotion to the truth and to freedom ... and to hell with the consequences . "
When " Only Happy When It Rains " was to be remastered in 2007 for Garbage 's greatest hits album Absolute Garbage , the song had to be reverse engineered from a damaged backup DAT due to the analog masters for the debut album being lost , resulting in some discernible differences in the remaster .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon both the release of Garbage , and of " Only Happy When It Rains " as a single , the song received a positive reception from music journalists . In reviews for the single release Patrick Brennan of Hot Press declared " Only Happy When It Rains " his Single of the Fortnight , writing " it 's hugely refreshing to come across a song which celebrates all those sad moments of loneliness that can be so life affirming " , while Billboard 's Larry Flick described the song as " solid all the way through " praising the overall production . A reviewer for Kerrang ! wrote , " A truly inspired single ... Garbage combine a slightly sinister acidic approach with an infectious melodic atmosphere and an alternative punch . The result is awesome , " and a reviewer for Music Week stated that " Shirley Manson 's vocals veer between fuzzy darkness , grinding catchy and crystal brilliance . " Alastair Mabbot , writing for The List , described the song as " Spitting Image 's notion of alternative rock " , In reviews for the debut album , Robert Yates of Q wrote that there was " a nice self @-@ deflating Morrissey touch to [ the song ] " , while Jackie Hinden of Hot Press felt that " Only Happy When It Rains " was " like a Pretenders for the nineties " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as " perversely pretty " , while Leo Finlay of Music Week compared the song to Mazzy Star , and that it " employs the current hip status of country music to devastating effect " . Spin 's Eric Weissard said the song was the only one he hated in Garbage 's debut album , but reacted positively to the intro where " backward guitars produce a chiming solo . " At the end of 1995 , Melody Maker rated " Only Happy When It Rains " the 49th best Song of the Year , writing up : " In a year of sunny Britpop , reservoir supplies of ironic bubblegum pop @-@ noir were dangerously low . This burst of mocking miserablism helped " . The track has been described as Garbage 's signature song , and in 2000 was ranked as 69th in a list of 100 Greatest Pop Songs Of All Time jointly compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV .
= = Single release and chart performance = =
Initially , Mushroom Records had scheduled " Queer " to be the lead single for the UK release of the debut album Garbage , matching the single release strategy internationally . At last minute , it was decided to release " Only Happy When It Rains " upfront of the album , with " Queer " rescheduled to later in 1995 . " Only Happy When It Rains " was quickly picked up by radio , and was C @-@ listed by Radio One , and reached # 47 on the airplay chart . Mushroom issued the single on a limited edition 7 " vinyl , CD and cassette on September 18 , 1995 . All formats were backed with two new tracks specifically recorded for the single ; " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " . After its first week on @-@ sale , " Only Happy When it Rains " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at # 29 . At the end of the month , Garbage made their debut live appearance to perform the single on Top of The Pops , providing momentum for the album Garbage to debut on the album chart at # 12 .
In United States , Almo Sounds first sent " Only Happy When It Rains " to alternative radio at the start of January 1996 , earning much airplay in both college and alternate rock radio stations . The physical single was issued on February 20 in two formats , CD maxi and cassette single , both featuring " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " as b @-@ sides . A single remix of the song was also issued to Top 40 radio on March 26 as the single escalated up the pop charts . Notable live performances of " Only Happy When It Rains " included Garbage 's network television debut on Saturday Night Special on April 27 , and during the 1996 MTV Movie Awards . The song spent twenty weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at # 55 , plus nineteen weeks at the Modern Rock Tracks , peaking at # 16 at the end of May , and peaked at # 54 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . The single 's success also lead to a sales increase of the band 's debut album , which managed to enter the Billboard 200 chart six months after its release. having sold 238 @,@ 000 units at this point .
In Australia and New Zealand , Garbage 's Australasian record label , White , released " Only Happy When it Rains " as the follow @-@ up to " Stupid Girl " on May 28 , 1996 . The single was issued on CD single and cassette , backed with " Driving Lesson " and a house remix of album track " Dog New Tricks " , both of which had been recorded by the band earlier in the year . On June 16 , 1996 , " Only Happy When it Rains " debuted on the ARIA singles chart and spent nine weeks in the top 100 , peaking at # 80 . A month later , the song debuted at # 42 on the New Zealand singles chart , peaking the following week at 38th .
Across Europe , Mushroom Records international distributor BMG released " Only Happy When It Rains " in two formats , a two @-@ track card sleeve CD single with " Dog New Tricks " , or a four @-@ track maxi single with " Dog New Tricks " , a remix of " Stupid Girl " by Red Snapper and a remix of " Queer " by Danny Saber . Following the band 's performance at the Lowlands Festival , the single was a success in the Netherlands where it spent the month of September 1996 on the charts , peaking at # 36 on the Single Top 100 .
In 1999 , B @-@ side " Girl Don 't Come " was used in the PlayStation game F1 Racing Championship .
= = Music video = =
The promotional video for " Only Happy When It Rains " was filmed in mid @-@ January 1996 in Los Angeles by director Samuel Bayer , simultaneously with the video for single " Stupid Girl " . As Almo Sounds thought " Only Happy When It Rains " would be more successful , its video was given a higher budget than " Stupid Girl " . The video debuted in the United States on February 12 , 1996 , being certified one day later by MTV as a " Buzz clip " , which would guarantee heavy rotation on their network .
The video begins a short prologue sequence with several children dressed in animal costumes playing in an overcast field , before cutting to Garbage upon the commencement of the song . Garbage are located in a litter @-@ strewn warehouse , where the male members of the band destroy vinyl records , videotape and musical instruments as Manson performs to the camera . Some sequences feature Manson performing the song while on her own in dilapidated toilet stalls . The video ends with inter @-@ cut footage of Manson joining the children on the field .
The " Only Happy When It Rains " video was first commercially released - along with out @-@ take footage shot while filming - on VHS and Video @-@ CD on 1996 's Garbage Video . A remastered version of the video was later included on Garbage 's 2007 greatest hits DVD Absolute Garbage and made available as a digital download via online music services the same year .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Covers = = =
In 2009 , " Only Happy When it Rains " was featured as a playable song in the videogame Guitar Hero 5 . By playing the song in " Career Mode " , a virtual avatar of Shirley Manson could be unlocked for use elsewhere within the game . As one of Garbage 's signature songs , " Only Happy When it Rains " has been covered by a number of artists over the years . In 2000 , comedic musician Richard Cheese performed a lounge arrangement of the song on his album Lounge Against the Machine . Actress Katerina Graham recorded a pop rock cover for use in The Vampire Diaries ' second season episode " The Sacrifice " . In 2007 , Metallica covered the song during an acoustic performance at Neil Young 's Bridge School Benefit show .
= = = Media = = =
The song also appeared in an episode of The X @-@ Files entitled " Terms of Endearment " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Continuing their theme of collectible 7 " vinyl releases , which had seen " Vow " packaged in an aluminium sleeve and " Subhuman " in black rubber , Mushroom packaged the 7 " format for " Only Happy When It Rains " in a " Prismaboard " ( rain @-@ effect ) die @-@ cut card sleeve , with a hologram logo sticker on the inner jacket . The b @-@ side of the vinyl was pressed with a double @-@ groove , so that either " Girl Don 't Come " or " Sleep " played depending on where the stylus landed ; the songs were shorter on the vinyl than they were on the CD or cassette formats to accommodate both on one side of the disc . This pressing was limited to 5 @,@ 000 copies . The original design for the vinyl was for the sleeve to be made from wood , or corrugated cardboard , with wing @-@ nuts in each corner like a flower @-@ press . The nuts would have to have been unscrewed to find the vinyl disc inside - between ten layers of different types of cardboard .
= = Credits and Personnel = =
= = Comprehensive charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hawaii House Bill 444 =
House Bill 444 ( abbreviated H.B. 444 ) was a 2009 bill of the Hawaii State Legislature , passed in April 2010 and vetoed by Governor of Hawaii Linda Lingle , that would have legalized civil unions for couples in the state of Hawaii . Its legislative process was accompanied by controversy over the bill 's content and effects and rallies were held by supporters and opponents .
The bill passed the Hawaii House of Representatives in February 2009 in a form specific to same @-@ sex couples , was passed in amended form including opposite @-@ sex couples by the Hawaii Senate in May 2009 , and was carried over in the 2010 session , where it passed the Senate again in January 2010 with a veto @-@ proof majority . The bill moved back to the House but was indefinitely postponed by a voice vote initiated by House Speaker Calvin Say , requiring a vote of two @-@ thirds of Representatives to be taken up again in 2010 , and was considered dead . In April 2010 , on the last day of the legislative session , the House suspended the rules on the Senate bill and passed it with a majority , sending the bill to Governor Linda Lingle , who vetoed it in July 2010 .
Hawaii does not allow same @-@ sex marriages or civil unions , but two unmarried people can register for a reciprocal beneficiary relationship , which provides some of the rights and benefits that come with marriage . The bill was written to become law on January 1 , 2010 , would allow all couples to obtain rights equal to those of married couples , and make Hawaii the only state in the Western United States to allow civil unions instead of domestic partnerships .
= = Content of the bill = =
House Bill 444 H.D. 1 as introduced and passed by the Hawaii House of Representatives " extends the same rights , benefits , protections , and responsibilities of spouses in a marriage to partners in a civil union . " To be eligible for a civil union , the bill outlined that the person seeking a civil union may not already be in a civil union , marriage , or reciprocal beneficiary relationship with someone else , the two people seeking a civil union must be of the same sex , both members of the civil union must be 18 years or older , and the two partners must not be related . The bill also enumerated familial relationships in which civil unions would be automatically nullified , such as a man with his father , grandfather , or son , or a woman with her mother , grandmother , or daughter . If one of the persons had a guardian , the guardian had to consent for the subject to obtain a civil union .
Section 1 , Β§ β 9 of House Bill 444 explained that " partners to a civil union ... shall have all the same rights , benefits , protections , and responsibilities under law ... as are granted to spouses in a marriage . " The bill also recognized domestic partnerships , civil unions , and same @-@ sex marriages performed in other states as civil unions in Hawaii , and would have taken effect on January 1 , 2010 . In addition , House Bill 444 repealed a statute that declared " private solemnization not unlawful . "
House Bill S.D. 1 444 as passed by the Hawaii Senate was amended to remove the bill 's reference to same @-@ sex couples , include language stating the legislature 's intent not change the definition of marriage , and include partners in civil unions for use of the terms " spouse " , " family " , " immediate family " , " dependent " , and " next of kin " . The language of the bill 's coming into effect remained unchanged at January 1 , 2010 .
= = Legislative process = =
= = = Past bills = = =
Following Baehr v. Lewin , a 1993 decision by the Supreme Court of Hawaii that found the state 's refusal to grant same @-@ sex couples marriage licenses discriminatory , voters in 1998 approved a constitutional amendment granting the Hawaii State Legislature the power to reserve marriage to opposite @-@ sex couples , and the legislature passed a law banning same @-@ sex marriage . Civil unions were not restricted . Bills creating civil unions were considered several times , but failed to receive committee approval prior to 2009 .
= = = 2009 session = = =
H.B. 444 was introduced in the Hawaii House of Representatives on January 26 , 2009 . It passed the Hawaii House Judiciary Committee on February 5 , 2009 , with 12 members voting in favor and none opposed and was approved by the Hawaii House of Representatives on February 12 , 2009 , with 33 members voting in favor and 17 opposed , one vote fewer than the two @-@ thirds vote needed to override a veto by the Republican Governor Linda Lingle , who did not indicate whether she considered a veto . It was referred to the Hawaii Senate on February 13 , 2009 . A hearing by the Committee on Judiciary and Government Operations ( JGO ) was held at the State Capitol on February 24 , 2009 , with the outcome of three senators supporting the bill and three opposed ; the bill was not passed out of committee .
The Senate Democratic leadership stated the bill might be taken from committee and brought to a debate before the full Senate , which was possible after March 10 , 2009 . Following a rally held on February 22 , 2009 , that opposed the passage of H.B. 444 and in which between 2 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 people participated , a number of Democratic senators became unwilling to vote in favor of the motion , citing concerns about changing common Senate procedure . The number of senators supporting civil unions was reduced from 18 to 13 out of 25 senators . Supporters held a candlelight vigil attended by 300 to 400 people in support of the bill on March 7 , 2009 .
Senator Will Espero offered an amendment to the bill that would have reduced the number of benefits granted , stating this would remove concerns that civil unions were similar to marriage . Passing an amended bill would have required the House to vote on it again or to establish a conference committee to negotiate differences between versions of both chambers . Supporters of civil unions stated they would not support the compromise , and a senator argued that " an amendment will kill it . " Hawaii Senate Majority Leader Gary Hooser stated in March 2009 he would try to bring the bill to a vote if no other senator did so by the end of the legislative session in May 2009 . It was not clear how many senators supported Hooser and opposing groups announced protests if action was taken . On March 25 , 2009 , the attempt to bring the bill before the full Senate failed when six senators supported the measure instead of the required nine senators . Senate President Colleen Hanabusa and JGO chairman Brian Taniguchi had opposed recalling H.B. 444 from Taniguchi 's committee , citing unwillingness to change the traditional lawmaking process .
On May 7 , 2009 , a second motion to recall the bill from committee , initiated by Senator Les Ihara , Jr . , was successful after 10 Democrats voted in favor . The Senate Democratic Leadership , Democrats opposed to civil unions , and Senate Republicans voted in favor of an amendment to the bill that added language reaffirming the distinction between civil unions and marriage and allowing same @-@ sex and opposite @-@ sex couples to enter civil unions . The amendment was adopted , which killed the bill , as a revised version required renewed approval by the Hawaii House of Representatives and the Legislature adjourned May 8 , 2009 . Senate President Hanabusa stated the issue would not be taken up again before 2010 .
= = = 2010 session = = =
The bill was carried over into the 2010 session and Lingle stated in January 2010 that the bill was a distraction from the budget and should not be voted on for final passage in the Senate . Senator Brian Taniguchi argued the legislature could work on several issues simultaneously and the bill would pass . If passed , the amended bill would have to be approved by the House of Representatives . Speaker of the House Calvin Say stated that a vote on the bill would depend on whether the Senate passed the bill with enough votes to override a gubernatorial veto , arguing that he does not want to force a vote on controversial legislation in an election year if the bill 's approval was in doubt . The Senate bill contains an effective date of January 1 , 2010 , and if the language is not changed , the bill could be vetoed regardless of its content .
The Senate passed an unchanged bill on January 22 , 2010 , with a veto @-@ proof two @-@ thirds ' majority , after an amendment to update the effective date was rejected . The measure moved for final approval to the House of Representatives , but on January 29 , House Speaker Calvin Say moved to indefinitely postpone a vote on the bill , which was approved by voice vote . No votes were recorded and the move deferred action on the bill for 2010 unless two @-@ thirds of Representatives vote to reconsider the bill , and it was considered dead .
On April 29 , the last day of the legislative session , the Senate bill was revived in the Hawaii House following a motion by Majority Leader Blake Oshiro . Speaker Calvin Say immediately ordered a recess and after the representatives returned four votes to suspend legislative rules postponing the issue were taken and the bill passed with 31 to 20 votes . Governor Linda Lingle had until July 6 to decide whether to sign or veto the measure . The House vote margin in support is not large enough to override a gubernatorial veto . Lingle vetoed the bill on July 6 , arguing civil unions should be decided by referendum . The House had ruled out any attempt to override her vetoes for the legislative session .
= = Reactions = =
Following the introduction of H.B. 444 , gay rights organizations stated their support , arguing the bill supported equality in an ethnically diverse state . Religious groups began to set up websites , take out newspaper advertisements and hold rallies in opposition to the bill , arguing it ran against marriage . The Roman Catholic Bishop of Honolulu , Clarence Richard Silva , called the bill " a travesty to the democratic process " that " ignores the will of the people . " Marc Alexander , vicar general of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu , argued that civil unions are " same @-@ sex marriage under a different name " .
The non @-@ profit organization Hawaii Family Forum , which opposed the bill , organized the February 22 rally with local churches and achieved a large turnout . Interfaith Alliance Hawaii , made up of people of Christian , Jewish and Buddhist faiths , stated their support for the bill and argued it did not " endanger [ civil unions opponents ' ] concept of marriage or family values . " Linda Krieger , a University of Hawaii law professor and adviser for a student gay rights group , stated " where the fundamental civil rights of an unpopular minority are at stake , the principle of ' letting the people decide ' is often a mere cloak for majoritarian tyranny . " The First Unitarian Church of Honolulu sponsored a poll that found 70 percent opposition to same @-@ sex marriage and 67 percent support on whether gays and lesbians should have the " same rights as everyone else . "
The Senate hearings on the bill attracted large turnout and testimony was recorded for 15 hours . In the hearing , bill opponents outnumbered supporters . Mike Gabbard , who sponsored the 1998 amendment permitting the legislature to outlaw same @-@ sex marriage , argued the bill would lead to same @-@ sex marriage being taught in Hawaiian schools . Kim Coco Iwamoto of the Hawaii Board of Education countered civil unions would make children in gay families less likely to be harassed . Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii Duke Aiona criticized the bill , arguing it " attempts to circumvent the will of the people by authorizing the equivalent to same @-@ sex marriage " . U.S. Representative Neil Abercrombie supported the bill , stating " it is shameful that while they must give their equal share to the government , the government will not give them equal protection " about gay and lesbian citizens of Hawaii .
The Honolulu Advertiser reported that the Senate Democratic leadership reconsidered their support for the bill because of the large demonstration of opponents and their pressure on senators to oppose the bill . It found that some senators privately suggested the bill 's delay in committee or a proposed amendment to the bill were ways to avoid taking a vote following the controversy .
The candlelight vigil following the bill 's defeat in committee was attended by labor union members and religious groups . Father Richard Shields of the Episcopal Diocese of Hawaii stated religion should be taken out of the argument and a spokesperson for the hotel and restaurant union Local 5 argued the bill provided economic justice . A letter later sent to senators in support of the H.B. 444 by community groups , including the Local 5 union , the Hawaii NAACP , the Hawaii State Democratic Women 's Caucus , and the Japanese American Citizens League .
In response to Majority Leader Gary Hooser 's statement that he intended to bring the bill to a vote before the full Senate , the Hawaii Family Forum stated other issues demanded more attention than civil unions and the bill would create legal challenges for child care and education . The group held demonstrations on Maui and Kauai and stated their intention to hold demonstrations to ask the governor to veto the legislation should the bill advance . Hooser argued for the bill using President Barack Obama 's support of civil unions and the support of labor unions and the majority of Hawaii House representatives . The Honolulu Advertiser reported that Senate President Colleen Hanabusa privately told senators the bill could lead to a lawsuit to legalize same @-@ sex marriage . The American Civil Liberties Union of Hawaii and Supreme Court of Hawaii judge Steven H. Levinson told the legislature that a lawsuit would have little chance of success .
Following the adoption of the amended version of H.B. 444 , Senator Les Ihara , Jr. stated , " I have a hard time reconciling the statement that the proponents made , that this is for equal rights and civil unions β at the same time , this kills it for the session . " Michael Golojuch of Parents , Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays called the vote " a dog @-@ and @-@ pony show " . Hawaii Family Forum leader and former Democratic state representative Dennis Arakaki commented that " things worked out for the good . "
Hooser began a campaign in June 2009 to be elected Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii in 2010 , calling his support for the bill an act on a " critical issue " . Neil Abercrombie was elected to succeed Linda Lingle as Governor in the 2010 gubernatorial election , defeating Duke Aiona .
On July 6 , 2010 , following Lingle 's veto of the bill , Lambda Legal and the ACLU announced that they would file a lawsuit to enable civil unions , stating that " our constitution prevents discrimination based on sexual orientation . "
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= Delaware Route 30 =
Delaware Route 30 ( DE 30 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route runs from an intersection with Bi @-@ State Boulevard a short distance west of U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) between Laurel and Delmar to DE 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) southeast of Milford in the area of Lincoln and Cedar Creek . The road runs east to Gumboro , where it turns north on the Millsboro Highway to Millsboro . Along this road , DE 30 shares concurrencies with DE 26 , DE 54 , and DE 24 . From Millsboro , the route passes through Gravel Hill and to the west of Milton before reaching Milford . DE 30 has an alternate route , DE 30 Alternate ( DE 30 Alt . ) , that was created by 1999 to connect the route with DE 1 by way of Johnson Road . DE 30 is signed as an east @-@ west road from the southern terminus to the east end of the DE 24 concurrency in Millsboro and as a north @-@ south road from that point until the northern terminus .
What is now DE 30 south of Gravel Hill was built as a state highway in various stages during the 1920s and 1930s . DE 30 was first designated by 1938 to connect DE 24 in Millsboro to DE 5 in Milton . The route was rerouted to end at DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) south of Milford by 1971 . DE 30 was extended southwest to Bi @-@ State Boulevard by 1994 and its northern terminus was moved to DE 1 Business by way of a new road by 2003 . An interchange with DE 1 was completed in 2014 .
= = Route description = =
DE 30 begins at an intersection with Bi @-@ State Boulevard in southwestern Sussex County between Laurel and Delmar , heading east on two @-@ lane undivided Whitesville Road . A short distance later , the road crosses US 13 , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes to the south of Trap Pond State Park . The route turns southeast before it curves to the east again . Farther east , DE 30 comes to an intersection with DE 26 / DE 54 .
At this point , DE 30 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 26 / DE 54 on Millsboro Highway . The road curves north and heads into the residential community Gumboro , where DE 54 splits to the east . DE 26 / DE 30 leaves Gumboro and continues back into areas of farms and forests with occasional residences . In Shaft Ox Corner , DE 26 splits to the east and DE 30 heads north to an intersection with DE 24 in Mission .
Here , DE 24 turns north to join DE 30 , with the road running northeast . Farther along , residential development increases as the road heads into Millsboro . At this point , the road names becomes Laurel Road and it reaches an intersection with US 113 / DE 20 . Past this intersection , DE 24 / DE 30 turns north @-@ northeast on Washington Street . The two routes split into a one @-@ way pair following Main Street northbound and Washington Street southbound , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The one @-@ way pair runs through the downtown area of Millsboro , rejoining along two @-@ way Main Street and crossing Indian River to the east of Millsboro Pond . A short distance later , DE 24 and DE 30 split at an intersection .
Upon splitting from DE 24 , DE 30 signage changes from east @-@ west to north @-@ south and the route leaves Millsboro . It continues north on Gravel Hill Road , passing to the east of Millsboro Pond . The road heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . In the community of Zoar , the route intersects DE 24 Alt . Farther north , DE 30 reaches the community of Gravel Hill . In Gravel Hill , the road crosses a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line and comes to an intersection with US 9 / DE 404 . From this point , the route curves northwest before bending north again . DE 30 intersects DE 5 Alt . , which serves as a western bypass of Milton for DE 5 . Here , DE 5 Alt. turns north to form a concurrency with DE 30 , with the road crossing an abandoned railroad line just east of the terminus of a Delaware Coast Line Railroad branch . At an intersection with DE 16 , DE 5 Alt. heads east along with that route and DE 30 continues north on Isaacs Road .
The route heads away from Milton and passes to the east of Reynolds Pond . DE 30 intersects Cedar Creek Road and turns northwest onto that road , curving north and back to the northwest . The road runs to the east of Swiggets Pond and intersects DE 30 Alt . , which heads northeast to an intersection with DE 1 . DE 30 continues north @-@ northwest and comes to ramps providing access to and from the southbound lanes of DE 1 . At this point , the route gains a center left @-@ turn lane and reaches an intersection with Wilkins Road , which provides access to and from the northbound lanes of DE 1 . Past this intersection , DE 30 turns northwest and passes between residential subdivisions to the southwest and DE 1 to the northeast as a two @-@ lane road , coming to its northern terminus at an intersection with DE 1 Bus. at the point that route merges into DE 1 at an interchange southeast of Milford .
DE 30 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 20 @,@ 273 vehicles at the northern edge of Millsboro to a low of 862 vehicles at the intersection with DE 26 / DE 54 . None of DE 30 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 30 existed as a state highway between Mission and Phillips Hill and was proposed as one between Phillips Hill and Millsboro , with the remainder of the route existing as a county road . The state highway between Phillips Hill and Millsboro was completed by 1924 . The state highway portion of the present @-@ day route was extended from Mission to Gumboro a year later , with a section in the Gumboro area under proposal as a state highway . By 1931 , the road was completed as a state highway between US 13 and Jones Branch and from James Branch to Gumboro . In addition , the state highway was completed from Millsboro to north of Gravel Hill as an unpaved road , with a portion north of Gravel Hill becoming a paved county road . The state highway between US 13 and Gumboro was fully complete the following year . By 1936 , the road between Millsboro and Gravel Hill was paved .
By 1938 , DE 30 was designated to run from DE 24 in Millsboro north to DE 5 in Milton , following its current alignment to north of Gravel Hill and then running along Shingle Point Road north into Milton . A portion of current DE 30 south of the DE 16 intersection was paved a year later . By 1952 , the current route of DE 30 north of Gravel Hill was paved . DE 30 was rerouted to follow its present alignment north to DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) south of Milford by 1971 . By 1994 , DE 30 was extended from Millsboro to its current terminus at Bi @-@ State Boulevard . DE 30s northern terminus was moved to its current location at DE 1 Business by 2003 when a road connecting DE 30 to DE 1 Business was completed . In November 2012 , construction began on an interchange at DE 1 southeast of Milford . The interchange between DE 1 and DE 30 was completed in July 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 30 Alternate ( DE 30 Alt . ) is a 0 @.@ 74 miles ( 1 @.@ 19 km ) alternate route of DE 30 south of the city of Milford in the Cedar Creek area . It runs from DE 30 northeast to DE 1 along Johnson Road , passing through a mix of farmland , woodland , and residential development . The route was created by 1999 .
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= Businessman ( film ) =
Businessman , also known as The Businessman , is a 2012 Indian Telugu @-@ language crime film written and directed by Puri Jagannadh . Based on a concept by Ram Gopal Varma and produced by R. R. Venkat under the banner R. R. Movie Makers , the film features Mahesh Babu and Kajal Aggarwal in the lead roles , with Nassar , Prakash Raj , Sayaji Shinde , Raza Murad and Brahmaji in supporting roles .
Mahesh plays Vijay Surya , a ruthless man who comes to Mumbai from South India aspiring to become a mafia don . Surya arrives just as the Mumbai police declare the end of the " Mafia Raj " and begins his journey by helping a local politician and trapping the city commissioner 's daughter , only to fall in love with her . He eventually emerges as the biggest mafia leader of Mumbai and kills a national politician Jai Dev in retribution for cheating and murdering his parents .
S. Thaman composed the film 's music and Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer . The film was made with a budget of βΉ 400 million and was launched formally on 15 August 2011 at Hyderabad . Principal photography began on 2 September 2011 and was shot in Hyderabad , Mumbai and Goa . A few song sequences were shot in Bangkok . Filming ended on 10 December 2011 in 74 working days , one of the shortest periods in which a Telugu film has been shot .
Released during Sankranthi on 13 January 2012 , the film received mixed feedback from critics , but was commercially successful . It grossed more than βΉ 550 million and collected a distributor share of βΉ 448 million , eventually becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2012 . The film was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam with the same title in the same year and was remade into Bengali as Boss : Born to Rule in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Mumbai Police commissioner Ajay Bhardwaj announces the end of the " Mafia Raj " in the city , to try to bring peace to the city 's streets . However , a ruthless south Indian named Vijay Surya comes to the city , aspiring to be the most powerful Mafia Don there . Staying in Dharavi with his friend , he is introduced to a local politician Laalu , who is in trouble and offers him help . He recruits a portion of the gangsters and criminals living in Mumbai led by Naseer to work under him . Surya 's henchman Shakeel manages to kill a witness of Laalu 's crimes in the jail where he is kept in , winning Laalu 's friendship .
After this , Surya promises to clear the debts of Dharavi locals so that their houses will not be repossessed . His men rob the original copies of the loan documents in the local branch of Bank of Maharashtra and destroy the bank records . Surya slowly becomes both popular and feared as an extortionist , while Dharavi locals praise him as their saviour . Surya is aware of Bhardwaj 's intentions . To safeguard himself , he traps Bhardwaj 's daughter Chitra , a keen painter , by posing as a NRI businessman interested in arts . They both fall in love . However , by the time Surya realises that he truly loves her , Bhardwaj has exposed Surya 's real nature to Chitra which makes her hate him . Surya is immediately arrested .
Surya is released after manipulating Bhardwaj by having his associates kidnap Chitra . He promises to leave crime behind him and asks Bhardwaj for permission to marry Chitra . When they refuse his proposal , he insists to Bhardwaj that he will set up a business which is untouchable by the police , and will eventually marry Chitra . Surya sets up a company named " Surya Exports & Imports " as a front for the organised crime that they indulge in . He plans to grow his organised crime network all over India and begins to set up branch offices for " Surya Exports & Imports " in all major cities , towns and villages all over India . He recruits local gangsters for staff and begins to forcibly collect a two percent tax on every contract made in that area . Surya amasses a huge fortune , making him a billionaire , and during the inauguration of his " Business Bank " , he reveals his thirst for power to Bhardwaj . He claims that the crime rate dropped significantly after he started to recruit all the gangsters . He also states that he wants to rid India of crime and help the needy .
Next , Surya helps Laalu to become the Mayor of Mumbai by defeating Arun Ghokle , endorsed by Ghanapuleti Jai Dev , a powerful national politician who wants to become the new prime minister of India in the upcoming elections . Ghokle then reveals Jai Dev 's illegal activities to Bhardwaj , after which he is killed by Jai Dev . After the meeting , Surya comes to know that Jai Dev is planning to kill Bhardwaj and Chitra . He reaches Chitra 's house and saves her but fails to save Bhardwaj . Chitra is devastated and Surya reveals to her that he was an American @-@ born Indian who lost his philanthropist NRI father and mother at an early age ; they were cheated and killed by Jai Dev . This incident and the peoples ' attitudes towards orphans while growing up made him hate that society .
Surya shifts his attention towards the upcoming Indian parliament elections and meets Guru Govind Patel , the head of the opposition party through Laalu . He makes a deal with him , offering βΉ 350 billion for election campaigning and also promises him that he would make him the prime minister of India . Surya spends millions on every constituency in India , making Jai Dev unable to contest in the elections by revealing his illegal affairs . Jai Dev kidnaps Chitra to seek revenge on Surya , who fights with Jai Dev 's henchmen . He is injured , but eventually kills Jai Dev , saving Chitra and proposing to her for the last time . It is revealed at the end that Surya successfully installed Guru Govind Patel as the Prime Minister of India .
Surya is last seen recuperating in a hospital in the company of Chitra , who accepts his proposal .
= = Cast = =
Principal cast
Mahesh Babu as Vijay Surya
Kajal Aggarwal as Chitra Bhardwaj
Prakash Raj as Jaidev Ghanapuleti
Nassar as Ajay Bhardwaj
Sayaji Shinde as Laalu
Raza Murad as Guru Govind Patel
Supporting cast
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Ram Gopal Varma signed Suriya for a multilingual crime film titled The Businessman in May 2010 , to be directed by Puri Jagannadh simultaneously in Telugu , Tamil and Hindi . The film 's protagonist was supposed to be a south Indian coming to Mumbai and setting up a crime business using tact and intelligence to emerge as one of the biggest gangsters . The film 's production was expected to begin in October 2010 once Suriya completed his part in 7aum Arivu ( 2011 ) and was scheduled for release in the summer of 2011 . Jagannadh stated in an interview that principal photography would begin in September 2010 . It was speculated that the film was to be based on the real @-@ life story of a gangster who had moved from the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu to Mumbai in the late 1960s .
The film was revived later by R. R. Venkat later in January 2011 with a tagline " Guns do not need agreements " . He signed Mahesh Babu as the protagonist who worked with Jagannadh in the past for Pokiri ( 2006 ) . Venkat added that the film would be produced under the banner R. R. Movie Makers . Jagannadh completed the final draft of the film 's script on 25 July 2011 during his stay at Bangkok , adding that he was inspired by Ram Gopal Varma . He stated that the pending pre @-@ production work would begin in Hyderabad after a week . The film had its formal launch on 15 August 2011 with a small pooja ceremony conducted at Hyderabad . Shyam K. Naidu and S. Thaman were confirmed as the film 's cinematographer and music director respectively .
= = = Casting = = =
Mahesh received the film 's script while dubbing for Dookudu ( 2011 ) , but due to that commitment took ten days to finish reading the script . He said in an interview that he could maintain the consistency in the character only because of the fewer working days . Jagannadh did not cast Brahmanandam and Ali because of Mahesh 's specific characterisation ; he added that Mahesh 's voice had changed when compared to his performance in Pokiri . Mahesh also convinced Jagannadh to give up smoking , since he himself was trying to give up after being a chain smoker .
Shruti Haasan was initially considered for the female lead role after her performance in her Telugu film debut , Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) . However , Kajal Aggarwal was signed as the female lead later in May 2011 , marking her first collaboration with both Mahesh and Jagannadh respectively . She was paid βΉ 10 million for this film . Jagannadh confirmed reports stating Mahesh and Kajal sharing a kiss in the film , adding that he retained them after Mahesh 's wife Namrata Shirodkar approved it . It was reportedly the first onscreen kiss for both of them . Kajal explained that it was not supposed to be sensual , but was meant to portray the conflict between two characters , and added that it was shot " aesthetically " by Jagannadh .
Prakash Raj , Nassar , Sayaji Shinde , Dharmavarapu Subramanyam , Brahmaji and Bandla Ganesh among others were cast for key supporting roles . Hansika Motwani was rumoured to be a part of the film 's cast in late August 2011 but not immediately confirmed . In mid October 2011 , Hansika reportedly agreed to perform an item number in the film . She later dismissed those reports as baseless rumours , claiming that other acting assignments keep her away from accepting .
Actress Shweta Bhardwaj was therefore selected to perform the item number instead . She was friends with Jagannadh , and he approached her for this song during the film 's shoot at Mumbai , saying that the song suited her and her personality as a dancer . She also tried to understand the meaning of the lyrics while dancing . Bhardwaj was afraid of dancing , suspecting a possible sprain , and found the costumes uneasy , but had to continue upon the choreographer 's insistence . Canadian @-@ born Indian actress Ayesha Shiva was signed to play Kajal 's friend in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was planned to be shot entirely in and around Mumbai and Jagannadh searched for distinct localities there which suit the script 's backdrops . Jagannadh told Venkat that he needed 75 working days to complete the film 's shoot . He planned to start with Mahesh in the first week of September 2011 and established this schedule before finishing in the first week of January 2012 . Filming began on 2 September 2011 at Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad .
The second schedule began at Mumbai from 20 September 2011 and Mahesh confirmed in an interview that it would last until 5 December 2011 . An action sequence choreographed by Vijayan was shot in mid October 2011 and it was announced that the film 's climax would be shot in and around Goa from 27 October 2011 . The song " We Want Bad Boys " was shot in late October 2011 . At the same time , Jagannadh planned to shoot a couple of songs with Mahesh and Kajal in Spain during November 2011 . The filming of the climax sequences featuring Mahesh , Prakash Raj and others was finished by 2 November 2011 .
After filming two songs in the districts of Krabi and Pattaya in Bangkok , the film 's unit returned to Hyderabad on 2 December 2011 for completing patch work . The film 's shooting was wrapped up on 10 December 2011 in 74 working days as expected . Jagannadh revealed in an interview that the film 's length by the end of shoot was 84 @,@ 000 feet as planned . He added that Mahesh and Kajal participated in the film 's shoot for 65 and 30 days respectively .
= = = Post production = = =
The film 's dubbing activities began on 15 December 2011 at Shabdalaya Studios in Hyderabad . The DTS mixing works were in progress in early January 2012 . The Central Board of Film Certification passed the film with an ' A ' certificate ; board members found few of the film 's dialogues offensive and potentially upsetting to the people of Mumbai .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack consists of six songs composed by S. Thaman and written by Bhaskarabhatla . Aditya Music acquired the audio rights . The original along with both the dubbed versions of the soundtrack were released on 22 December 2011 at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad . Na . Muthukumar and Kailas Rishi wrote the lyrics for the dubbed Tamil and Malayalam versions of the songs respectively . The soundtrack was a huge success with nearly 200 @,@ 000 compact discs sold on the first day of its release itself .
= = Release = =
The film was initially planned for a worldwide release on 11 January 2012 . Hari Venkateswara Pictures acquired the film 's overseas distribution rights and after requests by non @-@ Telugu Mahesh fans , it was the first Telugu film to release with subtitles in overseas cinemas . The makers planned for a release in new international markets like Japan and Dubai to cash in on Mahesh 's previous film , Dookudu . The release was postponed by two days to 13 January 2012 due to post production delays . Two thousand screens across the world were booked for the film 's initial release .
It was released to 92 screens across Hyderabad , breaking the previous record set by Oosaravelli ( 2011 ) which was released to 70 screens . Prasads IMAX screened 33 shows on the release day . The film 's Tamil and Malayalam dubbed versions , also titled Businessman , was released on 7 December 2012 to 200 screens across Tamil Nadu and 28 December 2012 respectively .
= = = Legal issues and criticism = = =
S. Thaman was criticised for copying the tunes of the Italian partisan song " Bella ciao " for the song " Pilla Chao " and " He Lives in You " , a song written and performed by Lebo M and his South African Choir for the album Rhythm of the Pride Lands ( 1995 ) , for the song " Chandamama " . " Pilla Chao " was one of the more successful songs on the soundtrack and many music lovers left angry comments about the plagiarism on the song 's YouTube video .
The makers violated the rules of The Cinematograph Act , 1952 and the Central Board of Film Certification regarding the re @-@ working of its title from The Businessman to Businessman after the board cleared the film with the former title . The Andhra Pradesh Film Chamber of Commerce cleared the registration of the film title as The Businessman on 1 January 2011 through a letter and was renewed up to 22 April 2012 . The set of posters sent to the board for certification purpose carried the full title . The film was publicised without the definite article , which was also missing from the posters . Also the ' A ' certification was omitted .
After release , the film was criticised for the usage of curse @-@ words by the protagonist and a few intimate sequences between the lead pair . The muting of a few dialogues and blurring of a few visuals by the board were criticised by viewers . Bajrang Dal lodged a complaint with Municipal police on 14 January 2012 stating that the lyrics of the song " We love Bad Boys " contained vulgar words and conveyed an unacceptable meaning for which they demanded action against Jagannadh . The police confirmed this and stated they would seek legal opinions for taking further action .
Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad activists entered the Aradhana theatre at Tarnaka near Osmania University , and stopped a screening on 25 January 2012 at 11 : 30 AM . They stole the film 's reels and ripped off the film 's hoardings and flexies at the theatre , protesting a few dialogues which allegedly demeaned Rama and were anti @-@ patriotic . They burnt the film 's reels in front of Osmania Arts College in protest of the lyrics of the song " We want Bad Boys " alleging that the song was filled with abusive words . They also demanded a public apology by Mahesh and Jagannadh . Journalist Rohit Vats in his article Real and reel : How Telugu cinema celebrates stalking mentioned the sequences in Businessman quoting , " The conversation between Mahesh Babu and Kajal Aggarwal in Businessman was termed vulgar but later it was accepted in the name of sarcasm . Basically , it was perceived as harmless teasing " .
= = = Marketing = = =
A first @-@ look teaser of 41 seconds was released on 9 November 2011 . The first @-@ look poster featuring a still of Mahesh sitting in a chair and deeply thinking was revealed on 11 November 2011 ( 11 @.@ 11 @.@ 11 ) , receiving a positive response . Two posters featuring Mahesh were unveiled on 5 and 11 December 2011 . The theatrical trailer was attached to the prints of Panjaa ( 2011 ) to be screened in theatres from 9 December 2011 .
As a part of the film 's promotion , Aditya Music offered a range of ringtone packs . Contests were introduced where the winners won posters autographed by Mahesh , the film 's tickets and soundtrack discs apart from others .
= = = Home Media = = =
Jagannadh acquired the satellite rights of the film during his negotiations with the film 's producers for βΉ 50 million . He wanted to rotate the film screening on various channels , at appropriate times , in a bid to gain more widespread viewership and recoup his investment . Studio N acquired the film 's television broadcast rights in March 2012 for βΉ 66 million , which were later sold to Gemini TV . The film 's DVD and Blu Ray discs were produced by Universal Home Entertainment and were released in May 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Suresh Krishnamoorthy of The Hindu called Businessman a " wholesome package " and a " pure entertainer " , quoting " Puri Jagannath has proved that he 's still the director with the Midas touch with his latest release , Businessman " . Y. Sunita Chowdary , also from The Hindu , wrote " The Businessman has a mix of action , image , dialogue and montage but what makes it entertaining is that all the above quantities are inextricably bound and linked together at every level with an admirably tight script . " She added that Jagannadh did not make any structural , technical or content errors , although the story was a regular one . Suresh Kavirayani of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 25 out of 5 stars and called the film an " unpretentious entertainer that manages to strike the right balance " , which according to him , had enough in it to keep the viewers interested till the end despite not being a spectacular production .
Indo @-@ Asian News Service gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and called Businessman a film for Mahesh 's fans and highlighted Mahesh 's performance and Jagannadh 's dialogues as the film 's strong points . Another reviewer from IANS called the film " senseless yet entertaining " and stated " Mahesh 's dashing performance as a mafia kingpin with a hidden personal agenda is commendable and deserves high appreciation . Businessman may be perverse and appeal only to the masses , yet is a winner for unexplainable reasons . " Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and opined that Businessman was an entertaining film if watched uncritically . She added " There 's no doubt that Puri Jagan has played to the gallery and kept the masses and Mahesh 's image in mind while conceiving this film . It 's just Mahesh all the way . "
Sify felt that the film was strictly for Mahesh 's fans but praised Jagannadh 's work saying that the " story sounds far fetched , demanding logic . The screenplay is a saving grace , which works like magic , making the audiences forget the monotony in between . " The reviewer highlighted Mahesh 's performance , the dialogues and the songs as the film 's stronger elements . Ramchander of Oneindia Entertainment called Businessman a serious film with limited appeal , which might be enjoyed by Mahesh 's fans but which would be an average for others . B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and stated " Businessman is a typical Mahesh Babu film all the way , evoking laughs with comic one @-@ liners and subtle expressions . However , his efforts could go in vain thanks to a contrived and highly exaggerated plot . " IndiaGlitz called Businessman a " Mahesh @-@ Magnified film " and stated " It is clear that the director throws all logic to the winds in the hope that Mahesh the Prince and a few cheeky one @-@ liners will salvage the film . There is so much meaningless lecturing in the movie in the form of the demented arguments that our hero employs in many a scene . "
= = = Box office = = =
Businessman opened to 85 % occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes at AP / Nizam box office on its first day . It grossed approximately βΉ 187 @.@ 35 million and collected a share of βΉ 137 @.@ 8 million at the global box office on its first day creating an all @-@ time record in terms of opening day collections . The film collected a distributor share of βΉ 120 million in AP / Nizam box office , βΉ 10 million in Karnataka , βΉ 7 @.@ 5 million together in Tamil Nadu , Orissa and North India respectively and βΉ 0 @.@ 3 million together in the United States , United Kingdom , Australia and Japan on its first day .
The film collected approximately βΉ 418 @.@ 35 million by the end of its first week at the global box office and was declared a blockbuster . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in 350 centres on 3 March 2012 , and a 100 @-@ day run in undisclosed number of centres on 21 April 2012 . The film collected a distributor share of βΉ 448 million and grossed over βΉ 550 million in its lifetime at the global box office .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
After Mahesh refused to perform in the Hindi remake of this film , Jagannadh approached Ranbir Kapoor in late January 2012 and arranged a special screening for him . Ram Gopal Varma confirmed in March 2012 that he and Jagannadh would remake the film in Hindi with Abhishek Bachchan playing the role of Mahesh in the original . The film was remade in Bengali as Boss : Born to Rule in 2013 by choreographer @-@ turned @-@ director Baba Yadav with Jeet and Subhasree Ganguly reprising the roles of Mahesh and Kajal from the original respectively .
= = Possible sequel = =
Jagannadh expressed interest in making a sequel of the film after the response to the original on its first day and planned to begin work on the same from late 2012 . Mahesh too confirmed the same in late January 2012 during the scripting stage of the sequel titled Businessman 2 . It was planned as a bilingual film to be shot in Telugu and Hindi simultaneously . Ram Gopal Varma also expressed interest after listening to the script and felt that the sequel would do much better business that the original . However , Jagannadh shelved the sequel in early August 2012 and opted to direct Mahesh in an original film .
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= Washington State Route 127 =
State Route 127 ( SR 127 ) is a 27 @.@ 05 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 43 @.@ 53 km ) state highway serving the eastern region of the U.S. state of Washington . The highway , listed on the National Highway System , begins in rural Garfield County at U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) and travels north across the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge . The roadway continues into Whitman County before it ends at SR 26 in Dusty . SR 127 formed a section of the Inland Empire Highway and Primary State Highway 3 ( PSH 3 ) prior to becoming US 295 in 1926 . US 295 was decommissioned in 1968 and replaced by a longer SR 127 , traveling its full length from Dodge to Colfax from its establishment in 1970 until an extension of SR 26 to Colfax in 1979 .
= = Route description = =
SR 127 begins at an intersection with US 12 in the unincorporated community of Dodge , located between Starbuck and Pomeroy in rural Garfield County . The highway travels north around Dodge Hill and into the hills along New York Gulch before reaching the Snake River . SR 127 crosses the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge into Whitman County east of the former Central Ferry State Park . The highway continues northeast up the Central Ferry grade to Dusty , where SR 127 ends at an intersection with SR 26 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 127 was its northern terminus at SR 26 , serving 1 @,@ 000 vehicles . The entire route of SR 127 is designated as part of the National Highway System , a highway system that includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility ; and as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The present route of SR 127 was added to the Washington state highway system in 1913 as part of the Inland Empire Highway , traveling in a circular arc from Ellensburg through the Yakima Valley and into the Palouse towards the Canadian border in Laurier . The Inland Empire Highway was numbered as State Road 3 in 1923 and PSH 3 in 1937 as part of the primary and secondary state highways . The United States Highway System was adopted on November 11 , 1926 by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) and included US 295 , traveling northeast from US 410 at Dodge to US 195 in Colfax and crossing the Snake River at Central Ferry . US 295 succeeded PSH 3 during the 1964 state highway renumbering , but was decommissioned in 1968 before the new state highway system was codified . The roadway was re @-@ designated as SR 127 after the new sign route number system was codified into the Revised Code of Washington in 1970 , traveling 43 @.@ 82 miles ( 70 @.@ 52 km ) from US 12 at Dodge to US 195 in Colfax and crossing the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge , completed in 1969 . SR 127 was truncated to its present route after SR 26 was extended east to Colfax over the former route of SR 127 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Up ( 2009 film ) =
Up is a 2009 American 3D computer @-@ animated comedy @-@ drama adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed by Pete Docter , the film centers on an elderly widower named Carl Fredricksen ( Ed Asner ) and an earnest young Wilderness Explorer named Russell ( Jordan Nagai ) . By tying thousands of balloons to his home , 78 @-@ year @-@ old Carl sets out to fulfill his dream to see the wilds of South America and complete a promise made to his late wife , Ellie . The film was co @-@ directed by Bob Peterson , with music composed by Michael Giacchino .
Docter began working on the story in 2004 , which was based on fantasies of escaping from life when it becomes too irritating . He and eleven other Pixar artists spent three days in Venezuela gathering research and inspiration . The designs of the characters were caricatured and stylized considerably , and animators were challenged with creating realistic cloth . The floating house is attached by a varying number between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 balloons in the film 's sequences . Up was Pixar 's first film to be presented in Disney Digital 3 @-@ D.
Up was released on May 29 , 2009 and opened the 2009 Cannes Film Festival , becoming the first animated and 3D film to do so . The film became a great financial success , accumulating over $ 731 million in its theatrical release . Up received universal acclaim , with most reviewers commending the humor and heart of the film . Edward Asner was praised for his portrayal of Carl , and a montage of Carl and his wife Ellie aging together was widely lauded . The film received five Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture , making it the second animated film in history to receive such a nomination , following Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .
= = Plot = =
Carl Fredricksen is a young 9 @-@ year @-@ old boy who idolizes famous explorer Charles Muntz . Muntz has been accused of fabricating the skeleton of a giant exotic bird he says he discovered at Paradise Falls , and vows to return there to catch one alive . One day , Carl befriends a girl named Ellie , who is also a fan of Muntz . She confides to Carl her desire to move her " clubhouse " β an abandoned house in the neighborhood β to a cliff overlooking Paradise Falls . Carl and Ellie eventually get married and live together in the restored house . Carl sells toy balloons from a cart at a zoo Ellie opens . After suffering a miscarriage and being told they cannot have a child , the two decide to realize their dream of visiting Paradise Falls . They try to save for the trip , but repeatedly end up spending the money on more pressing needs . Finally , an elderly Carl arranges for the trip , but Ellie suddenly becomes ill and dies .
Years later , Carl still lives in the house , stubbornly holding out as the surrounding neighborhood is torn down for new construction , but when he accidentally injures a construction worker over damage to his mailbox , a court orders him to move to a retirement home . However , Carl comes up with a scheme to keep his promise to Ellie , and turns his house into a makeshift airship , using thousands of helium balloons . Russell , a young Wilderness Explorer , becomes an accidental stowaway in his effort to earn his final merit badge for assisting the elderly . After surviving a thunderstorm , the flying house lands on a tepui opposite Paradise Falls . Carl and Russell harness themselves to the still @-@ buoyant house and begin to walk it across the mesa , hoping to reach the falls before the balloons deflate . Russell encounters a tall , colorful flightless bird , whom he names " Kevin " . They then meet a Golden Retriever named Dug , who wears a special collar that allows him to speak , and who vows to take the bird to his master .
The group is set upon by a pack of aggressive dogs led by Alpha , a doberman ( who is also seeking the bird ) , and are taken to their master , who turns out to be an elderly Charles Muntz . Muntz invites Carl and Russell aboard his dirigible , where he explains that he has spent years since his disgrace searching for the giant bird . When Russell notes the bird 's similarity to Kevin , Muntz becomes hostile , believing they have been attempting to steal the bird . The pair flees with Kevin and Dug , but Muntz catches up with them , captures Kevin and starts a fire beneath Carl 's house , forcing him to choose between saving it or Kevin . Carl rushes to put out the fire , allowing Muntz to take the bird . He and Russell eventually reach the falls , though Russell is disappointed in Carl over his decision to abandon Kevin .
Settling into his home , Carl looks through Ellie 's childhood scrapbook , and is surprised to find that she has filled in the blank pages with photos of their marriage , along with a note thanking him for the " adventure " and encouraging him to go have a new one . Reinvigorated , he goes to find Russell , only to see him sailing off with some balloons to save Kevin on his own . Carl empties the house of furniture and possessions , lightening it , and pursues him . Russell is captured by Muntz , but Carl manages to board the dirigible in flight and free both him and Kevin . Dug accidentally defeats Alpha and becomes the dogs ' new leader . Muntz pursues them around the airship , finally cornering Dug , Kevin , and Russell inside Carl 's tethered house . Carl lures Kevin back onto the airship with Dug and Russell clinging to her back , but when Muntz leaps after them , he snags his foot on some balloon lines and falls to his death . The house then descends out of sight through the clouds .
Carl and Russell reunite Kevin with her chicks , then fly the dirigible back to the city . Carl presents Russell with his final badge : a grape soda cap that Ellie gave to Carl when they first met and made their promise . The two and Dug then enjoy some ice cream together . Meanwhile , Carl 's house has landed on the cliff beside Paradise Falls , fulfilling his promise to Ellie .
= = Voice cast = =
Ed Asner as Carl Fredricksen ( Jeremy Leary voiced Carl as a young boy ) . Docter and Rivera noted Asner 's television alter ego , Lou Grant , had been helpful in writing for Carl , because it guided them in balancing likable and unlikable aspects of the curmudgeonly character . When they met Asner and presented him with a model of his character , he joked , " I don 't look anything like that . " ( The appearance of Carl is meant to resemble Spencer Tracy as he appeared in his final film , Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner . ) They tailored his dialogue for him , with short sentences and more consonants , which " cemented the notion that Carl , post @-@ Ellie , is a disgruntled bear that 's been poked awake during hibernation " . In Colombia , unexpected publicity for the film was generated due to the uncanny similarity of Carl with Colombian ex @-@ president Julio CΓ©sar Turbay Ayala .
Christopher Plummer as Charles F. Muntz , an old explorer looking for the Beast of Paradise Falls , vowing not to return to North America until he had captured the last @-@ living creature , using a group of dogs to aid him in his hunt . The name of his airship , the Spirit of Adventure , may have been inspired by Charles Lindbergh 's airplane , Spirit of St. Louis . In various interviews , Pete Docter has mentioned Howard Hughes and real life adventurers Charles Lindbergh and Percy Fawcett as inspirations for Muntz .
Jordan Nagai as Russell , a young Wilderness Explorer who becomes an accidental passenger in Carl 's floating house in his effort to earn his final merit badge for assisting the elderly . Throughout most of the film , he makes several comments to Carl that suggest that Russell 's father and mother are no longer together . Russell 's design was based on Pixar animator Peter Sohn . Docter auditioned 400 boys in a nationwide casting call for the part . Nagai , who is Japanese American , showed up to an audition with his brother , who was actually the one auditioning . Docter realized Nagai behaved and spoke non @-@ stop like Russell and chose him for the part . Nagai was 8 years old when cast . Docter encouraged Nagai to act physically as well as vocally when recording the role , lifting him upside down and tickling him for the scene where Russell encounters Kevin . Asian Americans have positively noted Pixar 's first casting of an Asian lead character , in contrast to the common practice of casting non @-@ Asians in Asian parts .
Bob Peterson as Dug , the Golden Retriever misfit of Muntz 's pack of dogs that can all communicate with humans through a device on each of their collars . Peterson knew he would voice Dug when he wrote his line " I have just met you , and I love you , " which was based on what a child told him when he was a camp counselor in the 1980s . The DVD release of the film features a short called Dug 's Special Mission , which follows Dug just before his first meeting with Carl and Russell . Dug previously appeared in Ratatouille as a shadow on a wall that barks at Remy.Peterson also voices Alpha , the Doberman Pinscher leader of Muntz 's pack of dogs . Pete Docter has stated that Alpha " thinks of himself as Clint Eastwood " . Despite his menacing appearance , a frequent malfunction in Alpha 's translating collar causes his voice to sound comically high @-@ pitched and squeaky , as if he had been breathing helium . The normal voice for his translator is a resonant , intimidating bass . With both voices , Alpha has a roundabout speech pattern that causes his sentences to be longer than necessary .
Pete Docter as Kevin , the " Beast of Paradise Falls " , which is actually just a large , colorful prehistoric bird . Docter also voices Campmaster Strauch , Russell 's scout leader , seen at the end of the film .
Elizabeth Docter as Ellie Fredricksen as a younger child . The voice actor is the director 's daughter , who also provided some of the drawings shown by Ellie .
Delroy Lindo as Beta , a Rottweiler and one of Muntz 's dogs .
Jerome Ranft as Gamma , a Bulldog and one of Muntz 's dogs .
John Ratzenberger as Tom , a construction worker who asks if Carl is ready to sell his house .
David Kaye as the newsreel announcer .
Danny Mann as Steve , a construction worker whom Carl injures because he accidentally wrecked his mailbox .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Pete Docter first began writing Up in 2004 . The fantasy of a flying house was developed on the idea of escaping from life when it becomes too irritating , which stemmed from his difficulty with social situations growing up . Actor and writer Tom McCarthy aided Docter and Bob Peterson in shaping the story for about three months . Docter selected an old man for the main character after drawing a picture of a grumpy old man with smiling balloons . The two men thought that an old man was a good idea for a protagonist because they felt that their experiences and the way that they affect their view of the world was a rich source of humor . Docter was not concerned with an elderly protagonist , stating that children would relate to Carl in the way that they relate to their grandparents .
Early concepts were very different from the final film . The initial version featured a floating castle with two brothers vying to inherit their father 's kingdom , and when the brothers fell to Earth , they encountered a tall bird who helped them understand each other . Docter 's next idea introduced many of the elements that eventually made their way into the film , but had Carl and Russell landing the house on a Soviet @-@ era spy airship camouflaged as a giant cloud rather than on a tepui . This concept was rewritten due to its similarity to another idea Pixar was developing . Another idea Docter added , then removed , was magic fountain @-@ of @-@ youth eggs laid by the bird , in order to explain the age discrepancy between Muntz and Carl , but it was decided that this subplot was too distracting , and that people would forgive the minor inconsistency .
Docter noted that the film reflects his friendships with Disney veterans Frank Thomas , Ollie Johnston , and Joe Grant ( who all died before the film 's release and thus the film was dedicated to them ) . Grant gave the script his approval as well as some advice before his death in 2005 . Docter recalled that Grant would remind him that the audience needed an " emotional bedrock " because of how wacky the adventure would become ; here it is Carl mourning for his wife . Docter felt that Grant 's personality influenced Carl 's deceased wife Ellie more than the grouchy main character , and Carl was primarily based on Spencer Tracy , Walter Matthau , James Whitmore , and their own grandparents , because there was " something sweet about these grumpy old guys " . Docter and Jonas Rivera noted Carl 's charming nature in spite of his grumpiness derives from the elderly " hav [ ing ] this charm and almost this ' old man license ' to say things that other people couldn 't get away with [ ... ] It 's like how we would go to eat with Joe Grant and he would call the waitresses ' honey ' . I wish I could call a waitress ' honey ' . "
Docter revealed that the filmmakers ' first story outline had Carl " just want [ ing ] to join his wife up in the sky . It was almost a kind of strange suicide mission or something . And obviously that 's [ a problem ] . Once he gets airborne , then what ? So we had to have some goal for him to achieve that he had not yet gotten . " As a result , they added the plot of going to South America . The location was chosen due to both Docter 's love of tropical locations , but also in wanting a location that Carl could be stuck with a kid due to the inability to leave him with an authority such as a police officer or social worker . They implemented a child character as a way to help Carl stop being " stuck in his ways " .
Docter created Dug as he felt it would be refreshing to show what a dog thinks , rather than what people assume it thinks . Knowledge of canine communication , body language and pack behaviors for the artists and animators to portray such thoughts came from consultant Dr. Ian Dunbar , veterinarian , dog behaviorist and trainer . The idea for Alpha 's voice derived from thinking about what would happen if someone broke a record player and it always played at a high pitch . Russell was added to the story at a later date than Dug and Kevin ; his presence , as well as the construction workers , helped to make the story feel less " episodic " .
Carl 's relationship with Russell reflects how " he 's not really ready for the whirlwind that a kid is , as few of us are " . Docter added he saw Up as a " coming of age " tale and an " unfinished love story " , with Carl still dealing with the loss of his wife . He cited inspiration from Casablanca and A Christmas Carol , which are both " resurrection " stories about men who lose something , and regain purpose during their journey . Docter and Rivera cited inspiration from the Muppets , Hayao Miyazaki , Dumbo , and Peter Pan . They also saw parallels to The Wizard of Oz and tried to make Up not feel too similar . There is a scene where Carl and Russell haul the floating house through the jungle . A Pixar employee compared the scene to Fitzcarraldo , and Docter watched that film and The Mission for further inspiration . The character Charles Muntz comes from Howard Hughes and Errol Flynn .
= = = Animation = = =
Docter made Venezuela the film 's setting after Ralph Eggleston gave him a video of the tepui mountains of Canaima National Park ; and tepuis were already featured in a previous Disney film , Dinosaur . In 2004 , Docter and eleven other Pixar artists spent three days reaching Monte Roraima by airplane , jeep , and helicopter . They spent three nights there painting and sketching , and encountering ants , mosquitoes , scorpions , frogs , and snakes . They also flew to Matawi Tepui and climbed to Angel Falls . Docter felt " we couldn 't use [ the rocks and plants we saw ] . Reality is so far out , if we put it in the movie you wouldn 't believe it . " The film 's creatures were also challenging to design because they had to fit in the surreal environment of the tepuis , but also be realistic because those mountains exist in real life . The filmmakers visited Sacramento Zoo to observe a Himalayan monal for Kevin 's animation . The animators designed Russell as an Asian @-@ American , and modeled Russell after similar looking Peter Sohn , a Pixar storyboarder who voiced Emile in Ratatouille and directed the short Partly Cloudy , because of his energetic nature .
While Pixar usually designs their characters to be caricatured , Carl was even more so , being only three heads high . He was not given elderly features such as liver spots or hair in his ears to keep him appealing , yet giving him wrinkles , pockmarks on his nose , a hearing aid , and a cane to make him appear elderly . Docter wanted to push a stylized feel , particularly the way Carl 's head is proportioned : he has a squarish appearance to symbolize his containment within his house , while Russell is rounded like a balloon . The challenge on Up was making these stylized characters feel natural , although Docter remarked the effect came across better than animating the realistic humans from Toy Story , who suffered from the " uncanny valley " . Cartoonists Al Hirschfeld , Hank Ketcham , and George Booth influenced the human designs . Simulating realistic cloth on caricatured humans was harder than creating the 10 @,@ 000 balloons flying the house . New programs were made to simulate the cloth and for Kevin 's iridescent feathers . To animate old people , Pixar animators would study their own parents or grandparents and also watched footage of the Senior Olympics . The directors had various rules for Carl 's movements : he could not turn his head more than 15 β 20 degrees without turning his torso as well , nor could he raise his arms high . However , they also wanted him to grow more flexible near the end of the film , transforming into an " action hero " .
A technical director worked out that to make Carl 's house fly , he would require 23 million balloons , but Docter realized that number made the balloons look like small dots . Instead , the balloons created were made to be twice Carl 's size . There are 10 @,@ 927 balloons for shots of the house just flying , 20 @,@ 622 balloons for the lift @-@ off sequence , and a varying number in other scenes .
= = = Music = = =
Up is the third Pixar film to be scored by Michael Giacchino , after The Incredibles and Ratatouille . What Pete Docter wanted most importantly out of the music was the emotion , so Giacchino wrote a character theme @-@ based score that producer Jonas Rivera thought enhanced the story . At the beginning of the movie , when young Carl is in the movie theater watching a newsreel about Muntz , the first piece of music heard is " Muntz 's Theme " , which starts out as a celebratory theme , and echoes through the film when Muntz reappears 70 years later . " Ellie 's Theme " is first heard when she is introduced as a little kid and plays several times during the film in different versions ; for instance , during the sequence where Carl lifts his house with the balloons , the theme is changed from a simple piano melody to a full orchestral arrangement . Giacchino has compared the film to opera since each character has a unique theme that changes during a particular moment in the story .
The score was released as a digital download on May 26 , 2009 , three days before the film opened in theaters . It won the Academy Award for Best Original Score , the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album , the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score , and the 2010 BAFTA Award for Best Film Music . It is the first score for a Pixar film to win the Oscar ( Randy Newman also won for Monsters , Inc. and Toy Story 3 , but in the category of Best Original Song ) .
= = Release = =
When the film screened at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California from May 29 to July 23 , 2009 , it was accompanied by Lighten Up ! , a live show featuring Disney characters . Other tie @-@ ins included children 's books such as My Name is Dug , illustrated by screenwriter Ronnie del Carmen . Despite Pixar 's track record , Target Corporation and Walmart stocked few Up items , while Pixar 's regular collaborator Thinkway Toys did not produce merchandise , claiming its story is unusual and would be hard to promote . Disney acknowledged not every Pixar film would have to become a franchise . Promotional partners include Aflac , NASCAR , and Airship Ventures , while Cluster Balloons promoted the film with a replica of Carl 's couch lifted by hot air balloons for journalists to sit in .
Before the film 's worldwide release date , Pixar granted a wish from 10 @-@ year @-@ old Colby Curtin to see the film before she died . Colby had been diagnosed with cancer and was too sick to go to a theater . A Pixar employee flew to the Curtin 's house with a DVD of the finished film and screened it for her and her family . Curtin died seven hours later at 9 : 20 pm , shortly after seeing the film .
Director Pete Docter intended for audiences to take a specific point from the film , saying :
Basically , the message of the film is that the real adventure of life is the relationship we have with other people , and it 's so easy to lose sight of the things we have and the people that are around us until they are gone . More often than not , I don 't really realize how lucky I was to have known someone until they 're either moved or passed away . So , if you can kind of wake up a little bit and go , " Wow , I 've got some really cool stuff around me every day " , then that 's what the movie 's about .
= = = UPisodes = = =
Before its theatrical release , Disney Β· Pixar created three small animated vignettes called UPisodes to promote its film UP on the internet . These UPisodes chronicled Carl Fredricksen and Russell 's journey through the jungle , not seen in the movie . Fans were able to view the vignettes on Apple iTunes movie trailer site and YouTube .
UPisode One : Animal Calls - in the first episode , Russell demonstrates his ability to mimic animal calls .
UPisode Two : First Aid - in the second episode , Russell tries to relieve a minor injury that Carl received .
UPisode Three : Snipe Trap - in the third episode , Russell attempts to capture the elusive snipe .
= = = Home media = = =
Up was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in North America on November 10 , 2009 , and in the United Kingdom on February 15 , 2010 . It features the film plus the theatrical short Partly Cloudy and the new short Dug 's Special Mission , as well as an audio commentary by director Pete Docter , Adventure is Out There a documentary about the filmmakers ' research journey to South America , The Many Endings of Muntz ( an alternate ending of sorts ) , and a digital copy . The Blu @-@ ray edition has a four @-@ disc pack that adds Cine @-@ Explore with BonusView , Global Guardian Badge and Geography games , eight documentaries , and BD @-@ Live to the Deluxe DVD and digital copy platters . A Limited Edition , known as the Luxo Jr . Premium Pack , includes a collectible lamp modeled after Pixar 's bouncy short star that is designed to hold a complete Pixar Blu @-@ ray collection .
In addition , Pixar also created a short film titled George & A.J. , written and directed by storyboard artist Josh Cooley . This shows what the two Shady Oaks retirement home workers did after Carl left with his house . It was initially available for purchase at the iTunes Store , and then was later posted to Disney Β· Pixar 's Facebook and YouTube pages .
In its first week , it sold 3 @,@ 969 @,@ 792 units ( $ 66 @,@ 057 @,@ 339 ) and eventually reached 10 @,@ 811 @,@ 453 units ( $ 182 @,@ 591 @,@ 149 ) , becoming the best @-@ selling DVD among those released in 2009 in units sold . It also became the third in sales revenue behind Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and Twilight .
The rental release of the film to Netflix , Blockbuster , and Redbox was controversial since it failed to include closed captioning . Disney faced a consumer backlash over this and quickly released a statement that this removal was an unfortunate error and that it was moving to correct the issue .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Up earned $ 293 @,@ 004 @,@ 164 in the United States and Canada and $ 438 @,@ 338 @,@ 580 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 731 @,@ 342 @,@ 744 . Worldwide , it was the sixth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Pixar film , the 55th highest @-@ grossing film , and the 15th highest @-@ grossing animated film .
In the United States and Canada , Up is the 59th highest @-@ grossing film before inflation , the 10th highest @-@ grossing Disney film , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 3 @-@ D film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , and the fourth highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . On its opening weekend , it performed stronger than analysts had been expecting , ranking number one with $ 68 @,@ 108 @,@ 790 . This is the fourth highest @-@ grossing opening for Pixar and the third largest post @-@ Memorial Day opening . It set a record for opening weekend grosses originating from 3 @-@ D showings with $ 35 @.@ 4 million ( first surpassed by Avatar ) . The opening weekend audience was 53 % female and 47 % under 17 years old . The film experienced small drop @-@ offs on subsequent weekends , but lost first place to The Hangover .
Outside the US and Canada , it is the 43rd highest @-@ grossing film , the 10th highest @-@ grossing animated film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , and the third highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . It was on top of the overseas box office for three consecutive weekends and four in total . Its highest @-@ grossing opening weekends were recorded in France and the Maghreb region ( $ 8 @.@ 88 million ) ; the UK , Ireland and Malta , ( $ 8 @.@ 44 million ) ; and Japan ( $ 7 @.@ 24 million ) . These three were also its highest @-@ grossing countries in total earnings . Among major countries , it was the highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2009 only in Spain ( $ 37 @.@ 1 million ) , Australia ( $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) , and South Korea ( $ 6 @.@ 32 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Up received universal critical acclaim . Rotten Tomatoes reports that 98 % of critics have given the film a " Certified Fresh " positive review , based on 285 reviews , with an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 review average . The site 's consensus states : " An exciting , funny , and poignant adventure , Up offers an impeccably crafted story told with wit and arranged with depth , as well as yet another visual Pixar treat " . The film also holds a score of 88 on the review aggregator website Metacritic . Audiences gave the film an " A + " CinemaScore .
Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and called it " a wonderful film . " The Hollywood Reporter lauded the film as " Winsome , touching and arguably the funniest Pixar effort ever , this gorgeously rendered , high @-@ flying adventure is a tidy 90 @-@ minute distillation of all the signature touches that came before it . " Although the San Francisco Chronicle noted that the film " contains many boring stretches of mindless freneticism and bland character interaction , " it also declared that there are scenes in Up of " such beauty , economy and poetic wisdom that they belong in any anthology of great movie moments ... to watch Up with any attention is to be moved and astonished by the economy with which specific visuals are invested with emotion throughout [ the film ] ... " Variety enthused that " Up is an exceptionally refined picture ; unlike so many animated films , it 's not all about sensory bombardment and volume ... Unsurprisingly , no one puts a foot wrong here . Vocal performances ... exude a warm enthusiasm , and tech specifications could not be better . Michel Giacchino 's full @-@ bodied , traditional score is superlative ... " The Globe claimed that Up is " the kind of movie that leaves you asking ' How do people come up with this stuff ? ' " along with an overall positive review on the film , despite it being predictable .
The character of Carl Fredricksen has received mostly positive reception . Bill Capodagli , author of Innovate the Pixar Way , praised Carl for his ability to be a jerk and likable at the same time . Wall Street Journal editor Joe Morgenstern described Carl as gruff , comparing him to Buster Keaton , but adds that this begins to wear thin as the movie progresses . He has been compared with Spencer Tracy , an influence on the character , by The Washington Post editor Ann Hornaday and Empire Online editor Ian Freer , who describes him as similar to a " Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner @-@ era " Tracy . Entertainment Weekly editor Lisa Schwarzbaum described his appearance as a cross between Tracy and an eccentric out of a George Booth cartoon . TIME editor Richard Corliss also makes the comparison , calling him a " trash compacted version " of Tracy . He has also been compared to Walter Matthau , another inspiration for the character 's design , by LA Weekly editor Scott Foundas , suggesting that actor Ed Asner was channeling him while performing the role of Carl . Variety editor Todd McCarthy described Carl as a combination of both Tracy and Matthau .
The relationship between Carl and his wife Ellie has been praised in several media outlets . In his book Disney , Pixar , and the Hidden Message of Children 's Films , author M. Keith Booker described the love between Carl and Ellie as touching . While also describing the scene of the two of them aging as a " masterpiece of its own kind , " he was not sure how much children would appreciate the scene , commenting that his son was squirming in his seat during the scene . Reelviews editor James Berardinelli praised their relationship , stating that it brought a tear to his eye in a way no animated film has done , including anything by famed anime director Hayao Miyazaki . Ann Hornaday praised the prologue , describing it as " worthy of Chaplin in its heartbreaking poignancy . " Chicago Tribune editor Michael Phillips praised the scene , describing it as an emotional and cinematic powerhouse , and that he also was nearly moved to tears . However , Salon.com editor Stephanie Zacharek criticized the love between Carl and Ellie , describing their marriage as resembling a dental adhesive commercial more than a real relationship .
Edward Asner was praised in several media outlets for his portrayal of Carl . San Francisco Chronicle editor Mick LaSalle praised Asner as a great choice due to having a grumpiness to his voice that is not truly grumpy , but rather coming from a protective stance . Entertainment Weekly editor Lisa Schwarzbaum praised Asner 's acting , stating that he has a " Lou Grant authority " to his voice . Time editor Richard Corliss stated that Asner had the " gruffness and deadpan comic timing to bring Carl to life . " The Boston Globe editor Ty Burr concurred with this , stating that his Lou Grant @-@ like voice had not diminished with time . USA Today editor Claudia Puig praised Asner 's delivery , describing it as superb .
The formulation of Russell as an Asian American character , along with the casting of an Asian American in the role was met positively as well . Both Nagai and the film were awarded by the East West Players for the depiction of Russell . EWP lauded Pixar for the creation of the character , stating , " We are proud to honor a very progressive film company like Pixar who cast an Asian American character alongside an elderly one to play the leads in a feature film . " The character is noted as Pixar 's first lead Asian character , and was further positively received within the added context of historical non @-@ Asian castings for Asian roles in entertainment . Asian American organizations and entertainment websites , such as media watchdog Media Action Network for Asian Americans ( MANAA ) , Racebending.com , and Angry Asian Man praised the character and Pixar for its diverse character depictions , noting the general lack of Asian American lead characters and Asian actors cast in entertainment . In an interview with NPR in 2013 , Angry Asian Man 's Phil Yu reflected on the character 's lack of typical Asian stereotyping , stating , " You know , he just happens to be Asian and he 's , you know , really adorable character . But that kid could 've been of any ethnicity but they made the effort to make him Asian - just a little color , you know , and it 's really wonderful when that kind of thing happens where they don 't have to play that up and make it like a thing or a joke , which happens a lot . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Up won two awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Score . It is the second of three animated features to have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . Beauty and the Beast and Toy Story 3 were also nominated for Best Picture in their respective years . Up also won Best Original Score and Best Animated Feature Film at the 67th Golden Globe Awards . It was nominated for nine Annie Awards in eight categories , winning two awards for " Best Animated Feature " and " Best Directing in a Feature Production " . Up also received the Golden Tomato from Rotten Tomatoes for highest rating feature in 2009 , and best reviewed animated film , with an approval of 98 percent from film critics , based on 259 reviews . At the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards the film won Favorite Animated Movie . Jordan Nagai was awarded the Breakout Performance Award at the 44th East West Players 44th Anniversary Visionary Awards and Silent Auction for his role as Russell by the East West Players . The organization also awarded the film with the EWP Visionary Award for its progressive casting of an Asian American lead . Dug , the talking canine , was awarded the Palm Dog Award by the British film critics as the best canine performance at Cannes Film Festival , winning over the fox from Antichrist and the black poodle from Inglourious Basterds .
= = Allegory = =
A running joke involving Dug and the dog pack losing concentration at the mention of " squirrel ! " is now a metaphor for distraction in popular culture , in which paying attention to a figurative squirrel causes loss of focus on important issues .
= = Video games = =
On May 26 , 2009 , a video game by the same name themed around the movie was released for multiple platforms .
A video game , Kinect Rush : A Disney @-@ Pixar Adventure , was also released on March 20 , 2012 , for Xbox 360 . It features characters from five of Pixar 's films : Up , The Incredibles , Cars , Ratatouille , and Toy Story .
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= Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad =
The Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad was a 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge railroad in Blair and Cambria Counties , Pennsylvania which operated during the late 19th and early 20th century . It carried passenger traffic up from the vicinity of Altoona to Wopsononock and coal and timber down from Wopsononock and Dougherty to Altoona . Originally constructed to develop coal mines and resort traffic atop the Allegheny Plateau , it became involved in a complicated and ultimately unsuccessful scheme to break the Pennsylvania Railroad 's control over the Clearfield Coalfield . Never very profitable , it went through several reorganizations , the last in 1913 . Conversion to 4 ft 8 1 β 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1916 did not improve the situation , and the railroad was abandoned in 1919 .
= = Charter and construction = =
The railroad was chartered on May 27 , 1890 as the Altoona and Wopsononock Railroad . It was surveyed from Juniata , a northern suburb of Altoona , up Spring Run , and climbed a circuitous , twisting route up the Allegheny Front through Juniata Gap , to terminate at the newly established resort town of Wopsononock . By the time the first annual meeting of the stockholders was held on January 13 , 1891 , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the road had been completed as a 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge line . The board ultimately decided to complete the remaining 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the same gauge . Frank G. Patterson , an Altoona attorney , was elected president , and William L. Shellenberger vice @-@ president .
Rails were finished to the top of the Alleghenies on June 6 , and the first train arrived in Wopsononock on June 11 . The railroad was formally opened on July 2 , 1891 . An extension to Dougherty , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) beyond Wopsononock , was begun on September 31 , in order to serve mines of the newly formed Richland Coal Company , headed by Shellenberger . Patterson was also involved in the coal company , serving as its secretary .
= = Extension and legal battle = =
Patterson wished to extend the line to Dougherty , and a further 12 miles ( 19 km ) to Coalport on Clearfield Creek . To finance the extension , the shareholders , in November 1891 , authorized a $ 60 @,@ 000 mortgage on the property , and allowed Patterson to issue himself 600 additional shares of stock . He did so , but never paid the money due for them to the company 's treasury .
On January 22 , 1892 , the railroad 's name was changed to the Altoona , Clearfield and Northern Railroad to reflect the projected extension , which was built that year as far as Dougherty . However , a struggle for control of the railroad now ensued .
Patterson had agreed to sell 60 % of the company 's stock to James Kerr , who was expected in turn to sell the stock to the Pennsylvania Railroad , at whose Juniata station the line terminated . However , before Patterson could transfer the stock to Kerr , several other directors of the railroad , including Shellenberger , contracted to sell a majority interest in the railroad to Samuel P. Langdon . Langdon controlled the Altoona and Philipsburg Connecting Railroad , a short line in the Philipsburg area whose southern end would reach Ramey , about 17 miles ( 27 km ) from Dougherty , in 1894 . He intended to connect the two railroads and use the AC & N to enter Altoona .
Patterson and Langdon both claimed to control a majority of the company 's stock , and in February 1893 , rival boards of directors were elected by stockholders loyal to those two figures . The issue of 600 shares to Patterson , authorized in 1891 , turned the issue , and its validity was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and Patterson 's board of directors ordered seated . Langdon promptly petitioned for a receivership , and was appointed joint receiver with Patterson . Patterson , however , took most of the responsibility for operations . He was responsible having wyes installed at Wopsononock and Juniata in late 1894 so that the railroad 's engines did not have to back down the mountain . The co @-@ receivership was lifted on July 6 , 1896 , and Patterson took full control of the railroad again . However , the railroad failed to cover its operating expenses shortly thereafter , and Patterson was re @-@ appointed receiver on September 28 , 1896 . On February 29 , 1897 , it was sold under foreclosure to William L. Shellenberger , on behalf of the bondholders β the group which had allied with Langdon . On March 17 , 1897 , it was reorganized as the Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad .
Shellenberger and his fellow bondholders had good reason to seek control of the railroad . After their failure to deliver control of the road to Langdon , he brought suit against them . In exchange for his dropping the suit , they agreed to lease the Altoona and Beech Creek to the Pittsburgh , Johnstown , Ebensburg and Eastern Railroad , a holding company formed by Langdon , on highly favorable terms . The new company was to operate the Altoona & Philipsburg Connecting , planning to convert to standard gauge and extend the two railroads to a junction at East Frugality , near Dougherty . The PJE & E would be extended further south through Ebensburg and then down to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at Johnstown . During this period , the line was known as the " Altoona Division " of the PJE & E. On December 17 , 1898 , Langdon chartered the Altoona and Beech Creek Terminal Railroad , which would extend the Altoona and Beech Creek from Juniata to a new terminal at 9th Street and 15th Avenue in Altoona . However , he was unable to carry out these plans , and his lease was invalidated on March 27 , 1900 . Through appeals and legal maneuvers , Langdon was able to hold out until December 27 , 1901 , when the Sheriff of Blair County ejected the PJE & E employees and returned the Altoona and Beech Creek to its stockholders . The Altoona and Beech Creek Terminal was dissolved in 1905 β 6 .
The Altoona and Beech Creek reported itself in the Official Guide of 1903 as having been extended to Fallentimber , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) beyond Dougherty . However , it does not appear that this extension was , in fact , built . By 1909 , the railroad had built two short branches of 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) each at the Juniata end of the line . The Kipple Branch left the main line near Broadway and Penn Avenue , Juniata , and circled around to the north , serving a few local industries and reaching the PRR 's main line at Juniata Junction , near 2nd Avenue and 10th Street . The Fairview Branch ran southwest from a wye near 25th Avenue and Broadway to end in the Fairview neighborhood of Altoona , at 23rd Avenue and 10th Street .
Despite the battle waged for possession of it , the railroad had not been very profitable . Passenger traffic to Wopsononock had been declining , and coal traffic from Dougherty was rather limited . Shellenberger installed a rock crusher atop the mountain , which also provided revenue . A major forest fire destroyed both the Wopsononock Hotel and the coal tipple at Dougherty on April 30 , 1903 . When the railroad became insolvent again , Shellenberger was appointed receiver on June 4 , 1909 . It was once more sold under foreclosure on April 30 , 1910 to H.A. Davis , and reorganized as the Altoona , Juniata and Northern Railway .
= = Conversion and abandonment = =
Andrew Kepple , one of the original Altoona & Wopsononock directors , was elected president of the newly organized company . The board remained largely unchanged , although Shellenberger finally severed his association with the railroad . It remained unprofitable , and Davis , in turn , sold the line to Sigmund Morris , of Altoona . Morris had incorporated the Altoona Northern Railroad on November 7 , 1912 to acquire the line , and the Altoona , Juniata and Northern was merged into it on January 16 , 1913 . Morris planned to convert the railroad to 4 ft 8 1 β 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge , electrify it to make it an interurban , and extend it to connect with the Beech Creek Railroad ( a subsidiary of the New York Central Railroad ) at Patton . However , Morris was unable to execute these plans . A group of New York City investors took over the railroad about 1916 . They converted the railroad to standard gauge , operating initially with ex @-@ Pennsylvania Railroad 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s , but replacing them with Heislers when the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s were found to be unsuitable for the track .
The conversion failed to make the railroad pay , and the company went into receivership again on August 8 , 1918 . The last passenger train was operated on July 16 , 1919 and the last coal train on July 30 . Negotiations with the bondholders to resume service were not successful , and the rails were removed in 1921 .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Engines = = =
The Altoona & Wopsononock initially owned two engines . # 1 was a National 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , and # 2 a Baldwin 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 , both of which were purchased used from the Pittsburgh and Western Railroad . In 1892 , the Altoona , Clearfield & Northern bought # 3 , a Baldwin 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 . However , due to the depleted state of the railroad 's finances , it was unable to pay for # 3 . Samuel Langdon forestalled legal proceedings by having the locomotive transferred to his United Collieries Co . , which paid Baldwin in coal . Nothing is known of # 4 , if it ever existed . The Altoona & Beech Creek bought # 5 and # 6 , both Baldwin 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s , in 1901 , while still under Pittsburg , Johnstown , Ebensburg & Eastern control . After the PJE & E lost its lease on the railroad , litigation ensued over the ownership of # 3 ; by the time the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania declared in favor of the A & BC in 1903 , United Collieries had sold it to the Surry , Sussex and Southampton Railroad . # 5 and # 6 were sold to the Ohio River and Western Railroad and the Tacajo Sugar Company , respectively , when the railroad was converted to standard gauge in 1916 .
The Altoona Northern initially purchased three ex @-@ PRR 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s ( built at Juniata Shops ) , numbered # 101 β 103 . They were found to be unsuitable for the light track and steep grades , and were sold in 1917 . They were replaced by # 104 and # 105 , new two @-@ truck Heislers , and the railroad bought # 106 , a three @-@ truck Heisler , in 1918 . They were sold to various lumber companies when the railroad was abandoned .
= = = Passenger and freight equipment = = =
Details of the railroad 's rolling stock are obscure . In 1891 , it owned five passenger and three freight cars . In addition to the coaches that supported passenger runs to Wopsononock and Dougherty ( fourteen trains per day during the 1899 season ) , the railroad had at least one parlor car and several Brill @-@ built observation cars . Contemporary photographs show that the railroad built some of its own open @-@ air cars for excursion service . Photographs taken after the destruction of the Wopsononock Hotel and the decline in passenger traffic show a number of gondola cars for coal traffic . The railroad continued to maintain a standard gauge gondola fleet in the last years of its existence .
= = Stations = =
The following stations existed along the line , going from south to north :
Scenic points along the road included Mule Shoe Curve , the trestles and cut at Sandy Gap Bend , and the high bluffs along the right @-@ of @-@ way at Butcher Knife Point .
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= Hurricane Danny ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Danny was the only hurricane to make landfall in the United States during the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season , and the second hurricane and fourth tropical storm of the season . The system became the earliest @-@ formed fifth tropical or subtropical storm of the Atlantic season in history when it attained tropical storm strength on July 17 , and held that record until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season when Tropical Storm Emily broke that record by several days . Like the previous four tropical or subtropical cyclones of the season , Danny had a non @-@ tropical origin , after a trough spawned convection that entered the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . Danny was guided northeast through the Gulf of Mexico by two high pressure areas , a rare occurrence in the middle of July . After making landfall on the Gulf Coast , Danny tracked across the southeastern United States and ultimately affected parts of New England with rain and wind .
Danny is notable for its extreme rainfall , the tornadoes generated by it , and the destruction it produced on its path , causing a total of nine fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1997 USD , $ 147 million 2016 USD ) in damage . The storm dropped a record amount of rainfall for Alabama , as at least 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) fell on Dauphin Island . Flooding , power outages , and erosion occurred in many areas of the Gulf Coast , and rescues had to be executed from flooded roadways . Tornadoes generated by Danny on the East Coast caused a great amount of damage . Of the nine fatalities caused by Danny , one happened off the coast of Alabama , four occurred in Georgia , two occurred in South Carolina , and two occurred in North Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
A broad mid @-@ tropospheric trough over the southeastern United States spawned an area of convection over the lower Mississippi River Valley on July 13 , and drifted southward towards the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . As it moved into the Gulf of Mexico , a weak and isolated surface low pressure area formed off the coast of Louisiana . The circulation in the system steadily expanded , and initially the surface winds and convection were intermittent . On July 16 , deep convection increased and organized near the center , and oil rigs and surface buoys reported surface winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Based on the observations , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Four on July 16 while about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of the southwestern Louisiana coastline .
The depression slowly organized for the next day , as it drifted to the northeast . On July 17 , the rate of organization and development of deep convection increased considerably , and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Danny later that day . From the night of July 17 through July 18 , Danny quickly developed deep convection and banding features in the favorable environment of the Gulf of Mexico , and reached hurricane status later on July 18 . Located between two high pressure systems , Danny continued its unusual July track to the northeast , and crossed over southeastern Louisiana near the Mississippi River Delta . A small storm , Danny continued to strengthen after reaching the coastal waters off Mississippi on the night of July 18 , and attained a peak of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) early on July 19 . The hurricane @-@ force winds , however , were confined to the eyewall . After stalling near the mouth of Mobile Bay on July 19 , Hurricane Danny turned to the east , and made its final landfall near Mullet Point , Alabama later that day .
The storm rapidly weakened as it continued northward , and degenerated into a tropical depression by July 20 . The weak depression moved through Alabama , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , maintaining a well @-@ defined cloud signature . Due to a front behind the system , Danny unusually strengthened to a tropical storm over North Carolina on July 24 . This rare phenomenon occurred due to interaction with a developing trough and its associated baroclinic zone . Danny entered the Atlantic Ocean , north of the North Carolina @-@ Virginia border , near Virginia Beach . It quickly reached a secondary peak of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) , and continued rapidly northeastward towards the waters of the Atlantic . A strong mid to upper @-@ level cyclone turned Danny northward , threatening Massachusetts . It stalled while just 30 miles ( 50 km ) southeast of Nantucket on July 26 , turned to the east out to sea , and became extratropical later that day . On July 27 , the former hurricane merged with a frontal zone .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch on July 17 , as Danny strengthened to a tropical storm , for the coasts of Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama . When Danny strengthened to a hurricane on July 18 , a few hours before its landfall in far southeastern Louisiana and over a day before landfall in Alabama , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Grand Isle mayor Arthur Ballenger ordered the evacuation of the town 's 1 @,@ 500 residents , a decision made due to the large number of tourists on the island and to prevent anyone from being unable to leave the island . With a 5 foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge possibility , Danny had the potential to flood the only highway out of the island . Officials distributed sandbags to residents in St. Bernard Parish to seal off easily flooded roads , with officials recommending that residents leave the area .
Prior to the arrival of the hurricane , the governors of Mississippi and Alabama declared disaster emergencies , expecting a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) storm surge and up to 20 inches ( 500 mm ) of rain at that time . Six shelters were opened in Mobile County , though few attended them . Officials also considered opening shelters near local casinos and beaches in Biloxi , Mississippi .
Southeastern Massachusetts also had a tropical storm warning issued , a few hours before sustained tropical storm force winds affected the area and less than 12 hours before its closest approach to the coastline .
= = Impact = =
As a small storm , Hurricane Danny only caused a damage toll of $ 100 million ( 1997 USD , $ 147 million 2016 USD ) . A total of 4 direct and 5 indirect deaths resulted from the effects of Danny .
= = = Gulf Coast = = =
Heavy rain and winds buffeted many parishes located east of the city of New Orleans . A small radius near the center of the storm had much of the extreme rainfall , and limited the flooding , which could have been disastrous if it were widespread . Grand Isle and portions of the lower Plaquemines Parish were the worst hit in Louisiana . Additionally , Grand Isle reported a wind gust of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a storm surge of 5 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) . At New Orleans International Airport , sustained winds of 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts of 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) were reported on July 19 . A gauge reported a water level of 4 @.@ 85 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in Venice . Storm tides were 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 9 meters ) above normal on average . A Coast Guard helicopter had to evacuate 7 Texans who were on a yacht in the Gulf of Mexico forty miles offshore , since their radio was broken and they were therefore unaware they were sailing into the storm . After being rescued , they were treated for minor injuries at a suburban New Orleans hospital .
At least 10 @,@ 000 people lost electricity in Louisiana . Furthermore , 130 boats were damaged or sunk at a large marina in Buras , Louisiana , due to the storm surge of over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , in a matter of minutes . Both Grand Isle and Grand Terre Island received erosion on their shores , while many commercial fishing boats in Grand Isle were also heavily damaged . Around 160 households and 80 businesses reported damage on Grand Isle . Jefferson Parish and Plaquemines Parish had $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 2 @.@ 21 million 2016 USD ) and $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 5 @.@ 16 million 2016 USD ) total in damage respectively . Significant flooding happened throughout Jefferson Parish , with the floods affecting a total of 163 houses and 84 businesses . Meanwhile , in Plaquemines Parish , ten houses and 35 trailers had damage , with 8 businesses at least partially flooded and 40 commercial fishing boats also damaged . Lafourche Parish had no significant damage to report . Empire and Venice were the most damaged areas in Plaquemines Parish . In the areas of Plaquemines Parish within the hurricane protection levees , trees , power lines , house roofs , and mobile homes sustained damage , in addition to localized flooding throughout the parish after about 10 inches of rain . In lower Terrebonne Parish , some highways were flooded , due to storm tides , and a few roads were also flooded in St. Bernard and Orleans parishes , which were outside the hurricane protection levees . Negligible damage occurred elsewhere in the extreme southeastern portion of Louisiana , due to Danny being a small tropical cyclone and a minimal hurricane .
Eastern Jackson County had the greatest impact throughout Mississippi . Pascagoula reported a wind gust of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) on July 19 . Pascagoula airport reported 7 @.@ 87 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain from July 17 through July 19 . Some streets and a few homes were flooded in far southeastern Jackson County , in areas of poor drainage systems . The coast of Mississippi had no significant damage according to emergency management officials . An oil rig off the coast of Pascagoula was ripped from its moorings and collided with a tank that spilled 500 gallons ( 1 @,@ 892 L ) of fuel into the Bayou Casotte stream .
By late on July 19 , the American Red Cross was providing shelter to over 2 @,@ 000 people in Alabama , Mississippi , and Florida .
Extreme amounts of rainfall were produced over Alabama . Dauphin Island had the highest amount of rainfall , 37 @.@ 75 inches ( 959 mm ) reported by the HPC . Dauphin Island Sea Lab recorded 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) of rain , but not all the rain may have recorded in the rain gauge at this location , so it is possible the rainfall may have been underestimated . Doppler weather radar estimates show that around 43 inches ( 1 @,@ 090 mm ) of rain fell off the coast of Dauphin Island . A storm surge of over 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) occurred off Highway 182 , midway between Gulf Shores and Fort Morgan , in addition to the rainfall . Unusually , when the storm stalled off the coast of Alabama , prevailing northerly winds forced the water out of Mobile Bay , causing tides to be two feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) below normal . Observers noted that , if river channels had not remained , it would have been possible to walk across the bay unhindered by water . Additionally , a four @-@ story condominium project that was under construction in Gulf Shores crashed due to high winds . In addition , three tornadoes occurred in Alabama , one being in Orange Beach , another in Opelika , while the other one occurred in Alabama Port . There were some other tornadoes that also caused minimal damage .
Despite its effects in the northern Gulf of Mexico , only one person was directly killed from the storm there ; a man drowned off the coast when he fell off his sailboat near Fort Morgan , Alabama . One indirect casualty also occurred in the area , when a man had a heart attack while trying to secure a boat off the Alabama coast during the storm . Numerous roads became flooded and impassable for several days , south and along I @-@ 10 in Mobile , south and central Choctaw , and Baldwin counties . Along the Fowl and Fish rivers , in Mobile and Baldwin counties respectively , significant damage to homes occurred due to flooding . Most roads on Dauphin Island were flooded in over a foot of water . A few homes were close to falling into Mobile Bay , and one home had to be moved backwards towards land to prevent its destruction . At the peak of the storm in Alabama , at least 44 @,@ 000 people were without power in Mobile and Baldwin counties . In rural Choctaw County , north of Mobile , several families were rescued from flooded roads and trapped cars . The majority of houses and businesses on Dauphin Island and buildings from the western shore of Mobile Bay , and from Fort Morgan east to Orange Beach , had roof damage . $ 60 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 89 @.@ 2 million 2016 USD ) in total property damage occurred in Alabama , in addition to pecan and pine tree damage costing $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 3 @.@ 69 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = East Coast = = =
In the state of Florida , some damage to the cotton crop occurred in Escambia County . Otherwise , very little damage resulted from the storm in northwestern Florida . The Panama City , Florida area had some minor fresh water flooding . A race in the NASCAR All Pro series at the Five Flags Speedway in Pensacola , Florida scheduled to be held on July 19 was postponed to September 13 , 1997 due to Hurricane Danny . By the time Danny reached Georgia and the Carolinas , its potential impact had weakened , though it still managed to produce 8 β 12 inches ( 200 β 300 mm ) of rain as it drifted through the western portions of the states . In Augusta , Georgia , fourteen South Carolina National Guardsmen were struck by lightning , one of whom had to be hospitalized in intensive care and six others received treatment at a hospital and were then released . Four indirect deaths occurred from traffic accidents during the storm 's onslaught in Georgia . A severe thunderstorm cell in South Carolina produced five tornadoes that touched down , one of which killed a woman in her destroyed duplex while passing through Lexington County . An F2 tornado with a width of 200 yards ( 200 m ) and a length of 4 miles ( 6 km ) , was on the ground for 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the northeast of Gaston , South Carolina , causing $ 942 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 39 million 2016 USD ) in damage , killing one , injuring six , and destroying 13 residences , with damage to many others . Several tornadoes and waterspouts were spawned over Virginia ; most of them occurred in Norfolk , Portsmouth , and Hampton . An F1 tornado with a width of 50 yards ( 50 m ) and a length of 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , touched down 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in Portsmouth , causing $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD , $ 590 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage . It destroyed a car wash and damaged 7 other structures , all but 1 of which were businesses , and also flipped over a semi @-@ trailer truck . Rainfall in Fayetteville measured 2 @.@ 85 inches ( 72 mm ) , while the remainder of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states received approximately 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rain .
The heavy rains caused two people to drown in Charlotte . A girl drowned after being swept into a creek , and a woman drowned while in her car . Also in North Carolina , tropical rains related to Danny caused a CSX train to derail from its trestle into Little Sugar Creek , spilling about 2 @,@ 500 gallons ( 9 @,@ 500 L ) of diesel and therefore forcing a nearby public housing development to be evacuated . Sustained tropical @-@ storm force winds affected Martha 's Vineyard , Nantucket Island , and parts of Cape Cod , in addition to the coastal waters from the entrance of Buzzards Bay to the south and east of Cape Cod . Only minor damage occurred , despite these strong winds , which were experienced primarily in southeastern Massachusetts . The minor damage included localized flooding , power outages , downed tree limbs , and lost boats . A suspension of ferry service to Nantucket Island occurred for most of July 25 , with a shorter suspension happening on the service to Martha 's Vineyard . No significant coastal flooding affected the region , although a storm shelter was opened on Nantucket Island to host a Boy Scout group camping there . Danny was the fifth tropical cyclone to affect Southern New England in the 20th century during the month of July .
= = Aftermath and records = =
Debris remained in the inland waters of Alabama until at least August 12 , 1997 . Endangered or threatened sea turtles lived in these waters and were threatened by the debris . Specialized turtle exclusion devices , known as TEDs , or specialized nets that allowed the turtles to escape them , were required before Danny for shrimp trawlers . The Director of the Marine Resources Division of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources said that the " inordinate amount of debris is causing extraordinary difficulty with the performance of ( TEDs ) in these areas . " Therefore , the United States Environmental Protection Agency allowed an alternative to the TEDs , of shorter tow times with seasonal restrictions of a maximum of 55 minutes from April 1 through October 31 , and a maximum of 75 minutes from November 1 through March 31 . By making the shorter tow times the required alternative , the EPA intended to minimize any sea turtle casualties as a result of trawlers being allowed to remove the TEDs .
One of three wolves that escaped from a zoo in Gulf Shores , Alabama during Hurricane Danny was found in November later that year , after seasonal conditions meant less tourists and therefore less food in Gulf State Park where the wolf had resided . One of the other wolves had already been recaptured , while the other had already been shot and killed .
Some cotton crops in the Southeast United States received needed rainfall from Danny , while others were harmed , as 100 @,@ 000 acres of cotton fields in Alabama were too heavily damaged for their crop to be salvaged . The effects of Danny caused the gasoline production of Gulf Coast oil refineries to decline and thus contributed to an increase in gas prices in the months following Danny throughout the United States . A severe drought had been in place in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region during the month of July . The high amount of rainfall caused by Danny helped to ease dry conditions in portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic , but not sufficiently to stop the drought from developing further in most areas from northern Virginia to southern New England .
The extremely short distance of the eyewall of Hurricane Danny from a Doppler radar station in Mobile , Alabama and its slow landfall over the course of a day led to further study by meteorologists . The proximity to land allowed for measurements at a level closer to the surface than it is possible for hurricane reconnaissance aircraft to achieve , with the slow landfall allowing for more extended observation . One conclusion of the study included the need to sample the boundaries of an eyewall more to establish a better estimate of surface @-@ level winds and the overall intensity of a storm . Another conclusion was that while Danny 's slow movement positioned it over a tidal estuary bordering the Gulf , maintaining of or increase in strength was possible since eyewall convection remained over waters with high sea surface temperatures and other environmental conditions remained favorable .
The storm dropped 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) of rain on Dauphin Island , setting the new record for the most tropical or subtropical cyclone related rainfall in the state of Alabama , and is among the largest in the United States . The storm also became the earliest 5th tropical or subtropical storm of a season when it reached tropical storm strength on July 17 . This record was broken in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season when Hurricane Emily first attained tropical storm status on July 12 , just five days earlier .
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= Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 61 =
Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland ( Now come , Savior of the heathens ) , BWV 61 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for the first Sunday in Advent , the Sunday which begins the liturgical year , and first performed it on 2 December 1714 .
The cantata text was provided by Erdmann Neumeister , who quoted the Book of Revelation and framed his work by two hymn stanzas , the beginning of Martin Luther 's " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " , the main hymn for Advent with a melody based on Medieval chant , and the end from Philipp Nicolai 's " Wie schΓΆn leuchtet der Morgenstern " . The librettist quoted developed his thoughts like a sermon . Bach structured the cantata in six movements , beginning with a chorale fantasia , followed by a series of alternating recitatives and arias , and concluded by a four @-@ part chorale . He scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano , tenor and bass ) , strings and continuo . Bach led the first performance on 2 December 1714 . As Thomaskantor , director of music of the main churches of Leipzig , he performed the cantata again on 28 November 1723 .
= = History and words = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule .
The exact chronological order of Bach 's Weimar cantatas remains uncertain . Only four bear autograph dates . BWV 61 is dated 1714 and bears the liturgical designation " am ersten Advent " , the First Sunday of Advent . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Romans , " now is our salvation nearer " ( Romans 13 : 11 β 14 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the Entry into Jerusalem ( Matthew 21 : 1 β 9 ) .
The cantata text was provided by Erdmann Neumeister , published in Geistliche Poesien in Frankfurt in 1714 . He began and ended his work with a hymn stanza . " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " is the main hymn for Advent , which Martin Luther had derived from the Latin Veni redemptor gentium . Its melody is based on Medieval chant and supplies a " dark , imposing character " . For the conclusion , Neumeister chose the second part , the Abgesang , of the seventh and final stanza of Philipp Nicolai 's " Wie schΓΆn leuchtet der Morgenstern " . The librettist quoted the Book of Revelation in the fourth movement : " Siehe , ich stehe vor der TΓΌr und klopfe an . So jemand meine Stimme hΓΆren wird und die TΓΌr auftun , zu dem werde ich eingehen und das Abendmahl mit ihm halten und er mit mir . " β " Behold , I stand at the door and knock . Anyone that hears My voice and opens the door , to him I will enter and keep the evening meal with him and he with me . " ( Revelation 3 : 20 ) . The poet combined the ideas of Jesus ' entry into Jerusalem and his promise to return with an invitation to enter the heart of the individual Christian . He developed his thoughts like a sermon , as the Bach scholar Alfred DΓΌrr notes : mentioning that the arrival of Jesus brings blessing every day ( movement 2 ) , a prayer that Jesus may come to his congregation ( movement 2 ) , and in response to his statement of being at the door ( movement 4 ) the opening of the heart of the individual Christian who knows about his sinfulness ( movement 5 ) . Bach had set one text by Neumeister before , possibly by 1713 , in his cantata Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fΓ€llt , BWV 18 .
Because of Bach 's liturgical designation , the performance can be precisely dated to 2 December 1714 . As Thomaskantor , director of music of the main churches of Leipzig , Bach performed the cantata again on 28 November 1723 , beginning the first liturgical year in the new position . Bach paid attention to the exceptional occasion at beginning of the liturgical year , also when he composed later the chorale cantata Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 62 ( 1724 ) , and Schwingt freudig euch empor , BWV 36 ( 1731 ) , which are all inspired by Luther 's hymn . Bach also began his OrgelbΓΌchlein by a setting of the same tune . In Leipzig , the first Sunday in Advent was the last chance to hear cantata music before Christmas , because tempus clausum was observed during Advent .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements , beginning with chorale fantasia , followed by a series of alternating recitatives and arias and concluded by a chorale . He scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) , including cello ( Vc ) and bassoon ( Fg ) . The autograph score is titled : " Dominica 1 . Adventus Xsti . / Nun komm der Heyden Heyland . / Γ’ . / due Violini / due Viole / Violoncello / Γ¨ & / Fagotto . / Sopr : Alto . Tenore Γ¨ BaΓo / Col ' / Organo . / da / Joh Sebast Bach / anno . / 1714 " . The duration is given as 18 minutes . According to the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff , the use of two viola parts is French style . DΓΌrr notes that perhaps the strings were doubled by oboes , at least in the Leipzig performance , in a practise that was " not always marked in the score " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring , keys and time signatures are taken from DΓΌrr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The first Sunday of Advent begins the liturgical year . Bach marked it by creating the opening chorus , " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " ( Now come , Saviour of the Gentiles ) , as a chorale fantasia in the style of a French overture , which follows the sequence slow β fast ( fugue ) β slow . In a French opera performance , the King of France would have entered during the overture ; Bach greets a different king . Two of the four lines of the chorale melody are combined in the first slow section , line three is treated in the fast section , and line four in the final slow section . The melody of line 1 is first presented in the continuo , then sung by all four voices one after another , accompanied by a solemn dotted rhythm in the orchestra . Line 2 is sung by all voices together , accompanied by the orchestra . Line 3 is a fast fugato , with the instruments playing colla parte , marked " gai " . Line 4 is set as line 2 . Wolff notes that Bach possibly followed the model of an opera by Agostino Steffani , Henrico Leone , which uses a chorus in a French overture .
= = = 2 = = =
The recitative for tenor , " Der Heiland ist gekommen " ( The Saviour has come ) , begins secco but continues as an arioso , with tenor and continuo imitating one another . This more lyrical style of recitative derives from early Italian operas and cantatas , where it was known as mezz 'aria β half aria .
= = = 3 = = =
The tenor aria , " Komm , Jesu , komm zu deiner Kirche " ( Come , Jesus , come to Your Church ) , is accompanied by the violins and violas in unison . It is written in the rhythm of a gigue , and the combination of voice , unison strings and continuo gives it the texture of a trio sonata . DΓΌrr comments that the use of the unison string ritornello , played even during the vocal passages , provides a " rather pointedly strict and unified character " . The musicologist Richard Taruskin comments : " This hybridization of operatic and instrumental styles is ... standard operating procedure in Bach 's cantatas . "
= = = 4 = = =
The quote from Revelation , " Siehe , ich stehe vor der TΓΌr und klopfe an " ( See , I stand before the door and knock ) , is given as a recitative to the bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) . The knocking on the door is expressed by pizzicato chords in the strings . DΓΌrr notes : " The most expressive text @-@ engendered declamation is here ingeniously melted down into a structure only ten bars long but of compelling musical logic . " John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , compares it to an Emmaus scene in Bach 's later cantata Bleib bei uns , denn es will Abend werden , BWV 6 , the " post @-@ Resurrection appearance to the disciples " in Halt im GedΓ€chtnis Jesum Christ , BWV 67 , even to " the entry of the Commendatore in Mozart β s opera Don Giovanni . Bach would later frequently use the bass as the voice of Christ , in his St Matthew Passion even with a similar string accompaniment .
= = = 5 = = =
The response to the invitation is the individual prayer of the soprano , " Γffne dich , mein ganzes Herze " ( Open , my whole heart ) . It is accompanied only by the continuo , with an adagio middle section .
= = = 6 = = =
In the closing chorale , " Amen , amen ! Komm , du schΓΆne Freudenkrone " ( Amen , amen ! Come , you fair crown of joy ) , Bach sets the Abgesang only of the final stanza of Nicolai 's hymn . The musicologist Julian Mincham offers the thought : " Conceivably the most convincing explanation lies , as it so often does , within the text β ... do not delay , I await You longingly . The hymn tune itself , through its very abbreviation implies a sense of urgency and the feeling of being unable to defer any longer . " In Bach 's setting , the violin adds a jubilant fifth part to the four vocal parts . The violin has to " climb three octaves to convey the extent of the soul 's longing for the joys of a future life and the prospect of Jesus returning at the end of time " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and ensembles are roughly marked as large by red background . Green background indicates performances with one voice per part ( OVPP ) for the vocal column , instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances in the instrumental column Instr ..
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= Charles Town expedition =
The Charles Town expedition ( September 1706 ) was a combined French and Spanish attempt under Captain Jacques Lefebvre to capture the capital of the English Province of Carolina , Charles Town , during Queen Anne 's War ( as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession is sometimes known ) .
Organized and funded primarily by the French and launched from Havana , Cuba , the expedition reached Charles Town in early September 1706 after stopping at St. Augustine to pick up reinforcements . After a brief encounter with a privateer the Brillant , one of the expedition 's six ships , became separated from the rest of the fleet . Troops landed near Charles Town were quickly driven off by militia called out by Governor Nathaniel Johnson when word of the fleet 's approache reached the area , and an improvised flotilla commanded by Colonel William Rhett successfully captured the Brillant , which arrived after the other five ships had already sailed away in defeat .
= = Background = =
News of the start of the War of the Spanish Succession had come to southeastern North America in mid @-@ 1702 , and officials of the English Province of Carolina had acted immediately . After failing in December 1702 to capture St. Augustine , the capital of Spanish Florida , they launched a series of destructive raids against the Spanish @-@ Indian settlements of northern Florida . French authorities in the small settlement at Mobile on the Gulf coast were alarmed by these developments , since , as allies of the Spanish , their territory might also come under attack .
The idea of a combined Franco @-@ Spanish expedition first arose in 1704 , when the governor of Florida , JosΓ© de ZΓΊΓ±iga y la Cerda , discussed the idea with a French naval captain as a means of revenge for the Carolina raids ; however , no concrete action came of this discussion . Pierre LeMoyne d 'Iberville , the founder of Mobile and an experienced privateer who had previously wrought havoc against English colonial settlements in the Nine Years ' War , in 1703 developed a grandiose plan for assaulting Carolina . Using minimal French resources , d 'Iberville planned for a small French fleet to join with a large Spanish fleet at Havana , which would then descend on Carolina 's capital , then known as Charles Town . The expedition was to be paid for by holding other English colonial communities hostage after destroying Charles Town . It was not until late 1705 that d 'Iberville secured permission from King Louis XIV for the expedition . The king provided ships and some troops , but required d 'Iberville to bear the upfront cost of outfitting the expedition .
= = Prelude = =
Two small fleets , one headed by d 'Iberville , who was to lead the expedition , left France in January 1706 , totalling 12 ships and carrying 600 French troops . They first sailed for the West Indies , where additional troops were recruited at Martinique , and d 'Iberville successfully ransacked English @-@ held Nevis . D 'Iberville then released part of his squadron , and sailed for Havana . There he attempted to interest Spanish authorities in supporting the expedition , with limited success , due in part to a raging epidemic of yellow fever . In addition to decimating the expedition 's troops , Spanish Governor Pedro Γlvarez de VillarΓn died of the disease on July 6 , and d 'Iberville himself succumbed on July 8 . Before he died , d 'Iberville handed control of the expedition to Captain Jacques Lefebvre .
Lefebvre sailed from Havana with five ships , carrying about 300 French soldiers under the command of General Arbousset , and 200 Spanish volunteers led by General Esteban de Berroa . The fleet first made for St. Augustine , where Governor Francisco de CΓ³rcoles y MartΓnez provided a sixth ship , another 30 infantry , and about 50 " Christian Indians " from the Timucua , Apalachee , and Tequassa tribes .
The French fleet sailed from St. Augustine on August 31 . During the passage a sloop was spotted , and the Brillant gave chase ; she consequently became separated from the rest of the squadron . The sloop was a privateer sent out by Carolina governor Nathaniel Johnson to intercept Spanish supply ships ; its captain quickly returned to Charles Town with word of the fleet 's movement . The countryside and town , then also suffering the ravages of a yellow fever epidemic , rallied in response to Governor Johnson 's calling out of the militia . The exact number of militia mustered is not known ; of the non @-@ slave population of 4 @,@ 000 , an estimated 900 men served in the colonial militia . Anticipating that a landing would be attempted on James Island , which guarded the southern approach to the harbor , Johnson posted the militia there under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Rhett . The northern point of James Island was fortified by Fort Johnson , which housed a few cannon whose range was inadequate to prevent ships from entering the harbor . The militia also improvised a small flotilla of ships , which even included a fire ship .
= = Attacks = =
The Spanish fleet arrived off the harbor bar on September 4 ( this date is recorded in contemporary English documents and histories as August 24 due to differences between the Julian calendar then in use in the English colonies , and the modern Gregorian calendar ) . Despite the absence of the Brillant , which carried much of the French force , including " the campaign guns , shovels , spades , shells , and the land commander " ( the latter being General Arbousset ) , Captain Lefebvre and his fleet crossed the bar on September 7 , and delivered an ultimatum the next day . He demanded a ransom of 50 @,@ 000 Spanish pesos , threatening to destroy Charles Town if it was not paid . Governor Johnson contemptuously dismissed the demand as paltry , claiming the town was worth 40 million pesos , and that " it had cost much blood , so let them come " .
On September 9 the invaders landed two separate forces . One large force , numbering about 160 , plundered some plantations near the Charleston neck , but was recalled when the Governor Johnson sent militia out in boats to oppose them . A second smaller force was landed on James Island , but was also driven away by the threat of opposition . Late that night Johnson received word that the party on the neck was still active , and sent Lieutenant Colonel Rhett with 100 men to investigate . Arriving around daybreak on the 10th , they apparently surprised the invaders . The invaders fled after a brief skirmish , but about 60 were captured , and as many as 12 invaders were killed along with one of the defenders . On September 11 Lieutenant Colonel Rhett sailed the colonial flotilla out to find the invaders , only to discover that they had sailed off .
The next day the Brillant showed up , unaware of what had just transpired . Her captain had misjudged the distance from St. Augustine and had made landfall further north before turning around . General Arbousset landed his troops east of Charles Town , but the Brillant was captured by the colonial fleet ; Arbousset and his men surrendered after suffering 14 β 30 killed in a brief battle with the English militia . The prisoners included 90 to 100 Indians ; most of these were " sold for slaves " .
= = Aftermath = =
Carolina officials declared October 17 a day of thanksgiving for their successful defense . The large number of prisoners , however , caused them some trouble . They sent about one third of them off to Virginia , expecting that they would be transported to England . However , by the time the prisoners arrived in Virginia , the annual merchant fleet had already sailed . Virginia authorities were unhappy that they now had to hold the prisoners , who would otherwise have been set free with the ship they arrived on .
In response to the Franco @-@ Spanish expedition , Carolinians led Indian raiding expeditions that besieged Pensacola , one of the few remaining Spanish outposts in Florida . They also mobilized Indian forces to attack Mobile , but these efforts were frustrated by French diplomatic activities in the Indian communities and also by false rumors of another Franco @-@ Spanish expedition .
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= Jan Henryk DΔ
browski =
Jan Henryk DΔ
browski ( Polish pronunciation : [ Λjan ΛxΙnrΙ¨k dΙmΛbrΙfskΚ²i ] ; also known as Johann Heinrich DΔ
browski ( Dombrowski ) in German and Jean Henri Dombrowski in French ; 29 August 1755 β 6 June 1818 ) was a Polish general , widely respected after his death for his patriotic attitude , and described as a national hero .
DΔ
browski initially served in the Saxon Army and joined the Polish β Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1792 , shortly before the Second Partition of Poland . He was promoted to the rank of general in the KoΕciuszko Uprising of 1794 . After the final Third Partition of Poland , which ended the existence of Poland as independent country , he became actively involved in promoting the cause of Polish independence abroad . He was the founder of the Polish Legions in Italy serving under Napoleon since 1797 , and as a general in Italian and French service he contributed to the brief restoration of the Polish state during the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806 . He participated in Napoleonic Wars , taking part in the Polish @-@ Austrian war and the French invasion of Russia until 1813 . After Napoleon 's defeat , he accepted a senatorial position in the Russian @-@ backed Congress Poland , and was one of the organizers of the Army of Congress Poland .
The Polish national anthem , Poland Is Not Yet Lost , written and first sung by the Polish legionnaires , mentions DΔ
browski by name , and is also known as DΔ
browski 's Mazurka .
= = Biography = =
= = = In Saxony and Poland = = =
DΔ
browski was born to Jan MichaΕ DΔ
browski and Zofia Maria DΔ
browska , nΓ©e Sophie von Lettow , in PierzchΓ³w , Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , on 29 August 1755 . He grew up in Hoyerswerda , Electorate of Saxony , where his father served as a Colonel in the Saxon Army . He joined the Royal Saxon Horse Guards in 1770 or 1771 . His family was of Polish origin . Nonetheless , in his childhood and youth he grew up surrounded by German culture in Saxony , and signed his name as Johann Heinrich DΔ
browski . He fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 β 1779 ) , during which time his father died . Shortly afterward in 1780 he married Gustawa Rackel . He lived in Dresden , and steadily progressed through ranks , becoming a Rittmeister in 1789 . He served as Adjutant general of King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony from 1788 to 1791 .
Following the appeal of the Polish Four @-@ Year Sejm to all Poles serving abroad to join the Polish army , and not seeing much opportunity to advance in his military career in the now @-@ peaceful Saxony , on 28 June 1792 he joined the Army of the Polish β Lithuanian Commonwealth with a rank of podpuΕkownik and on 14 July he was promoted to the rank of vice @-@ brigadier . Joining in the final weeks of the Polish β Russian War of 1792 , he did not see combat in it . Unfamiliar with the intricasies of Polish politics , like many of Poniatowski 's supporters , he joined the Targowica Confederation in late 1792 .
DΔ
browski was seen as a cavalry expert , and King StanisΕaw August Poniatowski was personally interested in obtaining DΔ
browski 's services . As a cavalryman educated in a Dresden military school under Count Maurice Bellegarde , a reformer of the Saxon army 's cavalry , DΔ
browski was asked to help modernize the Polish cavalry , serving in the ranks of the 1st Greater Poland Cavalry Brygade ( 1 Wielkpolska Brygada Kawalerii Narodowej ) . In January 1793 , stationed around Gniezno with two units of cavalry , about 200 strong , he briefly engaged the Prussian forces entering Poland in the aftermath of the Second Partition of Poland , and afterward became a known activist advocating the continuation of military struggle against the occupiers .
The Grodno Sejm , held in the fall of 1793 , nominated him for a membership in a military commission ; this caused him to be viewed with suspicion by the majority of the dissatisfied military , and he was not included in the preparations for the upcoming uprising . Thus he was taken by surprise when the KoΕciuszko Insurrection erupted , and his own brigade mutinied . He declared his support for the insurgents after the libation of Warsaw , and from then on took an active part in the uprising , defending Warsaw and leading an army corps in support of an uprising in Greater Poland . His courage was commended by Tadeusz KoΕciuszko himself , the Supreme Commander of the National Armed Forces , who promoted him to the rank of general .
= = = In the Napoleonic service = = =
After the failure of the uprising he remained in partitioned Poland for a while , attempting to convince the Prussian authorities that they need Poland as an ally against Austria and Russia . He was unsuccessful , and with the Third Partition of Poland between Russia , Prussia and Austria , Poland disappeared from the map of Europe . DΔ
browski 's next solution was to convince the French Republic that it should support a Polish cause , and create a Polish military formation . This proved to be more successful , and indeed DΔ
browski is remembered in the history of Poland as the organiser of Polish Legions in Italy during the Napoleonic Wars . ( These Legions are also often known as the " DΔ
browski 's Legions " . ) This event gave hope to contemporary Poles , and is still remembered in the Polish national anthem , named after DΔ
browski . He began his work in 1796 , when he came to Paris and soon afterward met Napoleon Bonaparte in Milan . On January 7 , 1797 he was authorized by the Cisalpine Republic to create Polish legions , which would be part of the army of the newly created Republic of Lombardy .
In April DΔ
browski lobbied for a plan to push through to the Polish territories in Galicia , but that was blocked by Napoleon who instead decided to use those troops on the Italian front . DΔ
browski 's Polish soldiers fought at Napoleon 's side from May 1797 until the beginning of 1803 . As a commander of his legion he played an important part in the war in Italy , entered Rome in May 1798 , and distinguished himself greatly at the Battle of Trebia on June 19 , 1799 , where he was wounded , as well as in other battles and combats of 1799 β 1801 . From the time the Legions garrisoned Rome , DΔ
browski obtained a number of trophies from a Roman representative , namely the ones that the Polish king , Jan III Sobieski , had sent there after his victory over the Ottoman Empire at the siege of Vienna in 1683 ; amongst these was an Ottoman standard which subsequently became part of the Legions ' colors , accompanying them from then on . However , the legions were never able to reach Poland and did not liberate the country , as DΔ
browski had dreamed . Napoleon did , however , notice the growing dissatisfaction of his soldiers and their commanders . They were particularly disappointed by a peace treaty between France and Russia signed in LunΓ©ville on 9 February 1801 , which dashed Polish hopes of Bonaparte freeing Poland . Shortly afterwards , in March , DΔ
browski reorganized both Legions at Milan into two 6 @,@ 000 @-@ strong units . Disillusioned with Napoleon after the LunΓ©ville treaty , many legionnaires resigned afterward ; of the others , thousands perished when the Legions were sent to suppress the Haitian Revolution in 1803 ; by that time DΔ
browski was no longer in command of the Legions .
DΔ
browski , meanwhile , spent the first few years of the new century as a general in the service of the Italian republic . In 1804 he received the Officer cross of Legion of Honour , and the next year , the Italian Order of the Iron Crown . Together with JΓ³zef Wybicki he was summoned again by Napoleon in fall of 1806 and tasked with recreating the Polish formation , which Napoleon wanted to use to recapture Greater Poland from Prussia . The ensuing conflict was known as the Greater Poland Uprising , and Dabrowski was the chief leader of Polish insurgent forces in it . DΔ
browski distinguished himself at siege of Tczew , siege of GdaΕsk and at Battle of Friedland .
In 1807 the Duchy of Warsaw was established in the recaptured territories , essentially as a satellite of Bonaparte 's France . DΔ
browski became disappointed with Napoleon , who offered him monetary rewards , but no serious military or government position . He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari medal that year . Soon , however he set out to defend Poland against an Austrian invasion under the command of Prince JΓ³zef Poniatowski in 1809 . Joining the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw shortly after the Battle of Raszyn , he took part in the first stages of the offensive on Galicia , and then organized the defense of Greater Poland . In June 1812 DΔ
browski commanded the 17th ( Polish ) Infantry Division in the V Corps of the Grande ArmΓ©e , during Napoleon 's invasion of Russia . However , by October the Franco @-@ Russian war was over and the French forces , decimated by a severe winter , had to retreat . At the disastrous Battle of Berezina in late November that year , DΔ
browski was wounded , and his leadership and tactics in it were criticized . After the March reorganization of the Grande ArmΓ©e , he commanded the 27th ( Polish ) Infantry Division in the VIII Corps . He commanded it at the Battle of Leipzig ( 1813 ) , and subsequently on 28 October he became the commander in chief of the all remaining Polish forces in Napoleon 's service , succeeding Antoni PaweΕ SuΕkowski .
= = = Final years = = =
DΔ
browski always associated independent Poland with a Polish Army , and offered his services to the new power , which promised to organize such a formation : Russia . He was one of the generals entrusted by the tsar Alexander of Russia with the reorganization of the Duchy 's army into the Army of Congress Poland . In 1815 he received the titles of general of cavalry and senator @-@ voivode of the new Congress Kingdom . He was also awarded the Order of the White Eagle on December 9 that year . Soon afterward he withdrew from active politics . He retired in the following year to his estates in Winna GΓ³ra in the Grand Duchy of Posen , Kingdom of Prussia , where he died on 6 June 1818 , from a combination of pneumonia and gangrene . He was buried in the church in Winna GΓ³ra .
Over the years , DΔ
browski wrote several military treaties , primarily about the Legions , in German , French and Polish .
= = = Remembrance = = =
DΔ
browski was often criticized by his contemporaries , and by the early Polish historiography , but his image improved with time . He has been often compared to the two other military heroes of the time of Partitions and the Legions , Tadeusz KoΕciuszko and JΓ³zef Poniatowski , and to the father of Second Polish Republic , JΓ³zef PiΕsudski . In particular , his mention in the Polish national anthem , also known as DΔ
browski 's Mazurek , contributed to his fame in Poland . It is not uncommon for modern works of Polish history to describe him as a " ( national ) hero " .
DΔ
browski is also remembered outside of Poland for his historical contributions . His name , in the French version " Dombrowsky " , is inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
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= Cape Fear shiner =
The Cape Fear shiner ( Notropis mekistocholas ) is a North American species of freshwater fish in the Cyprinidae family . It is endemic to the central part of the state of North Carolina in the southeastern United States and is only found in the shallow streams of the Cape Fear River basin . The fish is small and yellow with black lips and a black stripe which runs down the middle of the fish 's side . This shiner is normally found in mixed schools with other minnow species . It is unique amongst its genus because it has elongated intestines that are specifically adapted to a primarily herbivorous diet . It can breed twice a year and normally lives for only two or three years in the wild . The males and females are normally similar in appearance but become different colors in the spawning season . This species of shiner was not discovered until 1962 .
The shiner is critically endangered due to its small population size and threats to its habitat from dam construction and pollution . It was first recognized as threatened in 1987 . The species has since undergone a successful captive breeding program and its status has been a significant factor in the destruction of a dam that destroyed part of the shiner 's habitat . However , the species is still limited to just five populations in the wild and some experts believe that a single toxic chemical spill into the Cape Fear River could wipe out the entire wild population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Cape Fear shiner was only discovered in 1962 and described as a distinct species by Franklin F. Snelson , Jr. in 1971 . The specific epithet is derived from the Greek mΔkistos / ΞΌΞ·ΞΊΞΉΟΟΞΏΟ - ' longest / tallest ' or ' very long ' ( a superlative from mΔkos / ΞΌΞ·ΞΊΞΏΟ - length ) and ... cholas / ΟΞΏΞ»Ξ±Ο ' intestines ' or ' bile ' . This fish belongs to the carp and minnow family Cyprinidae , and within this family , it belongs to the genus Notropis , which includes a large number of eastern North American minnows . The Cape Fear shiner is unusual in its genus because its intestines are elongated and more convoluted than those of other Notropis species , a trait shared only by the Ozark Minnow . This feature better adapts the shiner to a diet primarily of plant material . It is superficially different from similar members of its genus because of the angle and size of its mouth , head shape , eight anal fin rays , and black edge on its lower lip . It is also one of the few Notropis to have a black peritoneum . Its closest relatives are the Swallowtail Shiner and the Sand Shiner . It has no subspecies .
= = Description = =
The Cape Fear shiner is a small but stocky minnow of about 5 centimeters ( 2 in ) long with a maximum length of 7 @.@ 7 centimeters ( 3 in ) . It is mostly a silvery yellowish shade with a black stripe running down the middle of the fish β s side to its caudal peduncle and a lighter stripe above this one . The scales are outlined in black . The shiner 's fins are clear to yellow and moderately pointed . The dorsal fin 's origin is over or slightly before the pelvic fin 's origin . During the spawning season , the males become more golden in color while the females become more silvery . The Cape Fear Shiner 's snout is acute and rounded and has a black upper lip and a lower lip that has a thin black bar stretching across its margin . The upper lip always overhangs above the lower lip .
The shiner only has pharyngeal teeth ( teeth located on the back of the fish 's throat on its gill arches ) , similar to the teeth of other omnivorous shiners . The Cape Fear Shiner 's eyes are moderately sized and on the side of the fish 's head . It has eight anal fin rays . The shiner 's distinctive long dark intestines are coiled and visible through the fish 's belly wall and it also has a distinctive black peritoneum .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Cape Fear shiner is endemic to the Upper Basin of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina β s Piedmont . Only five wild populations of this fish are known to exist . These populations are found in the freshwater Deep , Haw , and Rocky rivers in Chatham , Harnett , Lee , Moore , and Randolph counties . The largest of these populations is found where the Deep and Rocky Rivers meet . During the winter , shiners may migrate from their shoals in main river channels to smaller tributary streams . This shiner has the smallest range of any Notropis .
This minnow typically lives in clean streams over gravel , cobble , and boulder substrates , especially where nearby water willows and riverweed are available to provide protection from predators . The shiner rarely ventures into water deeper than 0 @.@ 5 meters ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) . It has been observed in slow runs , riffles , and slow pools .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The Cape Fear shiner is often found swimming in mixed schools with other minnow species ; however , it is never the most numerous minnow in a mixed school . It has been known to survive for six years in captivity but are only believed to survive for two or three years in the wild .
The Cape Fear shiner 's intestines are adapted to help the fish digest plants and they were initially suggested to be primarily herbivorous because of this adaptation . However , recent studies have shown that the shiner eats a variety of both plant and animal matter . It is known to eat detritus , bacteria , phytoplankton , diatoms , and algae .
The shiner is threatened by numerous predators , such as crappie , bass , and the introduced Flathead Catfish . However , the adult Flathead Catfish does not pose a significant threat because of the differences in habitats of the two species within the river ; the juvenile catfish , which share the same habitat as the shiner , may pose a larger threat .
This shiner spawns around May 15 when the water temperature reaches 19 Β° C ( 66 @.@ 2 Β° F ) . A second spawning may occur in the late summer . Both male and female change color while spawning and the male develops a number of small tubercles along its upper body . The shiner generally moves to slower @-@ flowing pools to lay its eggs in rocky substrates . Eggs hatch after three days , although the young generally live off of their egg yolk for another five days . Juvenile shiners are often found in slow @-@ moving water , particularly amongst large rocks in the middle of a stream or in flooded channels and pools . Juveniles sexually mature after their first year .
= = Conservation = =
The Cape Fear shiner is only known from five different populations , two of which are extremely small and run a high risk of extinction . The other three populations are more stable and are estimated to number between 1500 and 3000 individual fish that are reproductively viable .
The Cape Fear shiner was recognized as " Endangered with Critical Habitat " on September 25 , 1987 under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 . Since 1987 , the shiner has dwindled both in range and population . This fish is also protected from being captured and traded by the Lacey Act . The shiner is not believed to have had historically large populations .
This minnow has been endangered by dam construction on the Cape Fear River , which has led to the flooding and destruction of its shallow water habitat . The small number of geographically separated populations may also threaten the species β genetic health , although a 2004 study concluded that genetic diversity was still relatively high . A deterioration of water quality due to pollution at some of the sites has also threatened the shiner . Experiments have shown that the shiner is highly sensitive to contaminating chemicals , and experts believe that the wild population of this species can be wiped out by a single toxic chemical spill .
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has been working to protect this species . Some of the conservation methods used to protect this species include studying its biology in the wild and donating $ 16 @,@ 000 in 1998 to help maintain a captive population at the North Carolina Zoo . Since the first successful captive breeding in 1997 , this species has bred easily in captivity . An experiment was carried out in 2001 in which 900 captive @-@ bred shiners were released temporarily into the wild to judge water quality at potential reintroduction sites .
In the fall of 2005 , work crews began removing the Carbonton Dam , which had destroyed part of the shiner 's habitat . After the work that removed the dam finished in February 2006 , the lake fell back to its historic creek levels , allowing the Cape Fear Shiner to expand its range back into several miles of river that was previously unsuitable for inhabitation because of the dam . In 2009 Deep River 's riverine and riparian habitat was surveyed to identify areas for protection or restoration .
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= Higher @-@ speed rail =
Higher @-@ speed rail ( HrSR ) , also known as high @-@ performance rail , higher @-@ performance rail , or almost @-@ high @-@ speed rail , is a jargon used to describe inter @-@ city passenger rail services that have top speeds of more than conventional rail but are not high enough to be called high @-@ speed rail services . The term is also used by planners to identify the incremental rail improvements to increase train speeds and reduce travel time as alternatives to larger efforts to create or expand the high @-@ speed rail networks . Some countries use the term medium @-@ speed rail , or semi @-@ high speed rail instead .
= = Definitions = =
As with the definitions of high @-@ speed rail , there is no universal definition of higher @-@ speed rail either . The term has been used by government agencies , government officials , transportation planners , academia , the rail industry , and the media , but sometime with overlaps in the speed definitions . Some countries with an established definition of higher @-@ speed rail include :
In Canada , according to the Surface Transportation Policy , Department of Transport , the speed range for higher @-@ speed rail is between 160 and 240 km / h ( 99 and 149 mph ) .
In India , according to the Minister of Railways , the speed range for India 's higher @-@ speed rail will be between 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) .
In Indonesia , the government is considering higher @-@ speed rail options , referred to as medium @-@ speed railway . The speed range is between 200 and 250 km / h ( 120 and 160 mph )
In the United Kingdom , the term higher @-@ speed rail is used for upgraded tracks with train speeds up to 125 mph ( 201 km / h )
In the United States , the term " higher @-@ speed rail " , as opposed to " high @-@ speed rail " , is used by regional planners in many U.S. states to describe inter @-@ city passenger rail services with top speeds of between 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . This is the equivalent of the definition of " Emerging High @-@ Speed Rail " as defined by the Federal Railroad Administration . However , the Congressional Research Service defines " Higher Speed Rail " as rail services with speeds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and defines rail services on dedicated tracks with speeds over 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) as " Very High Speed Rail " .
State @-@ level departments of transportation and council of governments may use different definitions . Below is the list of known definitions of higher @-@ speed rail which use some of the 5 speed levels , 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) and 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) :
In Thailand , higher @-@ speed rail , which is called medium @-@ speed rail there , has top speeds of up to 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) .
= = Speed limits = =
In Canada , the assumption about grade crossing is that operating higher @-@ speed rail services between 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) would require " improved levels of protection in acceptable areas " .
In the United States , railroad tracks are largely used for freight with at @-@ grade crossings . Passenger trains in many corridors run on shared tracks with freight trains . Most trains are limited to top speeds of 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) unless they are equipped with an automatic cab signal , automatic train stop , automatic train control or positive train control system approved by the Federal Railroad Administration ( FRA ) . In developing higher @-@ speed rail services , one of those safety systems must be used .
Additionally , the FRA establishes classification of track quality which regulates the speed limits of the trains with Class 5 , Class 6 , Class 7 and Class 8 for top speeds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) and 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , respectively . The FRA also regulates passenger train design and safety standards to ensure trains that operate at speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) up to 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) comply with its Tier I standard and trains that operate at speeds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) comply with its Tier II standard .
Another limitation is the safety of grade crossings which limits how fast the trains can go . FRA regulations set speed limits for tracks with grade crossings as follows :
For 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) or less : Grade crossings are permitted . States and railroads cooperate to determine the needed warning devices , including passive crossbucks , flashing lights , two quadrant gates ( close only ' entering ' lanes of road ) , long gate arms , median barriers , and various combinations . Lights and / or gates are activated by circuits wired to the track ( track circuits ) .
For 110 to 125 mph ( 180 to 200 km / h ) : The FRA permits crossings only if an " impenetrable barrier " blocks highway traffic when a train approaches .
Above 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) : No crossings will be permitted .
In Europe , the limit is often 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) over grade crossings . In Sweden there is a special rule permitting 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) if there are barriers and automatic detection of road vehicles standing on the track . In Russia 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) is permitted over grade crossings .
With the above limitations , many regional transportation planners focus on rail improvements to have the top speeds up to 110 mph when proposing a new higher @-@ speed rail service .
= = Similar categories = =
In countries where there had been rail improvement projects in the later part of the 20th century and into the 2000s , there are inter @-@ city rail services with comparable speed ranges of higher @-@ speed rail , but they are not specifically called " higher @-@ speed rail " . Below are some examples of such services that are still in operation .
Europe : The InterCity services in many European countries have top speeds of mostly up to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) , but it can go up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) Intercity trains that cross international borders are usually designated as Eurocity and reach similar speeds where tracks allow it .
Japan : The Mini @-@ shinkansen in Japan are upgraded lines from narrow gauge to allow Shinkansen to pass through with top speeds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . However , the International Union of Railways recognizes the Mini @-@ shinkansen lines as high @-@ speed rail .
Spain : Many inter @-@ city rail services operated by Renfe Operadora , the state @-@ owned company , are not classified as high @-@ speed rail . Those services are Alaris , Altaria , Arco and Talgo ( from Talgo III to Talgo VII ) with top speeds of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph )
In Norway , there is sometimes talked about hΓΈy hastighet , which may be compared to higher @-@ speed rail as used here β and hΓΈyhastighet , high @-@ speed rail . Most of the rail network is old , with sharp curves , and speeds at only 70 β 130 km / h . The lines around Oslo are upgraded or renewed , or are planned to be so . Some of the sections , like Follobanen ( Oslo β Ski , 22 km ) , are built or planned for 250 km / h β though others to hΓΈy hastighet , i.e. 160 or 200 km / h . By the same token , the Norwegian FLIRT trains and the El 18 locomotives have a top speed at 200 km / h . Gardermobanen is called a high @-@ speed line , and the GMB Class 71 and NSB Class 73 are often called high @-@ speed trains β with 210 km / t top speed . However , the limits are blurry . Sometimes , e.g. the FLIRTs are called high @-@ speed trains .
Sweden : SJ ( Swedish Railways ) operates inter @-@ city rail services using X 2000 trains in major routes across the country with top speeds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) . The operator brands it as high @-@ speed rail services ; however , the International Union of Railways only recognizes the 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) line from Stockholm to MalmΓΆ and GΓΆteborg as the only high @-@ speed rail line in Sweden which is still in the planning stage .
In Germany regional trains along the Munich @-@ Nuremberg high speed line which was built for 300 km / h run at 200 km / h without being specially designated . Those trains use locomotives that are used for Intercity trains elsewhere and the higher speed was chosen mainly to increase capacity .
= = Rail improvement strategies = =
There are many types of train that can support higher @-@ speed rail operation . Usually , the rail infrastructure needs to be upgraded prior to such operation . However , the requirements to the infrastructure ( signalling systems , curve radii , etc . ) increase much with higher speeds , so an upgrade to a higher @-@ speed standard is often much simpler and less expensive than building new high @-@ speed lines . But an upgrade to existing track currently in use , with busy traffic in some segments , makes challenges associated with the construction work that could potentially disrupt the train services . The followings are some strategies used by regional transportation planners and rail track owners for their rail improvement projects in order to start the higher @-@ speed rail services .
= = = Signal upgrades = = =
In Australia , the increased top speeds from 130 to 160 km / h ( 81 to 99 mph ) in the Regional Fast Rail project required a change to the signalling system to account for increased braking distance . Prior to the project , the system comprised a mixture of equipment from pre @-@ WWI mechanical signalling to the remote control systems of the 1980s . In some cases , operators needed to telephone the local operators to manually control the signal boxes . With the new speeds , the signalling needed to be computerized . The project employed the Solid State Interlocking with the newly laid fiber @-@ optic communication between the components to use three computer systems to control the signals . When the output of one computer differs from the other two , the system will fail that computer and continue the signal operations as long as the outputs from the other two computers are consistent . The project deployed the Train Protection & Warning System which allows the system to automatically applies the brakes at a sufficient distance to stop the train if the driver does not control the speeds adequately . The project also incorporated Train Control and Monitoring System to allow real @-@ time monitoring of the position of trains .
In the United States , the first step to increase top speeds from 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) is to install a new signal system that incorporates FRA @-@ approved positive train control ( PTC ) system that is compatible with higher @-@ speed rail operation . There are both transponder @-@ based and GPS @-@ based PTC systems currently in use in the United States . By a mandate , a significant portion of the railroads in the United States will be covered by PTC by the end of 2015 .
= = = Track improvements = = =
To support trains that run regularly at higher speeds , the rails need to be reliable . Most freight tracks have wooden ties which cause rails to become slightly misaligned over time due to wood rot , splitting and spike @-@ pull ( where the spike is gradually loosened from the tie ) . The concrete ties used to replace them are intended to make the track more stable , particularly with changes in temperature . Rail joints are also an issue , since most conventional rail lines use bolts and fishplates to join two sections of the rail together . This causes the joint to become slightly misaligned over time due to loosening bolts . To make for a smoother ride at higher speeds , the lengths of rail may be welded together to form continuous welded rail ( CWR ) . However , the continuous welded rails are vulnerable to stress due to changes in temperature .
In Australia , the track condition before the Regional Fast Rail project could only support trains up to speeds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . The tracks are with mixture of wooden and concrete ties . The rail weight varies but with majority being 47 kg / m ( 95 lb / yd ) . The track upgrade in the project included changing to use concrete ties and to use new standard of rail weight at 60 kg / m ( 121 lb / yd ) in order to support the new top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) .
There may be restriction in maximum operating speeds due to track geometry of existing line , especially on curves . Straightening the route , where possible , will reduce the travel time by increasing the allowable speeds and by reducing the length of track . When straight routes are not possible , reducing the number of curves and lowering the degree of curvature would result in higher allowable speeds on those curves . An example is the elimination of three consecutive reverse curves in favor of one larger curve . Raising superelevation may be considered for sharp curves which significantly limit speed . The higher speeds on those modified curves , together with the higher superelevation , will require track modification to have transition spirals to and from those curves to be longer .
Old turnouts may need replacement to allow trains to run through the turnouts at higher speeds . In the United States , some old turnouts have speed limit of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Even with newer turnouts ( rated # 20 ) , the diverging speed limit is still at 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) which would significantly slow down the higher @-@ speed train passing through those sections . High @-@ speed turnouts ( rated # 32 @.@ 7 ) are capable of handling maximum diverging speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
In order to minimize the downtime to upgrade tracks , a track renewal train ( TRT ) can automate much of the process , replacing rails , ties , and ballast at the rate of 2 miles per day . In the United States , a TRT is used by Union Pacific Railroad on the track shared with future higher @-@ speed rail service in Illinois area .
For electrified track , the old catenary may need to be replaced . The fixed @-@ tension catenary which is acceptable for low speeds may not be suitable for regular higher @-@ speed rail services , where a constant tension is automatically maintained when temperature changes cause the length of the wire to expand or contract .
= = = Crossing improvements = = =
With trains running at higher speeds throughout the route , safety at all at @-@ grade crossings needs to be considered .
In Australia , the levels of upgrade of the crossing in the rail improvements project were based on the risk analysis . The improvements included flashing light protection , automatic full barriers protection , and pedestrian gates crossings . The project also introduced the use of rubber panels at the crossings .
In the United States , the FRA limits train speeds to 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) without an " impenetrable barrier " at each crossing . Even with that top speed , the grade crossings must have adequate means to prevent collisions . Another option is grade separation , but it could be cost @-@ prohibitive and the planners may opt for at @-@ grade crossing improvements instead .
The safety improvements at crossings can be done using combination of techniques . This includes passive devices such as upgraded signage and pavement markings . Another low @-@ cost passive device is median separators which are installed along the center line of roadways , extending approximately 70 to 100 feet from the crossing , to discourage drivers from running around the crossing gates . More active devices include the four @-@ quadrant gate , which blocks both sides of each traffic lane . Longer gate arms can cover 3 / 4 of the roadway . Video cameras can also be installed to catch the violators . A signal monitoring system can also be installed to alert the crews when the crossing equipment has malfunctioned .
In Norway , grade crossings are not permitted at speeds above 160 km / h .
= = = Rerouting and passing sidings = = =
In areas where there is frequent interference between freight and passenger trains due to congestion which causes the passenger trains to slow down , more extensive improvements may be needed . Certain segments of the line in congested areas may need to be rerouted . New track may need to be laid to avoid many curves which slow down the trains . In stretches of heavy freight train traffic , adding passing sidings along the segment should be considered . Sometimes certain stations may need to be bypassed .
= = = Electrification = = =
Another consideration is electrification . Electrifying a railway line entails a major upgrade to the rail infrastructure and equipment . On the infrastructure side , it requires catenary lines to be built above the tracks . New transmission lines are needed to carry power from the power plants . Substations are required for each of the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) lengths to reduce severe voltage losses . There is also a need to consider the required amount of power supply and new power plants may be required . For locomotives , new electric locomotives are needed or existing diesel @-@ electric locomotives can be retrofitted into all @-@ electric locomotives , but it is a complicated task . These factors cause electrification to have high initial investment costs . The advantages of all @-@ electric locomotives are that they provide quieter , cleaner and more reliable operations than the diesel @-@ electric counterpart . The fuel consumption , locomotive maintenance costs and track wear of all all @-@ electric locomotives are also lower . Furthermore , electric traction makes the operator more independent of oil price fluctuations and imports , as electricity can be generated from domestic resources or renewable energy . This was a major consideration in the electrification of the GDR network , as lignite ( and therefore electricity ) was cheap and plentiful domestically whereas oil had to be imported at world market prices .
An alternative to catenary lines is to use a third rail system which has a semi @-@ continuous rigid conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track . However the operating speeds of this type of systems cannot be greater than 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) due to its limitation of the power supply gaps at turnouts and grade crossings . Therefore , the third rail system is not generally used for higher @-@ speed rail .
One example in the United States that does involve electrification is the Keystone Improvement Project to provide higher @-@ speed rail service along the Harrisburg @-@ Pittsburgh segment of the Keystone Corridor in Pennsylvania . The plan includes additional track , a new signal system and electrification . If completed as planned , this would allow Amtrak to utilize electric power continuously on service from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh . The first segment ( " Main Line " ) has already been using electric locomotives with a top speed of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) .
= = In operation = =
= = = Australia = = =
In 1999 , the concept of Regional Fast Rail project was initiated by the State Government of Victoria with a goal to provide express higher @-@ speed rail services between 4 main regional centres of Victoria ( Geelong , Ballarat , Bendigo and the Latrobe Valley ) and Melbourne . The initiative included a key component to upgrade rail infrastructure to have top speeds up to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) . The development phase of initiative was between 2000 and 2002 . Finally , the services on four lines began between 2005 and 2006 with top speeds of 160 km / h using VLocity trains . Additionally , Queensland Rail 's Tilt Train and Transwa Prospector are considered to be higher @-@ speed rail .
= = = China = = =
In China , the higher @-@ speed railways are the railways that are not officially categorised as high @-@ speed rail , but capable to have CRH EMUs run on it with top speed ranging from 140 km / h ( for shorter distance regional rail lines ) to 250 km / h ( for long @-@ haul lines ) . The higher @-@ speed trains have the identifiers starting with D ( for long @-@ distance trains ) , or C ( for regional rail trains ) , while high @-@ speed rail trains have identifiers starting with G ( which is the first letter for high @-@ speed rail in Chinese )
= = = Greece = = =
Since 1997 , ongoing construction to upgrade and built higher @-@ speed lines capable of speeds of up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) is conducted . The P.A.Th.E. Plan ( Patras @-@ Athens @-@ Thessaloniki @-@ Evzonoi ) , as it is called aims at reduced journey times between Greece 's main cities ( Athens , Thessaloniki and Patra ) as well as an improved rail connection between Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia . Currently , only the modernized lines of Domokos β Thessaloniki , Athens Airport β Kiato , and Thessaloniki β Strymonas are in operation at maximum speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) .
= = = United States = = =
This is the list of the current higher @-@ speed rail services from the East Coast to the West Coast :
Brightline is a Florida @-@ based company building a higher @-@ speed rail line that will connect Orlando and Miami by the end of 2017 . It will have stops in Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach with speeds up to 125 mph . When completed it will be the first Inter @-@ city rail not handled by Amtrak in the U.S. since 1983 when the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad discontinued its Rio Grande Zephyr .
= = Earlier attempts = =
= = = Canada = = =
There have been several different attempts at higher speed rail in the Windsor @-@ Quebec City Corridor , and several high speed rail attempts as well .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
The East Rail , the Tung Chung Line and the West Rail , which connect satellite cities in the New Territories with the city centres in Kowloon and Hong Kong , along with the Ma On Shan Line which branches off from the East Rail , are all equipped with train @-@ sets which are capable to run at 140 km / h ( 90 mph ) .
= = = Ireland = = =
In 2010 , there was a report commissioned by the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport as a mid @-@ term review of Transport 21 , an Irish infrastructure plan announced in 2005 . The report recommended , among other things , a development of national rail to provide higher @-@ speed rail services . However , there have been no progress toward the recommendation .
= = = United States = = =
There have been long @-@ range visions to establish high / higher @-@ speed rail networks in different regions of the United States but without adequate funding . During the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , there was a surge of interest to apply for grants from the federal government to start those projects . However , many proposals have been put on hold or cancelled after failing to secure funding or support from the public or key local politicians .
= = = = Amtrak Cascades = = = =
Amtrak Cascades , a 467 @-@ mile ( 747 km ) intercity rail service , stretches from Eugene , Oregon , through the State of Washington to Vancouver , British Columbia , in Canada . As of 2010 , the long @-@ term goal of this corridor was to have the top speeds of the segment of Eugene , Oregon , to Blaine , Washington , with top speeds in the 90 to 120 mph ( 140 to 190 km / h ) range , and eventually 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on a dedicated track . However , as of 2012 , the Washington State Department of Transportation plans for its 300 @-@ mile ( 480 km ) stretch to have top speeds of only 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) , and the plan in Oregon is to limit the speeds to 79 mph as well , with safety and other freight service concerns voiced by the track owner , Union Pacific Railroad . This essentially halts the plan to provide a higher @-@ speed rail service on this corridor in the near future .
= = = = Minnesota = = = =
The Northern Lights Express project , in the planning stages and proposed to begin construction in 2017 , would upgrade the BNSF trackage between Minneapolis and Duluth to support service up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
Other higher @-@ speed rail proposals are periodically considered , but would need to pass through neighboring states , which have thus far not agreed to cooperate . Minnesota transportation planners proposed a higher @-@ speed rail service called the River Route , with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , between Minneapolis β Saint Paul , Minnesota , and Chicago , Illinois , via Milwaukee , Wisconsin , which follows the Empire Builder route . There is no current progress with the River Route project due to the cancellation of the funding in Wisconsin .
Another alternative that has been discussed is to have a new route that heads south to Iowa to join the rail link from Iowa to Chicago . There was a report in 2011 that Iowa would halt its involvement in high / higher @-@ speed rail projects . However , the Iowa Department of Transportation and Illinois Department of Transportation continue to pursue the study of rail link between Chicago and Omaha , Nebraska , through Iowa with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Therefore , the status of the proposal to link Minneapolis β Saint Paul with Chicago via Iowa is unknown .
= = = = New York = = = =
In 1998 , New York State initiated a $ 185 million program in partnership with Amtrak to increase the speeds of the Empire Service to 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) by reconstructing all seven gas @-@ turbine Turboliner trainsets , originally built in 1976 β 1977 , to the new RTL @-@ III specification . The reconstructed trains , coupled with track improvements , would cut the travel time between New York City and Albany by 20 minutes . However , the project ran into many problems including issues with the trains and the unsuccessful implementation of required track improvements . New York ended the rehabilitation program in 2005 after spending $ 70 @.@ 3 million . Fallout over the program led to litigation between New York and Amtrak ; Amtrak would eventually pay New York $ 20 million and commit to funding $ 10 million in track improvements . New York auctioned off its surplus Turboliners in 2012 for $ 420 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Ohio = = = =
The Ohio Hub , a rail improvement project proposed by the Ohio Department of Transportation , is aimed at revitalizing passenger rail service in the Ohio region . The proposal was to increase the top speeds to 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) in the network connecting Cleveland , Columbus , and Cincinnati β commonly referred as the 3 @-@ C corridor . The project is currently in an unknown state after the U.S. government rescinded the federal funding from Ohio and redirected it to other states .
= = = = Wisconsin = = = =
In October 2009 , the Wisconsin Department of Transportation adopted the Connections 2030 plan which is the long @-@ range plan for state transportation needs . The plan includes Wisconsin Rail Plan 2030 , the twenty @-@ year plan to improve the state railroad system by 2030 . In the rail plan , there is a multi @-@ phase project to upgrade the rail service from Chicago , Illinois , to Milwaukee and Madison , Wisconsin , with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The latter phases of the project will expand the same service to Minneapolis β Saint Paul in Minnesota and another route to Green Bay , Wisconsin . There was a reaction against the project in 2010 , and the $ 810 million grant the state originally received for the project from the federal government was rescinded . As of 2012 , the rail plan is postponed indefinitely .
= = Current efforts = =
= = = Baltic states = = =
The three Baltic states have been working with the European Union as part of the Trans @-@ European Transport Networks ( TEN @-@ T ) initiative on a study to build a higher @-@ speed rail line in the Rail Baltica corridor to connect Warsaw , in Poland , and Tallinn , in Estonia .
= = = Canada = = =
For a rail route to connect Windsor , Ontario to Detroit , Michigan in the United States , a higher @-@ speed rail plan was proposed as an alternative after a study on the Windsor to Quebec City route in Canada was to consider only high @-@ speed rail with top speeds of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) or more . Politicians in Windsor area proposed in 2012 that having higher @-@ speed rail connection between Windsor and Detroit must be part of the consideration .
Another feasibility study is ongoing as part of the Northern New England Intercity Rail Initiative to connect between Boston and Montreal trains at top speeds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
= = = Greece = = =
A project to modernize railway network in Greece is ongoing . A new 106 km ( 66 mi ) alignment between Tithorea and Domokos is designed to avoid the mountainous part . The new line will have speeds of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) .
= = = India = = =
In October 2013 , the Minister of Railways announced at the two @-@ day international technical conference on High Speed Rail Travel ; Low Cost Solution that the focus of India 's rail improvement is to implement a lower cost solution to meet the immediate needs by providing higher @-@ speed rail services as an incremental step before the dedicated track high @-@ speed rail can be achieved . India 's higher @-@ speed rail will be in the range of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) . On 3 July 2014 , a trail run with the new top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) was successfully completed on a journey of 200 km ( 120 mi ) between Delhi and Agra . The new service , to be in operation in March 2016 , will cut the travel time from 126 minutes by the current trains with top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) down to 99 minutes .
= = = Indonesia = = =
Before September 2015 , Indonesia had a plan to build its first high @-@ speed rail between Jakarta and Bandung . There were biddings from China and Japan to build the new rail line . However , on September 4 , 2015 , the government of Indonesia announced the cancellation of the project . The Coordinating Minister for the Economy gave the reason that the distant between the two cities is only 150 km ( 93 mi ) . The short distant would make it hard to sustain the top speeds of 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) which would not justify the high construction cost to build a high @-@ speed rail line . The government now has a focus on medium @-@ speed railway between the two cities which will be in the range of 200 and 250 km / h ( 120 and 160 mph ) .
= = = Thailand = = =
The Government of Thailand considers a plan to build out its high @-@ speed rail corridors . As an alternative to the high @-@ speed trains , the government also considers medium @-@ speed trains with top speeds of 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) .
= = = United States = = =
This is a partial list of ongoing higher @-@ speed rail projects from the East Coast to the West Coast .
* The study includes higher @-@ speed rail alternatives with top speeds of 90 ( options A and B ) , 110 and 125 mph . It also has high @-@ speed rail options with top speeds of 160 and 220 mph . As of March 2012 , the Tier 1 EIS has eliminated the high @-@ speed rail options . The only 4 build alternatives are in higher @-@ speed rail range . The numbers on the table represent the 125 mph alternative . The other alternatives are for non @-@ electrified track with average speeds of 57 mph ( for 90A option ) , 61 ( for 90B option ) , and 63 ( for 110 option ) .
* * The study includes two main alternatives for higher @-@ speed rail . The first alternative is called Shared Use with top speeds of 90 @-@ 110 mph . The second alternative is called Hybrid High Performance with top speeds of 130 mph . There are also high @-@ speed rail alternatives in the same study with top speeds of 180 @-@ 220 + mph . The numbers on the table represent the first two higher @-@ speed rail alternatives .
* * * The study includes higher @-@ speed rail up to 110 mph and high @-@ speed rail of 150 + mph options .
= = = = Proposed routes = = = =
In addition to ongoing projects , there are proposed routes that have not reached the feasibility study stage yet . In Pennsylvania , a rail advocacy group started fund raising efforts in 2014 to obtain $ 25 @,@ 000 for a preliminary study and additional $ 100 @,@ 000 for feasibility study of the route from Erie to Pittsburgh . The proposal is for 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) express train services to directly link the two cities . An alternative is to have intermediate stops in Ohio cities including Ashtabula , Warren , and Youngstown before heading back to New Castle , Pennsylvania .
In Ohio , a rail advocacy group works with local political leaders in Ohio , Indiana and Illinois to consider a higher @-@ speed rail line from Cincinnati to Chicago . This is in response to another advocacy group in Indiana that gained funding for the Columbus , Ohio β Fort Wayne β Chicago route that is already in feasibility study stage . The group persuaded the Hamilton County government in Ohio to advocate for the study . The county commissioners unanimously voted in September 2014 to pursue a feasibility study . As a possible route that goes through the states of Kentucky and Indiana , the county expects that Ohio @-@ Kentucky @-@ Indiana Regional Council of Governments will help fund a feasibility study .
In Michigan , a feasibility study sponsored by an environmental group is in progress for a new rail line between Detroit and Grand Rapids . The proposal is to have trains running at speeds between 79 and 110 mph ( 127 and 177 km / h ) . The state transportation department is interested in the study but is not ready to move beyond this study .
In Texas , the East Texas Corridor Council proposed a higher @-@ speed rail route between Longview and Dallas . The trains will operate at speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) .
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= Manta ray =
Manta rays are large rays belonging to the genus Manta . The larger species , M. birostris , reaches 7 m ( 23 ft 0 in ) in width while the smaller , M. alfredi , reaches 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft 1 in ) . Both have triangular pectoral fins , horn @-@ shaped cephalic fins and large , forward @-@ facing mouths . They are classified among the Elasmobranchii ( sharks and rays ) and are placed in the family Myliobatidae ( eagle rays ) .
Mantas are found in temperate , subtropical and tropical waters . Both species are pelagic ; M. birostris migrates across open oceans , singly or in groups , while M. alfredi tends to be resident and coastal . They are filter feeders and eat large quantities of zooplankton , which they swallow with their open mouths as they swim . Gestation lasts over a year , producing live pups . Mantas may visit cleaning stations for the removal of parasites . Like whales , they breach , for unknown reasons .
Both species are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Anthropogenic threats include pollution , entanglement in fishing nets , and direct harvesting for their gill rakers for use in Chinese medicine . Their slow reproductive rate exacerbates these threats . They are protected in international waters by the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals , but are more vulnerable closer to shore . Areas where mantas congregate are popular with tourists . Only a few aquariums are large enough to house them . In general , these large fish are seldom seen and difficult to study .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The name " manta " is Portuguese and Spanish for mantle ( cloak or blanket ) , a type of blanket @-@ shaped trap traditionally used to catch rays . Mantas are known as " devilfish " because of their horn @-@ shaped cephalic fins , which are imagined to give them an " evil " appearance .
Manta rays are members of Chondrichthyes , fish with tough cartilage rather than bone in their skeletons . Mantas are among the Elasmobranchii ( sharks and rays ) , in the superorder Batoidea ( rays and skates ) and the order Myliobatiformes ( stingrays and relatives ) . The genus Manta is part of the eagle ray family Myliobatidae , where it is grouped in the subfamily Mobulinae along with the devil rays .
Mantas evolved from bottom @-@ dwelling stingrays , eventually developing more wing @-@ like pectoral fins . M. birostris still has a vestigial remnant of a sting barb in the form of a caudal spine . The mouths of most rays lie on the underside of the head , while in mantas they are right at the front . Manta rays and devil rays are the only ray species that have evolved into filter feeders .
The scientific naming of mantas has had a convoluted history , during which several names were used for both the genus ( Ceratoptera , Brachioptilon Daemomanta and Diabolicthys ) and species ( such as vampyrus , americana , johnii and hamiltoni ) . All were eventually treated as synonyms of the single species Manta birostris . The genus name Manta was first published in 1829 by Dr Edward Nathaniel Bancroft of Jamaica . The specific name birostris is ascribed to Johann Julius Walbaum ( 1792 ) by some authorities and to Johann August Donndorff ( 1798 ) by others . The name alfredi was first used by Australian zoologist Gerard Krefft , who named the manta after Prince Alfred .
Authorities were still not in agreement and some argued that the black color morph was a different species from the mostly white morph . This proposal was discounted by a 2001 study of the mitochondrial DNA of both . A 2009 study analyzed the differences in morphology , including color , meristic variation , spine , dermal denticles ( tooth @-@ like scales ) and teeth of different populations . Two distinct species emerged : the smaller M. alfredi found in the Indo @-@ Pacific and tropical east Atlantic , and the larger M. birostris found throughout tropical , subtropical and warm temperate oceans . The former is more coastal while the latter is more ocean @-@ going and migratory .
A third possible species , preliminarily called Manta sp. cf. birostris , reaches at least 6 m ( 20 ft ) in width , and inhabits the tropical west Atlantic , including the Caribbean . It and M. birostris occur in sympatry . A 2010 study on mantas around Japan confirmed the morphological and genetic differences between M. birostris and M. alfredi .
= = = Fossil record = = =
While some small teeth have been found , few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been discovered . Their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well as they lack the calcification of the bony fish . Only three sedimentary beds bearing manta ray fossils are known , one from the Oligocene in South Carolina and two from the Miocene and Pliocene in North Carolina . Remains of an extinct species have been found in the Chandler Bridge Formation of South Carolina . These were originally described as Manta fragilis but were later reclassified as Paramobula fragilis .
= = Biology = =
= = = Appearance and anatomy = = =
Manta rays have broad heads , triangular pectoral fins , and horn @-@ shaped cephalic fins located on either side of their mouths . They have horizontally flattened bodies with eyes on the sides of their heads behind the cephalic fins , and gill slits on their ventral surfaces . Their tails lack skeletal support and are shorter than their disc @-@ like bodies . The dorsal fins are small and at the base of the tail . The largest mantas can reach 1 @,@ 350 kg ( 2 @,@ 980 lb ) . In both species the width is approximately 2 @.@ 2 times the length of the body ; M. birostris reaches at least 7 m ( 23 ft ) in width while M. alfredi reaches about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . Dorsally , mantas are typically black or dark in color with pale markings on their " shoulders " . Ventrally , they are usually white or pale with distinctive dark markings by which individual mantas can be recognized . All @-@ black color morphs are known to exist . The skin is covered in mucus which protects it from infection .
The two species of manta differ in color patterns , dermal denticles , and dentition . M. birostris has more angular shoulder markings , larger ventral dark spots on the abdominal region , charcoal @-@ colored ventral outlines on the pectoral fins and a dark colored mouth . The shoulder markings of M. alfredi are more rounded , while its ventral spots are located near the posterior end and between the gill slits , and the mouth is white or pale colored . The denticles have multiple cusps and overlap in M. birostris , while those of M. alfredi are evenly spaced and lack cusps . Both species have small square shaped teeth on the lower jaw but M. birostris also has enlarged teeth on the upper jaw . Unlike M. alfredi , M. birostris has a caudal spine near its dorsal fin .
Mantas move through the water by the wing @-@ like movements of their pectoral fins , which drive water backwards . Their large mouths are rectangular , and face forward as opposed to other ray and skate species with downward @-@ facing mouths . The spiracles typical of rays are vestigial , and mantas must swim continuously to keep oxygenated water passing over their gills . The cephalic fins are usually spiralled , but flatten during foraging . The fish 's gill arches have pallets of pinkish @-@ brown spongy tissue that collect food particles . Mantas track down prey using visual and olfactory senses . They have one of the highest brain @-@ to @-@ body mass ratios of all fish . Their brains have retia mirabilia which may serve to keep them warm . M. alfredi has been shown to dive to depths of over 400 m , while their relative Mobula tarapacana , which has a similar structure , dives to nearly 2000 m ; the retia mirabilia probably serve to prevent their brains from being chilled during such dives into colder subsurface waters .
= = = Lifecycle = = =
Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of the manta 's range . Courtship is difficult to observe in this fast @-@ swimming fish , although mating " trains " with multiple individuals swimming closely behind each other are sometimes seen in shallow water . The mating sequence may be triggered by a full moon and seems to be initiated by a male following closely behind a female while she travels at around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) per hour . He makes repeated efforts to grasp her pectoral fin with his mouth , which may take twenty or thirty minutes . Once he has a tight grip , he turns upside @-@ down and presses his ventral side against hers . He then inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca where they remain for sixty to ninety seconds . The clasper forms a tube which channels sperm from the genital papilla ; a siphon propels the seminal fluid into the oviduct . The male continues to grip the female 's pectoral fin with his teeth for a further few minutes as both continue to swim , often followed by up to twenty other males . The pair then part . For some reason the male almost always grasps the left pectoral fin , and females often have scars that illustrate this .
The fertilized eggs develop within the female 's oviduct . At first they are enclosed in an egg case while the developing embryos absorb the yolk . After hatching , the pups remain in the oviduct and receive additional nutrition from milky secretions . With no umbilical cord or placenta , the unborn pup relies on buccal pumping to obtain oxygen . Brood size is usually one or occasionally two . The gestation period is thought to be twelve to thirteen months . When fully developed , the pup resembles a miniature adult and is expelled from the oviduct with no further parental care . In wild populations , an interval of two years between births may be normal , but a few individuals become pregnant in consecutive years , demonstrating an annual ovulatory cycle . The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium has had some success in breeding M. alfredi , with one female giving birth in three successive years . In one of these pregnancies , the gestation period was 372 days and at birth the pup had a width of 192 cm ( 76 in ) and weight of 70 kg ( 150 lb ) . In southern Africa M. birostris males mature at 4 m ( 13 ft ) while females reach maturity slightly over that . In Indonesia , M. birostris males appear to mature at 3 @.@ 75 m ( 12 ft ) while female mature at around 4 m ( 13 ft ) . In southern Africa M. alfredi matures at widths of 3 m ( 10 ft ) for males and 3 @.@ 9 m ( 13 ft ) for females . In the Maldives , male M. alfredi mature at a width of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) while females mature at 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . In Hawaii , M. alfredi mature at a width of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 ft 2 in ) for males and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) for females . Female mantas appear to mature at 8 β 10 years . Manta rays may live for as long as 50 years .
= = = Behavior and ecology = = =
Swimming behavior in mantas differs across habitats : when travelling over deep water , they swim at a constant rate in a straight line , while further inshore they usually bask or swim idly around . Mantas may travel alone or in groups of up to 50 . They may associate with other fish species as well as sea birds and marine mammals . Mantas sometimes breach , leaping partially or entirely out of the water . Individuals in a group may make aerial jumps one after the other . These leaps come in three forms : forward leaps where the fish lands head first , similar jumps with a tail first re @-@ entry or somersaults . The reason for breaching is not known ; possible explanations include mating rituals , birthing , communication , or the removal of parasites and commensal remoras ( suckerfish ) .
As filter feeders , manta rays consume large quantities of zooplankton in the form of shrimp , krill and planktonic crabs . An individual manta eats about 13 % of its body weight each week . When foraging , it slowly swims around its prey , herding it into a tight " ball " and then speeds through the bunched organisms with a wide @-@ open mouth . If a ball is particularly dense , a manta may somersault through it . While feeding , mantas flatten their cephalic fins to channel food into their mouths and the small particles are collected by the tissue between the gill arches . As many as fifty individual fish may gather at a single , plankton @-@ rich feeding site . Mantas are themselves preyed upon by large sharks and by killer whales . They may also be bitten by cookiecutter sharks , and harbor parasitic copepods .
Mantas visit cleaning stations on coral reefs for the removal of external parasites . The ray adopts a near @-@ stationary position close to the coral surface for several minutes while the cleaner fish consume the attached organisms . Such visits most frequently occur when the tide is high . In Hawaii , wrasses provide the cleaning ; some species feed around the manta 's mouth and gill slits while others address the rest of the body surface . In Mozambique , sergeant major fish clean the mouth while butterflyfishes concentrate on bite wounds . M. alfredi visits cleaning stations more often than M. birostris . Individual mantas may revisit the same cleaning station or feeding area repeatedly and appear to have cognitive maps of their environment .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Mantas are found in tropical and subtropical waters in all the world 's major oceans and also venture into temperate seas . The furthest from the equator they have been recorded is North Carolina in the United States ( 31ΒΊN ) to the north , and the North Island of New Zealand ( 36ΒΊS ) to the south . They prefer water temperatures above 68 Β° F ( 20 Β° C ) and M. alfredi is predominantly found in tropical areas . Both species are pelagic . M. birostris lives mostly in the open ocean , travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient @-@ rich water increase prey concentrations .
Fish that have been fitted with radio transmitters have travelled as far as 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) from where they were caught and descended to depths of at least 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . M. alfredi is a more resident and coastal species . Seasonal migrations do occur , but they are shorter than those of M. birostris . Mantas are common around coasts from spring to fall , but travel further offshore during the winter . They keep close to the surface and in shallow water in daytime , while at night they swim at greater depths .
= = Conservation issues = =
= = = Threats = = =
The greatest threat to manta rays is overfishing . M. birostris is not evenly distributed over the oceans , but is concentrated in areas that provide the food resources it requires , while M. alfredi is even more localized . Their distributions are thus fragmented , with little evidence of intermingling of subpopulations . Because of their long lifespans and low reproductive rate , overfishing can severely reduce local populations with little likelihood that individuals from elsewhere will replace them .
Both commercial and artisanal fisheries have targeted mantas for their meat and products . They are typically caught with nets , trawls and harpoons . Mantas were once captured by fisheries in California and Australia for their liver oil and skin ; the latter were used as abrasives . Their flesh is edible and is consumed in some countries , but is unattractive compared to other fish . Demand for their gill rakers , the cartilaginous structures protecting the gills , has recently entered Chinese medicine . To fill the growing demand in Asia for gill rakers , targeted fisheries have developed in Philippines , Indonesia , Mozambique , Madagascar , India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Brazil and Tanzania . Each year , thousands of manta rays , primarily M. birostris , are caught and killed purely for their gill rakers . A fisheries study in Sri Lanka and India estimated that over 1000 were being sold in the country 's fish markets each year . By comparison , M. birostris populations at most of the key aggregation sites around the world are estimated to have significantly fewer than 1000 individuals . Targeted fisheries for manta rays in the Gulf of California , the west coast of Mexico , India , Sri Lanka , Indonesia , and the Philippines have reduced populations in these areas dramatically .
Manta rays are subject to other anthropogenic threats . Because mantas must swim constantly to flush oxygen @-@ rich water over their gills , they are vulnerable to entanglement and subsequent suffocation . Mantas cannot swim backwards and , because of their protruding cephalic fins , are prone to entanglement in fishing lines , nets , and even loose mooring lines . When snared , mantas often attempt to free themselves by somersaulting , tangling themselves further . Loose , trailing line can wrap around and cut its way into its flesh , resulting in irreversible injury . Similarly , mantas become entangled in gill nets designed for smaller fish . Some mantas are injured by collision with boats , especially in areas where they congregate and are easily observed . Other threats or factors that may affect manta numbers are climate change , tourism , pollution from oil spills , and the ingestion of microplastics .
= = = Status = = =
In 2011 , mantas became strictly protected in international waters because of their inclusion in the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals . The CMS is an international treaty organization concerned with conserving migratory species and habitats on a global scale . Although individual nations were already protecting manta rays , the fish often migrate through unregulated waters , putting them at increased risk from overfishing . The IUCN declared M. birostris to be ' Vulnerable with an elevated risk of extinction ' in November 2011 .
In the same year , M. alfredi was also classified as ' Vulnerable ' with local populations of fewer than 1000 individuals and little or no interchange between subpopulations . The Manta Trust is a UK @-@ based charity dedicated to research and conservation efforts for manta rays . The organization 's website is also an information resource for manta conservation and biology .
Besides these international initiatives , some countries are taking their own actions . New Zealand has banned the taking of manta rays since the introduction of the Wildlife Act in 1953 . In June 1995 , the Maldives banned the export of all ray species and their body parts , effectively putting a stop to manta fishing as there had not previously been a fishery for local consumption . The government reinforced this in 2009 with the introduction of two marine protected areas . In the Philippines , the taking of mantas was banned in 1998 , but this was overturned in 1999 under pressure from local fishermen . Fish stocks were surveyed in 2002 , and the ban was reintroduced . The taking or killing of mantas in Mexican waters was prohibited in 2007 . This ban may not be strictly enforced , but laws are being more rigidly applied at Isla Holbox , an island off the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula , where manta rays are used to attract tourists .
In 2009 , Hawaii became the first of the United States to introduce a ban on the killing or capturing of manta rays . Previously , there was no fishery for mantas in the state , but migratory fish that pass the islands are now protected . In 2010 , Ecuador introduced a law prohibiting all fishing for manta and other rays , their retention as bycatch , and their sale .
= = Relation to humans = =
The ancient Peruvian Moche people worshipped the sea and its animals . Their art often depicts manta rays . Historically , mantas were feared for their size and power . Sailors believed that they ate fish and could sink boats by pulling on the anchors . This attitude changed around 1978 when divers around the Gulf of California found them to be placid and that they could interact with the animals . Several divers photographed themselves with mantas , including Jaws author Peter Benchley .
= = = Aquariums = = =
Due to their size , it is rare for mantas to be kept in captivity and few aquariums currently display them . One notable individual is " Nandi " , a manta ray which was accidentally caught in shark nets off Durban , South Africa , in 2007 . Rehabilitated and outgrowing her aquarium at uShaka Marine World , Nandi was moved to the larger Georgia Aquarium in August 2008 , where she resides in its 23 @,@ 848 @-@ m3 ( 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 @-@ US gal ) " Ocean Voyager " exhibit . A second manta ray joined that aquarium 's collection in September 2009 , and a third was added in 2010 .
The Atlantis resort on Paradise Island , Bahamas , hosted a manta named " Zeus " which was used as a research subject for three years until it was released in 2008 . The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium also houses manta rays in the " Kuroshio Sea " tank , one of the largest aquarium tanks in the world . The first manta ray birth in captivity took place there in 2007 . Although this pup did not survive , the aquarium has since seen the birth of three more manta rays in 2008 , 2009 , and 2010 .
= = = Tourism = = =
Sites at which manta rays congregate attract tourists , and manta viewing generates substantial annual revenue for local communities . Tourist sites exist in the Bahamas , the Cayman Islands , Spain , the Fiji Islands , Thailand , Indonesia , Hawaii , Western Australia and the Maldives . Mantas are popular because of their enormous size and because they are easily habituated to humans . Scuba divers may get a chance to watch mantas visiting cleaning stations and night dives enable viewers to see mantas feeding on plankton attracted by the lights .
Ray tourism benefits locals and visitors by raising awareness of natural resource management and educating them about the animals . It can also provide funds for research and conservation . Constant unregulated interactions with tourists can negatively affect the fish by disrupting ecological relationships and increasing disease transmission . At Bora Bora , an excessive number of swimmers , boaters and jet skiers caused the local manta ray population to abandon the area .
In 2014 , Indonesia has brought in a fishing and export ban as it has realized that manta ray tourism is more economically beneficial than allowing the fish to be killed . A dead manta is worth $ 40 to $ 500 while manta ray tourism can bring in $ 1 million during the life of a single manta ray . Indonesia has 2 @.@ 2 million square miles of ocean and this is now the world 's largest sanctuary for manta rays .
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= Cyclone Sose =
Tropical Cyclone Sose was a moderate storm system that chiefly impacted the island nation of Vanuatu in early April 2001 . The developing cyclone was first detected on April 3 , while situated well to the northeast of Vanuatu . As atmospheric conditions became more conducive to intensification , the disturbance gradually consolidated as it drifted toward the west @-@ southwest . After receiving the name Sose on April 5 , the cyclone was driven southeastward , passing just west of Espiritu Santo and neighboring islands . Although it never made landfall , Sose was particularly expansive , producing a wide area of gale @-@ force winds . The cyclone peaked in strength between April 7 and 8 with maximum 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , placing it at Category 2 intensity on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Ultimately , stronger wind shear and an increasingly hostile upper @-@ air pattern took their toll on the cyclone as it progressed due south ; Sose lost tropical characteristics to the northeast of Norfolk Island by April 12 . The extratropical remnants of Sose continued into the Tasman Sea .
Occurring just two months after Cyclone Paula affected Vanuatu , Sose compounded the damage already done by the previous storm , especially to crops and farmlands . Throughout the island chain , two people lost their lives to the storm . Roadways were blocked by debris and floodwaters , while schools and classrooms on several islands were damaged or ruined . The storm destroyed about 200 homes around the nation and damaged many more , particularly on southern Espiritu Santo . The storm 's large fetch generated enormous swells as far away as Australia 's Eastern Seaboard , where surfers took advantage of the abnormally intense conditions and two swimmers drowned . On MarΓ© Island in New Caledonia , a man was swept away by a large wave and presumed dead . The storm later produced torrential rainfall and strong winds over the North Island of New Zealand , sparking damaging freshwater floods and downing trees and power lines . Hazardous driving conditions in the Waikato region led to a fatal traffic accident in which three people died . Another individual drowned in a swollen river . Sose reportedly contributed to coastal flooding as far away as Tonga . In all , Sose killed nine people ; total monetary damage is unknown . As a result of the storm 's destruction , its name was later retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Sose originated in a broad area of disturbed weather first identified on April 3 , well to the east @-@ northeast of Vanuatu . The system initially drifted generally toward the west under an improving upper @-@ level wind shear pattern that began to catalyze favorable outflow . Late on October 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the disturbance , noting strong banding features and a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center of circulation . Tropical Depression 13F formed at 1200 UTC next day as examined by the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) , the local Regional Specialized Meteorological Center . At the time , the new cyclone was situated about 140 km ( 87 mi ) to the northwest of Espiritu Santo . The JTWC 's official " best track " entry on the storm β designated 19P β first lists it as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on April 4 , though operationally , the agency did not issue its first tropical cyclone warning until late on April 5 . The storm proceeded slowly westward and gradually continued to organize , its intensification hindered by residual wind shear and its proximity to the mountainous terrain of Espiritu Santo . However , convection over the center continued to develop , and consequently the FMS upgraded 13F to Tropical Cyclone Sose at 1800 UTC .
Sose remained nearly stationary for a period of 24 hours , blocked by a strong subtropical ridge to the south . Over the course of April 6 , an approaching mid @-@ level trough of low pressure created a weakness in the ridge , allowing Sose to accelerate southeastward . The storm 's environment steadily improved in both the lower and upper levels , triggering the consolidation of deep convection around the center . As a result , early on April 7 , a central dense overcast formed . According to the FMS , Sose reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC , with maximum 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and a central barometric pressure of 975 hPa ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The cyclone passed just to the west of the islands of Vanuatu as its outer bands contracted around the well @-@ defined central dense overcast . A large feeder band persisted on the eastern side of the circulation , bridging the northwestern southeastern quadrants . The feature became a notable aspect of the cyclone 's satellite presentation . The JTWC estimated that 19P reached its peak intensity at 1200 UTC on April 8 , possessing 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) and gusts up to 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission imaged the storm shortly thereafter , and revealed a distinct eye about 44 km ( 27 mi ) across , bounded on the southern semicircle by strong convection activity .
Sose made its closest approach to New Caledonia early on April 8 , passing about 280 km ( 175 mi ) to the northeast . A strong area of high pressure over New Zealand served to tighten to surface pressure gradient well to the south of Sose 's center , contributing to an overall very large envelope of gale @-@ force winds . In turn , the cyclone affected numerous islands on both side of its path , despite never having made landfall . As it progressed on its southeastward track , the cyclone began to show signs of weakening , at least partially due to increasing wind shear from an approaching upper trough . At the same time , a mid @-@ level ridge to the east forced the storm to turn due south ; the conflicting wind patterns undermined the cyclone 's circulation , causing its center at the surface to separate from the deep convection . Both the FMS and the JTWC reflected steady weakening , and by early on April 10 , the center had become exposed and ill @-@ defined . Sose then entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Center in Wellington , New Zealand , where it continued to deteriorate . The JTWC issued its last warning on 19P at 0600 UTC on April 11 , while the system was located about 335 km ( 210 mi ) northeast of Norfolk Island . TCWC Wellington soon downgraded Sose to a tropical depression as it underwent an extratropical transition . Drifting south @-@ southwestward , the cyclone lost its tropical identity early on April 12 . The remnant low ultimately moved over the Tasman Sea , where it was absorbed by a broad low pressure system about to travel over New Zealand 's North Island . Abundant residual tropical moisture acted on the low pressure environment to create widespread precipitation across northern New Zealand .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Prior to the storm 's passage of New Caledonia , residents there were advised to take basic precautions , such as remaining indoors during bouts of inclement weather . Storm warnings were hoisted over the Loyalty Islands and South Province . Vanuatu 's Department of Meteorology began posting official alerts on April 7 . Warnings for heavy rains and strong winds were posted throughout northern New Zealand in anticipation of the storm 's remnants . With Easter weekend , more motorists were already expected to be traveling longer distances , and officials grew concerned of dangerous effects on traffic from the cyclone . Police increased their presence to unprecedented levels in an attempt to control speeding and other hazardous behaviors .
Due to the storm 's " negative impact on one or more countries " , Sose was retired from the cyclical list of tropical cyclone names ; it was replaced with Sarai .
= = = Vanuatu = = =
Sose predominately affected the western islands of Vanuatu , starting from the north . Most severely impacted were the islands of Espiritu Santo , Malakula , Aoba , Efate , Erromango , Tanna , Aneityum , and the Shepherd Islands . In several locations , Sose compounded or worsened the destruction wrought by Cyclone Paula in late February and early March . The storm produced significant precipitation , heavy seas , and sustained winds exceeding 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) .
A resident of Malakula was struck and killed by a falling coconut while seeking shelter from the worsening conditions . Agriculture on nearby Ahamb Island , already impaired by Paula , was further compromised ; all crops , both those remaining after Paula and those planted in the intervening time , were destroyed . Four classrooms on the small island were also damaged beyond use . Buildings on Aoba incurred appreciable damage , while on Efate , the storm brought down utility poles , severely damaged local schools , and left roads covered with debris and floodwaters . Flooding in the nation 's capital city of Port Vila forced 50 residents to leave their homes in search of higher ground . Espiritu Santo , particularly the island 's south shore around Luganville , bore the brunt of Cyclone Sose . Several types of crops ( also weakened by Paula ) took a heavy beating , and 60 people had to evacuate due to encroaching floods . In total , the storm demolished 59 houses on the island and in some way damaged another 101 . A young child drowned after being swept away while attempting to cross a swollen waterway . Just offshore , the M / V Omale succumbed to the heavy seas ; all 16 of its occupants successfully swam four hours to shore .
Overall , the Vanuatu National Disaster Management Office estimated at least 50 % each of food crops and buildings in the hardest @-@ hit provinces were left in a state of damage . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs considered about 200 residences throughout the island nation " lost " to the storm . The National Disaster Committee met on April 9 to discuss potential emergency aid for residents of the areas hardest hit by cyclones Sose and Paula . Around the same time , the Vanuatu Red Cross stated that it would distribute supplies such as materials for makeshift shelters and water purification tablets . The Red Cross was also to provide 500 bags of rice to villages in the Shepherd Islands . Political unrest on a national level limited the government 's attention to initial recovery ; it did not immediate declare a state of emergency or file any requests for international aid .
= = = New Zealand and Australia = = =
The remnants of Cyclone Sose were a significant factor in stormy weather over the North Island of New Zealand between April 12 and April 14 . Numerous locations received 10 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall , and 23 @.@ 0 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation fell at Glenbervie , Northland region , in just seven hours . The heavy rainfall rates caused " significant " flooding of low @-@ lying roads and farmlands in the region . Floodwaters inundated the township of Kaeo and entered several local businesses . The swollen Kaeo River temporarily rendered New Zealand State Highway 10 impassable to most vehicles at a bridge over the waterway . A hospital became isolated from the rest of the town . Further to the west , State Highway 1 was blocked by flooding at Rangiahua , as was State Highway 2 between Te Puke and Te Maunga Junction . At the former , the rains triggered a landslide and polluted the local supply of drinking water . Several residences throughout the region sustained damage . A 22 @-@ year @-@ old man drowned in high waters along the Wairoa River . Rising waters from the Kerikeri River threatened to affect the Mission House , the nation 's oldest surviving building , where staff were on standby to relocate furnishings if necessary .
A severe traffic accident occurred on State Highway 28 at Tapapa , Waikato , on the morning of April 13 . The head @-@ on collision was attributed to slick roads resulting from the storm . Three individuals were killed and two more were hospitalized . Several other accidents were reported around the same time . In addition to the rainfall , strong winds brought down trees and utility poles across the island and as far south as Marlborough on the South Island . There , the strong winds fanned a large fire ignited by sparks from downed power lines . The fire covered more than 70 hectares ( 175 acres ) of land and prompted several families to evacuate their homes . Three people were injured at Ohakune after a temporary tent collapsed at a local festival . Along the coast , swells triggered by Sose reached 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in height .
The tight pressure gradient between Cyclone Sose and the ridge to its south generated extremely rough seas along the eastern coast of Australia , especially Queensland . Along the state 's southern shore , normally protected from strong swells , waves were as high as 8 m ( 26 ft ) and frequently between 4 β 5 m ( 13 β 16 ft ) . A 53 @-@ year @-@ old man and his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son both drowned in the heavy surf near Gladstone on April 8 . Offshore Kingscliff , New South Wales , a yacht capsized , forcing its two occupants to swim to land . The large swells proved popular with experienced surfers looking for a challenge . Although the event became infamous within local surfing circles , at least one surfer was hospitalized after being swept against rocks , and several others required rescue . Some beach erosion was reported in several locations , leading to minor sandbagging efforts to hamper the erosion .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
A large wave breaking on the cliffs of MarΓ© Island in New Caledonia swept away a spectator , who was presumed dead after the rough conditions delayed searching efforts . The storm disrupted classes and school activities in parts of the archipelago , but little to no damage was reported .
The distant cyclone sent large swells toward Tonga and Samoa , coinciding with high astronomical tides . Coastal flooding on low @-@ lying islands of Tonga reportedly destroyed houses and crops .
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= New York State Route 410 =
New York State Route 410 ( NY 410 ) is a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east β west state highway in Lewis County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a connector between NY 26 , NY 126 , and the village of Castorland midway between the two highways . The route begins at an intersection with NY 26 in the town of Denmark and heads northeast through Castorland and across the Black River to a junction with NY 126 in the town of Croghan . Most of the route passes through open , rural areas , save for the section within Castorland . NY 410 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York even though the road had yet to be improved to state highway standards . Work on rebuilding the road was delayed by the state for years , leading the Kiwanis Club of Lowville to pressure the state to reconstruct the highway . The route was finally brought up to state highway standards in the latter part of the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
NY 410 begins at a rural intersection with NY 26 in the town of Denmark . The two @-@ lane route heads eastward from the junction , winding to the north and south across open , rolling terrain with several cultivated fields . After 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the highway meets County Route 19 ( CR 19 , named East Road ) and turns to the northeast toward the village of Castorland . The open fields gradually give way to homes as NY 410 enters the village limits as Main Street . The route passes through the center of the village , serving four lightly developed residential blocks before crossing the Mohawk , Adirondack and Northern Railroad at the northeastern edge of the community . At the rail crossing , the highway passes south of what was once the New York Central Railroad 's Castorland passenger station .
Outside of Castorland , the road runs across a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of undeveloped land prior to crossing the Black River , which serves as the boundary between the towns of Denmark and Croghan . On the opposite riverbank , NY 410 continues across another open stretch to reach the small hamlet of Naumburg . Here , the route passes a handful of homes and intersects the north end of CR 33 ( Van Amber Road ) before ending at an intersection with NY 126 on the northeastern fringe of the hamlet . While NY 410 terminates at this junction , its right @-@ of @-@ way continues past NY 126 as Cross Road , a local highway connecting Naumburg to CR 8 ( Second Road ) .
= = History = =
In 1925 , the state of New York approved plans to establish a state highway between Kitts Corners β a point just south of the modern junction of NY 26 and NY 410 β and Naumburg . The existing road between the two points via Castorland was designated as NY 410 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it remained an unimproved , locally maintained highway through the mid @-@ 1930s . In early 1934 , the Kiwanis Club of nearby Lowville began to petition the state to follow through on its plans to rebuild the road as the organization considered the proposed Kitts Corners β Naumburg state highway to be " of the greatest importance to the business interests of the villages of Beaver Falls , Castorland , and Lowville " .
The Lowville Kiwanis Club took action again in early 1935 , sending a representative to a hearing in Lake Placid to meet with State Senator George R. Fearon , the chairman of a committee tasked with developing a long @-@ term plan for state highway construction in New York . At the meeting , Kiwanis member Arthur W. Mattson noted that the village of Castorland had paved every street in the village limits save for Main Street , which was left as a dirt road due to the state 's long @-@ standing intention to take it over and rebuild it . In October 1935 , the state unveiled plans to reconstruct the portion of NY 410 leading west from the center of Castorland as a concrete road . The survey and design work for the segment was already complete , which would allow construction to begin in 1936 if funding was made available by that time .
Work on the project was finally underway by July 1936 . While most of the existing road west of Castorland was improved in place , the westernmost part ( now known as Haser Road ) was bypassed in favor of a new alignment to the north . The change in NY 410 's course took the highway around a steep grade that existed along the original route at Kitts Corners . The scope of the project ended at the New York Central Railroad tracks in Castorland as the part of NY 410 leading to Naumburg had been contracted out as part of a different project , which had already been completed by this time . The reconstruction of the rest of NY 410 was finished in the late 1930s . The original bridge carrying NY 410 over the Black River was replaced with a 640 @-@ foot ( 195 m ) structure in 1955 . It was reconstructed nine years later .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lewis County .
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= C @-@ SPAN =
C @-@ SPAN ( / ΛsiΛspΓ¦n / ) , an acronym for Cable @-@ Satellite Public Affairs Network , is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service . C @-@ SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government , as well as other public affairs programming . The C @-@ SPAN network includes three television channels ( C @-@ SPAN , C @-@ SPAN2 and C @-@ SPAN3 ) , one radio station ( WCSP @-@ FM ) and a group of websites that provide streaming media and archives of C @-@ SPAN programs . C @-@ SPAN 's television channels are available to approximately 100 million cable and satellite households within the United States , while WCSP @-@ FM , also called C @-@ SPAN Radio , is broadcast on FM radio in Washington , D.C. , and is available throughout the U.S. on XM Satellite Radio , via Internet streaming , and through apps for iOS , BlackBerry and Android devices .
The network televises U.S. political events , particularly live and " gavel @-@ to @-@ gavel " coverage of the U.S. Congress as well as occasional proceedings of the Canadian , Australian and British Parliaments and major events worldwide . Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited , thereby providing viewers ( or listeners ) with unfiltered information about politics and government . Non @-@ political coverage includes historical programming , programs dedicated to non @-@ fiction books , and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy . C @-@ SPAN is a private , nonprofit organization , funded by a 6 Β’ per subscriber affiliate fee paid by its cable and satellite affiliates , and does not have advertisements on any of its networks , radio stations , or websites , nor does it ever solicit donations or pledges . The network operates independently , and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Brian Lamb , C @-@ SPAN 's chairman and former chief executive officer , first conceived the concept of C @-@ SPAN in 1975 while working as the Washington , D.C. bureau chief of the cable industry trade magazine Cablevision . It was a time of rapid growth in the number of cable television channels available in the United States , and Lamb envisioned a cable @-@ industry financed nonprofit network for televising sessions of the U.S. Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions . Lamb shared his idea with several cable executives , who helped him launch the network . Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $ 25 @,@ 000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C @-@ SPAN signal .
C @-@ SPAN was launched on March 19 , 1979 , in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives , beginning with a speech by then @-@ Tennessee representative Al Gore . Upon its debut , only 3 @.@ 5 million homes were wired for C @-@ SPAN , and the network had just three employees . The second C @-@ SPAN channel , C @-@ SPAN2 , followed on June 2 , 1986 when the U.S. Senate permitted itself to be televised . C @-@ SPAN3 , the most recent expansion channel , began full @-@ time operations on January 22 , 2001 , and shows other public policy and government @-@ related live events on weekdays along with weekend historical programming . C @-@ SPAN3 is the successor of a digital channel called C @-@ SPAN Extra , which was launched in the Washington D.C. area in 1997 , and televised live and recorded political events from 9 : 00 a.m. to 6 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time Monday through Friday .
C @-@ SPAN Radio began operations on October 9 , 1997 , covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming . The station broadcasts on WCSP ( 90 @.@ 1 FM ) in Washington , D.C. , is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c @-@ span.org. It was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006 .
Lamb semi @-@ retired in March 2012 , coinciding with the channel 's 33rd anniversary , and gave executive control of the network to his two lieutenants , Rob Kennedy and Susan Swain .
= = = Anniversaries = = =
C @-@ SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three @-@ hour retrospective , featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network . The 15th anniversary was commemorated in an unconventional manner as the network facilitated a series of re @-@ enactments of the seven historic Lincoln @-@ Douglas debates of 1858 , which were televised from August to October 1994 , and have been rebroadcast from time to time ever since . Five years later , the series American Presidents : Life Portraits , which won a Peabody Award , served as a year @-@ long observation of C @-@ SPAN 's 20th anniversary .
In 2004 , C @-@ SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary , by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes , C @-@ SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C @-@ SPAN3 was in eight million homes . On the anniversary date , C @-@ SPAN repeated the first televised hour of floor debate in the House of Representatives from 1979 and , throughout the month , 25th anniversary features included " then and now " segments with journalists who had appeared on C @-@ SPAN during its early years . Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C @-@ SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service . For example , one essay contest winner wrote about how C @-@ SPAN 's non @-@ fiction book programming serves as a resource in his charitable mission to record non @-@ fiction audio books for people who are blind .
To commemorate 25 years of taking viewer telephone calls , in 2005 , C @-@ SPAN had a 25 @-@ hour " call @-@ in marathon " , from 8 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time on Friday , October 7 , concluding at 9 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time on Saturday , October 8 . The network also had a viewer essay contest , the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C @-@ SPAN 's Capitol Hill studios .
= = = Scope and limitations of coverage = = =
C @-@ SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings , with a history of requests to government officials for greater access , especially to the U.S. Supreme Court . In December 2009 , Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate , requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C @-@ SPAN . Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C @-@ SPAN and may be viewed on the C @-@ SPAN website . In November 2010 , Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House . In particular , C @-@ SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government @-@ controlled cameras in the House chamber . In February 2011 , Boehner denied the request . A previous request to Speaker Designate Nancy Pelosi in 2006 , to add C @-@ SPAN 's cameras in the House chamber to record floor proceedings , was also denied . Although C @-@ SPAN uses the congressional chamber feed cables , the cameras are owned and controlled by each respective body of Congress . Requests by C @-@ SPAN for camera access to non @-@ government events such as the annual dinner by the Gridiron Club have also been denied .
On June 22 and into June 23 , 2016 , C @-@ SPAN took video footage of the House floor from individual House representatives via streaming services Periscope and Facebook Live during a sit @-@ in by House Democrats asking for a vote on gun control measures after the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting . This needed to be done because β as the sit @-@ in was done out of formal session and while the House was in official recess β the existing House cameras could not be utilized for coverage of the event by rule . Although the use of electronic devices to create the Periscope feeds by House Democrats violated House rules that prohibit their use on the floor , C @-@ SPAN did not state why it chose to broadcast those feeds . The network ran disclaimers on @-@ air and on their official social media feeds noting the restrictions .
= = = Expansion and technology = = =
Since the late 1990s , C @-@ SPAN has significantly expanded its online presence . In January 1997 , C @-@ SPAN began real @-@ time streaming of C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 on its website , the first time that Congress had been live streamed online . To cover the Democratic and Republican conventions and the presidential debates of 2008 , C @-@ SPAN created two standalone websites : the Convention Hub and the Debate Hub . In addition to real @-@ time streams of C @-@ SPAN 's television networks online , c @-@ span.org features further live programming such as committee hearings and speeches that are broadcast later in the day , after the House and Senate have left .
C @-@ SPAN began promoting audience interaction early in its history , by the regular incorporation of viewer telephone calls in its programming . It has since expanded into social media . In March 2009 , viewers began submitting questions live via Twitter to guests on C @-@ SPAN 's morning call @-@ in show Washington Journal . The network also has a Facebook page to which it added occasional live streaming in January 2011 . The live stream is intended to show selected well @-@ publicized events of Congress . In June 2010 , C @-@ SPAN joined with the website Foursquare to provide users of the application with access to geotagged C @-@ SPAN content at various locations in Washington , D.C.
In 2010 , C @-@ SPAN began a transition to high definition telecasts , planned to take place over an 18 @-@ month period . The network provided C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 in high definition on June 1 , 2010 , and C @-@ SPAN3 in July 2010 .
= = Programming = =
= = = Senate and House of Representatives = = =
The C @-@ SPAN network 's core programming is live coverage of the U.S. House and Senate , with the C @-@ SPAN channel emphasizing the United States House of Representatives . Between 1979 and May 2011 , the network televised more than 24 @,@ 246 hours of floor action . C @-@ SPAN2 , the first of the C @-@ SPAN spin @-@ off networks , provides uninterrupted live coverage of the United States Senate . With coverage of the House and Senate , viewers can track legislation as it moves through both bodies of Congress . Important debates in Congress that C @-@ SPAN has covered live include the Persian Gulf conflict during 1991 , and the House impeachment vote and Senate trial of President Bill Clinton in 1998 and 1999 . When the House or Senate are not in session , C @-@ SPAN channels broadcast other public affairs programming .
= = = Public affairs = = =
The public affairs coverage on the C @-@ SPAN networks other than the House and Senate floor debates is wide @-@ ranging . C @-@ SPAN is considered a useful source of information for journalists , lobbyists , educators and government officials as well as casual viewers interested in politics , due to its unedited coverage of political events . C @-@ SPAN has been described by media observers as a " window into the world of Washington politics " and it characterizes its own mission as being " to provide public access to the political process " . The networks cover U.S. political campaigns , including the Republican , Democratic , and Libertarian presidential nominating conventions in their entirety . Coverage of presidential campaign events are provided during the duration of the campaign , both by a weekly television program , Road to the White House , and at its dedicated politics website . C @-@ SPAN also covers midterm elections .
All three channels televise events such as congressional hearings , White House press briefings and presidential speeches , as well as other government meetings including Federal Communications Commission hearings and Pentagon press conferences . Other U.S. political coverage includes State of the Union speeches , and presidential press conferences . According to the results of a survey after the 1992 presidential election , 85 % of C @-@ SPAN viewers voted in that election . The results of a similar survey in 2013 found that 89 % of C @-@ SPAN viewers voted in the 2012 presidential election . In addition to this political coverage , the network broadcasts press conferences and meetings of various news media and nonprofit organizations , including those at the National Press Club , public policy seminars and the White House Correspondents ' Dinner . While C @-@ SPAN does not have video access to the Supreme Court , the network has used the Court 's audio recordings accompanied by still photographs of the justices and lawyers to cover the Court in session on significant cases , and has covered individual Supreme Court justices ' speaking engagements .
Occasionally , proceedings of the Parliament of Australia , Parliament of Canada , Parliament of the United Kingdom ( usually Prime Minister 's Questions and the State Opening of Parliament ) and other governments are shown on C @-@ SPAN when they discuss matters of importance to viewers in the U.S. Similarly , the networks will sometimes broadcast news reports from around the world when major events occur β for instance , C @-@ SPAN broadcast CBC Television coverage of the September 11 attacks . C @-@ SPAN also covers lying in state in the Capitol Rotunda and funerals of former presidents and other notable individuals . In 2005 , C @-@ SPAN covered Hurricane Katrina through NBC affiliate WDSU in New Orleans , as well as coverage of Hurricane Ike via CBS affiliate KHOU in Houston . C @-@ SPAN also carries CBC coverage during events that affect Canadians , such as the Canadian federal elections , the death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau , and the 2003 North America blackout . During early 2011 , C @-@ SPAN carried broadcasts by Al Jazeera to cover the events in Egypt , Tunisia , and other Arab nations . Additionally , C @-@ SPAN simulcasts NASA Space Shuttle mission launches and landings live , using video footage and audio sourced from NASA TV .
With its public affairs programming , C @-@ SPAN intends to offer different points of view , by allowing time for multiple opinions to be discussed on a given topic . For example , in 2004 C @-@ SPAN intended to televise a speech by Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt adjacent to a speech by Holocaust denier David Irving , who had unsuccessfully sued Lipstadt for libel in the United Kingdom four years earlier ; C @-@ SPAN was criticized for its use of the word " balance " to describe the plan to cover both Lipstadt and Irving . When Lipstadt ended media access to her speech , C @-@ SPAN canceled coverage of both .
The network strives for neutrality and a lack of bias ; in all programming when on @-@ camera hosts are present their role is simply to facilitate and explain proceedings to the viewer . Due to this policy , no C @-@ SPAN host has said his or her own name on television .
= = = C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 flagship programs = = =
While many hours of programming on C @-@ SPAN are dedicated to coverage of the House , the network 's daily programming begins with the political telephone call @-@ in and interview program Washington Journal every morning from 7 : 00 to 10 : 00 a.m. Eastern Time . Washington Journal premiered on January 4 , 1995 and has been broadcast every weekday morning since then , with guests including elected officials , government administrators , and journalists . The program covers current events , with guests answering questions on topics provided by the hosts as well as from members of the general public . On the weekend schedule , C @-@ SPAN 's main programs are : America and the Courts , which is shown each Saturday at 7 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time , Newsmakers , a Sunday morning interview program with newsworthy guests ; Q & A , a Sunday evening interview program hosted by Brian Lamb , with guests including journalists , politicians , authors , and other public figures ; and The Communicators , which features interviews with journalists , government officials , and businesspeople involved with the communications industry and related legislation .
On weekends C @-@ SPAN2 dedicates its schedule to Book TV , which is 48 hours of programming about non @-@ fiction books , book events , and authors . Book TV was first launched in September 1998 . Booknotes was originally broadcast from 1989 to 2004 , as a one @-@ hour one @-@ on @-@ one interview of a non @-@ fiction author . Repeats of the interviews remain a regular part of the Book TV schedule with the title Encore Booknotes . Other Book TV programs feature political and historical books and biographies of public figures . These include In Depth , a live , monthly , three @-@ hour interview with a single author , and After Words , an author interview program featuring guest hosts interviewing authors on topics with which both are familiar . After Words was developed as a new type of author interview program after the end of production of Booknotes . Weekend programming on Book TV also includes coverage of book events such as panel discussions , book fairs , book signings , readings by authors and tours of bookstores around the U.S.
= = = C @-@ SPAN3 = = =
The programming on C @-@ SPAN3 from Monday through Friday features uninterrupted live public affairs events , in particular political events from Washington , D.C. Each weekend since January 8 , 2011 , the network has broadcast 48 hours of programming dedicated to the history of the United States , under the umbrella title American History TV . The programming covers the history of the U.S. from the founding of the nation through the late 20th century . Programs include American Artifacts , which is dedicated to exploring museums , archives and historical sites , and Lectures in History , featuring major university history professors giving lectures on U.S. history . In 2009 , C @-@ SPAN3 aired an eight @-@ installment series of interviews from the Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics at the University of Kansas , which featured historian Richard Norton Smith and Vice President Walter Mondale , among other interviewees .
= = = Special programming = = =
C @-@ SPAN has occasionally produced spinoff programs from Booknotes focusing on specific topics . In 1994 , Booknotes collaborated with Lincoln scholar Harold Holzer to produce re @-@ creations of the seven Lincoln β Douglas debates . Several years later , a similar series retraced the journey of Alexis de Tocqueville described in Democracy in America . Another special series was American Writers , a 38 @-@ week tour of the U.S. based on the works of 40 famous American writers .
During 2008 and 2009 , as part of programming specially commissioned for the 200th anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln , C @-@ SPAN produced a series titled Lincoln 200 Years , which featured episodes on a variety of topics relating to the life of Lincoln including his career , his homes and his opinions of slavery .
The network has also produced special feature documentaries of American institutions and historical landmarks , exploring their history to the present day . These programs include : The Capitol emphasizing the history , art , and architecture of the U.S. Capitol Building ; The White House , featuring film footage inside the White House and exploring the history of the building and its occupants ; The Supreme Court , focusing on the history and personalities of the court ; and Inside Blair House , an examination of the president 's guest house .
In 2013 , C @-@ SPAN introduced a new program , First Ladies : Influence & Image . 35 episodes profiling the First Ladies are planned for the series , which was created with support from the White House Historical Association .
= = = Radio broadcasts = = =
In addition to the three television networks , C @-@ SPAN also broadcasts via C @-@ SPAN Radio , which is carried on their owned @-@ and @-@ operated station WCSP ( 90 @.@ 1 FM ) in the Washington , D.C. area with all three cable network feeds airing via HD Radio subchannels , and nationwide on XM Satellite Radio . Its programming is also livestreamed at c @-@ span.org and is available via apps for iPhone , BlackBerry and Android devices . C @-@ SPAN Radio has a selective policy regarding its broadcast content , rather than duplicating the television network programming , although it does offer some audio simulcasts of programs such as Washington Journal . Unique programming on the radio station includes oral histories , and some committee meetings and press conferences not shown on television due to programming commitments . The station also compiles the Sunday morning talk shows for a same @-@ day rebroadcast without commercials , in rapid succession .
= = = Availability online = = =
C @-@ SPAN archival video is available through the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , maintained at the Purdue Research Park in West Lafayette , Indiana . First unveiled in August 2007 , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library contains all of the network 's programming since 1987 , totaling more than 160 @,@ 000 hours at its completion of digitization and public debut in March 2010 . Older C @-@ SPAN programming continues to be added to the library , dating back to the beginning of the network in 1979 , and some limited earlier footage from the National Archives , such as film clips of Richard Nixon 's 1972 trip to China , is available as well . Most of the recordings before 1987 ( when the C @-@ SPAN Archive was established ) were not saved , except for approximately 10 @,@ 000 hours of video which are slated to be made available online . As of June 2013 , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library held approximately 200 @,@ 000 hours of programming . Described by media commentators as a major educational service and a valuable resource for researchers of politics and history , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library has also had a major role in media and opposition research in several U.S. political campaigns . It won a Peabody Award in 2010 " for creating an enduring archive of the history of American policymaking , and for providing it as a free , user @-@ friendly public service . "
Prior to the initiation of the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , websites such as Metavid and voterwatch.org hosted House and Senate video records , however C @-@ SPAN contested Metavid 's usage of C @-@ SPAN copyrighted footage . The result was Metavid 's removal of portions of the archive produced with C @-@ SPAN 's cameras , while preserving its archive of government @-@ produced content . C @-@ SPAN also engaged in actions to stop parties from making unauthorized uses of its content online , including its video of House and Senate proceedings . Most notably , in May 2006 , C @-@ SPAN requested the removal of Stephen Colbert 's performance at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner from YouTube . After concerns by some webloggers , C @-@ SPAN gave permission for Google Video to host the full event . On March 7 , 2007 C @-@ SPAN liberalized its copyright policy for current , future , and past coverage of any official events sponsored by Congress and any federal agency and now allows for attributed non @-@ commercial copying , sharing , and posting of C @-@ SPAN video on the Internet , excluding re @-@ syndication of live video streams . The new policy did not affect the public 's right to use the public domain video coverage of the floor proceedings of the U.S. House and Senate .
In 2008 , C @-@ SPAN 's online political coverage was expanded just prior to the elections , with the introduction of three special pages on the C @-@ SPAN website : the C @-@ SPAN Convention Hubs and C @-@ SPAN Debate Hub , which offered video of major events as well as discussion from weblogs and social media about the major party conventions and candidate debates . C @-@ SPAN brought back the Convention Hub for the 2012 presidential election .
In addition to the programming available in the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , all C @-@ SPAN programming is available as a live feed streamed on its website in Flash Video format .
On July 29 , 2014 , C @-@ SPAN announced that it would begin restricting access to the live feeds of the main channel , C @-@ SPAN2 and C @-@ SPAN3 to subscribers of cable or satellite providers later that summer , citing concerns with the slow shift in viewing habits from cable television to the internet due to its reliance on carriage fees from cable and satellite providers . However , it will continue to allow all government meetings , hearings and conferences to be streamed live online and via archived on the C @-@ SPAN Video Library without requiring an authenticated login by a provider . The decision drew some criticism from public interest and government transparency advocates , citing the fact that C @-@ SPAN was designed as a public service .
= = Organization and operations = =
C @-@ SPAN is operated by the National Cable Satellite Corporation , a nonprofit organization , the board of directors of which consists primarily of representatives of the largest cable companies . Early chairmen of C @-@ SPAN include Bob Rosencrans , John Saeman , Ed Allen and Gene Schneider . Funding for C @-@ SPAN does not derive from advertising ; instead , it receives nearly all of its funding from subscriber fees charged to cable and direct @-@ broadcast satellite ( DBS ) operators .
As of 2012 , C @-@ SPAN received 6 Β’ of each subscriber 's cable bill for an annual budget of $ 60 million . As the network is an independent entity , neither the cable industry nor Congress controls the content of its programming .
As of January 2013 , the network has 282 employees . C @-@ SPAN is led by co @-@ CEOs Rob Kennedy and Susan Swain . Founder and former CEO Brian Lamb serves as the executive chairman of the board of directors . The majority of C @-@ SPAN 's employees are based at C @-@ SPAN 's headquarters located on Capitol Hill in Washington , D.C. , however in 2003 television studios were opened in New York and Denver , Colorado . These studios use digital equipment that can be controlled from Washington .
C @-@ SPAN also maintains archives in West Lafayette , Indiana at the Purdue Research Park under the direction of Dr. Robert X. Browning .
= = Audience = =
The C @-@ SPAN networks are available in more than 100 million households as of 2010 , not including access to the C @-@ SPAN websites . More than 7 @,@ 000 telephone callers have participated with discussion on Washington Journal as of March 18 , 2009 . There are not any official viewing statistics for C @-@ SPAN because the network , which has no commercials or underwriting advertisements , does not use the Nielsen ratings . However , there have been a number of surveys providing estimates :
A 1994 survey found that 8 @.@ 6 % of the U.S. population regularly watched C @-@ SPAN .
In 2004 this figure increased to 12 % of the U.S. population , according to a Pew Research Center survey , while 31 % of the population was categorized as occasional viewers . More than 28 million people said they watched C @-@ SPAN programming each week .
A March 2009 Hart Research survey found that 20 % of homes with cable television watch C @-@ SPAN at least once a week , for an estimated 39 million Americans .
A 2010 poll conducted by C @-@ SPAN and Penn Schoen Berland estimates that 79 million adults in the U.S. watched C @-@ SPAN at some time from 2009 to 2010 .
In January 2013 , Hart Research conducted another survey which showed that 47 million adults , or 24 % of adults with access to cable television , watch C @-@ SPAN weekly . Of the 47 million regular C @-@ SPAN viewers , 51 % are male and 49 % female ; 26 % are liberal , 31 % conservative , and 39 % moderate . About half are college graduates . 28 % of 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 @-@ year @-@ olds report watching at least once a week , as do 19 % of 50- to 64 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 22 % of those over age 65 .
= = Public and media opinion = =
A 2009 C @-@ SPAN survey of viewers found that the network 's most @-@ valued attribute was its balanced programming . The survey 's respondents were a mixed group , with 31 % describing themselves as " liberal , " while 28 % described themselves as " conservative " , and the survey found that C @-@ SPAN viewers are an equal mixture of men and women of all age groups .
C @-@ SPAN 's public service nature has been praised as an enduring contribution to national knowledge . In 1987 , Andrew Rosenthal wrote for The New York Times about C @-@ SPAN 's influence in political elections , arguing that C @-@ SPAN 's " blanket coverage " had expanded television journalism " into areas once shielded from general view " . The network has received positive media coverage for providing public access to proceedings such as the Goldman Sachs Senate hearings , and the U.S. 2010 Healthcare Summit , while its everyday programming has been credited with providing the media and the general public with an intimate knowledge of U.S. political proceedings and people . The ability of C @-@ SPAN to provide this service without federal funding , advertising or soliciting viewer contributions has been remarked by local newspapers and online news services , with the Daily Beast terming C @-@ SPAN 's $ 55 million annual budget ( in 2009 ) , " an astounding bargain . " In an article on the 25th anniversary of the network , The Washington Post noted that C @-@ SPAN 's programming has been copied by television networks worldwide and credits the network with providing information about foreign politics to American viewers . According to The New York Times , C @-@ SPAN 's mission to record official events in Washington , D.C. makes it " one of a kind " , particularly in the creation of the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , which received significant press coverage .
Despite its stated commitment to providing politically balanced programming , C @-@ SPAN and its shows such as Washington Journal , Booknotes , Q & A , and After Words have been accused by some liberal organizations of having a conservative bias . In 2005 , the media criticism organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting ( FAIR ) released a study of C @-@ SPAN 's morning telephone call @-@ in show Washington Journal , showing that Republicans were favored as guests over Democrats by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin during a six @-@ month period that year , and that people of color are underrepresented . A 2007 survey released by the Center for Economic and Policy Research reported that C @-@ SPAN covered conservative think tanks more than left @-@ of @-@ center think tanks .
= = Must @-@ carry = =
In 1992 , Congress passed must @-@ carry regulations , which required cable carriers to allocate spectrum to local broadcasters . This affected the availability of C @-@ SPAN in some areas , in particular C @-@ SPAN2 , as some providers chose to discontinue carriage of the channel altogether . Between 1993 and 1994 , cable systems in 95 U.S. cities dropped or reduced broadcasts of C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 , following the implementation of the must @-@ carry regulations . Viewers protested these decisions , especially when the changes coincided with matters of local interest occurring in the House or Senate . Some communities , such as Eugene , Oregon and Alexandria , Virginia , were successful in restoring C @-@ SPAN availability . C @-@ SPAN availability was later restored as technological developments that resulted in the expansion of channel capacity on cable providers allowed for mandatory stations and the C @-@ SPAN networks both to be broadcast .
= = Other services = =
C @-@ SPAN offers a number of public services related to the network 's public affairs programming . C @-@ SPAN Classroom , a free membership service for teachers , began in July 1987 and offers help using C @-@ SPAN resources for classes or research . The C @-@ SPAN School Bus , introduced In November 1993 , traveled around the U.S. educating the public about government and politics using C @-@ SPAN resources , and served as a mobile television studio . The bus also recorded video footage of the places that it visited . A second bus was introduced in 1996 . The two original buses were retired in 2010 , and the C @-@ SPAN Digital Bus was inaugurated , introducing the public to C @-@ SPAN 's enhanced digital products . C @-@ SPAN has also equipped six Local Content Vehicles ( LCVs ) to travel the country and record unique political and historical stories , with each vehicle containing production and web @-@ based technologies to produce on @-@ the @-@ spot content .
C @-@ SPAN has published ten books based on its programming ; these contain original material and text taken from interview transcripts . The first C @-@ SPAN book , C @-@ SPAN : America 's Town Hall , was published in 1988 . Other C @-@ SPAN books include : Gavel to Gavel : A C @-@ SPAN Guide to Congress ; Who 's Buried in Grant 's Tomb ? , a guide to the grave sites of U.S. presidents ; Abraham Lincoln - Great American Historians On Our Sixteenth President , a collection of essays based on C @-@ SPAN interviews with American historians ; and The Supreme Court , which features biographies and interviews with past Supreme Court judges together with commentary from legal experts . Five books have been drawn from the former Booknotes program : Booknotes : Life Stories ; Booknotes : On American Character ; Booknotes : Stories from American History ; Booknotes : America 's Finest Authors on Reading , Writing and the Power of Ideas , the latter a compilation of short monologues taken from the transcripts of Lamb 's interviews ; and a companion book to the series on Tocqueville , Traveling Tocqueville 's America : A Tour Book .
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= Robert Henry Cain =
Major Robert Henry Cain VC TD ( 2 January 1909 β 2 May 1974 ) was a Manx recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces .
Cain grew up on the Isle of Man and joined the Honourable Artillery Company in 1928 . After working overseas he was given an emergency commission into the Army in 1940 . He transferred to the South Staffordshire Regiment in 1942 , and joined their 2nd Battalion , part of the British 1st Airborne Division . He saw action during the Invasion of Sicily in 1943 and again during the Battle of Arnhem the following year . During the battle Major Cain 's company was closely engaged with enemy tanks , self @-@ propelled guns and infantry . Cain continually exposed himself to danger while leading his men and personally dispatched as much enemy armour as possible . Despite sustaining several injuries he refused medical attention and for his gallantry he was awarded the Victoria Cross .
Later in the war he took part in Operation Doomsday , where the 1st Airborne Division oversaw the German surrender in Norway . He left the army in late 1945 and returned to his pre @-@ war job at Royal Dutch Shell . He died of cancer in 1974 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Cain was born in Shanghai on 2 January 1909 . His parents were Manx and returned to the Isle of Man when he was young , where he was educated at King William 's College . In 1928 Cain joined the Honourable Artillery Company , a unit of the Territorial Army ( TA ) . The TA was the volunteer reserve force of the British Army and members continued in civilian work ; Cain worked in Thailand and Malaya for Shell . He was placed on the supplementary reserve list on 12 February 1931 .
= = Second World War = =
In April 1940 , shortly after the start of the Second World War , Cain was given an emergency commission into the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers as a Second Lieutenant . In 1942 , he was seconded to 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment before being temporarily promoted to the rank of Major in April 1943 β a position he would keep until being honourably granted the rank in 1945 . The 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment was part of 1st Airlanding Brigade which landed in Sicily in July 1943 as part of Operation Ladbroke . In the same month , Cain took command of the battalion 's B Company .
= = = Battle of Arnhem = = =
The Battle of Arnhem was part of Operation Market Garden , an attempt to secure a string of bridges through the Netherlands . At Arnhem the British 1st Airborne Division and Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were tasked with securing bridges across the Lower Rhine , the final objectives of the operation . However , the airborne forces that dropped on 17 September were not aware that the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer divisions were also near Arnhem for rest and refit . Their presence added a substantial number of Panzergrenadiers , tanks and self @-@ propelled guns to the German defenses and the Allies suffered heavily in the ensuing battle . Only a small force managed to hold one end of the Arnhem road bridge before being overrun on the 21st . The rest of the division became trapped in a small pocket west of the bridge and had to be evacuated on the 25th . The Allies failed to cross the Rhine , which remained under German control until Allied offensives in March 1945 .
= = = = Advance into Arnhem = = = =
The Allies planned to fly the British and Polish to Arnhem in three separate lifts over three days . Major General Roy Urquhart decided to deploy the 1st Airlanding Brigade first , as glider troops could assemble more quickly than parachute infantry and secure the landing areas . Cain took off with the first lift along with two companies of the South Staffords but only five minutes after departing from RAF Manston the tow rope connecting the Albemarle tug to his Horsa glider pulled out of the leading aircraft . After landing safely the glider 's occupants were able to fly out the following day with the second lift .
In Arnhem the Allied plan quickly unravelled . Only a small group of the 1st Parachute Brigade , mainly elements of Lieutenant Colonel John Frost 's 2nd Battalion , were able to reach the bridge . The 1st and 3rd Battalions were unable to penetrate the outer suburbs of the city and their advance stalled , so in order to support them the first lift of the South Staffords were sent forward on the morning of the 18th . When Cain arrived with the second lift they too were sent forward , arriving at the outskirts of Arnhem on the night of the 18th . Lieutenant Colonel David Dobie of the 1st Battalion proposed a concentrated attack on a narrow front between the Lower Rhine and the Arnhem railway line . The South Staffords would advance toward the bridge , with the remnants of the 1st and 3rd Battalions on their right flank , while the 11th Parachute Battalion , remained in reserve . The Staffords moved forward at 4.30am with D Company in the lead , followed by B and A Companies with C Company in reserve . In the area around St Elizabeth Hospital , the lead company met heavy resistance clearing houses and B Company took the lead , getting as far as a dell near the Arnhem City Museum . Here Cain and his men encountered enemy armour for the first time . The company was only armed with PIATs and mortars and although Cain and several of his company opened fire on the tanks and guns , they did not manage to disable any . By 11 : 30 they had run out of PIAT ammunition and the tanks now dominated the area . Their position was clearly hopeless and so Lieutenant Colonel McCardie , the commanding officer ( CO ) of 2nd Battalion , The South Staffordshire Regiment , ordered them to withdraw from the dell . Cain fell back with several of his men but few of them were able to escape , while the men of the other companies were forced to surrender in their droves . Cain was the only senior officer of the battalion to escape in what he later described as the " South Staff 's Waterloo " .
As the surviving men fell back through the 11th Battalion 's positions , Major Gilchrist ( A Company , 11th Battalion ) met Cain , who told him that " The tanks are coming , give me a PIAT " . Gilchrist was unable to oblige and so the Staffords regrouped behind the 11th Battalion 's positions ; roughly 100 surviving men forming into five small platoons under Cain 's command . Lieutenant Colonel George Lea , commander of the 11th Battalion , ordered them to capture a piece of wooded high ground known as Den Brink to cover a fresh advance , and a bayonet charge quickly cleared the enemy there . However , the thick tree roots on the hill made it impossible to dig in , and after suffering severe casualties , Cain took the decision to withdraw back to Oosterbeek .
= = = = Oosterbeek perimeter = = = =
The remnants of the four battalions fell back in disarray to the main divisional positions at Oosterbeek . Here they were gathered into defensive units by Lieutenant Colonel Sheriff Thompson , CO 1st Airlanding Light Artillery Regiment , who forcibly stopped many of the panicked troops . Alarmed that the many retreating units would soon leave his own 75 Millimetre Howitzers undefended , he sought out Cain , the most senior officer , and ordered him to form the men into a defensive screen ahead of the gun positions . Thompson later sent Major Richard Lonsdale to take command of these outlying troops , and throughout Wednesday 20 they weathered strong German attacks before falling back to the main divisional perimeter . The sector was designated " Thompson Force " , but was renamed " Lonsdale Force " when Thompson was wounded the following day . To the north and west of Oosterbeek other units fell back in the face of strong German resistance and over the next few days a thumb shaped perimeter formed around the town , with the Rhine at its base .
Lonsdale Force 's sector covered the southern end of the eastern perimeter , and Cain was one of three Majors defending this sector of the line . As the battle progressed he became determined to destroy as much enemy armour as possible and sited himself in a laundry 's garden , much to the chagrin of the Dutch owner . Over the coming days Cain was everywhere , dealing with armour and snipers and encouraging his men . On the afternoon of Thursday 21st two tanks approached Cain 's position . Guided by a colleague in a building above him , Cain waited in a trench until the first tank β actually a StuG III self @-@ propelled gun ( SPG ) β was close enough to engage . The SPG fired at the building , killing Cain 's colleague and showering him with masonry but despite this , Cain kept his position . Staff Sergeant Richard Long of the Glider Pilot Regiment remembered that through the clouds of dust , Cain fired round after round from his PIAT until the SPG was disabled , but whilst engaging the second tank a round exploded in the PIAT with a bright flash and Cain was thrown backwards . Cain recalled thinking he was blind and " shouting like a hooligan . I shouted to somebody to get onto the PIAT because there was another tank behind . I blubbered and yelled and used some very colourful language . They dragged me off to the aid post . " The British brought forward one of the Light Regiment 's 75mm guns which blew the tank apart .
Witnesses believed that Cain was incapacitated , but within half an hour his sight returned . He refused morphia and against all advice returned to the front lines , deciding that he " wasn 't wounded enough to stay where [ he ] was " . On the following day his eardrums burst from the constant firing and barrage , but he was content to stuff his ears with bandages and continue fighting . On Sunday 24th , shortly after a truce to allow the evacuation of casualties , Cain was alerted to the approach of a Tiger tank . Together with a Royal Artillery gunner he raced for a 6 pounder anti @-@ tank gun , manoeuvred it into position , fired and disabled the tank . He wanted to continue using the gun , but the recoil mechanism was destroyed .
By 25 September , the area occupied by the Lonsdale Force saw heavy fighting against self @-@ propelled guns , flamethrower tanks , and infantry . There were no PIATs available to the force by now ; instead Cain armed himself with a two @-@ inch mortar . Mortars are muzzle @-@ loading indirect fire weapons but Cain was forced to fire it on an almost horizontal plane due to the enemy 's proximity . His citation states that his leadership ensured that the South Staffordshire gave no ground and drove the enemy off in complete disorder . By the end of the battle , Cain had been reportedly responsible for the destruction or disabling of six tanks , four of which were Tigers , as well as a number of self @-@ propelled guns .
That night the Division began to withdraw in Operation Berlin . Many men shaved and blackened their faces and Cain removed a week 's growth of beard from his face , drying himself on his dirty , blood @-@ soaked Denison smock . After successfully crossing the Rhine , this led Brigadier ' Pip ' Hicks to comment " there 's one officer , at least , who 's shaved " . Cain 's reply was " I was well brought up , sir . " Cain made sure all of his men were over the river by dawn , before he himself crossed in an old boat .
= = Victoria Cross = =
Fifty @-@ nine decorations were published for the small group of men who successfully escaped Arnhem and these were awarded in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 6 December 1944 . As well as being the only survivor of the battle to receive the Victoria Cross , Cain was also the first ( and currently only ) Manxman to be awarded the medal . Posthumous VCs were announced later , including one for Lance Sergeant John Baskeyfield of the 2nd South Staffordshire Battalion 's anti tank platoon . The 2nd Battalion thus became the only British battalion to receive two VCs in one engagement during the Second World War .
War Office , 2nd November , 1944 .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve awards of the VICTORIA CROSS to : β
Captain ( temporary Major ) Robert Henry Cain ( 129484 ) , The Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , ( attd . The South Staffordshire Regiment ) ( I Airborne Division ) ( Salcombe , Devon ) .
In Holland on 19th September , 1944 , Major Cain was commanding a rifle company of the South Staffordshire Regiment during the Battle of Arnhem when his company was cut off from the rest of the battalion and during the next six days was closely engaged with enemy tanks , self @-@ propelled guns and infantry . The Germans made repeated attempts to break into the company position by infiltration and had they succeeded in doing so the whole situation of the Airborne Troops would have been jeopardised .
Major Cain , by his outstanding devotion to duty and remarkable powers of leadership , was to a large extent personally responsible for saving a vital sector from falling into the hands of the enemy .
On 20th September a Tiger tank approached the area held by his company and Major Cain went out alone to deal with it armed with a Piat . Taking up a position he held his fire until the tank was only 20 yards away when he opened up . The tank immediately halted and turned its guns on him , shooting away a corner of the house near where this officer was lying . Although wounded by machine gun bullets and falling masonry , Major Cain continued firing until he had scored several direct hits , immobilised the tank and supervised the bringing up of a 75 mm. howitzer which completely destroyed it . Only then would he consent to have his wounds dressed .
In the next morning this officer drove off three more tanks by the fearless use of his Piat , on each occasion leaving cover and taking up position in open ground with complete disregard for his personal safety .
During the following days , Major Cain was everywhere where danger threatened , moving amongst his men and encouraging them by his fearless example to hold out . He refused rest and medical attention in spite of the fact that his hearing had been seriously impaired because of a perforated eardrum and he was suffering from multiple wounds .
On 25 September the enemy made a concerted attack on Major Cain 's position , using self @-@ propelled guns , flame throwers and infantry . By this time the last Piat had been put out of action and Major Cain was armed with only a light 2 " mortar . However , by a skilful use of this weapon and his daring leadership of the few men still under his command , he completely demoralized the enemy who , after an engagement lasting more than three hours , withdrew in disorder .
Throughout the whole course of the Battle of Arnhem , Major Cain showed superb gallantry . His powers of endurance and leadership were the admiration of all his fellow officers and stories of his valour were being constantly exchanged amongst the troops . His coolness and courage under incessant fire could not be surpassed .
There are some errors in Cain 's citation . The action described as occurring on the 20th actually took place on the 21st ( indeed this is the day on which Lieutenant Meikle β his spotter in the building above β was killed ) , and the Tiger tank he engaged was in fact a StuG III .
= = Later life = =
The hostilities in Europe officially ended on 8 May 1945 , when the Allies accepted the unconditional surrender of German forces . There were however a large number of German units in Norway β one of the few places in Europe still under German control β and the Allies feared the German commander there might attempt to fight on . In Operation Doomsday , Cain travelled to Oslo , Norway , with the 1st Airlanding Brigade on 11 May 1945 . Working with Milorg ( the Norwegian resistance ) , the British took the surrender of German troops in Norway without incident , before returning to the UK on 25 August 1945 . Having remained in the service of the South Staffordshire Regiment , Cain officially relinquished his wartime commission on 28 December 1945 and was granted the honorary rank of Major . Upon leaving the army he went back to his pre @-@ war occupation with Shell , living in East Asia and then West Africa . In 1951 he was elected to the Nigerian House of Representatives while working there . He returned to Britain in 1965 and settled in the Isle of Man upon his retirement .
Cain died of cancer on 2 May 1974 in Crowborough , Sussex . He was cremated at Worth Crematorium and buried in the family grave at Braddan Cemetery on the Isle of Man . There are several memorials in Cain 's honour . King William 's College has a memorial scholarship in his name and the chapel in the Hospice at Douglas is dedicated in his name . An oak tree in Dhoon Arboretum , planted with acorns gathered from Arnhem , has been christened the Arnhem Oak in memory of his bravery . His medal , Denison smock and the maroon beret he wore during the Battle of Arnhem are all held at the Staffordshire Regiment Museum . His daughter , Frances Catherine Cain , unveiled a set of commemorative coins honouring her father on the Isle of Man in 2006 . She is also married to , and acts as the agent for , British television and motoring journalist Jeremy Clarkson who presented a BBC documentary , " The Victoria Cross : For Valour " on Cain and other VC winners in 2003 . Frances Cain was unaware of her father 's VC until after he died because , according to Clarkson , " he 'd never thought to mention it " .
= = Medals and decorations = =
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= AmΓ©rica & En Vivo =
AmΓ©rica & En Vivo is a live extended play ( EP ) by Mexican singer Luis Miguel . It was released on 25 September 1992 by WEA Latina . The EP consists of three live versions of " Inolvidable " , No SΓ© TΓΊ " , and " Contigo en la Distancia " from his performance at the National Auditorium in Mexico during his Romance Tour in 1992 as well as a new track " America , America " , originally performed by Nino Bravo . " America , America " was released as a single and peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The EP was rated three out of five stars by an editor on AllMusic and received a positive review from Mario Taradell of the Miami Herald , who praised his vocals and the production of the EP . AmΓ©rica & En Vivo peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and was certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) .
= = Background and content = =
In 1991 Miguel released his eighth studio album , Romance , a collection of classic boleros , the oldest of which originated in the 1940s . The album , which was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , was a success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide . It revived interest in the bolero genre and was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil , Taiwan , and the United States . To promote the record , Miguel began his Romance Tour on 22 March 1992 at a sold out 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Auditorium in Mexico City .
AmΓ©rica & En Vivo features the live versions of " Inolvidable " , " No SΓ© TΓΊ " , and " Contigo en la Distancia " from Miguel 's performance at the National Auditorium . The three songs were also promotional singles for Romance . In addition , the EP features a new track " America , America " composed by JosΓ© Luis Armenteros and Pablo Herrero . The song was originally performed by Spanish singer Nino Bravo on his album ... y volumen 5 ( 1973 ) . Miguel dedicated the song to the soldiers who participated in the Gulf War .
= = Reception = =
AmΓ©rica & En Vivo was released on 25 September 1992 . The EP peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart . It was certified platinum in Argentina by the CAPIF for sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . " America , America " was released , peaking at number 20 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The music video for " America , America " was filmed across several locations in the United States and Puerto Rico . The music video won the award for MTV International at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards and received a nomination for Video of the Year at the 5th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in the same year .
An editor for AllMusic rated the EP three stars out of five . An editor writing for Billboard magazine complimented the EP stating that it " should add another trophy to the already impressive collection amassed by this 22 year @-@ old Mexican crooner " . Mario Taradell of the Miami Herald gave the EP a positive review ; he compared " America , America " to Neil Diamond 's song " America " stating it is " filled with land @-@ of @-@ hope lyrics , heavily orchestrated production and a big , inspirational chorus " . On the live tracks , he felt that Miguel is " in fine voice and a playful mood " and noted that " Inolvidable " was " more percussive and danceable than the album version " and commented that " Contigo en la Distancia " and " No SΓ© TΓΊ " " showcase Miguel 's romantic croon " .
= = Track listing = =
The track listing is adapted from AllMusic .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
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= Michael Barrett ( baseball ) =
Michael Patrick Barrett ( born October 22 , 1976 ) is a former Major League catcher and current manager of the rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast Nationals . He started his professional career with the Montreal Expos at age 18 . Barrett spent three years playing in Minor League Baseball as a shortstop and catcher . He played with the Honolulu Sharks , West Palm Beach Expos , and Delmarva Shorebirds , and was elected to two Minor League All @-@ Star games . Barrett made his Major League debut in 1998 as a third baseman , but was shortly outrighted to the minor leagues to play with the Harrisburg Senators for a season .
Upon Barrett 's return to the Major Leagues in 1999 , he ranked among the top offensive rookies in various statistical categories . Barrett failed to stay healthy during the 2003 season , which prompted the Expos to trade him to the Oakland Athletics , who in turn , traded him to the Chicago Cubs . During his tenure with the Cubs , Barrett won a Silver Slugger Award in 2005 , and recorded near career @-@ high statistics in 2004 season . The Cubs traded Barrett to the San Diego Padres in June of 2007 . Barrett sustained two major injuries , which caused him to miss 115 games with the Padres , and was subsequently released after the 2008 season . Barrett attempted to make a comeback with the Toronto Blue Jays in 2009 , but continued to struggle with injury issues , which led to his release in the subsequent offseason . He spent the second half of the 2010 season in the New York Mets minor league system , and has not played professional baseball since , but has not officially announced his retirement . Barrett was also a volunteer assistant coach for the baseball team at the University of North Georgia .
= = Early years = =
Barrett was born in Atlanta . He attended Pace Academy , where he excelled in baseball . During his senior year , Barrett won Atlanta 's Gatorade 's Player of the Year , and was named to the All @-@ USA High School and First Team High School All @-@ Americans All @-@ star teams . He was considered to be one of the top draft prospects that year , and declared eligibility for the upcoming Major League Baseball Draft shortly after graduating from high school . The Montreal Expos selected Barrett as the 28th overall selection in the 1995 draft . He spent the next three years in the minors , playing in the Gulf Coast , South Atlantic , Hawaii Winter Baseball , and Florida State Leagues , during which he was converted from a shortstop to a catcher . His Minor League Baseball career was highlighted in 1996 , when he scored 57 runs and recorded 113 hits as a member of the Delmarva Shorebirds .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Montreal Expos = = =
The Expos called Barrett to the Major Leagues on September 19 , 1998 , in a game against the Cincinnati Reds as a third baseman . He managed to hit a home run and a single in the game . After only playing eight games as an Expo , Barrett was sent to play for the Harrisburg Senators , a Class AA team from the Eastern League . He recorded 145 hits , and seventy @-@ eight runs , nineteen home runs , and eighty @-@ seven RBI en route to winning the Double @-@ A All @-@ Star Catcher and Montreal Expos Minor League Player of the Year awards . His performance allowed him to claim a spot on the Expos β starting roster during the 1999 . During his first full season , Barrett had fifty @-@ nine starts as a catcher , sixty @-@ two as a third @-@ baseman , and six as shortstop . He also led all National League rookies with thirty @-@ two doubles , while ranking as one of top statistical tiers in runs , hits , and run batted in among all other rookies .
Barrett struggled to perform consistently in the 2000 season . He committed fifteen errors during the course of the season , while earning .891 fielding percentage as a catcher . In addition , he hit for only a .214 batting average , with only a .288 slugging percentage . These difficulties combined to prompt the Expos to send him to the minors again . After playing thirty games with the Ottawa Lynx of the International League , Barrett returned to the major leagues before 2001 . He was named onto the team 's opening day lineup , and eventually earned a full @-@ time spot on the team . He was one the Expos ' most consistent hitters , and posted career high statistics that season ; leading all National League catchers with thirty @-@ three doubles . Barrett also managed to improve his defensive performance by raising his fielding percentage to .993 , while only committing seven errors .
He also saw success during the 2002 season . Barrett started the season by hitting home runs in the first two games of the season . He would go on to have one of his best months in the Majors , scoring with four home runs , seventeen RBI , eight doubles , and scored ten runs . The League recognized his efforts , and named Barrett the " National League co @-@ Player of the Week " for the second week of April after he recorded a franchise record eleven RBI within two games . Barrett finished the season with mixed results . While increasing his number of stolen bases and batting and slugging percentage , he failed to record as many runs , hits , and RBI , as he did in the previous season . He committed nine errors , which resulted in a lower fielding percentage , but excelled in throwing out base runners .
Barrett missed almost half of the 2003 on account of three injuries . He suffered the first during a game against the Colorado Rockies , during which one of Steve Reed 's pitches accidentally hit and bruised Barrett 's index finger . Barrett was able to continue playing , but claimed the injury had hindered his playing performance . He eventually managed to overcome the injury in July . He recorded a batting average of .333 and fifteen RBI . During this period , Barrett began to complain about tightness in his right hip flexor . This ailment took its toll on Barrett during a game against the Atlanta Braves , when he strained the muscles while taking a checked swing . The Expos sent Barrett on a rehabilitation assignment to play with the Edmonton Trappers , a AAA team from the Pacific Coast League . He only managed to play two games with team before fracturing his index finger on August 9 . Barrett returned to the major leagues on September 12 , although the Expos were already out of playoff contention .
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
Barrett 's long tenure with the Expos ended in December 2003 . The team traded Barrett to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for Minor League pitcher Brett Price . The Athletics then traded Barrett to the Chicago Cubs for Damian Miller , only days after the initial transaction . Barrett , who had just spent six days with three teams , shortly signed a one @-@ year contract with the Cubs , which was worth nearly $ 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 . He first practiced with Cubs during their annual spring training sessions , and reported receiving a cold reception from teammates . Barrett went on to become one of their top hitters during the 2004 season . He played a crucial role in their wild card chase ; Barrett maintained a .287 batting average and hit sixteen home runs and sixty @-@ five RBI during the 2004 season . He finished the season as one the league 's top defensive catchers ( fielding at .994 with six errors ) , and led the Cubs in triples and sacrifice flies .
Barrett continued to be one of the Cubs β most consistent hitters in the 2005 season . He batted over .300 in three months of the season , and finished with 16 home runs , 32 doubles , and 61 RBI . Although he failed to meet and surpass the same statistical figures in the previous season , Barrett received a Silver Slugger Award for his efforts . Additionally , Barrett was selected to represent the United States in the 2006 World Baseball Classic . He played in four games , and recorded one run batted in .
Barrett sought to improve his numbers in the 2006 season , but ran into several obstacles . During the team 's annual series against the Chicago White Sox at U.S. Cellular Field , Barrett was involved in a major altercation with A. J. Pierzynski , which eventually led to a bench @-@ clearing brawl . He received a ten @-@ game suspension , which he served near the middle of June . Barrett rebounded after the incident , and batted over .300 in the final four months of the season . He suffered an intrascrotal hematoma in early September , and was forced to miss the rest of the season . The injury and suspension caused Barrett to miss a significant portion of the season . In his shortened season , Barrett hit sixteen home runs , which matched his previous career high , and nearly surpassed his hit total from 2005 .
Barrett was unable to live up to expectations in the 2007 season . He was unable to replicate his statistical figures from the previous season , and finished May with a .244 batting average and only seven home runs . Barrett infamously made headlines when he was involved in a nationally televised dugout altercation with pitcher Carlos Zambrano . Lou Piniella dismissed both players for the afternoon , while the League proceeded to fine both players . Nearly two weeks later , a television camera caught Barrett engaging in a heated argument with Rich Hill over a pitch that resulted in an RBI . The tensions caused Barrett to lose his role as the Cubs ' everyday starting catcher . While Barrett increased his batting average over the next few games , his career with the Cubs began to come to a close near the middle of June .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
Various news sources reported that the Cubs had traded Barrett to the San Diego Padres on the morning of June 20 . The Cubs officially confirmed these details in the afternoon , and revealed that Barrett was traded in exchange for Rob Bowen and Kyler Burke . Despite stating he had no knowledge of the trade until hearing rumors in the morning , Barrett expressed his appreciation and well wishes to the Cubs organization on his homepage . He received a one @-@ game suspension on July 22 , after arguing with an umpire over a third strike . Barrett sustained a concussion on August 5 , after a base @-@ running accident against the San Francisco Giants . The Padres placed Barrett on the fifteen @-@ day disabled list . After returning from the injury , Barrett 's performance declined . His batting average dropped from .266 to .244 , while he produced near career low statistics .
Barrett became a free agent after the end of the season , but was offered arbitration from the Padres . The Tampa Bay Rays expressed interest in signing Barrett , even though the signing would involve trading the Padres a future second round draft pick as compensation . Barrett accepted the Padres ' arbitration offer on December 7 . The Padres placed Barrett on the disabled list on April 8 , 2008 , after he sustained an elbow injury . The team later activated him on May 25 , after he had recovered , and completed a minor league rehabilitation assignment . On July 2 , 2008 , Barrett was rushed to the hospital after fouling a pitch off his face . He required surgery to repair the damage , and had been placed on the disabled list for the second time in 2008 . The Padres waived Barrett on October 11 , after he previously expressed interest in testing the free @-@ agent market .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays = = =
On December 29 , 2008 , Barrett signed a Minor League deal with the Toronto Blue Jays , and attended spring training as a non @-@ roster invitee . He earned the back @-@ up catcher role for the Toronto Blue Jays during spring training . He was scheduled to back up Rod Barajas , but Barrett tore a muscle in his right shoulder while attempting to retrieve a wild pitch on April 17 , 2009 . Barrett was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on April 18 , and was expected to return within the two weeks . Prior to the injury , Barrett had made seven appearances with a .167 batting average . The Blue Jays activated Barrett from the disabled list on July 6 , 2009 , and designated to Triple @-@ A for a rehab assignment , where he sustained a season @-@ ending injury . The Jays never recalled Barrett to their roster after the designation , and released him in the following offseason . He only played seven Major League games in 2009 , in which he recorded a .167 batting average , three hits , and one home run .
= = = New York Mets = = =
Barrett signed a minor league deal with the Mets on June 29 , 2010 , and was assigned to the Class @-@ A St. Lucie Mets . In early August , he was reassigned to play for their Class AAA affiliate , the Buffalo Bisons . On November 6 , 2010 , Barrett elected and was granted free agency . He has not played professional baseball since .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Oswalt confrontation = = =
While playing for the Chicago Cubs , Barrett was involved in two incidents with Houston Astros pitcher Roy Oswalt during the 2004 season . On August 22 , 2004 , Oswalt struck Barrett . Barrett , believing the pitch was a reaction to a three @-@ run home run that Aramis RamΓrez had previously hit , confronted Oswalt , and prompted both teams to take the field . Oswalt was ejected from the game , as the Astros went on to lose 11 @-@ 6 . Five days later , during another Cubs @-@ Astros game , Barrett mouthed off to Oswalt and attempted to confront him . The game 's umpires restrained the two before a fight could break out , but not before both benches cleared out . Oswalt remained in the game , and defeated the Cubs 15 @-@ 7 . In a post @-@ game press conference , Barrett condemned Oswalt 's actions , and stated , " We 're going to see him again . "
= = = Crosstown clash = = =
On May 20 , 2006 , Barrett was involved in an infamous altercation with A. J. Pierzynski , during the Chicago Crosstown Classic between the Chicago White Sox and Cubs . During the game 's second inning , Brian Anderson hit a sacrifice fly , which allowed Pierzynski to score the game 's first run . Pierzynski collided with Barrett en route to home plate , causing Barrett to fall down . Pierzynski showed his enthusiasm by slapping home plate . As Pierzynski got up , he bumped into Barrett , who proceeded to punch him . Scott Podsednik came to Pierzynski 's aid and subdued Barrett . Anderson and John Mabry eventually joined the brawl before both teams emptied their dugouts and stormed the field .
The game 's umpires ejected Barrett , Pierzynski , Anderson , and Mabry . Barrett later received a ten @-@ game suspension , while Pierzynski was fined . Additionally , Anderson and the Sox 's third base coach were also suspended for a fewer number of games . The Cubs went on to lose the game by a score of seven to nothing . On June 30 , the two met during batting practice , and made amends .
= = = Zambrano scuffle = = =
The following season , Barrett made headlines again when he got into a fight with teammate Carlos Zambrano . During a game against the Atlanta Braves on June 1 , 2007 , tensions began to rise between the two players when the Cubs allowed the Braves to score five runs in the fifth inning . The Braves recorded 20 hits , en route to winning 8 @-@ 5 . However , their productivity became overshadowed by the scuffle between Zambrano and Barrett . As the two returned to the dugout , they had an exchange of words , which escalated into a small fight . After Lou Piniella dismissed the two from the game , another fight ensued within the Cubs β clubhouse , and Zambrano punched Barrett 's lip . The wound required Barrett to go to the hospital immediately and receive stitches . Zambrano remorsefully admitted he was at fault after the ordeal , and Barrett later stated they had resolved their differences . Both players received fines for undisclosed amounts of money .
= = Managerial career = =
On December 20 , 2013 , the Washington Nationals , named Michael Barrett , the manager of the Gulf Coast Nationals .
= = Personal life = =
Barrett is married to Stephanie and they have two children , Grace and Andrew ( born November 2007 ) . His cousin , Scott Fletcher , also played for the Cubs , along with many other teams over his fifteen @-@ year career . Barrett has spent a considerable portion of his personal life devoted to helping children . He runs several youth baseball programs , including one in Hawaii , which was inspired from his tenure with the Hawaiian Winter Baseball League . He also works with the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation and the Cubs Care Program to help lesser fortunate and sick children . More recently , he has worked with Kerry Wood and Ryan Dempster to raise money to help Derrek Lee 's daughter and research for Leber 's congenital amaurosis . Michael Barrett donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to Project 3000 and pledged an additional sum of money for every home run he hits . Barrett was also a regular guest on FOX Chicago 's The Final Word television show , which is co hosted by Tom Waddle , a former Chicago Bears wide receiver .
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= Cabin Fever ( Lost ) =
" Cabin Fever " is the 11th episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's fourth season of the serial drama television series Lost and 83rd episode overall . It was aired on May 8 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episode was written by supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and Kyle Pennington and directed by Paul Edwards . According to a press release , " John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) is enlightened as to the whereabouts of Jacob 's cabin , and life aboard the freighter becomes perilous . " The episode was written alongside " The Shape of Things to Come " and " Something Nice Back Home " . " Cabin Fever " was watched by 11 million American viewers .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a flashback to 1956 , when 16 @-@ year @-@ old Emily Locke ( Holland Roden ) is preparing for a date with a man twice her age . Her mother tries to stop her from going out , but Emily escapes and is struck by a car . The trauma triggers the premature birth of John ( as an adult portrayed by Terry O 'Quinn ) . John 's life is monitored by Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , who at John 's birth and throughout his childhood looks the same age as he does in present day , and Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) , each of whom attempts to influence his life . The existence of Mittelos Bioscience is revealed when John is invited to spend the summer there as a highly gifted high @-@ school student .
In the present day , Locke , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Benjamin Linus ( Michael Emerson ) are attempting to find a cabin inhabited by Jacob , the de facto leader of the Others . They are initially unsuccessful , but an apparition of deceased DHARMA Initiative member Horace Goodspeed ( Doug Hutchison ) assists Locke by pointing him to the Initiative 's mass grave . There , Locke extracts a set of blueprints from Horace 's jacket , and uses it to locate the cabin .
On the freighter Kahana , mercenary Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) returns from his unsuccessful attack on the Barracks , the former home of the Others . Enraged that his mission was unsuccessful and several of his colleagues were killed , he accuses Gault ( Grant Bowler ) of giving him up to Ben , but Gault tells Keamy that Michael is the actual spy . He tries to kill Michael by shooting him , but just as in " Meet Kevin Johnson " when Michael tries to commit suicide , the gun jams . Gault ( Grant Bowler ) then tells Keamy that Michael is vital to repairing the engines , because he is the one that sabotaged them initially . Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , fearing Keamy 's intentions , uses a Zodiac boat to return to the island , hoping to save as many people as possible . Desmond refuses to accompany him , saying that he would never return to the island after he left .
Several hours after Sayid leaves , Keamy stages a mutiny . A soldier receives a message from the island saying they found the body of ship doctor Ray ( Marc Vann ) ( as shown in " The Shape of Things to Come " ) , but the doctor protests that it 's impossible since he 's alive on the boat . Keamy orders Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) at gunpoint to prepare the freighter 's helicopter ; Lapidus refuses , and Keamy kills the doctor and Gault in response . Lapidus acquiesces and Keamy leaves the freighter with a group of mercenaries , intending to " torch the Island " . When the helicopter passes over the survivors ' beach camp , Frank drops a bag containing a satellite phone onto the beach .
At the end of the episode , Locke enters the cabin alone and meets the figure of the deceased Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) , who claims he is speaking on Jacob 's behalf and is accompanied by his daughter Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) . Christian warns Locke that Keamy 's mercenaries from the Kahana are already en route to the Island , and that the Island must be moved .
= = Production = =
" Cabin Fever " was the fifth episode to be directed by Paul Edwards . It was the first installment to be written by Kyle Pennington , the eleventh by Elizabeth Sarnoff , and was the first that the two wrote together . Recurring guest star Nestor Carbonell appeared in seven episodes of Lost 's third season as Richard Alpert and the mysteries surrounding his ageless character were heavily discussed among the fan community . While producing the final episodes of the third season , Carbonell was cast in a starring role on the new CBS series Cane . The writers modified their original story plan for the third season in anticipation for Carbonell 's potential unavailability . Despite Carbonell 's willingness to return to Lost , CBS president Nina Tassler ruled out another Lost guest appearance . Cane was canceled during the 2007 β 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , freeing Carbonell from his contract with CBS . Executive producer Carlton Cuse cited this as an unintended positive consequence of the strike .
= = Reception = =
" Cabin Fever " was viewed live or recorded and watched within five hours of broadcast by 10 @.@ 78 million American viewers . It attained a 4 @.@ 7 / 13 in the key adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic , ranking Lost as the nineteenth most watched program of the week , two places up from the previous episode , " Something Nice Back Home " . " Cabin Fever " was watched by 392 @,@ 000 Australian viewers , making Lost the thirty @-@ third most watched program of the night .
Robin Abrahams of the Boston Globe published an analysis exploring disability on her blog . A paragraph analyzed the scene where the " disabled @-@ in @-@ the @-@ eyes @-@ of @-@ others Hurley " and the " disabled @-@ in @-@ his @-@ own @-@ mind Ben " shared a candy bar , which she thought was " kind of good and ... awful " ; she said " It was great to see the most hateful and most lovable characters sitting on a log sharing a chocolate bar . " However , she thought that the scene did not use its full potential in emphasizing Hurley 's empathy and Ben 's reaction . However , Kristin Dos Santos of E ! , who gave the episode a mostly positive review , was critical of the scene ; she thought that the scene wasted time and was " cruel and unusual punishment " to air before the cliffhanger ending . Erin Martell from TV Squad stated " This episode put everyone , including the freighter folk , in place to carry out their plans . I 'm already stoked for the finale " .
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= LGBT =
LGBT or GLBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender . In use since the 1990s , the term is an adaptation of the initialism LGB , which was used to replace the term gay in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s . Activists believed that the term gay community did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred .
The initialism has become mainstream as a self @-@ designation ; it has been adopted by the majority of sexuality and gender identity @-@ based community centers and media in the United States , as well as some other English @-@ speaking countries . The term is used also in some other countries , particularly those which languages use the initialism , such as Argentina , France and Turkey .
The initialism LGBT is intended to emphasize a diversity of sexuality and gender identity @-@ based cultures . It may be used to refer to anyone who is non @-@ heterosexual or non @-@ cisgender , instead of exclusively to people who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender . To recognize this inclusion , a popular variant adds the letter Q for those who identify as queer or are questioning their sexual identity ; LGBTQ has been recorded since 1996 . Those who wish to include intersex people in LGBT groups suggest an extended initialism LGBTI . This initialism is used in all parts of " The Activist 's Guide " of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action . Some people combine the two acronyms and use the term LGBTIQ .
Whether or not LGBT people openly identify themselves may depend on local political concerns and whether they live in a discriminatory environment , as well as on the status of LGBT rights where they live .
= = History = =
Before the sexual revolution of the 1960s , there was no common non @-@ derogatory vocabulary for non @-@ heterosexuality ; the closest such term , third gender , traces back to the 1860s but never gained wide acceptance in the United States .
The first widely used term , homosexual , originally carried negative connotations . It was replaced by homophile in the 1950s and 1960s , and subsequently gay in the 1970s ; the latter term was adopted first by the homosexual community . Lars Ullerstam promoted use of the term sexual minority in the 1960s , ( sv ) as an analogy to the term ethnic minority for non @-@ whites .
As lesbians forged more public identities , the phrase " gay and lesbian " became more common . The Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970 due to disputes over their direction : whether to focus on feminism or gay rights issues . As equality was a priority for lesbian feminists , disparity of roles between men and women or butch and femme were viewed as patriarchal . Lesbian feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars , as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men ; many lesbian feminists refused to work with gay men , or take up their causes .
Lesbians who held a more essentialist view , that they had been born homosexual and used the descriptor " lesbian " to define sexual attraction , often considered the separatist , angry opinions of lesbian @-@ feminists to be detrimental to the cause of gay rights . Bisexual and transgender people also sought recognition as legitimate categories within the larger minority community .
After the elation of change following group action in the Stonewall riots in New York , in the late 1970s and the early 1980s , some gays and lesbians became less accepting of bisexual or transgender people . Critics said that transgender people were acting out stereotypes and bisexuals were simply gay men or lesbian women who were afraid to come out and be honest about their identity . Each community has struggled to develop its own identity including whether , and how , to align with other gender and sexuality @-@ based communities , at times excluding other subgroups ; these conflicts continue to this day .
From about 1988 , activists began to use the initialism LGBT in the United States . Not until the 1990s within the movement did gay , lesbian , bisexual and transgender people gain equal respect . Although the LGBT community has seen much controversy regarding universal acceptance of different member groups ( bisexual and transgender individuals , in particular , have sometimes been marginalized by the larger LGBT community ) , the term LGBT has been a positive symbol of inclusion . Despite the fact that LGBT does not nominally encompass all individuals in smaller communities ( see Variants below ) , the term is generally accepted to include those not specifically identified in the four @-@ letter initialism . Overall , the use of the term LGBT has , over time , largely aided in bringing otherwise marginalized individuals into the general community . Transgender actress Candis Cayne in 2009 described the LGBT community " the last great minority " , noting that " We can still be harassed openly " and be " called out on television . "
In response to years of lobbying from users and LGBT groups to eliminate discrimination , the online social networking service Facebook , in February 2014 , widened its choice of gender variants for users . In June 2015 , after the US Supreme Court verdict granting equal marriage rights , Facebook introduced a filter allowing users to color their profile pictures rainbow in celebration of LGBT equality .
= = Variants = =
Many variants exist including variations that change the order of the letters ; LGBT or GLBT are the most common terms and the ones most frequently seen . Although identical in meaning , LGBT may have a more feminist connotation than GLBT as it places the " L " ( for " lesbian " ) first . When not inclusive of transgender people , it is sometimes shortened to LGB . LGBT may also include additional " Q " s for " queer " or " questioning " ( sometimes abbreviated with a question mark and sometimes used to mean anybody not literally L , G , B or T ) producing the variants " LGBTQ " and " LGBTQQ " " . In the United Kingdom , it is sometimes stylized as LGB & T , whilst the Green Party of England and Wales uses the term LGBTIQ in its manifesto and official publications .
The order of the letters has not been standardized ; in addition to the variations between the positions of the initial " L " or " G " , the mentioned , less common letters , if used , may appear in almost any order . Initialisms related to LGBTQ people are sometimes referred to as " alphabet soup . " Variant terms do not typically represent political differences within the community , but arise simply from the preferences of individuals and groups .
The terms pansexual , omnisexual , fluid and queer @-@ identified are regarded as falling under the umbrella term bisexual ( and therefore are considered a part of the bisexual community ) . Likewise , the terms transsexual and intersex are regarded by some people as falling under the umbrella term transgender , though many transsexual and intersex people object to this . Some intersex people prefer the initialism LGBTI , while others insist that they are not a part of the LGBT community and would rather that they not be included as part of the term . In Australia , where LGBTI is increasingly used , and organizations representing cross @-@ community interests have a history of collaboration including through a National LGBTI Health Alliance , anti @-@ discrimination legislation recognizes that intersex is a biological attribute distinct from both gender identity and sexual orientation .
SGL ( " same gender loving " ) is sometimes favored among gay male African Americans as a way of distinguishing themselves from what they regard as white @-@ dominated LGBT communities . MSM ( " men who have sex with men " ) is clinically used to describe men who have sex with other men without referring to their sexual orientation .
The gender identity " transgender " has been recategorized to trans * by some groups , where trans ( without the asterisk ) has been used to describe trans men and trans women , while trans * covers all non @-@ cisgender ( genderqueer ) identities , including transgender , transsexual , transvestite , genderqueer , genderfluid , non @-@ binary , genderfuck , genderless , agender , non @-@ gendered , third gender , two @-@ spirit , bigender , and trans man and trans woman .
Other variants may have a " U " for " unsure " ; a " C " for " curious " ; another " T " for " transvestite " ; a " TS " , or " 2 " for " two @-@ spirit " persons ; or an " SA " for " straight allies " . However , the inclusion of straight allies in the LGBT acronym has proven controversial as many straight allies have been accused of using LGBT advocacy to gain popularity and status in recent years , and various LGBT activists have criticised the heteronormative worldview of certain straight allies . Some may also add a " P " for " polyamorous " , an " H " for " HIV @-@ affected " , or an " O " for " other " . Furthermore , the initialism LGBTIH has seen use in India to encompass the hijra third gender identity and the related subculture .
The initialism LGBTTQQIAAP ( lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , transsexual , queer , questioning , intersex , asexual , ally , pansexual ) has also resulted , although such initialisms are sometimes criticized for being confusing and leaving some people out , as well as issues of placement of the letters within the new title . However , adding the term " allies " to the initialism has sparked controversy , with some seeing the inclusion of " ally " as opposed to " asexual " a form of asexual erasure . There is also the acronym QUILTBAG ( queer and questioning , intersex , lesbian , transgender and two @-@ spirit , bisexual , asexual and ally , and gay and genderqueer ) .
The magazine Anything That Moves coined the acronym FABGLITTER from fetish ( such as the BDSM community ) , allies or poly @-@ amorous ( as in polyamorous relationships ) , bisexual , gay , lesbian , intersex , transgender , transsexual engendering revolution or inter @-@ racial attraction ; however , this term has not made its way into common usage .
Wesleyan University used the initialism LGBTTQQFAGPBDSM for " lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , transsexual , queer , questioning , flexual , asexual , gender @-@ fuck , polyamorous , bondage / discipline , dominance / submission , and sadism / masochism " . Some use the much shorter style LGBT + to mean " LGBT and related communities " .
Some research , conducted anonymously and online and including the ' Q ' category , found that more adolescents and young adults identified as ' Q ' ( questioning ) compared with other LGBTQ categories . This may reflect the uncertainty and external pressures surrounding human sexuality .
= = Criticism of the term = =
The initialisms LGBT or GLBT are not agreeable to everyone that they encompass . For example , some argue that transgender and transsexual causes are not the same as that of lesbian , gay , and bisexual ( LGB ) people . This argument centers on the idea that transgender and transsexuality have to do with gender identity , or a person 's understanding of being or not being a man or a woman irrespective of their sexual orientation . LGB issues can be seen as a matter of sexual orientation or attraction . These distinctions have been made in the context of political action in which LGB goals , such as same @-@ sex marriage legislation and human rights work ( which may not include transgender and intersex people ) , may be perceived to differ from transgender and transsexual goals .
Many people have looked for a generic term to replace the numerous existing initialisms . Words such as queer ( an umbrella term for sexual and gender minorities that are not heterosexual , or gender @-@ binary ) and rainbow have been tried , but most have not been widely adopted . Queer has many negative connotations to older people who remember the word as a taunt and insult and such ( negative ) usage of the term continues . Many younger people also understand queer to be more politically charged than LGBT . " Rainbow " has connotations that recall hippies , New Age movements , and groups such as the Rainbow Family or Jesse Jackson 's Rainbow / PUSH Coalition .
Some people advocate the term " minority sexual and gender identities " ( MSGI , coined in 2000 ) , or gender and sexual / sexuality minorities ( GSM ) so as to explicitly include all people who are not cisgender and heterosexual , or gender , sexual , and romantic minorities ( GSRM ) which is more explicitly inclusive of minority romantic orientations and polyamory , but those have not been widely adopted either . Other rare umbrella terms are Gender and Sexual Diversities ( GSD ) , MOGII ( Marginalized Orientations , Gender Identities , and Intersex ) and MOGAI ( Marginalized Orientations , Gender Alignments and Intersex ) .
A reverse to the above situations is evident in the belief of " lesbian & gay separatism " ( not to be confused with the related " lesbian separatism " ) , which holds that lesbians and gay men form ( or should form ) a community distinct and separate from other groups normally included in the LGBTQ sphere . While not always appearing of sufficient number or organization to be called a movement , separatists are a significant , vocal , and active element within many parts of the LGBT community . In some cases separatists will deny the existence or right to equality of nonmonosexual orientations and of transsexuality . This can extend to public biphobia and transphobia . In contrasts to separatists , Peter Tatchell of the LGBT human rights group OutRage ! argues that to separate the transgender movement from the LGB would be " political madness " , stating that " Queers are , like transgender people , gender deviant . We don β t conform to traditional heterosexist assumptions of male and female behaviour , in that we have sexual and emotional relationships with the same sex . We should celebrate our discordance with mainstream straight norms . "
The portrayal of an all @-@ encompassing " LGBT community " or " LGB community " is also disliked by some lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender people . Some do not subscribe to or approve of the political and social solidarity , and visibility and human rights campaigning that normally goes with it including gay pride marches and events . Some of them believe that grouping together people with non @-@ heterosexual orientations perpetuates the myth that being gay / lesbian / bi / asexual / pansexual / etc. makes a person deficiently different from other people . These people are often less visible compared to more mainstream gay or LGBT activists . Since this faction is difficult to distinguish from the heterosexual majority , it is common for people to assume all LGBT people support LGBT liberation and the visibility of LGBT people in society , including the right to live one 's life in a different way from the majority . In the 1996 book Anti @-@ Gay , a collection of essays edited by Mark Simpson , the concept of a ' one @-@ size @-@ fits @-@ all ' identity based on LGBT stereotypes is criticized for suppressing the individuality of LGBT people .
Writing in the BBC News Magazine in 2014 , Julie Bindel questions whether the various gender groupings now , " bracketed together " . . . " share the same issues , values and goals ? " Bindel refers to a number of possible new initialisms for differing combinations and concludes that it may be time for the alliances to be reformed or finally we go , " our separate ways " .
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= The Punisher ( 1993 video game ) =
The Punisher ( Japanese : γγγγ·γ£γΌ , Hepburn : PanisshΔ ) is a 1993 beat ' em up arcade game developed and released by Capcom . It stars the Marvel Comics ' anti @-@ hero the Punisher and co @-@ stars S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Nick Fury as the second player 's character as they embark on a mission to kill the crime lord the Kingpin and bring down his organization . Whilst following the same general formula as Capcom 's previous beat ' em ups , the game has a range of usable weapons and a comics @-@ style presentation .
The Punisher gained significant popularity in arcades and is widely regarded as one of the best titles in the beat ' em up genre as well as one of the best video game adaptations of comic books . A Mega Drive / Genesis port was developed by Sculptured Software and published by Capcom USA and Marvel Entertainment in 1994 to mixed reviews .
= = Gameplay = =
The Punisher follows the same side @-@ scrolling beat 'em up formula Capcom established in Final Fight and Captain Commando as the protagonists engage foes and stage bosses . As in most beat 'em up games of this kind , progression through the game is achieved by systematically eliminating all common enemies and proceeding to the right ( or left ) , and defeating the bosses met at the end of each stage . Unlike in Final Fight , the player characters Punisher and Nick Fury 's size , abilities and tactics are essentially interchangeable ; they both use the same basic moves , such as punches , kicks and throws , which can be chained chained into combos , as well as similar special attacks . Basic attacks can be combined to cause extra damage to enemies . The game is presented in a comic book @-@ like style , including featuring on @-@ screen onomatopoeias such as " BLAM ! " for gunshots .
Various melee ( including baseball bats and Japanese swords ) and thrown weapons ( including knives and shuriken ) as well as improvised weapons ( such as lead pipes , car tires and a crude flamethrower ) can be picked up during regular combat . Weapons can be dropped by enemies or obtained from smashing various containers throughout the stages . When the player is armed with a weapon , its durability will be displayed alongside the player 's health , showing how much it can be used until it breaks apart . Treasure can also be found in containers , awarding the player with bonus score points once collected ( jewelry also appears after defeating female enemies ) . Health can be replenished by picking up food , which can also give bonus points . The game distinguishes itself by the frequent use of firearms , including an Ingram and a M16 . There are several sections of the game when gun @-@ wielding enemies appear to which the characters draw their handguns , enabling the player to shoot them . Player characters can also pick up and collect hand grenades that can be deployed at a moment of choice .
= = Plot = =
The game begins in an illegal casino and the streets of the New York City , with Frank " the Punisher " Castle ( optionally partnered with Nick Fury ) in pursuit of the Mafia enforcer Bruno Costa ; the chase ends with a fight against Chester Scully ( a minor villain from the comics ) . Still on track of Bruno , the Punisher infiltrates the mob 's Pantaberde resort via a water duct . He breaks into a hotel and corners Bruno ... who is suddenly lasered to death by a massive Guardroid , which Castle must then take on .
The Punisher then raids a major drug @-@ smuggling ring at the local harbor , where he 's pitted against four gorgeous @-@ but @-@ lethal ninja @-@ sisters : Mizuki , in blue ; Misa , in black ; Midori , in green ; and Luna , in red . ( Misa is brunette ; the others are blonde ) . Finally , Castle confronts Bonebreaker in a waterfront warehouse . After that , the Punisher attacks the Kingpin 's poppy field at an underground cave in Arizona . There Castle boards and destroys a freight train which is commanded by Bushwhacker .
At that point , the Kingpin decides that he has lost enough henchmen and money to the Punisher 's actions . He puts a hefty contract out on Castle , who is chased by assassins from his hideout and through a forest . After defeating another Guardroid , the Punisher in turn assaults the King Building skyscraper . He fights his way through Jigsaw and other enemies to the final showdown against the Kingpin himself . After the Kingpin is defeated , the entire tower collapses ... but he is not found among the many dead criminals in the rubble .
= = Release = =
= = = Arcade = = =
The Punisher for the arcades was released in April 1993 , marking the beginning of the partnership between Marvel Comics and Capcom , which led to the series Marvel vs. Capcom . Artworks from the game were featured in the 2012 art book Marvel vs. Capcom : Official Complete Works by Udon Entertainment .
= = = Genesis = = =
A console port of The Punisher was released for the Genesis in North America in 1994 and for the PAL region Mega Drive in April 1995 . This version , while published by Capcom , was developed by an independent American company Sculptured Software . In addition to the worse graphics and sound , lesser variety of enemies , and a smaller amount of objects on screen than in the original , many of the previously breakable background objects were rendered unbreakable due to the limitations of the Genesis ' hardware .
This version also contains some content censorship , including removing the most explicit violence as well as the animation of Fury smoking his cigar , and female ninja enemies with skimpy outfits becoming fully clothed . The port also comes with three difficulty settings , but the Easy setting ends after only three stages and the game can be properly completed only on Normal or Hard . The PlayStation version was reported in works by Crystal Dynamics , but was never completed .
= = Reception = =
= = = Arcade = = =
Upon its release , GamePower gave the arcade version of The Punisher a 10 out of 10 partial score for the game 's " fun factor " . Its action was praised by GamePro , who remarked that " this game 's outstanding feature is its gorgeous graphics , which capture the dark , somber mood of the Punisher comic books . "
= = = Genesis = = =
Reviewing the Genesis conversion , VideoGames called it " a decent exercise in vigilante mayhem " that is " surprisingly fun , yet fairly standard game . " A preview by Mean Machines Sega opined it " looks good " and features " fantastic weaponry " , but EGM criticized the characters for being too small on the screen , also stating that there was little to no skill involved in defeating the bosses . EGM praised the number of weapons and moves available but nonetheless concluded that " the whole game comes across as routine and bland . "
GamePro outright panned the port , commenting that the special moves are too difficult to pull off , the sound effects are weak , the gameplay is generic and unimaginative beat ' em up fare , and " the graphics never come close to the coin @-@ op game that this cart is based on . " It was also lambasted by Next Generation , who stated that " not much good can be found " in the game and " the person responsible for putting out The Punisher deserves a good spanking . " The May 1995 issue of Hyper even had The Punisher as the worst rated game of the month .
= = = Retrospective = = =
Notwithstanding the flawed home port and limited commercial success , the arcade original has achieved a cult game status . Official Sega Saturn Magazine and Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine both wished for The Punisher to be included in Capcom 's arcade compilation releases for the Sega Saturn and the PlayStation , respectively . According to gamesTM in 2005 , " Capcom 's The Punisher was a brutally violent fighter that perfectly captured the anti @-@ hero it was based on . Featuring buckets of blood , some nasty moves and hordes of enemies , action came thick and fast , and so did the excitement . " The magazine too expressed a wish for it to be included in a compilation re @-@ release for a more modern gaming system , in this case the PlayStation Portable , but noted that the chances of this are slim due to a long @-@ expired license .
Retro Gamer called it " a forgotten gem in Capcom 's back catalogue " that " is bursting with character and is extremely enjoyable , " surmising the game did not sell well because the market was already flooded with beat ' em up games . GamesTM retorospectively described it and the arcade Alien vs. Predator as old " gaming nuggets " that provided a " nirvana for fight fans " as " back in the mid @-@ Nineties , no @-@ one made scrolling beat- ' em @-@ ups like Capcom . " Some media outlets also singled out for a special praise the game 's particular elements , such as with Complex regarding its arcade cabinet and Cracked.com regarding its game over sequence . Crunchyroll 's Patrick Macias wrote : " I 'll confess my heart skipped a beat when I read The Punisher arcade game , the legacy of a misspent youth and countless tokens whittled away at Chuck E. Cheese . "
Some critics regard The Punisher as among the best of the beat ' em up genre , as well as among the best video game adaptations of comic books , especially of Marvel titles . In 2010 , it was ranked as the tenth top greatest superhero game by IGN 's News & Features Team , who noted it " was pretty brutal for its time , " and as the fifth top Marvel arcade game by iFanboy 's Josh Richardson . Nerdist Industries included it among the top ten most iconic Marvel video games in 2013 , calling it " one of the few games that benefits from its cheesiness " and stating that in 1993 the two @-@ player experience " was pretty much what Army of Two wishes it was today . " That same year , it was also listed as one of top beat ' em up games of all time by Heavy.com 's Elton Jones , as well as being included amongst the best looking beat ' em up games from the 16 @-@ bit era by Kotaku Australia 's Gergo Vas . David Hawkins of WhatCulture ! declared it number one best comics @-@ based arcade game in a 2011 ranking , being " above and beyond all other arcade adaptations of comic books and their heroes , " and Jon Ledford of Arcade Sushi opined that " in terms of pure enjoyment , ingenuity , control , and graphics , The Punisher is the Best Retro Beat ' Em Up of all time . "
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= Raymond Brownell =
Air Commodore Raymond James Brownell , CBE , MC , MM ( 17 May 1894 β 12 April 1974 ) was a senior officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a First World War flying ace . Born in Hobart , Tasmania , Brownell was working as a clerk with a firm of accountants when he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on the outbreak of the First World War . He served during the Gallipoli Campaign before transferring to the Western Front . Awarded the Military Medal for his actions during the Battle of PoziΓ¨res , he was accepted for a transfer to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . Brownell undertook flight training in the United Kingdom . Commissioned as a second lieutenant , he was posted for operational service over the Western Front in September 1917 . Moving with his squadron to Italy , he was awarded the Military Cross and credited with shooting down 12 aircraft by war 's end . Taking his discharge in 1919 , Brownell returned to Australia .
Commissioned in the Royal Australian Air Force during 1921 , Brownell had risen to the rank of group captain by the beginning of the Second World War . Establishing the Royal Australian Air Force base in Singapore , he returned to Australia in 1941 as an air commodore and was appointed to lead No. 1 Training Group . He was Air Officer Commanding Western Area from January 1943 until July 1945 , when he took charge of the recently formed No. 11 Group on Morotai . Retiring from the Air Force in 1947 , Brownell assumed a partnership in a stockbroking firm . He died in 1974 at the age of 79 ; his autobiography , From Khaki to Blue , was published posthumously .
= = Early life = =
Brownell was born in the Hobart suburb of New Town , Tasmania , on 17 May 1894 to William Percival Brownell , a draper , and his wife Julie Ann James ( nΓ©e Scott ) . Initially educated at Leslie House School , Brownell later attended Scotch College , Melbourne where he was an active sportsman . On graduation , he was apprenticed to a firm of public accountants and auditors in Hobart . In 1912 , Brownell enlisted in the Citizens Military Force and was posted to the 41st Battery , Australian Field Artillery .
= = First World War = =
= = = Australian Imperial Force = = =
On 12 September 1914 , Brownell transferred to the Australian Imperial Force for service during the First World War . Allotted to the 9th Battery , 3rd Field Artillery Brigade with the rank of gunner , Brownell embarked from Hobart aboard HMAT Geelong on 20 October , bound for Egypt . On arrival , the unit spent several months training in the desert , before it was posted for service during the Gallipoli Campaign . Instead of landing on the peninsula with the battery , Brownell was transferred to Alexandria where the Army required his administrative abilities as an accountant .
During July 1915 , Brownell was shipped to Gallipoli and rejoined the 9th Battery . Promoted to bombardier on 12 November , he was among one of the final Australian waves to be evacuated from the peninsula in December during the Allied withdrawal . Returning to Egypt , he was advanced to provisional sergeant on 24 February 1916 . Embarking with his unit from Alexandria , Brownell arrived in France for service on the Western Front on 29 March , following a six @-@ day voyage .
On 21 β 22 July 1916 , Brownell was in action with his battery at PoziΓ¨res , during which the unit was subject to severe German shellfire . Throughout the engagement , Brownell established and maintained communications between the battery and firing line , despite fatigue or personal risk to himself . Commended for his " particularly meritorious service ... and ... gallantry in this work " , Brownell was subsequently recommended for the Military Medal . The notification for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 16 November 1916 .
= = = Royal Flying Corps = = =
In October 1916 , Brownell applied for a transfer to the Royal Flying Corps . One of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , Brownell was accepted on 1 January 1917 along with a further 200 Australians . Posted for pilot training , he proceeding to England and was posted to No. 3 School of Military Aeronautics at Exeter College , Oxford from 26 January . On graduating from the course , Brownell was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 16 March and commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Flying Corps the following day .
Allotted to No. 45 Squadron RFC flying Sopwith Camels , Brownell moved to France for operational service over the Western Front during September 1917 . On 10 September , he took part in his first patrol , during which he shot down a two @-@ seater German aircraft . In his time flying over the Western Front , Brownell accumulated a total of five victories and achieved ' ace ' status before his squadron was transferred to Italy in December . Later that month , Brownell and his observer , Lieutenant Henry Moody , shot down German ace Alwin Thurm over Asolo .
Appointed a flight commander in No. 45 Squadron , Brownell was promoted to temporary captain on 11 February 1918 . During aerial engagements against Central aircraft over the Italian front , he was accredited with the destruction of a further seven aircraft , bringing his total to 12 with an additional nine probables . Brownell 's aerial victories were composed of five aircraft and one shared destroyed , two and one shared out of control , one shared captured , and one balloon . For his success in bringing six of these aircraft down over a three @-@ month period , Brownell was awarded the Military Cross . The announcement of the decoration was published in a supplement of the London Gazette on 4 March 1918 , with the citation for the award being published in a later issue on 16 August 1918 , reading :
War Office , 16th August , 1918 .
With reference to the awards conferred as announced in the London Gazette dated 4th March , 1918 , the following are the statements of service for which the decorations were conferred : β
Awarded the Military Cross .
2nd Lt. Raymond James Brownell , M.M. , R.F.C. , Spec . Res.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . Within the last three months he has brought down six enemy aeroplanes , four of which were seen to come down in flames , the other two falling completely out of control . The dash , gallantry and offensive spirit displayed on all occasions by this officer are worthy of the highest praise .
In April 1918 , Brownell was granted compassionate leave to visit his seriously ill mother . Leaving No. 45 Squadron , he travelled to Tasmania . At the end of his leave in September , he commenced his return journey to the United Kingdom . During the voyage , he became grievously ill with pneumonic influenza . On arrival , Brownell accepted a commission in the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . However , Brownell 's mother again suffered a deterioration in health , so he sought to resign from the RAF and was placed on the unemployed list on 14 August 1919 . Embarking for Tasmania , he arrived during September .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
On his return to Australia , Brownell was employed as a sub @-@ accountant for a firm of merchants in Melbourne , and later with the Hobart City Council as a clerk . On 22 April 1920 , Brownell acted as one of the pallbearers at the military funeral of his friend and fellow No. 45 Squadron officer , Captain Cedric Howell , who had been killed in an aeroplane crash while participating in the England to Australia air race . Seeking a position in the newly formed Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , Brownell was commissioned as a flying officer on 12 September 1921 and posted to RAAF Point Cook in Victoria , training Air Force cadets . In a ceremony at St Andrew 's Presbyterian Church , Hobart , on 26 August 1925 , Brownell married Rhyllis Jean Birchall ; the couple would later have two daughters . The following year , Brownell assumed command of No. 1 Squadron . He led the squadron until 1928 , when he was appointed to the RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne as Director of Personnel Services .
During 1934 , Brownell was posted to England for exchange service with the RAF . Made second @-@ in @-@ command of No. 3 Flying Training School at Grantham , he was promoted to wing commander on 1 April 1936 . While still serving in the United Kingdom , Brownell was appointed commanding officer of No. 23 ( City of Perth ) Squadron ( later No. 25 Squadron ) , which had been formed earlier in 1937 . The squadron moved to RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia during March 1938 , at which time Brownell returned to Australia and assumed command of the unit along with the base . Brownell was the first Commanding Officer of Pearce , which was not only the first RAAF establishment to be located in Western Australia , but also the first permanent air force unit to be established in the state .
= = Second World War = =
On the outbreak of the Second World War , additional units were placed under Brownell 's purview at RAAF Base Pearce and he was consequently promoted to temporary group captain in December 1939 . With the introduction of Lockheed Hudson aircraft to the RAAF in February 1940 , several units were re @-@ equipped , including No. 14 Squadron at RAAF Base Pearce . The Hudsons replaced the squadron 's Avro Ansons , which were to be ferried back to the eastern coast of Australia in order to be used as training aircraft . On one occasion , Brownell took part in ferrying an Anson to RAAF Point Cook with No. 14 Squadron pilot Charles Learmonth . Arriving with the aircraft , the pair piloted a de Havilland Moth Minor β a two @-@ seated , open @-@ cockpit , monoplane β back to Pearce . The return journey took Brownell and Learmonth seven days to complete , and involved a total of twenty @-@ one refuelling stops along the way .
In August 1940 , Brownell was ordered to Singapore in order to establish and command an RAAF station on the island , as well as administer the RAAF squadrons located in Malaya . Embarking aboard the SS Strathallan in mid @-@ August , Brownell and his staff formed the RAAF station within two weeks of arrival at Sembawang . Under the control of RAF Far East Command , the station was established as RAF Sembawang . During this time , Brownell frequently visited the Malaya peninsula .
Promoted to acting air commodore , Brownell returned to Australia in August 1941 and was appointed Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Training Group in Melbourne . With this position , Brownell was in command of approximately thirty establishments located in southern Australia . On 1 January 1943 , he was posted as Air Officer Commanding Western Area . Based at RAAF Base Pearce , Brownell 's responsibilities involved coordinating training and directing long @-@ range bombing operations . Following intelligence reports that a Japanese force was en route to raid Western Australia , the Australian Government ordered a build @-@ up of the defences in the area . In response to this , Brownell organised air defences around Perth and the Exmouth Gulf during March 1944 . With the use of Army transports , he also reinforced Cunderdin with supplies and bombs for the use of the heavy bombers in the area . The attack from the Japanese , however , did not occur . For his service as Air Officer Commanding Western Area , Brownell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1945 New Years Honours .
Relinquishing command of Western Area in July 1945 , Brownell was appointed commander of the recently formed No. 11 Group . No. 11 Group was established as a static organisation that was to take administrative control of all RAAF units based on Morotai . The group assumed its role on 30 July , and had the initial jurisdiction of all Dutch territory in the area , along with British North Borneo and Sarawak . In addition to this , the unit held the three main responsibilities of local air defence and sea lane protection , support of adjacent formations and offensive operations against Japanese targets within range , as well as line @-@ of @-@ communication duties . The unit , however , was formed too late in the war to assume all of its responsibilities before the Second World War drew to an end . Brownell was present at the Japanese surrenders in Manila , Tokyo , and on Morotai . He was selected by the Australian government to attend the ceremony aboard the USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 , but was replaced by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , when Jones became available to make the trip to Japan .
= = Later life = =
Returning to Western Australia after the war , Brownell attended an investiture ceremony at Government House , Perth on 3 January 1947 , where he was presented with his CBE by the Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Western Australia . On 24 March that year , Brownell retired from the RAAF on medical grounds . He had in any case been slated for early retirement , along with other senior officers and veterans of the First World War , to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers .
Following his retirement from the Air Force , Brownell was made a partner of S. G. Brearley & Co . , a stockbroking firm located in Perth . In 1951 , he became chairman of the associated sporting committee of the National Fitness Council of Western Australia ; he served in this role until 1967 . Aged 79 , Brownell died at Subiaco , Western Australia , on 12 April 1974 and was accorded a funeral with full Air Force honours . Brownell 's autobiography , From Khaki to Blue , was posthumously published by the Military Historical Society of Australia in 1978 .
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= St Thomas the Martyr 's Church , Oxford =
St Thomas the Martyr 's is a Church of England parish church of the Anglo @-@ Catholic tradition , in Oxford , England , near Oxford railway station in Osney . It is located between Becket Street to the west and Hollybush Row to the east , with St Thomas Street opposite .
= = Overview = =
The church was founded in the 12th century , dedicated to St Thomas Becket . The building still retains some of its original architecture , although substantial expansions and repairs have been made , particularly in the 17th century ( under the curacy of Robert Burton ) and in the 19th century .
The church played a significant role in the early stages of the Oxford Movement , being the site of daily services as well as such ritualist practices as altar candles and the wearing of Eucharistic vestments . The leaders of the Movement preached at the church , and the early Tractarians were closely associated with St Thomas 's .
= = History = =
= = = To the Restoration = = =
It has traditionally been held in Osney that the church was founded in the reign of Stephen , but this is unlikely to be true , as Thomas Becket was not martyred until some fifteen years after Stephen 's death . It is known that in the 1180s , the site was granted to the canons of the nearby Osney Abbey , and a chapel was erected on the site around 1190 . From the mid @-@ 13th century the Osney area was referred to as the parish of St Thomas ' , but it remained nominally a chapel of the abbey until the dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII , when it was placed under Christ Church , Oxford . Christ Church treated it as a conventional parish church with a curate , and from the mid @-@ 19th century the incumbent was styled a vicar .
After the curacy was placed under the patronage of Christ Church , the incumbents were mostly scholars or members of the college ; from 1616 to 1640 the curacy was held by Robert Burton , author of The Anatomy of Melancholy , who enlarged the church . In the English Civil War the medieval stained glass in the church was destroyed , partly due to the vandalism of Parliamentarian troops captured at Cirencester in 1642 and imprisoned in the church . Following the Restoration the holders of the curacy changed rapidly , often remaining in the position for only a few years at a time . From at least 1713 Christ Church leased a house in High Street to parish trustees and the profits were used for repairing the church . This continued until 1923 , when the house was sold .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
By the early 19th century , the church and its parish were showing signs of neglect . In 1802 only ten communicants are recorded , and in 1814 some 90 % of the parish was thought to be non @-@ churchgoing . The church was further reduced by the creation of the parishes of St Paul 's in 1837 , St Barnabas ' in 1869 , and St Frideswide 's in 1873 .
The curate from 1823 to 1842 , one John Jones , brought a significant turnaround in attendance ; perhaps the most unusual innovation was a houseboat β the " Boatmans ' Floating Chapel " β acquired in 1839 , for use as a chapel serving the families working on the river and the Oxford Canal . This boat was St Thomas ' first chapel of ease ; it was donated by H. Ward , a local coal merchant , and used until it sank in 1868 . It was replaced by a chapel dedicated to St Nicholas that remained in use until 1892 . A second chapel was built in 1860 , dedicated to St Frideswide , later replaced by the new parish church of St Frideswide 's , which took on the parish of New Osney in 1873 .
Major repairs were carried out beginning in 1825 . The floor @-@ level was raised above flood @-@ level , a full three feet . The roof was rebuilt , the south wall was rebuilt using the original materials , and the main features of the 12th @-@ century chancel arch were discarded .
The vicar from 1842 to 1892 was Thomas Chamberlain ( later founder of St Edward 's School ) , a firm believer in the Tractarian movement , who introduced daily services as well as such ritualist practices as altar candles and the wearing of Eucharistic vestments β the latter causing him to be rebuked by Bishop Wilberforce in 1855 . Many of the leaders of the Oxford Movement , including Edward Bouverie Pusey , Henry Parry Liddon , John Mason Neale , Charles Fuge Lowder and Edward King preached at the church . In the early days of the movement , Anglo @-@ Catholicism was closely associated with St Thomas ' . In 1847 Chamberlain founded the Community of St Thomas Martyr , which was devoted to the assistance of the poor of the parish , by now heavily slumland ; this sisterhood remained active until 1958 . The convent buildings for it were built in 1886 , but have since been demolished . In 1846 the north aisle and vestry were demolished and a new aisle of five bays with a vestry at its west end was built in its place . The blocked tower arch and two blocked windows in the chancel were opened and a new chancel arch was built .
The vicar from 1896 to 1908 was T.H. Birley , later Bishop of Zanzibar . In 1897 the building was again re @-@ roofed and a vestry built against the north wall of the tower . St Thomas ' was declared an ancient parish in 1948 .
In 1994 the Church of England introduced women priests . Like several other parishes , the people of St Thomas ' decided not to accept the Ordination of women . Under the terms of the resolutions passed by General Synod , the Archbishop of Canterbury placed the church under the care of the Bishop of Ebbsfleet . He is a Provincial episcopal visitor who oversees the parish even though it is in the Diocese of Oxford . At present , the congregation maintains Anglo @-@ Catholic traditions . The building has been added to the English Heritage ' Heritage at Risk ' register .
= = Architecture = =
The church has a nave with a north aisle and vestry , a Perpendicular Gothic west tower , a chancel and a south porch . The nave was rebuilt in the late 15th or early 16th century to meet a tower of approximately the same age ; it is often dated to 1521 , but appears to be built on older foundations . The southern side of the nave contains what are probably thirteenth @-@ century buttresses and a pair of Perpendicular Gothic windows . The north aisle was originally built in the 13th century , and rebuilt by H.J. Underwood in 1890 ; the vestry was built in the 17th century and rebuilt in 1846 to designs by Chamberlain , through the generosity of the curate , Alexander Penrose Forbes . The church has been reroofed at least twice , in 1825 and 1897 .
The chancel , which has a ceiling decorated by C. E. Kempe , has three windows in the style of the late 12th century , and a priest 's door built into the south side circa 1250 . A south porch was built in 1621 at the behest of Dr Robert Burton , whose arms are carved in the gable above the date . A candelabrum given by Ann Kendall in 1705 hangs in the chancel . The chancel ceiling was decorated with a pattern of gold stars on a blue background in 1914 . Two years later , an altar was erected at the east end of the north aisle , and an aumbry placed in the north wall of the chancel . The royal arms of William IV are displayed in the tower .
St Thomas ' church has been a Grade II listed building since 1954 .
The churchyard contains Combe House , a 1702 building originally built as a school , as well as a vicarage designed in 1893 by C. C. Rolfe . The remains of an earlier Rolfe building , the 1886 Sisterhood of St Thomas , are also present ; in 1974 , these amounted to a single cottage and a sculptured brick gateway .
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= James Bond in film =
The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond , " 007 " , who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming . It is one of the longest continually @-@ running film series in history , having been in on @-@ going production from 1962 to the present ( with a six @-@ year hiatus between 1989 and 1995 ) . In that time Eon Productions has produced 24 films , most of them at Pinewood Studios . With a combined gross of over $ 7 billion to date , the films produced by Eon constitute the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film series , behind the Harry Potter and Marvel Cinematic Universe films ( accounting for the effects of inflation the Bond films are the highest @-@ grossing series amassing over $ 13 billion at 2011 / 2012 prices ) . Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series , the latest being Daniel Craig .
Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co @-@ produced most of the Eon films until 1975 , when Broccoli became the sole producer . The single exception during this period was Thunderball , on which Broccoli and Saltzman became executive producers while Kevin McClory produced . From 1984 to 1989 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer until 1995 , when Albert Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara , who has co @-@ produced with Wilson since . Broccoli 's ( and until 1975 , Saltzman 's ) family company , Danjaq , has held ownership of the series through Eon , and maintained co @-@ ownership with United Artists since the mid @-@ 1970s . The Eon series has seen continuity both in the main actors and in the production crews , with directors , writers , composers , production designers , and others employed through a number of films .
From the release of Dr. No ( 1962 ) to For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) , the films were distributed solely by United Artists . When Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981 , MGM / UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995 . MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio . From 2006 to present , MGM and Columbia Pictures have co @-@ distributed the film series , following the 2005 acquisition of MGM by a consortium led by Columbia 's parent company , Sony Pictures Entertainment . In November 2010 ; MGM filed for bankruptcy ; following its emergence from insolvency , Columbia has been co @-@ production partner of the series with Danjaq until Sony 's distribution rights to the franchise comes to the end with the release of Spectre .
Independently of the Eon series , there have been three additional productions with the character of James Bond : a 1954 American television adaptation , Casino Royale , produced by CBS ; a 1967 spoof , Casino Royale , produced by Charles K. Feldman ; and a 1983 remake of Thunderball entitled Never Say Never Again , produced by Jack Schwartzman , who had obtained the rights to the film from McClory .
= = Development = =
= = = First screen adaptation = = =
In 1954 the American CBS television network paid Ian Fleming $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 @,@ 812 in 2016 dollars ) for the rights to turn his first novel , Casino Royale , into a one @-@ hour television adventure as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater , which ran between October 1954 and June 1958 . It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett ; Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock , including The 39 Steps and Sabotage . Due to the restriction of a one @-@ hour play , the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book , although it retained its violence , particularly in Act III . The hour @-@ long " Casino Royale " episode , which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre , aired on 21 October 1954 as a live production .
= = = Eon Productions = = =
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1962 β 64 ) = = = =
In 1959 producer Albert R. " Cubby " Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels , but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic . In June 1961 Fleming sold a six @-@ month option on the film rights to his published and future James Bond novels and short stories to Harry Saltzman , with the exception of Casino Royale , which he had previously sold . Towards the end of Saltzman 's option period , screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli , and Saltzman and Broccoli formed Eon Productions with the intention of making the first Bond film . A number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films , finding them " too British " or " too blatantly sexual " . Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100 per cent financial backing and distribution of seven films , with financing of $ 1 million for the first feature . Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq , which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce .
Eon had originally intended to film Fleming 's novel Thunderball first , but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book , and so Eon decided to film Dr. No first .
= = = = = Dr. No ( 1962 ) = = = = =
Eon asked several directors β Bryan Forbes , Guy Green , Val Guest and Guy Hamilton β to helm the film , but all declined , before Terence Young agreed . Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. No 's screenplay , partly because of Mankowitz 's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman . An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain , Dr. No , a monkey , and Mankowitz left the film . Maibaum then undertook a second version , more closely in line with the novel ; Johanna Harwood and Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum 's script , with Harwood in particular being described as a script doctor credited with improving the British characterisations .
To play the lead role of Bond , Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Fleming 's first choice , but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role , and Eon had rejected Richard Johnson . After Connery was chosen , Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor " in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool " .
Filming took place on location in Jamaica between 16 January and 21 February 1962 ; five days later filming began at Pinewood Studios in England with sets designed by Ken Adam , who had previously worked with Broccoli on the 1960 film The Trials of Oscar Wilde . Maurice Binder created the title sequence and introduced the gun barrel motif that appears in all the Eon Bond films . Monty Norman wrote the accompanying soundtrack , which included the " James Bond Theme " , heard in the gun barrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits ; the theme was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as " bebop @-@ swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock ' n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes " . The theme was arranged by John Barry , who was uncredited for the arrangement but credited for his performance .
= = = = = From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) = = = = =
After the financial success of Dr. No , United Artists doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions to $ 2 million for the company 's next film , From Russia with Love . The film was shot in locations in Europe , which had turned out to be the more profitable market for Dr. No . Most of the crew from the first film returned , with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam β who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. No 's art director Syd Cain β and title designer Maurice Binder , who was replaced by Robert Brownjohn .
The original screenwriter for the film was Len Deighton , but he was replaced because of his slow progress . Two of the writers from Dr. No , Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood , were brought in , with Maibaum being given the sole writing credit and Harwood being credited for " adaptation " . From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer , although Lionel Bart wrote the title song " From Russia with Love " , sung by Matt Monro . Principal photography began on 1 April 1963 and concluded on 23 August . Filming took place in Turkey , Pinewood Studios and Venice , with Scotland and Switzerland doubling for the Orient Express journey through Eastern Europe .
= = = = = Goldfinger ( 1964 ) = = = = =
While the previous two films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe , Goldfinger was chosen by Eon for the third film , with the American cinema market in mind . Because Terence Young was refused a share of the profits , he declined to direct Goldfinger and worked on The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders instead , although he had done some pre @-@ production work before he left . In his place , Eon turned to Guy Hamilton to direct ; he was keen to inject elements of humour into the series , have more gadgets and build bigger and more elegant sets .
Eon again turned to Richard Maibaum for the script , although Paul Dehn was later introduced for rewrites . After missing From Russia with Love , Ken Adam returned as production designer . Adam 's imagination provided the idea of gold stacked upon gold behind iron bars for the scenes in the United States Bullion Depository . Saltzman disliked the design 's resemblance to a prison , but Hamilton liked it enough that it was built .
Robert Brownjohn returned to develop the opening credit sequence , which featured clips of all three Bond films projected on actress Margaret Nolan 's body . Its design was inspired by seeing light projecting on people 's bodies as they got up and left a cinema . Principal photography on Goldfinger started on 20 January 1964 in Miami , at the Fontainebleau Hotel ; the crew was small , consisting only of Hamilton , Broccoli , Adam and cinematographer Ted Moore . After five days in Florida , production moved to England . The primary location was Pinewood Studios , home to sets including a recreation of the Fontainebleau , the South American city of the pre @-@ title sequence , and both Goldfinger 's estate and factory . Ian Fleming visited the set of Goldfinger in April 1964 ; he died in August , shortly before the film 's release . The second unit filmed in Kentucky , and these shots were edited into scenes filmed at Pinewood . Principal photography then moved to Switzerland for the car chase and additional footage for Goldfinger 's factory sequence . Filming wrapped on 11 July at Andermatt , after nineteen weeks of shooting .
= = = = Kevin McClory ( 1965 ) = = = =
When writing his novels , Ian Fleming had always considered that they could be adapted for the cinema , and he approached producer Sir Alexander Korda to make a film adaptation of either Live and Let Die or Moonraker . Although Korda was initially interested , he later withdrew . On 1 October 1959 , it was announced that Fleming would write an original film script featuring Bond for producer Kevin McClory . Jack Whittingham also worked on the script , culminating in a screenplay entitled James Bond , Secret Agent . However , Alfred Hitchcock and Richard Burton turned down roles as director and star , respectively . McClory was unable to secure the financing for the film , and the deal fell through . Fleming subsequently used the story for his novel Thunderball ( 1961 ) , and McClory failed to have its publication stopped . On 19 November 1963 he took the matter to the Chancery Division of the High Court in the case of McClory v Fleming , but settled on 9 December 1963 , after nine days in court . McClory gained the literary and film rights for the screenplay , while Fleming was given the rights to the novel , although it had to be recognised as being " based on a screen treatment by Kevin McClory , Jack Whittingham and the Author " .
= = = = = Thunderball ( 1965 ) = = = = =
After From Russia with Love , Eon had considered undertaking an adaptation of either On Her Majesty 's Secret Service or Casino Royale . They entered into negotiations with Charles K. Feldman , who held the rights to the latter , but a deal proved too difficult to achieve . Instead , Eon turned to the Thunderball novel . Although Eon had wanted to adapt the book in 1962 , it had not been possible until the legal obstacles had been cleared . As a result of the settlement of the copyright infringement lawsuit brought by Kevin McClory , Eon negotiated with McClory to make Thunderball . McClory received the sole producer credit on the film , while Broccoli and Saltzman took the title Executive Producer , although " in reality all three men would essentially act as producers " . Broccoli later said of the three @-@ way partnership that " We didn 't want anyone else to make Thunderball ... We had the feeling that if anyone else came in and made their own Bond film , it would have been bad for our series " .
Guy Hamilton was asked to direct again , but declined feeling that he was " drained of ideas ... I had nothing to contribute until I 'd recharged batteries " ; Terence Young returned to direct after the hiatus of Goldfinger . Richard Maibaum 's original script from 1961 was used as the basis of the script , which he then re @-@ drafted , with further revisions by John Hopkins . Principal filming began in Paris on 16 February 1965 , and moved to Nassau on 22 March , before concluding at Pinewood Studios in May .
With worldwide box office earnings of $ 141 @.@ 2 million Thunderball became the highest @-@ grossing instalment and retained the record until it was surpassed by The Spy Who Loved Me twelve years later ; adjusted for inflation it remained the most successful entry until Skyfall was released in 2012 . As part of the contract with Eon , McClory received 20 % of the film 's profits and undertook not to produce any other films based on the Thunderball story for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon @-@ produced version in 1965 .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1967 β 75 ) = = = =
= = = = = You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) = = = = =
After the interruption of McClory as producer , Albert Broccoli and Harry Saltzman returned to produce once again . The first four Bond films had been popular in Japan , and Eon decided to take advantage of the market by producing You Only Live Twice . The film included progressive elements of Japanese culture as part of the background .
Lewis Gilbert was appointed director and Ken Adam returned as production designer ; Adam built a volcano hideaway set for the main antagonist , Ernst Stavro Blofeld , at Pinewood for $ 1 millon ( $ 7 @,@ 096 @,@ 806 in 2016 dollars ) ; at the time it was the biggest film set in Europe . Gilbert , Broccoli , Saltzman , Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . While in Tokyo , the crew crossed paths with Peter R. Hunt , who was on holiday . Hunt had edited the first four Bond films , and he was invited to direct the second unit . The total budget for the film was $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( $ 59 @.@ 9 million in 2005 dollars ) .
Initially the screenwriter was to be Harold Jack Bloom , although he was later replaced by Roald Dahl , who had little previous screenwriting experience . You Only Live Twice was the first Bond film to jettison the plot premise of the Fleming source material , although the film retains the title , the Japanese setting , the use of Blofeld as the main villain and a Bond girl named Kissy Suzuki from the novel .
Filming commenced at Pinewood on 4 July 1966 before moving out to Japan on 27 July for six weeks ' filming . Local Japanese interest in the filming was high , and the crew had to contend with large crowds throughout the process . Connery , however , was somewhat resigned to the project , lacking the enthusiasm he sported for Thunderball . A press conference on his arrival had been tense , " soured by aggressive questioning of Connery 's crumpled , jet @-@ lagged appearance " . Primary and secondary photography finished in December ; the special effects filming for the space scenes were undertaken between January and March 1967 , prior to the film 's release on 12 June .
The cinema posters for the film stated " Sean Connery IS James Bond " , to distance the Eon @-@ produced picture from the independent Casino Royale , which had been released two months earlier . However , during the production , Connery announced that it would be his last film as Bond , leaving Broccoli to tell Alan Whicker , " it won 't be the last Bond under any circumstances β with all due respect to Sean , who I think has been certainly the best man to play this part . We will , in our own way , try to continue the Bond series for the audience because it 's too important " .
= = = = = On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) = = = = =
George Lazenby was signed on to play Bond for OHMSS . Between Sean Connery giving his notice at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release , Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond , but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of the television programme The Saint . After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967 , the producers once again picked the often @-@ delayed On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , which had previously been considered to follow both Goldfinger and then Thunderball .
Peter Hunt , who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series ; it was also the result of a long @-@ standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for the opportunity to direct . Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and he brought along with him many crew members , including cinematographer Michael Reed . Hunt was focused on putting his mark , saying , " I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be . It was my film , not anyone else 's " . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series .
Screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who worked on the first four Bond films , returned as script writer . Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love . Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo and Blofeld in Piz Gloria , which was to be " sharper , better and more intellectual " ; Raven 's additions included rewriting the proposal scene and having Tracy quote James Elroy Flecker . Syd Cain took over from Ken Adam as production designer as Eon decided not to have Adam 's larger sets to reduce the film 's budget to $ 7 million , from the $ 10 @.@ 3 million it took to make You Only Live Twice .
Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern , Switzerland , on 21 October 1968 , with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat . The scenes were shot atop the now @-@ famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of MΓΌrren . The location was found by production manager Hubert FrΓΆhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland . The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule . In March 1969 production moved to England , with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting , and M 's house being shot in Marlow , Buckinghamshire . In April the filmmakers went to Portugal , where principal photography wrapped in May . Filming finished on 23 June , two months later than planned , which was largely due to the warm Swiss winter , which had hampered shooting .
Midway through production , acting on advice from his agent Ronan O 'Rahilly , George Lazenby announced that he was not going to continue as Bond in future films , and he left the role before the December 1969 release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
= = = = = Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 ) = = = = =
Although Eon secured the services of John Gavin to play the role of Bond , United Artists ' chief David Picker was unhappy with this decision and instructed associate producer Stanley Sopel to broker a deal with Connery which saw the actor being paid $ 1 @.@ 25 million ( $ 9 million in 2016 dollars ) and 12 @.@ 5 % of the gross . Connery 's salary took a significant part of the $ 7 @.@ 2 million budget .
The producers had originally intended to have Diamonds Are Forever re @-@ create commercially successful aspects of Goldfinger , so they hired director Guy Hamilton as a result . Richard Maibaum also returned to write the script ; the first draft envisaged the return of Auric Goldfinger portrayer Gert FrΓΆbe , this time in the role of Goldfinger 's twin brother . Maibaum also wrote a climax to the film that consisted of the new Goldfinger being chased across Lake Mead by the people of Las Vegas , all being co @-@ ordinated by Bond . In the autumn of 1970 Tom Mankiewicz was hired to undertake re @-@ writes , which included removing Goldfinger 's brother and the Lake Mead finale .
Filming began on 5 April 1971 with the desert near Las Vegas doubling for the South African scenes , followed by filming in the Great Basin Desert , Nevada in May for scenes in which Bond drives a moon buggy . On 7 June production moved to Pinewood Studios for filming at sets of the returning Ken Adams ; his sets spread through four of Pinewood 's stages . Filming also took place in London , Dover , Southampton , Amsterdam and the south of France ; principal photography finished 13 August 1971 .
= = = = = Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) = = = = =
While filming Diamonds Are Forever , Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains , as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at that time . The new Bond actor selected by Eon was Roger Moore , and he tried not to imitate either his predecessor Sean Connery or his own performance as Simon Templar in The Saint ; Mankiewicz adapted the screenplay to emphasise Moore 's persona by giving him more comedy scenes and creating a light @-@ hearted feel to Bond . Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct , and Mankiewicz suggested they film in New Orleans , as he knew Hamilton was a jazz fan . Hamilton didn 't want to use Mardi Gras , as Thunderball featured Junkanoo , a similar festival , so after more discussions with the writer and further scouting , he decided to use two well @-@ known features of the city , the jazz funerals and the canals . While searching for locations in Jamaica , the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga , after passing a sign warning that " trespassers will be eaten " . The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film 's villain after Kananga . With the rise of the popularity of Blaxploitation films in the early 1970s , it was decided to borrow elements of the genre for Live and Let Die .
Syd Cain returned as art director and was involved searching for locations with Guy Hamilton in March 1972 . Principal photography began on 13 October 1972 in the Irish Bayou in Louisiana for a boat chase scene . On 29 November production moved to Jamaica , which doubled for the fictional island San Monique , the home of antagonist Kananga . In December , production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios , while a separate unit also shot in Harlem .
John Barry , who had worked on the previous five films , was unavailable during production . Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song . Since McCartney 's salary of $ 15 @,@ 000 ( plus royalties ) was high and another composer of Barry 's stature could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget , George Martin , who had little experience of film scoring , was hired .
= = = = = The Man with the Golden Gun ( 1974 ) = = = = =
The film of The Man with the Golden Gun saw a change in location from the novel of the same name to put Bond in the Far East for the second time . After considering Beirut , where part of the film is set ; Iran , where the location scouting was done but eventually discarded because of the Yom Kippur War ; and the HαΊ‘ Long Bay in Vietnam , the production team chose Thailand as a primary location , following a suggestion of production designer Peter Murton after he saw pictures of the Phuket bay in a magazine . Saltzman was happy with the choice of the Far East for the setting as he had always wanted to go on location in Thailand and Hong Kong . During the reconnaissance of locations in Hong Kong , Broccoli saw the partially submerged wreckage of the former RMS Queen Elizabeth and came up with the idea of using it as the base for MI6 's Far East operations .
Tom Mankiewicz wrote a first draft for the script in 1973 , delivering a script that was a battle of wills between Bond and the primary villain Francisco Scaramanga , whom he saw as Bond 's alter ego , " a super @-@ villain of the stature of Bond himself " . Tensions between Mankiewicz and Guy Hamilton led to Richard Maibaum taking over scripting duties . Maibaum , who had worked on six Bond films previously , delivered his own draft based on Mankiewicz 's work . Broccoli 's stepson Michael G. Wilson researched solar power to create the MacGuffin of the " Solex Agitator " . While Live and Let Die had borrowed heavily from the blaxploitation genre , The Man with the Golden Gun borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s .
On 6 November 1973 filming commenced at the RMS Queen Elizabeth , which acted as a top @-@ secret MI6 base grounded in Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong . The major part of principal photography started in April 1974 in Thailand . Thai locations included Bangkok , Thonburi , Phuket and the nearby Phang Nga Province , on the islands of Ko Khao Phing Kan ( Thai : ΰΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ°ΰΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈΰΈ΄ΰΈΰΈΰΈ±ΰΈ ) and Ko Tapu ( Thai : ΰΉΰΈΰΈ²ΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈ°ΰΈΰΈΉ ) . In late April production returned to Hong Kong and also shot in Macau . Production had to move to studio work in Pinewood Studios β which included sets such as Scaramanga 's solar energy plant and island interior .
John Barry returned to compose the score , but had only three weeks to complete the work , and the theme tune and score are generally considered by critics to be among the weakest of Barry 's contributions to the series β an opinion shared by Barry himself : " It 's the one I hate most ... it just never happened for me " .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli ( 1975 β 84 ) = = = =
Following The Man with the Golden Gun , producer Harry Saltzman sold his 50 % stake in Eon Productions ' parent company , Danjaq , to United Artists to alleviate his financial problems , brought about by financial constraints following a downturn in the fortunes of Technicolor , in which he had invested heavily . The resulting legalities over the Bond property delayed production of the next Bond film , The Spy Who Loved Me .
= = = = = The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) = = = = =
Guy Hamilton was initially scheduled to follow on from The Man with the Golden Gun with The Spy Who Loved Me , but instead turned down Eon Productions during pre @-@ production after being offered the opportunity to direct the 1978 film Superman , although he was ultimately passed up for Richard Donner . Eon then turned to Lewis Gilbert , who had directed the earlier Bond film You Only Live Twice . Broccoli commissioned a number of writers to work on the script , including Stirling Silliphant , John Landis , Ronald Hardy , Anthony Burgess and Derek Marlowe , but Richard Maibaum drew up the first draft script , with some inclusions from the previous writers . When Lewis Gilbert was hired to direct , he brought with him Christopher Wood to revise Maibaum 's draft . The draft Wood prepared was challenged in court by Kevin McClory , who alleged infringement based on the use of what he claimed were his rights in SPECTRE and the Blofeld character . Eon disputed McClory 's claim but had Wood remove the organisation and character from the script .
Ken Adam returned as production designer . As no studio stages were big enough for the interior of the villain Karl Stromberg 's supertanker , in March 1976 construction began of a new sound stage at Pinewood , the 007 Stage , which cost $ 1 @.@ 8 million and became the largest stage in the world . In contrast to the volcano crater set Adam had built for You Only Live Twice in 1966 β which Adam had called " a workable but ultimately wasteful set " β the 007 Stage would be a permanent structure that could be rented out to other productions . Secondary filming began in July 1976 at Baffin Island , where the ski jump for the opening credits was filmed . Principal filming commenced in Sardinia in August 1976 , moving on to Egypt shortly afterwards . Further filming took place in Sardinia , Malta , Japan , Switzerland and the Faslane submarine base . On 5 December 1976 , with principal photography finished , the 007 Stage was formally opened by the former Prime Minister Harold Wilson .
John Barry could not work in the United Kingdom due to tax problems and suggested Marvin Hamlisch to score the film . Hamlisch composed " Nobody Does It Better " as the theme song ; the score and the song were both nominated for Academy and Golden Globe Awards .
= = = = = Moonraker ( 1979 ) = = = = =
Eon Productions had originally planned to follow The Spy Who Loved Me with an adaptation of For Your Eyes Only , although this plan changed within weeks of the 1977 release , following the box office success of the 1977 space @-@ themed film Star Wars . With a budget of $ 34 million Moonraker cost more than double any of the previous Bond films , although both Broccoli and United Artists agreed to the costs because of the profits from The Spy Who Loved Me .
Lewis Gilbert was again appointed as director , and a number of the crew from The Spy Who Loved Me also joined the production . Gilbert and Tom Mankiewicz wrote the initial story , but Christopher Wood turned this into the final screenplay . Many of the script ideas came about as a result of location scouting , with Iguazu Falls being identified as a filming location while Broccoli was in Brazil for the release of The Spy Who Loved Me .
Unlike previous Bond films , the production of Moonraker was not based at Pinewood , as Broccoli moved it to Paris for financial reasons , although the scenes for the cable car interiors and space battle exteriors were filmed at Pinewood , with the special effects team of Derek Meddings active in the UK throughout production . Principal photography began on 11 August 1978 in Paris . The sets designed by returning production designer Ken Adam were the largest ever constructed in France and required more than 222 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct ( approximately 1 @,@ 000 hours by each of the crew on average ) . Much of the film was shot in the cities of London , Paris , Venice , Palmdale , California , Port St. Lucie , Florida and Rio de Janeiro . Principal filming finished back in Paris on 27 February 1979 , a 28 @-@ week schedule that had allowed Roger Moore only three days off . John Barry was again asked to score an Eon film .
= = = = = For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) = = = = =
For Your Eyes Only marked a change in the production crew : John Glen was promoted from his duties as a film editor to director , a position he would occupy for the next four films . Since Ken Adam was busy with the film Pennies from Heaven , Peter Lamont , who had worked in the art department since Goldfinger , was promoted to production designer . Following a suggestion from Glen , Lamont created realistic sets , instead of the elaborate scenery for which the series had been known .
Richard Maibaum was once again the scriptwriter for the story , assisted by Michael G. Wilson . According to Wilson , the ideas could have come from anyone as a committee that could include Broccoli , Maibaum , Wilson , Glen and stunt coordinators worked on the outlines . Much of the inspiration for the stories for the film came from two Fleming short stories from the collection For Your Eyes Only : " Risico " and " For Your Eyes Only " . Another set @-@ piece from the novel of Live and Let Die β the keelhauling β which was unused in that novel 's adaptation , was inserted into the plot .
Production of For Your Eyes Only began on 2 September 1980 in the North Sea , with three days shooting exterior scenes for the scenes involving the St Georges spyboat . The interiors were shot later in Pinewood Studios , as well as the ship 's explosion , which was done with a miniature in Pinewood 's tank on the 007 Stage . On 15 September principal photography started in Corfu at the Villa Sylva at Kanoni , above Corfu Town , which acted as the location of the Spanish villa .
In October filming moved to other Greek locations , including Meteora and the Achilleion . In November the main unit moved to England , which included interior work in Pinewood , while the second unit shot underwater scenes in the Bahamas . On 1 January 1981 production moved to Cortina d 'Ampezzo in Italy , where filming wrapped in February . Many of the underwater scenes , especially involving close @-@ ups of Bond and Melina , were shot on a dry soundstage . A combination of lighting effects , slow @-@ motion photography , wind , and bubbles added in post @-@ production , gave the illusion of the actors being underwater . The pre @-@ credits sequence used a church in Stoke Poges as a cemetery , while scenes involving a helicopter were filmed at the abandoned Beckton Gas Works in London .
The score of For Your Eyes Only was written by Bill Conti , who retained a number of John Barry @-@ influenced brass elements in the score but also added elements of dance and funk music .
= = = = = Octopussy ( 1983 ) = = = = =
In 1980 United Artists , which had provided much of the funding for the Bond films , fell into financial difficulties following the box office failure of Heaven 's Gate ( 1980 ) , bringing uncertainty to the future of the funding . The situation was resolved in May 1981 , when Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer acquired United Artists .
Following For Your Eyes Only , Roger Moore had expressed a desire to stop playing James Bond . His original contract had been for three films , a requirement fulfilled with The Spy Who Loved Me . Subsequent films had been negotiated on a film @-@ by @-@ film basis . The producers engaged in a semi @-@ public quest for the next actor to play Bond , which would be for Octopussy . However , when Kevin McClory announced his re @-@ working of Thunderball as Never Say Never Again , the producers re @-@ contracted Moore in the belief that an established actor in the role would fare better against McClory 's choice of Bond , Sean Connery . Before For Your Eyes Only had been released , Albert Broccoli had asked John Glen to return and direct Octopussy . George MacDonald Fraser wrote an initial treatment that was extensively revised by Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum .
First unit filming began on 10 August 1982 at the Berlin Wall crossing point Checkpoint Charlie , although the second unit had already been at work for a few weeks , filming scenes for a mid @-@ air fight sequence . The Monsoon Palace served as the exterior of villain Kamal Khan 's palace , while scenes set at the palace of titular character Octopussy were filmed at the Lake Palace and Jag Mandir . Bond 's hotel was the Shiv Niwas Palace . In England RAF Northolt , RAF Upper Heyford and RAF Oakley were the main locations . Scenes set at the Karl @-@ Marx @-@ Stadt railways scenes were shot at the Nene Valley Railway , while studio work was undertaken at Pinewood Studios and 007 Stage . Filming finished on 21 January 1983 . John Barry returned to score , having passed on For Your Eyes Only for tax reasons . While Barry wrote the title song , " All Time High " , Tim Rice wrote the lyrics and the song was performed by Rita Coolidge .
Octopussy had its premiere on 6 June 1983 , four months before the October release of Never Say Never Again . From its budget of $ 27 @.@ 5 million , Octopussy took $ 183 @.@ 7 million at the box office , a figure which saw it surpass the takings of its Connery @-@ led rival , which took $ 160 million .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson ( 1984 β 89 ) = = = =
In 1984 Michael G Wilson joined Albert R Broccoli as co @-@ producer at Eon . Wilson had first worked on a Bond production in February 1964 with the filming of Goldfinger . He had worked on every production since The Spy Who Loved Me , and had been executive producer on Moonraker , For Your Eyes Only and Octopussy .
= = = = = A View to a Kill ( 1985 ) = = = = =
The day before the UK premiere of the non @-@ Eon rival Bond film , Never Say Never Again , Eon announced that Roger Moore would return as Bond for the seventh time . John Glen also returned as director , while Peter Lamont and John Barry also signed up as they had for Octopussy . Michael G. Wilson co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Richard Maibaum .
On 27 June 1984 the 007 Stage was almost entirely destroyed by fire . It was rebuilt in time for production and reopened in January 1985 , when it was renamed the " Albert Broccoli 007 Stage " . The second unit started filming in Iceland in July 1984 , while principal photography with Moore commenced on 1 August at Pinewood . Also in August , the second unit filmed in Paris , including scenes involving a parachute jump from the Eiffel Tower .
The Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre doubled as the exterior of villain Max Zorin 's mine , while the scenes in the complex under Zorin 's stables were filmed in a Renault plant off the M4 , before primary filming moved to San Francisco . Filming finished in January 1985 at the 007 Stage , with the filming of the interior of Zorin 's mine , designed by Peter Lamont .
= = = = = The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) = = = = =
With the retirement of Roger Moore following A View to a Kill , the producers searched for a new Bond and eventually cast Timothy Dalton in the lead role in August 1986 . Much of the senior production crew from the previous film worked on The Living Daylights , with John Glen directing , John Barry providing the score and Peter Lamont acting as production designer . Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum again provided the script and initially proposed a prequel , showing Bond 's first mission , although this was turned down by Broccoli . Script work continued while the producers searched for Moore 's successor .
The film was shot at the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios , with principal photography starting on 29 September 1986 , before moving to Vienna on 5 October , where the crew filmed for two weeks . Meanwhile , the second unit had started work on the pre @-@ credits sequence on Gibraltar on 17 September before moving to Morocco . Filming finished on 13 February 1987 .
The Living Daylights was the twelfth and final Bond film to be scored by composer John Barry . The title song of the film , " The Living Daylights " , was co @-@ written with Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy of the Norwegian pop @-@ music group A @-@ ha and recorded by them . The group and Barry did not collaborate well , resulting in two versions of the theme song .
The production costs of The Living Daylights were $ 40 million , and the film posted box office results of $ 191 @.@ 2 million .
= = = = = Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) = = = = =
Shortly after the release of The Living Daylights , producers Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson and writer Richard Maibaum started discussing its successor . They decided that the film would retain a realistic style , as well as showing the " darker edge " of the Bond character . For the primary location , the producers wanted a place where the series had not yet visited . While China was visited after an invitation by its government , the idea fell through partly because the 1987 film The Last Emperor had removed some of the novelty from filming in China . By this stage the writers had already talked about a chase sequence along the Great Wall , as well as a fight scene amongst the Terracotta Army . Wilson also wrote two plot outlines about a drug lord in the Golden Triangle before the plans fell through . The writers eventually decided on a setting in a tropical country while Broccoli negotiated to film in Mexico , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City . In 1985 the Films Act was passed , removing the Eady Levy , which resulted in foreign artists being taxed more heavily . The associated rising costs to Eon Productions meant no part of Licence to Kill was filmed in the UK , the first Bond film not to do so . Pinewood Studios , used in every Bond film that far , housed only the post @-@ production and sound re @-@ recording .
The initial outline of what would become Licence to Kill was drawn up by Wilson and Maibaum . Before the pair could develop the script , the Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) went on strike and Maibaum was unable to continue writing , leaving Wilson to work on the script on his own . The script β initially called Licence Revoked β was written with Dalton 's characterisation of Bond in mind ; the obsession with which Bond pursues the drug lord villain Franz Sanchez on behalf of Bond 's friend , the CIA / DEA agent Felix Leiter and his dead wife is seen as being because of Bond 's own " brutally cut @-@ short marriage " .
John Glen returned once again to direct , teaming up once more with production designer Peter Lamont . Principal photography ran from 18 July to 18 November 1988 . Shooting began in Mexico , which mostly doubled for the fictional Republic of Isthmus . Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near CancΓΊn . In August 1988 production moved to the Florida Keys , notably Key West . Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez following his arrest is driven off the edge . Other locations there included the Ernest Hemingway House , Key West International Airport , Mallory Square , St. Mary 's Star of the Sea Church for Leiter 's wedding and Stephano 's House 707 South Street for his house and patio . The US Coast Guard Pier was used to film Isthmus City harbour .
John Barry was not available to score the film because of throat surgery , so the soundtrack 's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen , who was known for scoring many action films at the time , such as Lethal Weapon and Die Hard . The film 's darker and more violent plot elicited calls for cuts by the British Board of Film Classification .
Licence to Kill marked the end of the involvement for a number of long @-@ term crew members , including John Glen , Maurice Binder , Richard Maibaum and cinematographer Alec Mills . It was also the final film which was produced by the partnership of Albert Broccoli and Michael Wilson .
= = = = Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli ( 1990 β present ) = = = =
The relatively disappointing box office returns for Licence to Kill led to Albert Broccoli questioning his own leadership of the series , and he put Danjaq , holders of the Bond film copyright , up for sale . Timothy Dalton was quoted at the time as saying " My feeling is this will be the last one . I don 't mean my last one , I mean the end of the whole lot . I don 't speak with any real authority , but it 's sort of a feeling I have " .
In 1990 the situation was further complicated when MGM / UA was sold to Qintex , which wanted to then merge with PathΓ© Communications ; the Bond back catalogue was leased to PathΓ© at a lower @-@ than @-@ market value , without consulting Danjaq - who sued MGM / UA Communications , which was itself the target of a failed takeover bid by PathΓ© . In August 1990 Albert Broccoli appointed his daughter Barbara Broccoli alongside Michael G. Wilson as producers at Eon , while he concentrated on matters at Danjaq . The dispute between Danjaq and MGM / UA was protracted and delayed production of Bond 17 , but was finally settled in 1993 .
The new producers changed the policy of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes continuity prevalent in the series up to that point and , from the 1990s onwards , there were more changes in key production roles , including employing directors " on a ' guest director ' footing " .
= = = = = GoldenEye ( 1995 ) = = = = =
Despite the legal action , pre @-@ production towards Bond 17 still progressed , with some early details unveiled at the Cannes Film Festival which took place in May 1990 . However , delays occurred because of the ongoing legal action with MGM / UA and , in an August 1993 interview , Dalton revealed that Michael France was involved in writing a script for the next Bond film , with Anthony Hopkins as a potential villain , adding that Hopkins had been in discussions with Eon for a number of weeks . Dalton also stated that the earliest production could begin would be in January or February 1994 . Dalton 's six @-@ year contract expired in 1993 , and after reading France 's script for what would become GoldenEye , he announced on 12 April 1994 that he would not be returning to play Bond ; he was replaced by Pierce Brosnan . After Michael France delivered the original screenplay , Jeffrey Caine was brought in to rework much of the material . Kevin Wade was also brought into the process before Bruce Feirstein gave the final polish to the script .
With Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson as co @-@ producers , Albert Broccoli oversaw the production of GoldenEye as consulting producer but is credited as " presenter " . John Woo was approached to direct the film , but he turned down the opportunity , saying he was honoured by the offer . The producers then chose Martin Campbell to lead the film .
Principal photography started on 16 January 1995 and continued until 6 June . The producers were unable to use Pinewood Studios , the usual location for Bond films , because it had been reserved for First Knight , so an old Rolls @-@ Royce factory at the Leavesden Aerodrome in Hertfordshire was converted into a new studio . In February the crew moved to Monaco and Monte Carlo for scenes in a casino and a demonstration of a Tiger helicopter . The pre @-@ credits sequence involved a bungee jump , which was filmed at the Contra Dam near Locarno , Switzerland . Reference footage for a scene consisting of a tank chase was shot on location in St. Petersburg and matched to sets built at the Leavesden studio by production designer Peter Lamont . Scenes on a satellite dish were shot at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico , while in the UK , Epsom Downs Racecourse and the Nene Valley Railway were both used . For the scenes of the fictional Russian location of Severnaya , and other effects , Derek Meddings built a number of miniature sets at Leavesden . Meddings had worked on the Bond films since Live and Let Die and died before the film 's release ; GoldenEye was dedicated to his memory .
The soundtrack to GoldenEye was composed and performed by Γric Serra . Prolific Bond composer John Barry turned down an offer by Barbara Broccoli to score the film . The theme song , " GoldenEye " , was written by Bono and The Edge , and was performed by Tina Turner . As Serra did not collaborate with Bono or The Edge , orchestral versions of the song did not appear throughout GoldenEye , as had been the case in previous James Bond films .
= = = = = Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) = = = = =
Before GoldenEye had been released in November 1995 , MGM / UA started their preparations for Bond 18 , intending for a release in early December 1997 , leaving Eon Productions little time for pre @-@ production . The producers were unable to convince Martin Campbell to return ; his agent said that " Martin just didn 't want to do two Bond films in a row " . Instead , Roger Spottiswoode was chosen in September 1996 . With Peter Lamont unavailable because he was committed to Titanic , Spottiswoode chose Allan Cameron in his place to provide sets ; Spottiswoode and Cameron had previously worked together on Air America .
The story was based on a previously discarded treatment by Donald E. Westlake , which had been written before GoldenEye . The script was given a re @-@ working by Bruce Feirstein , based on the return of Hong Kong to the Chinese . Feirstein 's script was then contributed to by Nicholas Meyer before being reworked by Dan Petrie , Jr. and David Campbell Wilson before Feirstein , who retained the sole writing credit , was brought in for a final polish . The script was finished a week before principal photography started , although Feirstein had to re @-@ write sequences throughout production . The process was further hampered by poor relations between Feirstein and Spottiswoode .
With the Leavesden studios unavailable , and Pinewood not having sufficient capacity , Eon converted an abandoned grocery warehouse in Hertfordshire into a filming location . With the principal crew about to fly to location in Vietnam , the Vietnamese authorities revoked permission to film at the last minute , and alternative locations were quickly found in Thailand .
Second unit filming began on 18 January 1997 with Vic Armstrong directing ; they filmed the pre @-@ credits sequence at Peyresourde Airport in the French Pyrenees , before moving on to Portsmouth to film the scenes where the Royal Navy prepares to engage the Chinese . The main unit began filming on 1 April 1997 at the new studios , before filming at other UK locations ; production then moved to Thailand in May . Filming completed three weeks over schedule in September 1997 . Eon initially approached John Barry to score the film , but the two sides could not come to terms ; the producers then approached David Arnold , whom Barry endorsed .
The delays in the production process and the rush to deliver the film by the MGM / UA @-@ imposed deadline of December 1997 drove the costs upwards to $ 110 million , although the film recouped $ 338 @.@ 9 million at the box office .
= = = = = The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) = = = = =
Joe Dante and then Peter Jackson were considered as directors for The World Is Not Enough . Barbara Broccoli enjoyed Jackson 's Heavenly Creatures , and a screening of The Frighteners was arranged for her . She disliked the latter film , however , and showed no further interest in Jackson . Michael Apted was then selected to lead the film . Writers Neal Purvis and Robert Wade were hired after their work in Plunkett & Macleane , before Michael Apted and his wife , screenwriter Dana Stevens , undertook an uncredited rewrite . Pierce Brosnan was unhappy with some of Stevens ' changes to his character , so Michael G Wilson β who was also uncredited as screenwriter β and Bruce Feirstein undertook further revisions .
Production was centred at Pinewood Studios and principal photography began there on 11 January 1999 with scenes from inside the MI6 offices , designed by Peter Lamont . The pre @-@ title sequence was shot in Bilbao , Spain , in February , with production moving to Chamonix , France , which doubled for the Caucasus scenes . The exterior of a Kazakh nuclear facility was shot at the Bardenas Reales , in Navarre , Spain , while the exterior of an oil refinery control centre was doubled by the Motorola building in Groundwell , Swindon . The exterior of the oil pipeline was filmed in Cwm Dyli , Snowdonia , Wales , while the production teams shot the oil pipeline explosion in Hankley Common , Elstead , Surrey . The production also visited Istanbul , Turkey ; the scenes of villain Elektra King 's Baku villa were filmed in the city , and the famous Maiden 's Tower was used for the hideout of the second villain Renard . The underwater submarine scenes were filmed in the Bahamas .
David Arnold returned to score the music for The World Is Not Enough β the second Bond soundtrack he composed ; Garbage sang the title song . For his work on the film , Arnold won an Ivor Novello Award .
= = = = = Die Another Day ( 2002 ) = = = = =
Lee Tamahori was hired to direct Die Another Day ; Barbara Broccoli admired his film Once Were Warriors , calling it " a phenomenal piece of filmmaking " . Broccoli noted that she and Wilson " sensed his genuine enthusiasm for Bond . It was simply great chemistry . Lee was the right guy and we were very , very lucky to get him " . Screenwriters Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned and began work in the summer of 2000 with the producers . They used a premise from Fleming 's novel Moonraker as a basis , that of an industrialist villain who had two identities . With the planned release of the film being in the 40th anniversary year of the Bond film series , Tamahori named the Hong Kong hotel seen in the film the " Rubyeon Royale " , for Eon 's ruby anniversary , as well as Fleming 's first novel , Casino Royale .
Second unit filming started on Christmas Day 2001 with Laird Hamilton , Dave Kalama and Darrick Doerner performing the surfing scene at the surf break known as Jaws in PeΚ»ahi , Maui ; the shore shots were later taken near CΓ‘diz , Spain and Newquay , Cornwall . Principal photography of Die Another Day began on 11 January 2002 at Pinewood studios . The film was shot primarily in the United Kingdom , Iceland , and CΓ‘diz . Filming in the UK took place at the Eden Project , the Reform Club and Pinewood Studios ' 007 Stage , with the sets by production designer Peter Lamont , which included the ice palace . During June seven separate units were filming , including underwater , aerial and miniature ; principal photography finished on 9 July , in time for the premiere in London on 20 November 2002 .
The soundtrack was composed by David Arnold , while the title song " Die Another Day " was written and performed by Madonna , who also had a cameo appearance in the film as a fencing instructor . Die Another Day had a budget of $ 142 million and earned $ 431 @.@ 9 million at the box office .
= = = = = Casino Royale ( 2006 ) = = = = =
In 1999 Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer obtained the rights to the 1967 film Casino Royale from Sony Pictures Entertainment for $ 10 million in the out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of a lawsuit . The case was brought by MGM after Sony had announced a deal with Kevin McClory to produce a third version of the Thunderball novel , for which McClory held the film rights . McClory had previously acted as producer with Eon on Thunderball and had licensed his rights for the production of Never Say Never Again in 1983 . In 2004 , following severe financial troubles , MGM was itself acquired by a consortium backed by Sony for $ 5 billion .
Casino Royale reboots the series , establishing a new timeline and narrative framework not meant to precede or succeed any previous Bond film . Barbara Broccoli stated that " For years , my father wanted to make Casino Royale β it 's the Holy Grail ... We wanted to make a tougher film , the way it should have been made years ago " . Fellow producer Michael G. Wilson agreed , commenting " We felt the last film was too fantastical , so we decided to go back to the basics and update " . Neal Purvis and Robert Wade began writing a screenplay at the end of February 2004 , while Pierce Brosnan was still Bond . Paul Haggis was brought in later , and his main contribution included rewriting the climax of the film . He explained that " the draft that was there was very faithful to the book and there was a confession , so in the original draft the character confessed and killed herself . She then sent Bond to chase after the villains ; Bond chased the villains into the house . I don 't know why but I thought that Vesper [ Lynd ] had to be in the sinking house and Bond has to want to kill her and then try and save her " . In February 2005 Martin Campbell was announced as the film 's director and the next Bond film was revealed to be Casino Royale , although the identity of the new Bond was still unknown ; the producers had chosen not to renew Pierce Brosnan 's contract , and in October Eon announced that the part of Bond would be taken by Daniel Craig .
Principal photography for Casino Royale commenced on 3 January 2006 . The film was primarily shot at Barrandov Studios in Prague , with additional location shooting in the Bahamas , Italy and the United Kingdom . The shoot concluded at Pinewood Studios on 20 July 2006 . In the Bahamas filming took place at Paradise Island and Albany House , an estate owned by golfers Ernie Els and Tiger Woods . Footage set in Mbale , Uganda , was filmed at Black Park , a Country Park in Buckinghamshire , with further UK location shooting taking place at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey and the Millbrook Vehicle Proving Ground in Bedfordshire .
For many of the effects in the film , Special Effects and Miniature Effects Supervisor Chris Corbould used a more realistic style of film making and significantly reduced digital effects compared with previous Bond films . Corbould noted that , " CGI is a great tool and can be very useful , but I will fight to the tooth and nail to do something for real . It 's the best way to go " . Corbould used the 007 stage at Pinewood for the sinking of the Venetian house at the climax of the film , which featured the largest rig ever built for a Bond film . Casino Royale featured music composed by David Arnold , his fourth soundtrack for the Bond film series . Producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on 26 July 2006 that Chris Cornell would perform the title song , entitled " You Know My Name " , which he co @-@ wrote with Arnold .
= = = = = Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) = = = = =
In July 2006 , as Casino Royale entered post @-@ production , Eon Productions announced that the next film would be based on an original idea by producer Michael G. Wilson . In June 2007 Marc Forster was confirmed as director . He was surprised that he was approached for the job , stating he was not a big Bond film fan through the years , and that he would not have accepted the project had he not seen Casino Royale prior to making his decision : he felt Bond had been humanised in that film , arguing that because travelling the world had become less exotic since the series ' advent , it made sense to focus more on Bond as a character . Forster found Casino Royale 's 144 @-@ minute running time too long , and wanted his follow @-@ up to be " tight and fast ... like a bullet " .
Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned as screenwriters and completed a draft of the script by April 2007 ; Paul Haggis also worked on the script , completing it two hours before the 2007 β 2008 Writers Guild of America strike officially began . Further work on the script had to be undertaken by Forster and Daniel Craig , who said later , " We had the bare bones of a script and then there was a writers ' strike and there was nothing we could do . We couldn 't employ a writer to finish it . I say to myself , ' Never again ' , but who knows ? There was me trying to rewrite scenes β and a writer I am not " . Craig also admitted that the film was not initially meant to be a sequel , but it became one because of the re @-@ writes undertaken by him and Forster . Haggis located his draft 's climax in the Swiss Alps , but Forster wanted the action sequences to allude to the four classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . Michael G. Wilson decided on the film 's title Quantum of Solace only " a few days " before its announcement on 24 January 2008 . Forster hired Dennis Gassner as production designer , replacing Peter Lamont .
Quantum of Solace was shot in six countries , including Italy ( Talamone and Siena ) , Chile ( the Paranal Observatory ) , Austria ( Bregenz ) , Mexico , Panama and the UK . In the UK interior and exterior airport scenes were filmed at Farnborough Airfield and the snowy closing scenes were filmed at the Bruneval Barracks in Aldershot , as well as ten stages at Pinewood and two theatres for ADR work . David Arnold , who composed the scores for the previous four Bond films , returned for Quantum of Solace . He said that Forster likes to work very closely with his composers and that , in comparison to the accelerated schedule he was tied to on Casino Royale , the intention was to spend a long time scoring the film to " really work it out " . He also said he would be " taking a different approach " with the score . Jack White of The White Stripes and Alicia Keys collaborated on " Another Way to Die " , the first Bond music duet .
= = = = = Skyfall ( 2012 ) = = = = =
The production of Skyfall was suspended throughout 2010 because of MGM 's financial troubles . Eon resumed pre @-@ production following MGM 's exit from bankruptcy on 21 December 2010 and in January 2011 the film was given official approval , with production scheduled to start in late 2011 . The film 's budget is estimated to be between $ 150 million and $ 200 million , compared to the $ 200 million spent on Quantum of Solace .
Skyfall was directed by Sam Mendes , who first signed on to the project shortly after Quantum of Solace was released , and remained on board as a consultant during the period of uncertainty surrounding MGM 's financial situation . Speculation in the media suggested that Mendes had commissioned rewrites of the script to " [ remove ] action scenes in favour of ' characterful performances ' " , with the intention of bidding for an Academy Award . Mendes denied the reports , stating that the film 's planned action scenes were an important part of the overall film .
The script was written by Bond screenwriting regulars Neal Purvis and Robert Wade , as well as John Logan . Roger Deakins signed on as cinematographer , while Dennis Gassner returned as production designer . Thomas Newman , who worked with Sam Mendes as composer for American Beauty , Road to Perdition , Jarhead and Revolutionary Road , replaced David Arnold as composer ; British singer @-@ songwriter Adele co @-@ wrote and recorded the film 's theme song with her regular songwriter , Paul Epworth .
Principal photography was scheduled to take 133 days and began on 7 November 2011 in and around London . Production moved to Turkey in April 2012 , with parts of Istanbul β including the Spice Bazaar , Yeni Camii , the Main Post Office , Sultanahmet Square and the Grand Bazaar β closed for filming in April . Filming also took place in Shanghai . Although set in Scotland , Bond 's family home of Skyfall was constructed on Hankley Common in Surrey using plywood and plaster to build a full @-@ scale model of the building , with some exterior scenes shot in Glen Etive and Glencoe .
= = = = = Spectre ( 2015 ) = = = = =
In September 2012 it was announced that Daniel Craig had signed to the role of Bond for the following two films , the first of which was Spectre , funded by MGM and Sony . In March 2013 Mendes announced he would not return to direct the next film in the series , although he later decided to return . In July 2013 it was revealed that John Logan would also return as writer , while in October 2014 it was announced that LΓ©a Seydoux would play a Bond girl in the film . Filming started in December 2014 and the film was released into cinemas on 26 October 2015 .
= = = = = Bond 25 = = = = =
A sequel to Spectre began development in early 2016 . Mendes has stated he would not be directing . Since Sony Pictures 's contract to co @-@ produce the James Bond films with MGM and Eon expired with the release of Spectre , another major film studio may land the distribution rights to release Bond 25 in cinemas .
= = = = Core crew = = = =
= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = Charles K. Feldman ( 1967 ) = = = =
In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of his novel Casino Royale to producer Gregory Ratoff for $ 6 @,@ 000 ( $ 53 @,@ 001 in 2016 dollars ) . In 1956 Ratoff set up a production company with Michael Garrison to produce Casino Royale ; Ratoff died in December 1960 . After Ratoff 's death , producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff 's widow and obtained the rights to film .
= = = = = Casino Royale ( 1967 ) = = = = =
Production on Casino Royale was troubled and chaotic , with five different directors being credited for helming different segments of the film : Ken Hughes , John Huston , Joseph McGrath , Robert Parrish and Val Guest . In addition , stunt director Richard Talmadge was uncredited as co @-@ director of the final sequence . Ben Hecht was originally commissioned by Feldman as writer , and he provided a serious interpretation of Fleming 's source novel , before it was decided to turn the film into a comedy . Three main screenwriters then worked on the project β Wolf Mankowitz , John Law and Michael Sayers β and a further nine people provided uncredited additional material . Problems arose on set between Peter Sellers and director Joseph McGrath and between Sellers and Orson Welles . Sellers eventually demanded that he and Welles should not share the same set . Sellers left the film before his part was complete . A further agent 's part was then written for Terence Cooper , to cover Sellers ' departure , while re @-@ writes , additional filming and post @-@ production cutting compensated for the missing actor . Principal photography started on 11 January 1966 and was scheduled to take up to 26 weeks . Because of the delays and chaotic nature of the filming process , it finally finished ten months later in November .
Feldman asked Burt Bacharach and Hal David to provide the music for the film ; David worked for a few months completing his part , while Bacharach took nearly two years . The pair produced the song " The Look of Love " , which was sung by Dusty Springfield . Columbia Pictures approved a production budget of $ 6 million for the film , although this rose to $ 12 million at the end of production . The film performed well , with box office returns of $ 41 @.@ 7 million .
= = = = Jack Schwartzman ( 1983 ) = = = =
Never Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel , which led to Kevin McClory becoming producer of the Eon Productions film of the same name . Part of the agreement between McClory and Eon was that McClory would not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the 1965 Thunderball .
In the mid @-@ 1970s McClory again started working on a project to bring a Thunderball adaptation to production and , with the working title Warhead ( a.k.a. James Bond of the Secret Service ) he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script . The script ran into difficulties after accusations from Eon Productions that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions , which confined McClory to a film based on the Thunderball novel only , and once again the project was deferred . Towards the end of the 1970s developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service , but then producer Jack Schwartzman became involved and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project and licensed the rights from McClory .
= = = = = Never Say Never Again ( 1983 ) = = = = =
With Connery still committed to the project , producer Jack Schwartzman asked him to play Bond : Connery accepted , asking for and receiving a fee of $ 3 million ( $ 7 million in 2016 dollars ) , a percentage of the profits , as well as casting , script and director approval . Schwartzman then brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple , Jr. to work on the screenplay . Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the work and asked British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re @-@ writes , although they went uncredited for their efforts because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America .
The former Eon Productions editor and director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , Peter Hunt , was approached to direct the film but declined due to his previous work with Eon . Irvin Kershner , who had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back , was then hired . A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed , including first assistant director David Tomblin ; director of photography Douglas Slocombe and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes .
Filming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months before moving to Nassau , the Bahamas in mid @-@ November where filming took place at Clifton Pier , which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball . The Spanish city of AlmerΓa was also used as a location . Villain Maximillian Largo 's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort CarrΓ© in Antibes . Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios where interior shots were filmed . Elstree also housed the " Tears of Allah " underwater cavern , which took three months to construct . Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983 , although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983 .
Production on the film was troubled with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin . Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman , saying that whilst he was a good businessman " he didn 't have the experience of a film producer " . After the production ran out of money , Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make .
The music for Never Say Never Again was written by Michel Legrand . Legrand also wrote the main theme " Never Say Never Again " , which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman β who had also worked with Legrand in the Academy Award winning song " The Windmills of Your Mind " β and was performed by Lani Hall .
Fleming 's estate , financially backed by Eon Productions and MGM , made a final attempt to block the film in the High Courts in London in the spring of 1983 , but these were thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed . When Never Say Never Again was released , it grossed $ 9 @.@ 72 million ( $ 23 million in 2016 dollars ) on its first weekend , which was reported to be " the best opening record of any James Bond film " up to that point and surpassing Octopussy 's $ 8 @.@ 9 million ( $ 21 million in 2016 dollars ) from June that year . From its budget of $ 36 million , Never Say Never Again grossed $ 160 million .
McClory attempted to produce another Thunderball adaptation as Warhead 2000 AD following the success of GoldenEye in 1995 . Liam Neeson and Timothy Dalton were considered for 007 , while Roland Emmerich and Dean Devlin were developing the film at Columbia Pictures . MGM launched a $ 25 million lawsuit against Sony , and McClory claimed a portion of the $ 3 billion profits from the Bond series . After a prolonged lawsuit , Sony backed down , and McClory eventually exhausted all legal avenues to pursue . As part of the settlement , MGM paid $ 10 million for the rights to Casino Royale , which had come into Sony 's possession .
= = = = Lisa Osborne ( 2012 ) = = = =
= = = = = Happy and Glorious = = = = =
Daniel Craig played Bond in a short film , Happy and Glorious , produced by Lisa Osborne for the BBC and directed by Danny Boyle as part of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In the film Bond is summoned to Buckingham Palace by Queen Elizabeth II β played by herself β and escorts her by helicopter to the Olympic Stadium . Bond and Her Majesty jump from the helicopter into the stadium with Union Flag parachutes .
For the parachute jump , Bond and the Queen were played respectively by BASE jumpers and stuntmen Mark Sutton and Gary Connery . After the film was shown , the Queen entered the stadium via conventional means and formally opened the Games .
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= Wiesbaden @-@ class cruiser =
The Wiesbaden class of light cruisers was a class of ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) shortly before the outbreak of World War I. Two ships were built in this class , Wiesbaden and Frankfurt . They were very similar to the preceding design , the Graudenz class , though they were armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns instead of the twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns on the earlier vessels . The ships had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Wiesbaden saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May β 1 June 1916 . She was badly damaged and immobilized during the battle and became the center of a melee as both sides fought over the crippled ship . She eventually sank in the early morning hours of 1 June , with only one survivor . Frankfurt was only lightly damaged at Jutland and saw extensive service with the II Scouting Group , including during Operation Albion against the Russians in the Baltic and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight , both in 1917 . She was interned with the rest of the fleet at the end of the war and scuttled at Scapa Flow , though British sailors prevented her from sinking . Frankfurt was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and eventually expended as a target in July 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = Dimensions and machinery = = =
The ships were 141 @.@ 7 meters ( 465 ft ) long at the waterline and 145 @.@ 3 m ( 477 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 9 m ( 46 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 76 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 06 m ( 19 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 5 @,@ 180 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 100 long tons ; 5 @,@ 710 short tons ) at designed displacement and 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . The hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Wiesbaden and Frankfurt had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller craft , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies .
Their propulsion systems consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ships of the class carried 1 @,@ 280 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the cruising radius dropped significantly , to 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) . Wiesbaden was equipped with a pair of turbo generators and one diesel generator rated at a combined 300 kilowatts ( 400 hp ) at 220 Volts . Frankfurt only had the two turbo generators , which provided 240 kW ( 320 hp ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships of the Wiesbaden class were armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The guns could engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 024 rounds of ammunition , for 128 shells per gun . The ships ' antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) L / 55 guns , though these were replaced with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ships were also equipped with four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes . Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships . They could also carry 120 mines .
Wiesbaden and Frankfurt were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships ; the belt was reduced to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not armored . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . The rangefinder atop the conning tower had 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) worth of armor protection . The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) amidships , and 20 mm aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor . The main battery gun shields were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
= = = Wiesbaden = = =
Wiesbaden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Gefion " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915 , after being rushed through trials . The ship saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland on 31 May β 1 June 1916 . The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible . Immobilized between the two battle fleets , Wiesbaden became the center of a hard @-@ fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers . Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship 's crew . Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983 .
= = = Frankfurt = = =
Frankfurt was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Hela " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1913 and launched on 20 March 1915 . The ships was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1915 . Frankfurt saw extensive action with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She served primarily in the North Sea , and participated in the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft and the battles of Jutland and Second Heligoland . At Jutland , she was lightly damaged by a British cruiser and her crew suffered minor casualties . The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in October 1917 . At the end of the war , she was interned with the bulk of the German fleet in Scapa Flow . When the fleet was scuttled in June 1919 , Frankfurt was one of the few ships that were not successfully sunk . She was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and ultimately expended as a bomb target in tests conducted by the US Navy and Army Air Force in July 1921 .
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= Japanese aircraft carrier ZuihΕ =
ZuihΕ ( ηι³³ , " Auspicious Phoenix " or " Fortunate Phoenix " ) was a light aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy . Originally laid down as the submarine support ship Takasaki , she was renamed and converted while under construction into an aircraft carrier . The ship was completed during the first year of World War II and participated in many operations . ZuihΕ played a secondary role in the Battle of Midway in mid @-@ 1942 and did not engage any American aircraft or ships during the battle . The ship participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign during the rest of 1942 . She was lightly damaged during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands during this campaign and covered the evacuation of Japanese forces from the island in early 1943 after repairs .
Afterwards , her aircraft were disembarked several times in mid- to late @-@ 1943 and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific . ZuihΕ participated in the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf battles in mid @-@ 1944 . In this last battle , ZuihΕ mainly served as a decoy for the main striking forces and she was finally sunk by American aircraft fulfilling her task . In between engagements , the ship served as a ferry carrier and a training ship .
= = Design and conversion = =
The submarine support ship Takasaki was laid down on 20 June 1935 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal and was designed to be converted to either a fleet oiler or a light aircraft carrier as needed . She was launched on 19 June 1936 and began a lengthy conversion into a carrier while fitting @-@ out . The ship was renamed ZuihΕ during the process which was not completed until 27 December 1940 when she was commissioned .
After her conversion , ZuihΕ had a length of 205 @.@ 49 meters ( 674 ft 2 in ) overall . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 19 meters ( 59 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 meters ( 21 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 443 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 262 long tons ) at standard load . As part of her conversion , her original diesel engines , which had given her a top speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) , were replaced by a pair of destroyer @-@ type geared steam turbine sets with a total of 52 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 39 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller . Steam was provided by four water @-@ tube boilers and ZuihΕ now had a maximum speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The boilers exhausted through a single downturned starboard funnel and she carried 2 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 600 long tons ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 400 km ; 9 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Her crew numbered 785 officers and men .
ZuihΕ 's flight deck was 179 @.@ 98 meters ( 590 ft 6 in ) long and had a maximum width of 23 @.@ 01 meters ( 75 ft 6 in ) . The ship was designed with a single hangar 124 @.@ 00 meters ( 406 ft 10 in ) long and 17 @.@ 98 meters ( 59 ft 0 in ) wide . The hangar was served by two octagonal centerline aircraft elevators . The forward elevator was 13 @.@ 01 by 11 @.@ 99 meters ( 42 @.@ 67 by 39 @.@ 33 ft ) in size and the smaller rear elevator measured 11 @.@ 99 by 10 @.@ 79 meters ( 39 @.@ 33 by 35 @.@ 4 ft ) . She had arresting gear with six cables , but she was not fitted with an aircraft catapult . ZuihΕ was a flush @-@ deck design and lacked an island superstructure . She was designed to operate 30 aircraft .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . ZuihΕ was also initially equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . In 1943 , her light AA armament was increased to 48 twenty @-@ five mm guns . The following year , an additional twenty 25 mm guns were added in addition to six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers .
= = Service = =
After commissioning , ZuihΕ remained in Japanese waters until late 1941 . Captain Sueo Εbayashi assumed command on 20 September and ZuihΕ became flagship of the Third Carrier Division ten days later . On 13 October she was briefly assigned to the 11th Air Fleet in Formosa and arrived in Takao the following day . The ship returned to Japan in early November and was given a brief refit later in the month . Together with the carrier HΕshΕ and six battleships , ZuihΕ covered the return of the ships of the 1st Air Fleet as they returned from the Attack on Pearl Harbor in mid @-@ December .
On February 1942 , the ship ferried Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters to Davao City , Philippines . ZuihΕ remained in Japanese waters until June when she participated in the Battle of Midway . She led the Support Fleet and did not engage American carriers directly . Her aircraft complement consisted of six Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " and six Mitsubishi A6M2 " Zero " fighters , and twelve Nakajima B5N2 " Kate " torpedo bombers . After a brief refit in July β August , the ship was assigned to First Carrier Division with ShΕkaku and Zuikaku on 12 August .
The division sailed to Truk on 1 October to support Japanese forces in the Guadalcanal Campaign and left Truk on 11 October based on the promise of the Japanese Army to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . At this time , ZuihΕ carried 18 A6Ms and 6 B5Ns . The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and each side launched air strikes . The aircraft passed each other en route and 9 of ZuihΕ 's Zeros attacked the aircraft launched by the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise . They shot down 3 each Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and damaged one more of each type while losing four of their own . Two of Enterprise 's Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers hit ZuihΕ with 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs and damaged her flight deck enough that she could not conduct flight operations although she was not seriously damaged otherwise . Together with the damaged ShΕkaku , the ship withdrew from the battle and reached Truk two days later . After temporary repairs , the two carriers returned to Japan in early November and ZuihΕ 's repairs were completed on 16 December . In the meantime , Captain Bunjiro Yamaguchi assumed command .
The ship left Kure on 17 January 1943 and sailed for Truk with a load of aircraft . Upon arrival she was assigned to the Second Carrier Division to provide cover for the evacuation of Guadalcanal , along with Jun 'yΕ and Zuikaku , later in the month and in early February . ZuihΕ 's fighters were transferred to Wewak , New Guinea in mid @-@ February and then to Kavieng in early March . They were transferred to Rabaul on mid @-@ March to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . The fighters returned to Truk on 18 March after claiming 18 Allied aircraft shot down . ZuihΕ arrived at Sasebo on 9 May and received a brief refit in mid @-@ June . She returned to Truk on 15 July and remained in the area until 5 November when she returned to Yokosuka . Her air group , 18 Zeros and eight D3As , was briefly deployed to Kavieng in late August β early September before returning to Truk . By this time , ZuihΕ was assigned to the First Carrier Division with ShΕkaku and Zuikaku and they sailed for Eniwetok Atoll on 18 September for training and to be in position to intercept any attacks by American carriers in the vicinity of Wake Island and the Marshall Islands area . That day the American carriers raided the Gilbert Islands and were gone by the time the Japanese reached Eniwetok on 20 September . Japanese intelligence reports pointed to another American attack in the Wake @-@ Marshall Islands area in mid @-@ October and Admiral Mineichi Koga sortied the Combined Fleet , including the First Carrier Division , on 17 October . They arrived at Eniwetok two days later and waited for reports of American activity until 23 October . They then sailed for Wake Island and then returned to Truk on 26 October without encountering any American ships .
ZuihΕ 's air group was transferred to Rabaul at the beginning of November , just in time to participate in the raid on Rabaul a few days later . The fighters claimed to have shot down 25 American aircraft at the cost of 8 of their own ; the survivors flew back to Truk where they remained . On 30 November , ZuihΕ , together with the escort carriers ChΕ«yΕ and UnyΕ , departed Truk for Japan , escorted by four destroyers . The Americans had cracked the Japanese naval codes and positioned several submarines along their route to Yokosuka . Skate unsuccessfully attacked ZuihΕ on 30 November , while Sailfish torpedoed and sank ChΕ«yΕ five days later with heavy loss of life . From December to May 1944 , ZuihΕ ferried aircraft and supplies to Truk and Guam although she was reassigned to the Third Carrier Division on 29 January , together with the converted carriers Chitose and Chiyoda . Each of the three carriers was intended to be equipped with 21 fighters and 9 torpedo bombers , but this plan was changed on 15 February to a consolidated air group , the 653rd , that controlled the aircraft of all three carriers . While fully equipped by May with 18 Zero fighters , 45 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 18 B5Ns , and 9 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , the air group 's pilots were largely drawn from the two most recent classes and lacked experience . The ship sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi on 11 May in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral JisaburΕ Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . He had deployed his forces in a " T " - shaped formation with the 3rd Carrier Division at the end of the stem , 115 nautical miles ( 213 km ; 132 mi ) ahead of the 1st and 2nd Carrier Divisions that formed the crossbar of the " T " . ZuihΕ and her consorts were intended to draw the attentions of the Americans while the other carriers conducted their air strikes without disruption . Sixteen Aichi E13A floatplanes were launched by the heavy cruisers accompanying the carriers at 04 : 30 to search for the Americans ; the three carriers launched a follow up wave of 13 B5Ns at 05 : 20 . The first wave spotted one group of four carriers from Task Force 58 at 07 : 34 and the Japanese carriers launched their aircraft an hour later . This consisted of 43 Zero fighter @-@ bombers and 7 B6Ns , escorted by 14 A6M5 fighters ; the carriers retained only 3 fighters , 2 fighter @-@ bombers , 2 B6Ns and 2 B5Ns for self @-@ defense and later searches . While the air strike was still forming up , the second wave of searchers located Task Force 58 's battleships and the air strike was diverted to attack them . The Americans detected the incoming Japanese aircraft at 09 : 59 and had a total of 199 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters in the air by the time the Japanese aircraft were in range of the American ships . The defending fighters decimated the Japanese aircraft and only 21 survived . The only damage inflicted was from one A6M2 that hit the battleship South Dakota in her superstructure with a single 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bomb that wounded 50 crewmen , but did little other damage . Only 3 Hellcats were lost in the affair , one to a B6N , although the Japanese claimed four victories . Some of the surviving Japanese aircraft landed at Guam while others , including the five surviving B6Ns , returned to their carriers where they claimed one carrier definitely damaged and another probably hit .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . Both sides launched aircraft the next day to locate each other ; ZuihΕ launched three aircraft at 12 : 00 to search east of the fleet , but they did not discover the Americans . The Americans discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . While they sank the carrier HiyΕ and damaged two others , ZuihΕ was not attacked and successfully disengaged that evening . By the end of the battle , Air Group 653 was reduced to 2 Zero fighters , 3 Zero fighter @-@ bombers and 6 torpedo bombers . After reaching Japan on 1 July , the ship remained in Japanese waters until October , training replacements for her air group .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
After the Battle of the Philippine Sea , the commander of the Combined Fleet , Admiral Soemu Toyoda , prepared four " victory " plans : ShΕ @-@ GΕ 1 ( ζ·οΌε·δ½ζ¦ ShΕ ichigΕ sakusen ) was a major naval operation in the Philippines , while ShΕ @-@ GΕ 2 was intended to defend Formosa , the Ryukyu Islands and southern Kyushu . ShΕ @-@ GΕ 3 and ShΕ @-@ GΕ 4 were responses to attacks on Kyushu @-@ Shikoku @-@ Honshu and Hokkaido respectively . He activated ShΕ @-@ GΕ 2 after the Americans attacked the Philippines , Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands beginning on 10 October . This required the transfer of most of Air Group 652 to Formosa and Luzon to attack the American forces , with only a few aircraft retained for carrier operations . Most of these aircraft were lost for little gain as the Americans suppressed Japanese defenses in the Philippines , preparatory to the actual invasion .
On 17 October , Admiral Toyoda alerted the fleet that ShΕ @-@ GΕ 1 was imminent and activated the plan the following day after receiving reports of the landings on Leyte . ZuihΕ 's role in ShΕ @-@ GΕ 1 , together with Chiyoda , Chitose and Zuikaku and the rest of the Main Body of the 1st Mobile Fleet , approaching Leyte Gulf from the north , was to serve as decoys to attract attention away from the two other forces approaching from the south and west . All forces were to converge on Leyte Gulf on 25 October and the Main Body left Japan on 20 October . As decoys , the carriers were only provided with a total of 116 aircraft : 52 Zero fighters , 28 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 7 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers , 26 B6N and 4 B5N torpedo bombers . By the morning of 24 October , the Main Body was within range of the northernmost American carriers of Task Force 38 and Admiral Ozawa ordered an air strike launched to attract the attention of the Americans . This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters ; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon . The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks launched from Luzon and Leyte and could not spare any aircraft to search for the Japanese carriers until the afternoon . They finally found them at 16 : 05 , but Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Task Force 38 , decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike . He did , however , turn all of his ships north to position himself for a dawn attack on the Japanese carriers the next day in what came to be called the Battle of Cape EngaΓ±o .
Aircraft from the light carrier Independence were able to track the Japanese ships for most of the night and Halsey ordered an air strike of 60 Hellcat fighters , 65 Helldiver dive bombers and 55 Avenger torpedo bombers launched shortly after dawn in anticipation of locating the Japanese fleet . They spotted them at 07 : 35 and brushed aside the 13 Zeros that the Japanese had retained for self @-@ defense . ZuihΕ attempted to launch her few remaining aircraft , but was hit by a single bomb on her aft flight deck after a number of torpedo @-@ carrying Avengers missed . The 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb started several small fires , lifted the rear elevator , bulged the flight deck , knocked out steering and gave the ship a small list to port . Twenty minutes later , the fires were put out , steering repaired and the list corrected . A second attack an hour later focused on Chiyoda and ignored ZuihΕ . The third wave arrived around 1300 and badly damaged the ship . She was hit once by a torpedo and twice by small bombs , although fragments from as many as 67 near misses cut steam pipes and caused flooding of both engine rooms and one boiler room . ZuihΕ was forced to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) and flooding increased so that all available hands were ordered to man the pumps at 14 : 10 . The ship took on a 13 Β° list to starboard and went dead in the water at 14 : 45 when the port engine room fully flooded . A fourth wave of American aircraft attacked ten minutes later , but only damaged her with splinters from another ten near misses . This was enough to increase her list to 23 Β° and she was ordered abandoned at 15 : 10 . ZuihΕ sank at 15 : 26 at position 19 Β° 20 β² N 125 Β° 15 β² E with the loss of 7 officers and 208 men . The destroyer Kuwa and the battleship Ise rescued 58 officers and 701 men between them .
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= Thurisind =
Thurisind ( Latin : Turisindus , died c . 560 ) was king of the Gepids , an East Germanic Gothic people , from c . 548 to 560 . He was the penultimate Gepid king , and succeeded King Elemund by staging a coup d 'Γ©tat and forcing the king 's son into exile . Thurisind 's kingdom , known as Gepidia , was located in Central Europe and had its centre in Sirmium , a former Roman city on the Sava River ( now the town of Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) .
His reign was marked by multiple wars with the Lombards , a Germanic people who had arrived in the former Roman province of Pannonia under the leadership of their king , Audoin . Thurisind also had to face the hostility of the Byzantine Empire , which was resentful of the Gepid takeover of Sirmium and anxious to diminish Gepid power in the Pannonian Basin , a plain covering most of modern Hungary and partly including the bordering states . The Byzantines ' plans to reduce the Gepids ' power took effect when Audoin decisively defeated Thurisind in 551 or 552 . The Byzantine Emperor Justinian forced a peace accord on both leaders so that equilibrium in the Pannonian Basin could be sustained .
Thurisind lost his eldest son , Turismod , in the Battle of Asfeld , during which the prince was killed by Alboin , son of Audoin . In about 560 , Thurisind died and was succeeded by his remaining son Cunimund , who was killed by Alboin in 567 . Cunimund 's death marked the end of the Gepid Kingdom and the beginning of the conquest of their territories by the Lombards ' allies , the Avars , a nomadic people migrating from the Eurasian Steppe .
= = Early sources = =
Of the four early medieval sources relevant to Thurisind that survive , the only one providing independent evidence of the king , accounts of Justinian 's wars , and a detailed account of the relations between Gepids and Lombards and their kings is De Bellis ( 550s ) , the most important work of Procopius . Considered the greatest historian of the 6th century , Procopius was a Greek writer born in Caesarea in Palestine in 527 . The Lombard β Gepid wars are well described in Procopius ' work , as the conflict played an important part in the Byzantine plans to invade Italy by a land route .
Less relevant is the other 6th @-@ century source , Jordanes ' Romana . Of Gothic ancestry , Jordanes served as a notarius for a Byzantine Master of the Soldiers before entering into the ranks of the Catholic clergy and writing his two surviving books , the Romana and the Getica . The latter is a summary of Gothic history , while the lesser known Romana is an abridged account of Roman history written in 551 or 552 . According to James O 'Donnell , the two works share a pessimistic view of human life in which all secular accomplishments are insignificant compared to religious goals . Jordanes does not explicitly mention Thurisind in the Romana , but speaks of the third Lombard β Gepid War , in which Thurisind participated , in the last passages of the work .
Paul the Deacon was the most important Italian writer of the 8th century . Born in the 720s or 730s , he came from a noble Lombard family from Friuli . He entered the clergy early , and eventually became a monk of the monastery of Monte Cassino . His most famous work is the Historia Langobardorum , a history of the Lombard nation . Written after 787 , it is a continuation of his previous major historical work , the Historia Romana , which was based on the Breviarium of Eutropius , with six books added describing historical events up to Justinian 's empire . Both of these works mention Thurisind and the third Lombard β Gepid War , which represent the only overlap between the Historia Langobardorum and the Historia Romana . Both books also mention the duel between the kings ' sons , an event which is absent in Procopius ' writing and is thought to have originated through oral tradition . Similarly , the meeting between Thurisind and Audoin 's son at the former 's court derives from an oral source .
= = Rise to power = =
The Gepids were a major Germanic people in what is now eastern Hungary , western Romania , and northern Serbia . Although the details of his early life are not known , Thurisind is believed to have risen to power in about 548 . After the death of Elemund , the previous king , he seized the throne in a coup d 'Γ©tat and forced Elemund 's son Ostrogotha into exile . Ostrogotha and his followers found refuge among the Gepids ' neighbours and enemies , the Lombards , another Germanic people who had just settled in the western part of the Pannonian Basin . The Gepids had inhabited parts of the basin since the 3rd century . They reached prominence in the 5th century when , under King Ardaric , they played a key role in destroying the Hunnic Empire . Ardaric and his people benefited more than anybody else from this victory , gaining the former Roman province of Dacia .
In 504 the Gepids ' power was significantly reduced by the Ostrogoths , who cut short their expansion into the Danubian plains . The Gepids restricted themselves to the eastern part of the Pannonian Basin ; this was to form the core of Thurisind 's dominions , just as it had under the previous Gepid kings . By the early 6th century , the Gepid nobility converted to Arian Christianity , while most of the Gepids remained pagans .
According to the scholar IstvΓ‘n BonΓ‘ , Thurisind 's rise to power is a typical example of the conflicts among the leading families for the kingship that plagued Gepidia in the 6th century and made it difficult to maintain the succession within the king 's family . To contain these obstacles Thurisind made Turismod , his oldest son , commander of the Gepid forces in Sirmium , an important position that made Turismod the king 's heir apparent ( in early Germanic custom the eldest son was not necessarily the first in line of succession ) . After Turismod died , his younger brother Cunimund became commander in Sirmium and thus heir apparent .
= = First war with the Lombards = =
On becoming king in 548 , Thurisind immediately found himself in a difficult situation . Sometime during 546 β 548 , the Byzantine Empire had conspired to convince the Lombards under Audoin to move into Pannonia ( modern Hungary ) , a former Roman province bordering the Danube river . Justinian hoped this would keep open the land route from the Balkans to Italy while containing the Gepids , who he considered a serious menace to Byzantine interests on the Balkan frontier . The Gothic War between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines had been raging on the Italian peninsula since 535 ; Justinian wanted to be able to rush troops to Italy if they were needed .
According to the contemporary Procopius in the De Bello Gothico ( the section of the De Bellis regarding the Gothic War ) , Justinian resented the takeover by the Gepids of the formerly Roman city of Sirmium in 537 , which may have been voluntarily surrendered by the Ostrogoths to create difficulties for the Byzantines . The Ostrogoths were also occupied with the war in Italy and sought to retain their possessions in the peninsula . Sirmium 's takeover was followed in 539 by a bloody confrontation between the Gepids and the Byzantines that had cost the latter the life of Calluc , their Master of the Soldiers , and also the loss to the Gepids of Dacia ripensis ( Serbia ) and Singidunum ( Belgrade ) . Because of this , Justinian ended the alliance that had bonded the Gepids and Byzantines , and had ceased paying tributes to the Gepids , finding an enemy to set them against in the Lombards .
The build @-@ up towards a war involving Lombards , Gepids , and Byzantines started possibly in 548 or 549 , with Audoin and Thurisind each sending an embassy to Justinian 's court at Constantinople , in attempts to obtain military support from Justinian or at least , in the case of Thurisind , to get a pledge of neutrality . To sway Justinian , Thurisind 's envoys reminded him of their long tradition of alliance and promised to fight against Byzantium 's enemies . However , the emperor sided with the Lombards ; he made them formal allies and promised to provide troops against the Gepids . From Justinian 's perspective , this war was of major importance in the larger context of the Gothic War , because possession of Pannonia was strategically necessary to keep open land communications between Italy and the Balkans .
Historians debate as to when the conflict started . Proposed dates for the first war are either 547 or 549 . At the same time as the two peoples took the field , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Byzantine horse army under the command of John , the magister militum of Illyricum , marched against the Gepids . Before John 's arrival , Thurisind offered a truce to Audoin that was accepted . As a result , when the Byzantines arrived , the war had already ended , but not before they had clashed with the Gepids ' Herulian allies . To seal the truce , Audoin demanded that Thurisind should give up Ildigis , a pretender to the Lombard crown who lived as a guest at his court . Thurisind refused , but he did force Ildigis to leave the Gepids and search for another refuge .
= = Second Lombard β Gepid War and tensions with Justinian = =
In either 549 or 550 , the Gepids and Lombards again marched against each other but , according to Procopius , both armies panicked and no battle took place . As a result , a new war was avoided and Thurisind accepted Audoin 's request for a two @-@ year truce . According to IstvΓ‘n BonΓ‘ , the panic may be linked to a natural phenomenon : a lunar eclipse took place on June 25 / 26 , 549 .
Confronted by an openly hostile Byzantine Empire , and faced with the eventuality that the war with the Lombards would be renewed at the truce 's expiration , Thurisind searched for new allies as a way to pressure Justinian . He found assistance from the Kutrigurs , who he ferried across the Danube into the Byzantine Illyricum in 550 or 551 , before the truce expired and probably before the Gepids were ready to precipitate a new conflict . In retrospect , it may be they arrived too late instead of too early , if the agreement had been made with the Second Lombard β Gepid War in mind .
Faced with the Kutrigur invasion , Justinian activated his alliance against the invaders , mobilizing the neighbouring Utigurs , who in turn asked for help from the allied Crimean Tetraxites . The latter invaded the Kutrigur homeland , taking advantage of the fact that many warriors were employed at that moment in the Balkans . Informed of the attack , the Kutrigurs were forced to leave the Balkans to defend their homeland on the north @-@ western shore of the Black Sea .
Thurisind protected and promoted another enemy of Byzantium , the Sclaveni . As with the Kutrigurs , Thurisind used his control of the Danube to ferry Slavic raiders to and from Byzantine territory , and obtained payment from them in the process .
= = Third Lombard β Gepid War = =
Justinian 's plans to send expeditionary forces against the Ostrogoths in Italy were repeatedly hampered by Thurisind 's initiatives . For example , Narses ' army left Constantinople in April 551 for Salona , with hopes of finally defeating the Goths , but found itself blocked at Philippopolis ( Plovdiv ) by the Kutrigurs .
This brought Justinian to search for an accord with Thurisind to stop the trans @-@ Danubian raids , and the latter was more than happy to accept . Thurisind 's envoys asked for an alliance like the one bonding Byzantines and Lombards . In addition to strengthening the alliance , they demanded , and got , 12 senators to swear to uphold the treaty . After this , in 551 , 400 Gepids were sent to fight in Narses ' army , which was sent to Italy β a modest army compared to the 5 @,@ 500 Lombards sent by Audoin and the thousands of Heruli .
When the truce expired in 552 , Thurisind and Audoin again took to the field , and this time the clash was unavoidable . Audoin had reached an agreement with Justinian by which the Byzantines promised to send him military support in exchange for the 5 @,@ 500 Lombards sent to help the Byzantine general Narses in the Emperor 's war in Italy .
The two @-@ year truce was now close to expiry and the Lombards asked the Byzantines to respect the alliance which had been established between them . The Emperor found an excuse to break the new alliance with the Gepids by claiming they had again ferried Slav raiders . He put together an army with renowned commanders in its ranks such as Germanus ' sons Justin and Justinian , Aratius , the Herulian Suartuas , and Amalafrid , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Audoin . A revolt that erupted in Ulpiana diverted the bulk of the army ; only a force under Amalafrid reached the battlefield .
Scholars debate when the third Lombard β Gepid War started ; it is agreed that it took place two years after the second war . The possible dates are either 551 or 552 . The 551 date is upheld by those who argue that since in 552 Audoin had already dispatched 5 @,@ 500 of his warriors to Narses ' Italian campaign , the third Lombard β Gepid War must have already ended by then ; against this scholars such as Walter Pohl protest that this is in contradiction with Audoin 's reproaches to Justinian on the few troops sent against the Gepids , despite his massive support to Narses .
When the treaty expired , Audoin attacked the Gepids and Thurisind was crushed in the decisive battle of the Asfeld held west of Sirmium . The battle was mentioned by Jordanes in the Romana as one of the most bloody ever fought in the region , with no fewer than 60 @,@ 000 warriors killed . The king 's son Turismod also died , killed by Audoin 's son Alboin in a duel that according to Paul the Deacon decided both the battle and the war . After the battle , the Gepids were never again able to play a formative role in the shaping of events .
= = Peace = =
The Gepids ' defeat caused a geopolitical shift in the Pannonian Basin , as it ended the danger represented by the Gepids to the Empire . The Gepids ' utter defeat could have meant the end of their kingdom and its conquest by the Lombards , but Justinian , wanting to maintain an equilibrium in the region , imposed an " eternal peace " that saved the Gepids ; it was observed for ten years , surviving both Thurisind and Audoin . It may be on this occasion , and not before the war , that Lombards and Gepids sent troops to Narses as part of the peace treaty imposed by the Byzantines . In this interpretation , the small number of Gepid warriors sent could be explained with the heavy losses taken in the war and the resentment felt towards Justinian . The Emperor also imposed some territorial concessions on Thurisind , obligating him to return Dacia ripensis and the territory of Singidunum .
To reach a complete peace Thurisind had first to deal with Ildigis who had found hospitality at Thurisind 's court . Audoin demanded yet again to have him turned in , and Justinian joined in the request . Thurisind , despite his reluctance to resume the war with both Audoin and Justinian , did not want to openly breach the rules of hospitality and thus tried to evade the request by demanding in his turn to have Ostrogotha given to him ; in the end , to avoid both openly giving in and at the same time renewing the war , both kings murdered their respective guests but kept secret their involvement in the act .
Thurisind features prominently in a tale told by Paul the Deacon set in 552 , just after the death of the king 's son Turismod and the end of the war . The story , generally thought to track its origins to an heroic poem dedicated to Alboin , revolves around the characters of Alboin and Thurisind : in accordance with a custom of the Lombards , to obtain the right to sit at his father 's table , Alboin must ask for hospitality from a foreign king and have the latter arm him . To submit himself to this initiation , Alboin went with 40 companions to Thurisind 's court .
Thurisind , in observance of the laws of hospitality , received Alboin and his companions and organized a banquet in their honour , offering Alboin the place where his dead son habitually sat . Following a mockery by Turismod 's brother Cunimund and Alboin 's rejoinder , a clash was avoided by Thurisind 's intervention , who restored the peace and sent Alboin away with Turismod 's arms . According to IstvΓ‘n BonΓ‘ , who believes in the veracity of the story , the event may have taken place as described by Paul , but it also could reflect a secret peace condition imposed by Audoin on Thurisind under which the Gepid king had to arm his son 's killer .
Thurisind died around 560 and was succeeded by his son Cunimund , last king of the Gepids ; under him Thurisind 's people were annihilated in 567 by a joint coalition of the Lombards and the Avars , a Turkic nomad people that in 558 had migrated to Central Europe . Cunimund was killed on the battlefield by the new Lombard King Alboin , and his daughter Rosamund was taken captive .
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= Smalltooth sand tiger =
The smalltooth sand tiger or bumpytail ragged @-@ tooth ( Odontaspis ferox ) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Odontaspididae , with a patchy but worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate waters . They usually inhabit deepwater rocky habitats , though they are occasionally encountered in shallow water , and have been known to return to the same location year after year . This rare species is often mistaken for the much more common grey nurse shark ( Carcharias taurus ) , from which it can be distinguished by its first dorsal fin , which is larger than the second and placed further forward . It grows to at least 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 @.@ 5 ft ) in length .
Very little is known of the biology and behavior of the smalltooth sand tiger . It is an active predator of benthic bony fishes , invertebrates , and cartilaginous fishes . This species is thought to be ovoviviparous with oophagous embryos like other mackerel sharks . In contrast to its formidable size and appearance , this shark is harmless , having never been known to behave aggressively towards humans . There is concern that its numbers are declining due to human activities in the Mediterranean and elsewhere , though existing data is inadequate for a full assessment of its conservation status .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The smalltooth sand tiger was originally described as Squalus ferox by Italian @-@ French naturalist Antoine Risso in 1810 , based on a specimen from Nice , France . In 1950 , Gilbert Percy Whitley described O. herbsti from Australian specimens , separating them from O. ferox on the basis of dentition and the absence of spots . Leonard Compagno synonymized the two species in 1984 , as subsequently discovered Pacific specimens had blurred Whitley 's distinguishing characters . The specific epithet ferox is Latin for " fierce " . Other common names for this shark include blue nurse shark , fierce shark , Herbst 's nurse shark , and sand tiger shark .
A phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA , performed by Naylor et al. in 1997 , suggests that the smalltooth sand tiger and its relative , the bigeye sand tiger ( O. noronhai ) , are more closely related to the thresher sharks than to the grey nurse shark , to which it bears a strong resemblance . If true , this would indicate that the similarities between this species and the grey nurse shark arose as the result of convergent evolution . Fossil teeth belonging to the smalltooth sand tiger have been found from Lower Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 β 3 @.@ 6 Ma ) deposits in Italy and Venezuela .
= = Description = =
The smalltooth sand tiger has a bulky body with a long , bulbous , slightly flattened snout . The eyes are medium @-@ sized , with large round pupils ( as opposed to slit @-@ like in the grey nurse shark ) , and lack nictitating membranes .
The mouth is large and filled with projecting teeth . Each tooth has a narrow , tall central cusp flanked by 2 @-@ 3 pairs of lateral cusplets . There are 48 β 56 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 36 β 46 tooth rows in the lower jaw ; the front large teeth in the upper jaw are separated from the lateral teeth by 2 β 5 intermediate teeth .
The fins are broad @-@ based and angular in shape . The first dorsal fin is larger than the second and placed closer to the pectoral fins than the pelvic fins . The caudal fin is strongly asymmetrical with the upper lobe much longer than the lower . The coloration is gray to gray @-@ brown above and lighter below . Juveniles are uniform in color with darker fin margins , while adults often exhibit dark spots or blotches that vary widely in pattern , size , and density . Coloration also appears to vary by region , with some individuals from the Mediterranean displaying a patchy , " piebald " pattern . The smalltooth sand tiger attains a maximum length of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 @.@ 5 ft ) and a maximum weight of 289 kg ( 637 lbs ) . There are unconfirmed reports of much larger individuals from Malpelo Island off Colombia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Smalltooth sand tigers have been caught at widely scattered locations throughout the world , indicating a possibly circumtropical distribution . In the eastern Atlantic Ocean , it is known from the Bay of Biscay south to Morocco , including the Mediterranean Sea , the Azores , and the Canary Islands . In the western Atlantic , it has been reported from off North Carolina and Florida ( USA ) , the Yucatan Peninsula ( Mexico ) , and Fernando de Noronha ( Brazil ) . It occurs throughout the Indian Ocean , from South Africa , Madagascar , and Tanzania in the west to the Maldives and the Southwest Indian Ridge in the east . In the northern Pacific it is known from off Japan , Hawaii , California , and Colombia , and in the southern Pacific it is known from New Caledonia , eastern Australia , and New Zealand .
Typically regarded as a deepwater species , the smalltooth sand tiger has been caught down to a depth of 880 m ( 2 @,@ 900 ft ) . They are usually found near the bottom in rocky , boulder @-@ strewn regions on continental shelves and the upper continental slope , as well as around submarine ridges and mountains . There are also reports of this species near the drop @-@ offs of rocky or coral reefs and in the upper layers of the open ocean . In the Mediterranean , smalltooth sand tigers occur at depths less than 250 m ( 820 ft ) , including at depths accessible to divers . They have been seen swimming over sandy flats at Cocos Island and Fernando de Noronha . The temperature range favored by this species is 6 β 20 Β° C ( 43 β 63 Β° F ) ; in hot climates they are found below the thermocline in cooler water .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The smalltooth sand tiger is a strong @-@ swimming shark that may be encountered singly or in aggregations of up to five individuals . Catch records suggest that this species may cover long distances in oceanic waters along underwater ridges or " hopping " between seamounts . It has a very large , oily liver , which allows it to maintain neutral buoyancy in the water column with minimal effort . At a location called " Shark Point " off Beirut , Lebanon , small groups of smalltooth sand tigers appear every summer on rocky reefs at a depth of 30 β 45 m ( 100 β 150 ft ) . The same individuals have been documented returning to this site year after year . Their purpose there is unknown , being speculated to relate to mating . When confronted , these sharks have been observed to stall , gape their mouths , turn around , and shake their tails towards the perceived threat .
Adult smalltooth sand tigers have no known predators , though they are bitten by cookiecutter sharks ( Isistius brasiliensis ) . A known parasite is the tapeworm Lithobothrium gracile , which infests the shark 's spiral valve intestine . The carcass of a 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 @.@ 1 ft ) long female found off Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands contained a number of snubnosed eels ( Simenchelys parasitica ) inside her heart , body cavity , and back muscles . It is unknown whether the eels contributed to the shark 's death .
= = = Feeding = = =
Compared to the grey nurse shark , the dentition of the smalltooth sand tiger is less robust and lacks specialized cutting and crushing teeth , suggesting that it tends to tackle smaller prey . The diet of the smalltooth sand tiger consists of bottom @-@ dwelling bony fishes such as rockfish ( Sebastes spp . ) , invertebrates such as squid , shrimp , and possibly marine isopods , and cartilaginous fishes including rays and chimaeras . The largest known prey item taken by this species was a 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long kitefin shark ( Dalatias licha ) , found inside the stomach of a 2 @.@ 9 m ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) long male from New Caledonia .
= = = Life history = = =
No pregnant smalltooth sand tigers have ever been found ; this species is presumed to be ovoviviparous as in other mackerel sharks . Villaviencio @-@ Garayzar ( 1996 ) described a 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 @.@ 8 ft ) female from the Gulf of California that contained " hundreds of ova " in her right ovary , which would support the embryos being oophagous . Whether the embryos also cannibalize each other as in the grey nurse shark is unknown . The size at birth is estimated to be 1 @.@ 0 β 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 β 3 @.@ 6 ft ) . With a few recorded exceptions , juveniles are found in deep water and only adults are present above a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) ; this may serve to reduce predation on young individuals by large , shallow @-@ water predators such as the great white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) . Males mature at a length of 2 @.@ 0 β 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 β 8 @.@ 2 ft ) and females at a length of 3 @.@ 0 β 3 @.@ 5 m ( 9 @.@ 4 β 11 @.@ 5 ft ) . Faint scars seen on some individuals may be related to courtship .
= = Human interactions = =
Encounters with divers have shown that , despite their size , smalltooth sand tigers are docile and do not react aggressively even when closely approached . This species is taken as bycatch in gillnets , bottom trawls , and on longlines ; most captures occur in the Mediterranean and off Japan . It is usually discarded when caught , except in Japan where the meat is consumed ( though considered very inferior to the grey nurse shark ) and the liver oil is utilized . The fins , jaws , and cartilage are also of value .
Discoveries , beginning in the 1970s , of smalltooth sand tigers in shallow water have raised urgent conservation concerns , as this species is apparently more vulnerable to human activity than previously believed . There is at present insufficient data for the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess the worldwide conservation status of this species . It has been assessed as Vulnerable in Australian waters , due to a decline of over 50 % in catches off New South Wales since the 1970s . Populations of this species in the Mediterranean are also believed to have declined , due to a combination of habitat degradation , overfishing , pollution , and human disturbance . The smalltooth sand tiger has been protected by the Australian government since 1984 ; this came about concurrently with protection for the grey nurse shark , which had been decimated in Australian waters , so as to prevent any claims of confusing one species for the other . However , these regulations have proven difficult to enforce .
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= Stuart Scott =
Stuart Orlando Scott ( July 19 , 1965 β January 4 , 2015 ) was an American sportscaster and anchor on ESPN , most notably on SportsCenter . Well known for his hip @-@ hop style and use of catchphrases , Scott was also a regular for the network in its National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and the National Football League ( NFL ) coverage .
Scott grew up in North Carolina , and graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . He began his career with various local television stations before joining ESPN in 1993 . Although there were already accomplished African @-@ American sportscasters , his blending of hip hop with sportscasting was unique for television . By 2008 , he was a staple in ESPN 's programming , and also began on ABC as lead host for their coverage of the NBA .
In 2007 , Scott had an appendectomy and learned that his appendix was cancerous . After going into remission , he was again diagnosed with cancer in 2011 and 2013 . Scott was honored at the ESPY Awards in 2014 with the Jimmy V Award for his fight against cancer , less than six months before his death in 2015 at the age of 49 .
= = Early life = =
Scott was born Stuart Orlando Scott in Chicago , Illinois on July 19 , 1965 to O. Ray and Jacqueline Scott . When he was 7 , Scott and his family moved to Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina . Scott had a brother named Stephen and two sisters named Susan and Synthia .
He attended Mount Tabor High School for 9th and 10th grade and then completed his last two years at Richard J. Reynolds High School in Winston @-@ Salem β graduating in 1983 . In high school , he was a captain of his football team , ran track , served as vice president of the student government , and was the Sergeant at Arms of the school 's Key Club . Scott was inducted into the Richard J. Reynolds High School Hall of Fame during a ceremony on February 6 , 2015 . The ceremony took place during the Reynolds / Mt . Tabor ( the two high schools that Scott attended ) basketball game .
He attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , where he was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity and was part of the on @-@ air talent at WXYC . While at UNC , Scott also played wide receiver and defensive back on the club football team . In 1987 , Scott graduated from the University of North Carolina with a Bachelor of Arts in speech communication . In 2001 , Scott gave the commencement address at UNC where he implored graduates to celebrate diversity and recognize the power of communication .
= = Career = =
Following graduation , Scott worked as a news reporter and weekend sports anchor at WPDE @-@ TV in Florence , South Carolina from 1987 until 1988 . Scott came up with the phrase " as cool as the other side of the pillow " while working his first job at WPDE . After this , Scott worked as a news reporter at WRAL @-@ TV 5 in Raleigh , North Carolina from 1988 until 1990 . WRAL Sports anchor Jeff Gravley recalled there was a " natural bond " between Scott and the sports department . Gravley described his style as creative , gregarious and adding so much energy to the newsroom . Even after leaving , Scott still visited his former colleagues at WRAL and treated them like family .
From 1990 until 1993 , Scott worked at WESH , an NBC affiliate in Orlando , Florida as a sports reporter and sports anchor . While at WESH , he met ESPN producer Gus Ramsey , who was beginning his own career . Ramsey said of Scott : " You knew the second he walked in the door that it was a pit stop , and that he was gonna be this big star somewhere someday . He went out and did a piece on the rodeo , and he nailed it just like he would nail the NBA Finals for ESPN . " He earned first place honors from the Central Florida Press Club for a feature on rodeo .
= = ESPN = =
Al Jaffe , ESPN 's vice president for talent , brought Scott to ESPN2 because they were looking for sportscasters who might appeal to a younger audience . Scott became one of the few African @-@ American personalities who was not a former professional athlete . His first ESPN assignments were for SportsSmash , a short sportscast twice an hour on ESPN2 's SportsNight program . After Keith Olbermann left SportsNight for ESPN 's SportsCenter , Scott took his place in the anchor chair at SportsNight . After this , Scott was a regular on SportsCenter . At SportsCenter , Scott was frequently teamed with fellow anchors Rich Eisen , Steve Levy , Kenny Mayne , Dan Patrick , and others . Scott was a regular in the This is SportsCenter commercials .
In 2002 , Scott was named studio host for the NBA on ESPN . He became lead host in 2008 , when he also began at ABC in the same capacity for its NBA coverage , which included the NBA Finals . Additionally , Scott anchored SportsCenter 's prime @-@ time coverage from the site of NBA post @-@ season games . From 1997 until 2014 , he covered the league 's finals . During the 1997 and 1998 NBA Finals , Scott did one @-@ on @-@ one interviews with Michael Jordan . When Monday Night Football moved to ESPN in 2006 , Scott hosted on @-@ site coverage , including Monday Night Countdown and post @-@ game SportsCenter coverage . Scott previously appeared on NFL Primetime during the 1997 season , Monday Night Countdown from 2002 to 2005 , and Sunday NFL Countdown from 1999 to 2001 . Scott also covered the MLB playoffs and NCAA Final Four in 1995 for ESPN .
Scott appeared in each issue of ESPN the Magazine , with his Holla column . During his work at ESPN , he also interviewed Tiger Woods , Sammy Sosa , President Bill Clinton and President Barack Obama during the 2008 presidential campaign . As a part of the interview with President Barack Obama , Scott played in a one @-@ on @-@ one basketball game with the President . In 2004 , per the request of U.S. troops , Scott and fellow SportsCenter co @-@ anchors hosted a week of programs originating from Kuwait for ESPN 's SportsCenter : Salute the Troops . He hosted a number of ESPN game and reality shows , including Stump the Schwab , Teammates , and Dream Job , and hosted David Blaine 's Drowned Alive special . He hosted a special and only broadcast episode of America 's Funniest Home Videos called AFV : The Sports Edition .
= = = Style = = =
While there were already successful African @-@ American sportscasters , Scott blended hip @-@ hop culture and sports in a way that had never been seen before on television . He talked in the same manner as fans would at home . ESPN director of news Vince Doria told ABC : " But Stuart spoke a much different language ... that appealed to a young demographic , particularly a young African @-@ American demographic . " Michael Wilbon wrote that Scott allowed his personality to infuse the coverage and his emotion to pour out .
Scott also integrated pop culture references into his reports . One commentator remembered his style : " he could go from evoking a Baptist preacher riffing during Sunday morning service ( ' Can I get a witness from the congregation ? ! ' ) , to quoting Public Enemy frontman Chuck D ( ' Hear the drummer get WICKED ! ' ) In 1999 , he was parodied on Saturday Night Live by Tim Meadows . Scott appeared in music videos with the rappers LL Cool J and Luke , and he was cited in " 3 Peat " , a Lil Wayne song that included the line : " Yeah , I got game like Stuart Scott , fresh out the ESPN shop . " In a 2002 segment of NPR 's On the Media , Scott revealed one approach to his anchoring duties : " Writing is better if it 's kept simple . Every sentence doesn 't need to have perfect noun / verb agreement . I 've said ' ain 't ' on the air . Because I sometimes use ' ain 't ' when I 'm talking . "
As a result of his unique style , Scott and ESPN received a lot of hate mail from people who resented his color , his hip @-@ hop style , or his generation . In a 2003 USA Today survey , Scott finished first in the question of which anchor should be voted off SportsCenter , but he also was second to Dan Patrick in the ' definitely keep him ' voting . Jason Whitlock criticized Scott 's use of Jay @-@ Z 's alternate nickname , " Jigga " , at halftime of Monday Night Football as ridiculous and offensive . Scott never changed his style and ESPN stuck with him .
= = = Catchphrases = = =
Scott became well known for his use of catch phrases , following in the SportsCenter tradition begun by Dan Patrick and Keith Olbermann . He popularized the phrase booyah , which spread from sports into mainstream culture . Some of the catchphrases included :
" Boo @-@ Yah ! "
" Hallah "
" As cool as the other side of the pillow "
" He must be the bus driver cuz he was takin ' him to school . "
" Holla at a playa when you see him in the street ! "
" Just call him butter ' cause he 's on a roll "
" They Call Him the Windex Man ' Cause He 's Always Cleaning the Glass "
" You Ain 't Gotta Go Home , But You Gotta Get The Heck Outta Here . "
" He Treats Him Like a Dog . Sit . Stay . "
" And the Lord said you got to rise Up ! "
" Make All the Kinfolk Proud ... Pookie , Ray Ray and Moesha "
" It 's Your World , Kid ... The Rest of Us Are Still Paying Rent "
" Can I Get a Witness From the Congregation ? "
" Doing It , Doing It , Doing It Well "
" See ... What Had Happened Was "
= = = Legacy = = =
ESPN president John Skipper said Scott 's flair and style , which he used to talk about the athletes he was covering , " changed everything . " Fellow ESPN Anchor , Stan Verrett , said he was a trailblazer : " not only because he was black β obviously black β but because of his style , his demeanor , his presentation . He did not shy away from the fact that he was a black man , and that allowed the rest of us who came along to just be ourselves . " He became a role model for African @-@ American sports journalists .
= = Personal life = =
Scott was married to Kimberly Scott from 1993 to 2007 . They had two daughters together , Taelor and Sydni . Scott lived in Avon , Connecticut . At the time of his death , Scott was in a relationship with Kristin Spodobalski . During his Jimmy V Award speech , he told his teenage daughters : " Taelor and Sydni , I love you guys more than I will ever be able to express . You two are my heartbeat . I am standing on this stage here tonight because of you . "
= = = Eye injury = = =
Scott was injured when he was hit in the face by a football during a New York Jets mini @-@ camp on April 3 , 2002 , while filming a special for ESPN , a blow which damaged his cornea . He received surgery but afterwards suffered from ptosis , or drooping of the eyelid .
= = = Appendectomy and cancer = = =
After leaving Connecticut on a Sunday morning in 2007 for Monday Night Football in Pittsburgh , Scott had a stomachache . After the stomachache worsened , he went to the hospital instead of the game and later had his appendix removed . After testing the appendix , doctors learned that he had cancer . Two days later , he had surgery in New York that removed part of his colon and some of his lymph nodes near the appendix . After the surgery , they recommended preventive chemotherapy . By December , Scott β while undergoing chemotherapy β hosted Friday night ESPN NBA coverage and led the coverage of ABC 's NBA Christmas Day studio show . Scott worked out while undergoing chemotherapy . Scott said of his experience with cancer at the time : " One of the coolest things about having cancer , and I know that sounds like an oxymoron , is meeting other people who 've had to fight it . You have a bond . It 's like a fraternity or sorority . " When Scott returned to work and people knew of his cancer diagnosis , the well @-@ wishers felt overbearing for him as he just wanted to talk about sports , not cancer .
The cancer returned in 2011 , but it eventually went back into remission . He was again diagnosed with cancer on January 14 , 2013 . After chemo , Scott would do mixed martial arts and / or a P90X workout regimen . By 2014 , he had undergone 58 infusions of chemotherapy and switched to chemotherapy pills . Scott also went under radiation and multiple surgeries as a part of his cancer treatment . Scott never wanted to know what stage of cancer he was in .
= = = Jimmy V Award = = =
On July 16 , 2014 , Scott was honored at the ESPY Awards , with the Jimmy V Award for his ongoing battle against cancer . He shared that he had 4 surgeries in 7 days in the week prior to his appearance , when he was suffering from liver complications and kidney failure . Scott told the audience , " When you die , it does not mean that you lose to cancer . You beat cancer by how you live , why you live , and in the manner in which you live . " At the ESPYs , a video was also shown that included scenes of Scott from a clinic room at Johns Hopkins Hospital and other scenes from Scott 's life fighting cancer . Scott ended the speech by saying , " Have a great rest of your night , have a great rest of your life . "
= = Death = =
On the morning of January 4 , 2015 , Scott died of cancer in his home in Avon , Connecticut , at age 49 .
= = = Tributes = = =
ESPN announced : " Stuart Scott , a dedicated family man and one of ESPN 's signature SportsCenter anchors , has died after a courageous and inspiring battle with cancer . He was 49 . " ESPN released a video obituary of Scott . Sports Illustrated called ESPN 's video obituary a beautiful and moving tribute to a man who died " at the too @-@ damn @-@ young age of 49 . " Barack Obama paid tribute to Scott , saying :
I will miss Stuart Scott . Twenty years ago , Stuart helped usher in a new way to talk about our favorite teams and the day 's best plays . For much of those twenty years , public service and campaigns have kept me from my family β but wherever I went , I could flip on the TV and Stu and his colleagues on SportsCenter were there . Over the years , he entertained us , and in the end , he inspired us β with courage and love . Michelle and I offer our thoughts and prayers to his family , friends , and colleagues .
A number of National Basketball Association athletes β current and former β paid tribute to Scott , including Stephen Curry , Carmelo Anthony , Kobe Bryant , Steve Nash , Jason Collins , Shaquille O 'Neal , Magic Johnson , Dwyane Wade , LeBron James , Michael Jordan , Bruce Bowen , Dennis Rodman , James Worthy and others . A number of golfers paid tribute to Scott : Tiger Woods , Gary Player , David Duval , Lee Westwood , Blair O 'Neal , Jane Park and others . Other athletes paid tribute including Robert Griffin III , Russell Wilson , Jon Lester , Lance Armstrong , Barry Sanders , J.J. Watt , David Ortiz and Sheryl Swoopes . UNC basketball coach Roy Williams called him a " hero . " Arizona Cardinals head coach Bruce Arians said : " We lost a football game but we lost more this morning . I think one of the best members of the media I 've ever dealt with , Stuart Scott , passed away . "
Colleagues Hannah Storm and Rich Eisen gave on @-@ air remembrances of Scott . On SportsCenter , Scott Van Pelt and Steve Levy said farewell to Scott and left a chair empty in his honor . Tom Jackson , Cris Carter , Chris Berman , Mike Ditka and Keyshawn Johnson from NFL Countdown shared their memories of Scott .
During his acceptance speech for his 2015 Sports Emmy Award for Best Studio Host , Ernie Johnson , Jr. and gave his award to Scott 's daughters , saying it " belongs with Stuart Scott " . At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , Scott was included in the " in memoriam " segment , a rare honor for a sports broadcaster .
= = Filmography = =
He Got Game ( 1998 )
Disney 's The Kid ( 2000 )
Drumline ( 2002 )
Love Don 't Cost A Thing ( 2003 )
Mr. 3000 ( 2004 )
Herbie : Fully Loaded ( 2005 )
The Game Plan ( 2007 )
Enchanted ( 2007 )
Just Wright ( 2010 )
= = Television = =
Arli $ $ ( 2000 )
I Love the ' 80s ( 2002 )
Soul Food ( 2003 )
She Spies ( 2005 )
I Love the ' 70s ( 2003 )
One on One ( 2004 )
Stump the Schwab ( 2004 β 06 )
Dream Job ( 2004 )
Teammates ( 2005 )
I Love the ' 90s ( 2004 )
I Love the Holidays ( 2005 )
I Love Toys ( 2006 )
Black to the Future ( 2009 )
= = Publications = =
Scott , Stuart ; Platt , Larry ( 2015 ) . Every Day I Fight . Blue Rider Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 399 @-@ 17406 @-@ 3 .
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= K @-@ 34 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 34 is a 29 @.@ 26 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 47 @.@ 09 km ) state highway in southwestern Kansas that runs from U.S. Route 160 ( US @-@ 160 ) and US @-@ 183 near Ashland to US @-@ 400 near Bucklin . It is one of the lesser @-@ traveled highways in the state and is not part of the National Highway System . It is a two @-@ lane road for its entire length .
K @-@ 34 was originally designated in southeastern Kansas , running through Neodesha . The designation was moved to southwestern Kansas in 1937 , replacing the old K @-@ 41 designation . The highway formerly ran to the Oklahoma border via a concurrency with US @-@ 183 . The designation was shortened in 1993 to its current routing .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 34 begins at an intersection with US @-@ 160 and US @-@ 183 east of Ashland in Clark County . It heads north through rolling farmland along a two @-@ lane road . A series of curves takes the highway northeast , after which the route straightens out to the north and crosses Bluff Creek before intersecting a road which , prior to 1965 , carried K @-@ 34 . It continues due north and enters Ford County . North of the county line and south of Bucklin , K @-@ 34 takes the name 132 Road . The route turns to the northwest as it crosses Day Road and enters the city of Bucklin .
After entering the city , K @-@ 34 curves to the north and becomes Main Street . In the northern portion of Bucklin , the route turns southwest and overlaps U.S. Route 54 for a short distance . Following the short concurrency , K @-@ 34 turns to the north and passes under a railroad operated by Union Pacific . The highway twists to the northwest and leaves Bucklin , meeting its northern terminus a few miles farther to the northwest at an intersection with US @-@ 400 .
K @-@ 34 is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . The route 's annual average daily traffic in 2012 was about 570 vehicles , including 240 trucks , south of Bucklin . North of the city , there was significantly more traffic . There were 1010 vehicles , and 285 trucks , from Bucklin to the highway 's northern terminus . No segment of the highway is part of the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's defense , economy , and mobility .
= = History = =
K @-@ 34 was first designated before 1932 in Wilson and Montgomery counties . That route began at K @-@ 96 and ran east to K @-@ 16 . Around 1936 , another segment of the route was designated in Cherokee County , east of the rest of the route , from Crestline to the Missouri state line . In 1937 , the portion of the western segment of the route located west of US @-@ 75 was re @-@ designated as K @-@ 37 , the eastern segment of the route was renumbered as K @-@ 26 , and K @-@ 34 was re @-@ designated in the southwestern portion of the state from the Oklahoma state line to its current northern terminus . The segment of the highway north of US @-@ 160 replaced the former K @-@ 41 designation .
At the time of its designation , not all of K @-@ 34 was paved . The segment in Ford County and the concurrency with US @-@ 160 was paved , but all other segments were either gravel or dirt . By 1948 , all of the route was paved except a small portion in Comanche and Clark counties , which was still gravel . No dirt segments remained by 1948 .
In 1965 , the K @-@ 34 designation was realigned so that it extended straight north from the intersection with US @-@ 160 and US @-@ 183 instead of overlapping those highways and traveling east . This realignment caused the route to bypass Comanche County entirely , and by 1967 , the whole highway was paved . In 1993 , the concurrency with US @-@ 183 was removed from the route . The route has not been modified since 1993 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Lillesand β Flaksvand Line =
The Lillesand β Flaksvand Line ( Norwegian : Lillesand β Flaksvandbanen ) or LFB was a 16 @.@ 59 @-@ kilometer ( 10 @.@ 31 mi ) railway between Flaksvand ( now called Flaksvatn ) and Lillesand in Aust @-@ Agder , Norway . The private line was built with 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge and was not connected to the national railway network . The line opened on 4 June 1896 , and remained in use until 15 June 1953 . It was built to carry lumber , but also featured a passenger service and other cargo transport . After 1908 , the line was unprofitable and only had a limited service . Plans to connect it to the SΓΈrland Line were proposed but rejected . The line had four stations and four halts , and was served with two 75 kilowatts ( 100 hp ) steam locomotives , Lillesand and Flaksvand . The line was owned and operated by the private company , A / S Lillesand β Flaksvandbanen , although nearly all the shares were held by local municipalities , the county and the national government .
= = Route = =
The 16 @.@ 59 @-@ kilometer ( 10 @.@ 31 mi ) line was built at a minimum standard and as cheaply as possible . It had 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge , with the steepest gradien at 3 @.@ 33 percent , a minimum curve radius of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) and a track weight of 60 kilograms per meter ( 145 lb / yd ) . The line had four stations : Lillesand , Tveide , Birkeland and Flaksvand . In addition , there were four halts between Lillesand and Tveide : Stene , MΓΈglustu , Storemyr and Eikeland .
In addition to the main line , there were 11 branches and spurs , totaling 1 @,@ 550 metres ( 5 @,@ 090 ft ) . At Lillesand Station , there was a station building , a wagon depot , a locomotive depot and tracks to the docks . At MΓΈglestu , there was an extra parallel track and at Sandvad , there was a branch to a gravel pit . Extra tracks were laid at Storemyr for parking of wagons and at Ydderstad , there was a spur to load lumber . At Eikeland there three spurs , including one 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) long to a stone quarry . At Jordbruna , there was a spur for loading lumber , and at Tveite , there were three spurs , of which two went to the sand pit at Moelva and one to Myhre TorvstrΓΈfabrikk . North of Tveite , there was a spur to leave part of the train if the locomotive needed to take two trips to get up the hill . At Birkeland Station , there were two extra tracks , one for stationing cargo trains and one to the sawmill . At Flaksvand Station , there were five tracks , of which three were at the station , one to the sawmill and for loading lumber .
In Lillesand , the right @-@ of @-@ way has been converted to a road around the city center , although parts have been converted to a pedestrian path . Other parts have been reverted to agricultural land . From Storemyr , the route went through a forest , and has become an overgrown forestry road . From Eikeland to Tveite , the line has been converted to a hiking trail . At Birkleland , there are few remains of the line , although when leaving the village , part of the line is used as a pathway . Further along , the route is disused , but fenced in . The station buildings at Tveite and Flaksvand have been kept , the building at Lillesand has been preserved , while the station at Birkeland was dismounted because it was in the way of a new road .
= = History = =
Public debate about constructing a railway from Lillesand up the valley following the river Torvdalselven started in the mid @-@ 1880s . At the time , lumber was being floated down the river , but low levels of water was causing irregular operations and the piling of lumber in Flaksvand . In 1889 , the government for received an application for a concession . Costs were estimated at NOK 462 @,@ 000 and the line was passed by the Parliament of Norway on 22 June 1891 . At the same time , the line received a state funding of NOK 200 @,@ 000 . Half of this was share capital , the other half was a subsidy . Aust @-@ Agder County Municipality also gave a grant of NOK 20 @,@ 000 , and bought shares for the same amount . Of the share capital of NOK 417 @,@ 350 , NOK 850 was from private investors and the rest from municipalities . The largest owner was Lillesand Municipality , who bought shares for NOK 181 @,@ 000 . Concession was granted by royal resolution on 31 August 1892 , and lasted 30 years from the date of the opening of the railway .
Construction was subcontracted to Nicolay Nicolaysen Sontum of Bergen . Without any machines , the whole line was built by hand using tools and explosives . The line opened on 4 June 1896 . Two steam locomotives from SΓ€chsische Maschinenfabrik were delivered in May 1895 and given the names Lillesand and Flaksvand . The locomotives weighed 15 tonnes ( 15 long tons ; 17 short tons ) and had a power output of 75 kilowatts ( 101 hp ) . Three passenger cars were bought along with 34 freight cars . Most of the rolling stock remained in use until the closing of the line , at which time they were scrapped . The initial service was two daily round trips , shortly afterwards increasing to three . The peak freight transport was reached in 1902 , when 53 @,@ 207 tonnes ( 52 @,@ 367 long tons ; 58 @,@ 651 short tons ) were transported . It fell rapidly , and from 1906 it was never higher than 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 long tons ; 22 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Also the passenger traffic fell , with the peak reached in 1900 , when the line had 26 @,@ 000 passengers . In addition to lumber , an important customer was Myhre TorvstrΓΈfabrikk , which produced peat .
By 1908 , the railway was losing money , of which two @-@ thirds was covered by the state and one @-@ third by the municipalities . During the planning of the SΓΈrland Line , it was proposed that the Lillesand β Flaksvand Line be converted to standard gauge and extended to Oggevatn , allowing the two lines to connect . Other proposals involved extending the line from Flaksvand to Vennesla and from Lillesand to Roresand . In 1928 , the operating company , A / S Lillesand β Flaksvandbanen , started a parallel bus route . By 1930 , only 845 passengers were transported by rail , with ridership falling further in the following years . By then , there was only a single , combined freight and passenger round trip per day . From 2 March 1942 , this was reduced to when needed , and eventually transport was only done during summer . In 1951 , the railway transported 269 passengers and 4 @,@ 915 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 837 long tons ; 5 @,@ 418 short tons ) . The last train ran on 15 June 1953 , and the line was officially closed on 1 July .
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= Susannah Constantine =
Susannah F Constantine ( born 3 June 1962 in Hammersmith , London ) is an English fashion journalist , advisor , television presenter , author and designer . Her second book , entitled What Not to Wear , has won her a prestigious British Book Award and sold 670 @,@ 000 copies .
Constantine was born into a wealthy family ; her father was successful in property and shipping sectors . She was privately educated as a child and went on to date British royalty , David , Viscount Linley , during the 1980s . Constantine has been involved in fashion for a long period , originally working in America for Giorgio Armani and then John Galliano in London . She met Trinny Woodall in 1994 who both proceeded to write a weekly fashion column , Ready to Wear . They founded Ready2shop.com , a dot @-@ com fashion advice business , and wrote their first fashion advice book in 2000 , Ready 2 Dress , both of which failed . From there they were commissioned to BBC Two to host the style series , What Not to Wear , from 2001 to 2005 . She made regular appearances as a style advisor on The Oprah Winfrey Show and following her success on the shows , she went on to co @-@ host Trinny & Susannah Undress ... on ITV in 2006 and Undress the Nation in 2007 . Constantine and Woodall have now dressed over 5 @,@ 000 women .
She has co @-@ written many fashion advice books with Woodall , some of which have become best @-@ sellers in the United Kingdom and United States . It is estimated that her various style advice books have sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies in Britain and the United States . Constantine and Woodall have designed their own clothing range for Littlewoods which made its debut in 2007 , followed by the release of their latest fashion advice book , The Body Shape Bible .
= = Education = =
Constantine was privately educated at boarding schools including Queen 's Gate School in South Kensington , London and the Β£ 20 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ year St Mary 's School in Wantage , Oxfordshire which was run by Anglican nuns . Her time at St Mary 's School was described by herself as " miserable " due to her homesickness and insecurity , meaning she was not able to make friends . She was first sent to boarding school at the age of 11 years , and recalls her first night away from home : " I sobbed uncontrollably into my pillow . "
In mid @-@ 2007 , Constantine spoke about how she received a letter from St Mary 's School , inviting her to come back to the school to talk about her career and success to current pupils . Constantine immediately declined the offer with a four @-@ letter refusal and wrote " No fucking way " on the letter she had received . Her personal assistant , who was left to deal with the situation , wrongly sent the original letter of invitation ( containing Constantine 's hand @-@ written note ) back to the school . The school then wrote a letter back , stating that she is not welcome near the school .
= = Early career = =
Constantine originally did a year of Montessori training after she had left school but she then moved onto other projects such as studying sculpture in Brussels . She later said of this time that she " lost [ her ] virginity , went a bit mad . " Constantine had taught children for three years , and also worked as a shop girl for Harrods . She found the job , in her own words , " boring " and even tried shoplifting for the sake of excitement , but she has since expressed admiration for shop girls . Constantine 's love for horses had inspired her to become a mounted policewoman in London , but was deterred when she found she was required to do four years walking the beat . She wrote a book about present giving , which prompted The Daily Telegraph to write a hostile article implying she had never done a day 's work in her life , something which deeply upset her . She has stated defiantly " I 've always worked . "
She is now best known as a fashion guru and style advisor . Her fashion career started when she worked for many years as a shop girl in America for Giorgio Armani . She later came back to London with the hope of securing a job with Armani but ended up working for designers such as Richard James , Patrick Cox , Alistair Blair and John Galliano which gained her an even greater understanding of fashion , providing an in depth knowledge of how a garment progresses from a sketch . She then started working with the British Brain and Spine Foundation and consequently met the sports editor of The Daily Telegraph . Whilst doing a piece for GMTV , he asked Constantine to report the women 's World Cup Final in cricket on finding out that it was her passion . She proceeded to write about cars and then fashion .
In 1994 , she first met Trinny Woodall at a party hosted by David , Viscount Linley . Though they did not like each other at first , the two women proceeded to write Ready to Wear , a weekly style guide for The Daily Telegraph which ran successfully for seven years . The column promoted affordable high @-@ street fashion and they used themselves to illustrate which clothing suited which figure . Constantine and Woodall also became the co @-@ founders of Ready2shop.com , a dot @-@ com , but the business venture failed , and investors subsequently lost a reputed Β£ 10 million . It was during their time running the internet business that they had a serious argument that almost ended their friendship .
Constantine made her television debut when Granada Sky Broadcasting signed her and Woodall to present a daytime shopping show called Ready to Wear , and they soon released their first fashion advice book , Ready 2 Dress in 2000 . The book was unsuccessful and resulted in the pulping of 13 @,@ 000 copies . Soon after the start of their television career , they secured a frequent makeover slot on the show Richard & Judy . It ensured that they had further exposure in television and gained attention from Jane Root , controller of BBC Two , who took a risk and signed them up after their book venture and their internet business had failed badly .
= = Television = =
= = = 2001 β 03 = = =
Constantine began co @-@ hosting What Not to Wear with Trinny Woodall in 2001 , which required using her fashion advice and expertise in order to reform participants ' appearances and fashion style . Constantine and Woodall hosted What Not to Wear until 2005 and became renowned for their tactile behaviour with the participants , direct advice , and frequently referring to breasts as tits which has become something of a trademark . Never one to hold back , a notorious moment arose when Constantine spontaneously pulled a female candidate 's underwear down during filming as her knicker line was visible . Critics of What Not to Wear argued that the duo were too patronising to their subjects , a claim which they strongly disagree with . Constantine said that the comments come " from the heart " , and insists that their subjects " see we have a genuine love of women . We love women and they can see that . Women just know . " She also stated " Ultimately , what we 're doing is giving people confidence . We 're probably the only people who have an opinion , who care how ordinary people dress . No one at Vogue magazine gives a shit . They work with the designers , it 's more creative and artistic β they are creating something beautiful . But they don 't care about how their readers end up looking β whereas we do ! " The show made Constantine and Woodall household names and they are now known together as Trinny and Susannah . One reporter has simply referred to Constantine as " the one with ' big tits ' . " Constantine and Woodall have even considered taking insurance out on their partnership should something unforeseen happen , although Constantine was against the move .
Constantine has the belief that " anyone can achieve style . It doesn 't matter who you are or where you 're from . " She also says that she finds dressing other women easy , but finds it difficult when dressing herself . Constantine and Woodall share the belief that dressing to flatter body shape is vital , stating " For us , it β s all about shape , and how that is going to cure a bodily defect . We β re like clothing doctors . "
During her time co @-@ hosting What Not to Wear for five series , she and Woodall gained recognition for their work on the show , winning a Royal Television Society Award in 2002 for being the best factual presenters . In 2002 , Constantine advised Jeremy Clarkson on a celebrity version of What Not to Wear . After Clarkson appeared on the show , Nasir Khan stated " I 'd rather eat my own hair than shop with these two [ Constantine and Woodall ] again " . Adding to its success , the show was nominated for the Features Award at the BAFTAS in both 2002 and 2003 . On the show Big Impression , impressionist Ronni Ancona took to spoofing Constantine 's presenting techniques on What Not to Wear , just one of the shows on which Constantine 's character has been spoofed .
For charity , in 2002 during the BBC 's Children in Need programme , both Constantine and Woodall performed their own version of Madonna 's hit single " Vogue " with a group of celebrity backing singers . They became the faces of NescafΓ© in 2003 in which they were featured in television advertisements promoting the brand of coffee . As part of their contract , Constantine and Woodall gave a NescafΓ© competition winner a Β£ 10 @,@ 000 makeover .
= = = 2004 β 05 = = =
Following its ratings success , What Not to Wear was promoted from BBC Two to BBC One in 2004 , and secured even larger audiences . The format was changed slightly , to a 60 @-@ minute show with two makeovers instead of a 30 @-@ minute show with only one makeover and also saw Constantine spending a day as one of her subjects . What Not to Wear soon gained her international fame when it was aired in countries such as Spain and Portugal as well as in the American continent .
Constantine appeared on Children in Need in 2004 , which included a special segment in which she gave the fictional EastEnders characters Little Mo and Mo Harris a makeover in the style of What Not to Wear , commenting on them with her usual " no nonsense " approach . In 2005 , Constantine voiced a robot version of herself in the science fiction series , Doctor Who . In the episode " Bad Wolf " , Trine @-@ e and Zu @-@ Zana were two robots acting out a deadly futuristic version of What not to Wear , offering a makeover to Jack Harkness in a most gruesome form .
The Oprah Winfrey Show has also seen Constantine and Woodall appearing regularly as a makeover and style experts giving fashion advice and guidelines on how to better overall appearances and giving numerous American women fashion makeovers . They also did an " Oprah bra and swimsuit intervention " . Reflecting on differences in women 's style and willingness to submit to makeovers between the UK and America , she stated that although there is not much difference , " The Americans are slightly less adventurous , " and that " American women are more open to change and slightly more receptive victims . "
= = = 2006 β present = = =
In 2006 , Constantine and Woodall moved from the BBC to ITV in a deal reputedly worth Β£ 1 @.@ 2 million to start a new show , Trinny & Susannah Undress ... , on 3 October . The second series of Trinny & Susannah Undress ... was transmitted in June 2007 , and it maintained the format of series one which saw Constantine and Woodall advising couples who were finding problems within their marriage .
Constantine found it warming that people could open up to them as confidantes , and also said " It 's been fascinating to see how looking good and having faith in your appearance makes you into a sexier person , which makes you attractive to your partner again . " Constantine stated in an interview that filming the show was very emotionally draining , and as a result , she often went home crying . The programme did not come without its critics who questioned the depth at which Constantine and Woodall could deal with serious issues raised during the programme . On 16 October 2006 , they both appeared on NBC 's The Today Show and performed makeovers on three women especially for the show .
The new series on ITV saw a change in format , confronting the main fashion issues in Britain . In one episode exploring the theme of age , Constantine was transformed into a seventy @-@ year @-@ old with the use of prosthetics and makeup . She stated that it took her four days to get over the sight of herself aged so drastically , and compared the feeling to having an " electric shock " . Broadcasting was scheduled for 7 November 2007 and the programme is newly entitled Trinny & Susannah Undress The Nation . On 5 November and 28 December 2007 Constantine and Woodall appeared on Good Morning America and performed makeovers on three women for the show and gave style advice according to the women 's shapes . They also reported on the fashion at the 80th Academy Awards especially for the show in 2008 . Constantine and Woodall have dressed over 5 @,@ 000 women as of 2007 . With reference to their personal website , they state that their satisfaction remains with the many women they have helped and inspired and not so much with the success of book sales and viewing figures .
In 2003 , when Constantine and Woodall were interviewed for the first time on Parkinson , actress Meg Ryan had a controversial interview with Michael Parkinson , which resulted in negative publicity for Ryan . Parkinson said that he felt Ryan 's behaviour to his fellow guests Constantine and Woodall , whom she turned her back on , was " unforgivable " .
In 2015 Constantine flew to Australia to compete in the fifteenth series of I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here . She became the first to be eliminated after having the fewest votes on 27 November 2015 .
= = Beyond television work = =
To coincide with Constantine 's move from the BBC to ITV1 in 2006 , she co @-@ launched an underwear range with Woodall called " Trinny and Susannah Magic Pants " . Made of nylon , they 're designed to flatten the tummy , buttocks and thighs . Constantine even wore them after giving birth to her third child . She currently co @-@ writes a weekly column for The Sun with Woodall .
= = = Online = = =
In 2010 , Constantine and Woodall starred in an online mockumentary series called " Trinny and Susannah : What They Did Next " .
An announcement was made that Constantine and Woodall would be touring New Zealand and Australia where they made a series of public appearances at shopping malls owned by the Westfield Group to perform live styling sessions for the company 's customers . Their appearances often attracted thousands of spectators . Before the tour , Constantine said " We don 't know how New Zealanders dress but we are looking forward to getting over there and finding out . "
= = = Littlewoods = = =
With Woodall , Constantine became the face of the home shopping company , Littlewoods Direct , after orders rose by thirty per cent when Littlewoods sponsored their ITV programme Trinny & Susannah Undress . The pair produced a twelve @-@ page fashion advice section within the Littlewoods catalogue and made a booklet called The Golden Rules , which was distributed to all Littlewoods customers with fashion advice to suit a range of body shapes . They have also produced online style guidelines for Littlewoods .
The first series of Littlewoods television advertisements featured Constantine and Woodall as themselves dressed as two agents trying to rob a Littlewoods designer warehouse , which was followed by Christmas adverts in 2007 . The Β£ 12 million advertising campaign is one of largest ever for a home shopping and internet @-@ based company . Since the campaign began , Littlewoods ' sales have risen by 18 per cent , with brand awareness and customers visiting the website rising as well .
On 20 September 2007 , Constantine and Woodall launched their own exclusive Littlewoods women 's clothing range which consists of trousers , coats and tops which like their underwear range , are designed to make certain areas appear slimmer . A series of eight dresses , cashmere knitwear , faux fur and sequinned shrugs also feature in the range . She commented " If you want to create a waist , there 's a dress that 's going to do that for you too . We 've designed it very much around the female body . " She also stated " It 's not about what size you are , it 's about how you can minimise or accentuate parts of your body with clothing . That 's what we 've created . "
= = = Books = = =
Constantine has co @-@ written several style advice books with her fashion partner Trinny Woodall , which have sold over an estimated 2 Β½ million copies worldwide . The fashion advice books have been number one bestsellers in Britain and the United States , appearing on both the Sunday Times bestseller list and The New York Times best @-@ seller list , and have been translated throughout the world .
Their most successful book to date , What Not to Wear , was published in 2002 which displayed striking chapters such as " Big Tits " , " No Tits " and " Big Bum " with fashion advice for each category . It became an instant best @-@ seller with total sales reaching 670 @,@ 000 copies , consequently outselling Jamie Oliver and Nigella Lawson . Before the prime book selling season , their book had sold 250 @,@ 000 copies in Britain . The book was at one point selling 45 @,@ 000 copies each week and sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in just fifteen weeks , eventually making sales worth Β£ 8 @.@ 7 million . Other success with the book includes winning a British Book Award in 2003 for the TV & Film Book of the Year . Despite the book becoming an instant hit , Constantine and Woodall were only given an advance of Β£ 10 @,@ 000 . It was then reported that Constantine and Woodall secured a Β£ 1 million book deal to write more of their fashion books .
The pair 's latest book , The Body Shape Bible , was published on 18 September 2007 . Through a survey about different body shapes conducted amongst women , Constantine and Woodall were able to discover the twelve most common women 's body shapes . They used this information to write The Body Shape Bible which highlights these twelve shapes which have all been named in ways such as ' cornet ' or ' brick ' . In the fashion advice book , women can interpret which shape they are , and can then be given adequate fashion advice on their own individual shape . A few pages in the book are also devoted to illustrating some of Constantine and Woodall 's own fashion disasters .
= = Personal life = =
Constantine grew up in an old priory in the Leicestershire village of Knipton and went hunting from the age of seven . She had a close relationship with her sister Annette Constantine and her father , Joseph Constantine , who was successful in the property and shipping sectors , was an Old Etonian pupil and served in the Coldstream Guards . When she was young , Constantine would rely on her father for fashion advice and has commented that any style that she has , she learned from him . He was a talented artist and was offered worldwide art exhibitions , although he was too modest to accept . His death came suddenly and was a milestone for Constantine .
Constantine became a fixture in 1980s British gossip columns and newspapers as the result of her relationship with Princess Margaret 's son , David , Viscount Linley which lasted for eight years . Princess Margaret thought highly of Constantine and even called her " my daughter @-@ in @-@ law " . Constantine admitted that her relationship with Linley undeniably opened doors for her , but after they broke up , she was keen to put the episode behind her and become well known in her own right . She has also had a relationship with Pakistan cricket captain Imran Khan , but she is now married to Danish entrepreneur and businessman Sten Bertelsen , who launched Death cigarettes , and with whom she has three children ; Joe , Esme and CeCe . Constantine and her family bought a 120 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) property in Sussex . Constantine is estimated to be worth Β£ 5 million .
After having her first child , Constantine suffered from severe postnatal depression and panic attacks . Upon discovering that she was pregnant for a third time , as well as being overcome with delight , she felt despair as it came at a time when best friend Trinny Woodall was struggling to conceive and undergoing IVF treatment . In an interview Constantine said that she " couldn 't bear to tell her . " A short time later however , Woodall became pregnant .
Constantine has spoken of the pressure to look good in public but affirms " We 're as much in the business of dressing ourselves β but more importantly helping other women to do that . " Constantine has admitted to a fear of growing older : " I just don 't want to get old . Old women are invisible , and I don 't want to be invisible , " she has said .
In 2002 , while on a visit to the Cannes Film Festival , Constantine and Woodall were the victims of gem thieves . The thieves broke into the villa on the French Riviera where they were staying , rendered Constantine and Woodall unconscious with chloroform , and then continued to steal money and jewellery . Carol Vorderman was involved in a feud with Constantine and Woodall in 2003 . Vorderman commented harshly about the double @-@ act , referring to them as ' Tranny and the Horse ' , based on their appearance , after they had called her an " overdone Eighties nightmare " and named Vorderman in their list of the 20 worst @-@ dressed celebrities .
= = = Views = = =
In August 2014 , Constantine was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run @-@ up to September 's referendum on that issue .
= = Television appearances = =
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= The Boat Race 1901 =
The 58th Boat Race took place on 30 March 1901 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge had won the previous year 's race by twenty lengths . This year 's race , umpired by former rower Frank Willan , was won by Oxford by two @-@ fifths of a length in a time of 22 minutes 31 seconds . Oxford 's crew featured five former Blues while Cambridge just one . It was the Dark Blues ' first win three years and the slowest winning time since 1877 . The victory took the overall record in the event to 33 β 24 in favour of Oxford .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1900 race by twenty lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 24 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and C. K. Philips who had represented Oxford four times between 1895 and 1898 . Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue between 1886 and 1890 and John Ernest Payne ( two @-@ time Blue in 1899 and 1900 ) . The umpire for the race for the twelfth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater wrote that the Dark Blues " created a sensation " when they elected to row in a boat designed by Felix Warre , based on that built by Matthew Taylor of Newcastle upon Tyne for the 1857 race . Of the crew , Drinkwater remarked " the material of which [ they were ] built was second class , but behind Culme @-@ Seymour a , and coached by Mr. Gold ... they attained very nearly to first @-@ class pace " . The Cambridge crew suffered illness in practice and in a late reorganisation , " the crew received a set @-@ back from which they never really recovered . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 2 @.@ 675 lb ( 77 @.@ 2 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 62 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew contained a single rower with Boat Race experience in their number three , boat club president Bertram Willes Dayrell Brooke . Conversely , Oxford saw five former Blues return to the boat , including rower Warre and cox Gilchrist Maclagan who were making their third appearance in the event . All of the participants in the race were registered as British . Seven of the nine Cambridge crew members were studying at Trinity College .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Heavy rainstorms and strong wind from the south @-@ west made for inclement conditions for the race . Willan started the race at 10 : 31 a.m. and Oxford , taking advantage of the bend in the river , gradually drew away from their opponents to hold a half @-@ length lead by the Mile Post . The Cambridge stroke Graham Macdowall Maitland spurted to ensure that the crews were level by the time they passed Harrods Furniture Depository . Oxford 's stroke rate dropped as they conceded ground to the Light Blues around the long side of the bend and dropped in behind them . Despite being closer to the shore , the water was still very rough and Cambridge struggled .
However , Oxford found it impossible to move out into the rougher water to pass Cambridge and settled behind the Light Blues until near to Barnes Bridge where Maclagan moved and Culme @-@ Seymour simultaneously spurted . As a result , they began to overlap the Cambridge , and with the bend of the river in their favour , they levelled the race as the crews passed Mortlake Brewery . Encountering more rough water , Cambridge were unable to respond and Oxford passed the finishing post two @-@ fifths of a length ahead , in a time of 22 minutes 31 seconds . It was the Dark Blues ' first win in three years , and the slowest winning time since the 1877 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 33 β 24 in favour of Oxford .
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= Small @-@ toothed sportive lemur =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur ( Lepilemur microdon ) , or small @-@ toothed weasel lemur , is a primate species in the family Lepilemuridae that β like all lemurs β is endemic to Madagascar . The species lives in dense rainforest in southeastern Madagascar , and can be found in Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks . Described in 1894 , it was considered either a subspecies or taxonomic synonym of the weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus ) throughout most of the 20th century . Phylogenetic studies not only support its species status , but also suggest that it is the only eastern Malagasy sportive lemur that is more closely related to western than to other eastern species .
According to the original description , some of its teeth are smaller than those in other sportive lemurs . It is relatively large for a sportive lemur , and is difficult to visually distinguish from the weasel sportive lemur . The species weighs between 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) and measures 55 to 64 cm ( 22 to 25 in ) from head to tail . Its fur is mostly reddish @-@ brown or chestnut color , with a dark stripe running from its head down its back . Its underside and neck are lighter in color . Like other sportive lemurs , it is nocturnal , sleeping in concealed tangles of vegetation as well as tree holes . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is solitary and eats leaves , fruits , and flowers .
Due to recent taxonomic changes and a lack of clarity about its population size and range , it is listed as " Data Deficient " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It is also protected from international commercial trade under CITES Appendix I. Its primary threats are habitat loss to slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and hunting .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur or small @-@ toothed weasel lemur , a member of the sportive lemur genus ( Lepilemur ) , was first described in 1894 by Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major , based on a specimen found in the Ankafana Forest in the eastern districts of the former Betsileo province in central Madagascar . Although Forsyth Major did not explicitly state the origins of either the scientific name or the vernacular name , he did note that it had smaller molar teeth relative to other sportive lemurs . The species name microdon is derived from the Ancient Greek micro- , meaning " small " and -odon , meaning " tooth . "
Until the 1990s , there was some dispute over the taxonomic status of the species . For much of the 20th century , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was considered a subspecies of the weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus ) . In his book The Primates of Madagascar from 1982 , primatologist Ian Tattersall deviated from the traditional view by considering L. microdon a synonym of the weasel sportive lemur , while also recognizing only a single species of sportive lemur . Tattersall based his decision on what he considered to be a lack of detailed anatomical studies and field surveys , while also factoring in the difficulty in observing the animals in the wild , the presence of only subtle variations among museum specimens , and his own unwillingness to consider differences in karyotypes as grounds for defining distinct species . However , primatologist Russell Mittermeier , et al. in Lemurs of Madagascar ( 1994 ) , taxonomist Colin Groves in Mammal Species of the World ( 2005 ) , and others favored recognizing the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur as a species while also recognizing a total of seven sportive lemur species .
A cytogenetic ( chromosome ) study by Nicole Andriaholinirina , et al. published in 2005 added strong support to the species status of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur by demonstrating that its karyotype was distinct from all other sport lemur species . The species has 24 chromosomes ( 2n = 24 ) ; the autosomal pairs ( not sex chromosomes ) include eight that are meta- or submetacentric ( where chromosome arms are equal or unequal in length , respectively ) and three smaller acrocentric pairs ( with the shorter chromosome arm difficult to observe ) . Both the X and Y chromosomes are acrocentric . The study also showed that the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was the sportive lemur species most genetically distinct from the weasel sportive lemur , despite their similar appearance . A total of 18 chromosomal rearrangements distinguished the two species , indicating that if the two shared the same range , hybrids would be either completely sterile or suffer greatly reduced fertility .
In September 2006 , Edward E. Louis , Jr . , et al. announced the discovery of 11 new species of sportive lemur based on mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) data . Each new species resulted from the splitting of existing species . In the case of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur , the population at Kalambatritra Reserve became known as Wright 's sportive lemur ( Lepilemur wrightae ) , the population as Andohahela National Park became Fleurete 's sportive lemur ( L. fleuretae ) , the population in Fandriana became Betsileo sportive lemur ( L. betsileo ) , and the population at Manombo Reserve became James ' sportive lemur ( L. jamesorum ) . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur remains a distinct species , while even more species have since been described , though none within its range .
Between 2006 and 2009 , three studies were published to resolve the phylogenetic relationships between the sportive lemurs . Cytogenetic and molecular studies in 2006 and 2008 concluded that the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is most closely related to the Milne @-@ Edwards ' sportive lemur ( Lepilemur edwardsi ) . In 2009 , a study examined every known species , including the species most recently described , using two pieces of mtDNA : the D @-@ loop and an array of genes known as the PAST fragment . The resulting data placed the sportive lemurs into four groups : Section A from northern and northwestern Madagascar , section B from northwestern Madagascar , section C from west central and southern Madagascar , and section D from eastern Madagascar . Only the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur generated conflicting results when comparing the results between the mtDNA and D @-@ loop data . The PAST data placed it in section B , while the D @-@ loop data placed it in section C. The relationship between the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur , an eastern Malagasy species , and a group of species from the west coast of Madagascar suggests that the ancestral population of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur dispersed to its current range from western Madagascar using river corridors . However , the conflicting data about the relationship of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur to either section B or section C render the precise dispersal route uncertain .
= = Description = =
Compared to other sportive lemurs , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is relatively large , weighing between 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) and measuring 55 to 64 cm ( 22 to 25 in ) from head to tail . Its head @-@ body length is 27 to 32 cm ( 11 to 13 in ) , and its tail measures between 25 and 29 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 and 11 @.@ 4 in ) . The species is nearly identical in coloration to the weasel sportive lemur and it is almost impossible to separate the two in the field , except on the basis of geography . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur has a dark stripe in the center of its forehead that lightens as it runs down the back . Its pelage ( fur ) is thick and reddish @-@ brown , while its underside and neck are pale gray @-@ brown , and sometimes have a yellowish or yellowish @-@ gray hue . The shoulders and forelimbs have a bright chestnut color . The color darkens to russet between the shoulders , down to the hind @-@ limbs and tail . The tail is darkest at the tip . Some individuals are reported to have a characteristic collar of white fur .
Like all sportive lemurs , they can easily be confused with woolly lemurs ( genus Avahi ) , and sometimes with the much smaller dwarf lemurs ( genus Cheirogaleus ) . Unlike the woolly lemurs , sportive lemurs have prominent ears , and they lack the white patches usually found on the thighs of woolly lemurs . All sportive lemurs have long legs compared to their arms and trunk and the face is covered with short hairs .
According to a review by Henry Ogg Forbes in 1894 , the species differs from other sportive lemurs β as its name suggests β by having significantly smaller molar teeth . Forbes also claimed that compared with the weasel sportive lemur , its bony palate is longer and it has a depression at the base of the nasal ( nose ) region . Like other sportive lemurs , the cecum ( beginning of the large intestine ) is enlarged , presumably to handle its leaf @-@ rich diet , which is more characteristic of larger primates .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is found in inland southeastern Madagascar , ranging from Ranomafana National Park southwest to Andringitra National Park . The Namorona River acts as the northern border of its range , and the Manampatrana River may act as a southern border , where the species seems to be replaced by the James ' sportive lemur . Further studies are needed to clarify its range and relationship with other sportive lemurs in southeastern Madagascar . The species inhabits dense rainforest .
A preliminary study at Ranomafana National Park in 1995 indicated the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur may avoid competing with woolly lemurs for food ( interspecific competition ) by living in more disturbed areas of the park . Woolly lemur population density ( and thus competition for food ) appeared to affect the species distribution more than the availability of sleep sites .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Like all sportive lemurs , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is nocturnal , sleeping in tree cavities or hidden tangles of vines and leaves during the day . The species is considered solitary , and like other rainforest @-@ dwelling sportive lemurs , they vocalize significantly less than sportive lemurs that live in drier forests . Other similarities with the rest of the sportive lemur species include its diet of leaves , fruits , and flowers , its low resting metabolic rate , and its low activity rate .
In general , predators of sportive lemurs include diurnal birds of prey and carnivores , such as the fossa . The only recorded instance of predation on the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was by a Henst 's goshawk ( Accipiter henstii ) .
= = Conservation = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is listed under CITES Appendix I , which prohibits international commercial trade . The IUCN originally listed the species as " Lower Risk " , first in 1996 under the sub @-@ classification " least concern " , and then in 2000 under the sub @-@ classification " near threatened " . Prior to the taxonomic changes that resulted in many new species of sportive lemur , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was considered to have a widespread distribution , but its range is now thought to be more restricted . During its 2008 assessment , its population size , geographic range , and other factors were unclear , resulting in the classification " Data Deficient " . Given the known threats the species faces , and as its distribution becomes better known , the IUCN states that the species may merit " Threatened " status in the future .
Like many species of lemur , it is threatened with habitat loss from slash and burn agriculture and by increasing hunting pressure . It is hunted with spears and is also captured when trees with sleeping holes are cut down . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is known to occur in both Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks , although it may also be found in Midongy du sud National Park . However , this national park is at the extreme southern end of its geographic range , and the sportive lemurs there may actually represent a population of Fleurete 's sportive lemur .
According to the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) , no small @-@ toothed sportive lemurs were maintained in captivity as of 2009 .
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= Riverview Theater =
The Riverview Theater is a neighborhood movie theater in the Howe neighborhood of Minneapolis , Minnesota . Designed by Liebenberg and Kaplan , the theater was built by theater owners Bill and Sidney Volk in 1948 . After building a subsequent theater in a new ultramodern style , the Volks returned to the Riverview in 1956 and had its lobby area heavily renovated and updated . The Riverview remains one of several surviving single @-@ screen cinemas in the Minneapolis β Saint Paul area and typically shows second @-@ run films for $ 2 or $ 3 , as well as other special programming . Since the early 2000s , it has been consistently recognized by City Pages as one of the best movie theaters in the area .
= = History = =
The Lithuania @-@ born Volk brothers , Bill and Sidney , came to Minnesota in the early 1920s and got involved in the movie business by purchasing neighborhood theaters during the Great Depression . In 1946 , the Volks initiated what the publication Greater Amusements called a " theater @-@ building orgy " when they received a permit from the Minneapolis City Council to build the first new theater in Minneapolis in twelve years in spite of the protests of other theater managers . The Riverview was designed by architectural firm Liebenberg and Kaplan and built in 1948 in the Streamline Moderne style . It opened December 30 , 1948 , with a showing of June Bride . The single @-@ screen theater utilized stadium seating , making it one of the earlier movie theaters to do so .
Three years later , the Volks again called on Liebenberg and Kaplan to construct the Terrace Theater in Robbinsdale , Minnesota , " one of the first ultramodern theaters in America " , and considered by author Larry Millett to be " their masterpiece " . Pleased with the results ( and the industry @-@ bucking receipts ) , the Volks turned back to the Riverview and had Liebenberg and Kaplan remodel it to reflect the successful Terrace model . This occurred in 1956 , eight years after the theater 's initial construction . The new lobby space was intended to reflect a living room and even included a separate TV lounge . Amenities were ample : " Dunbar tables , McCobb stools , Herman Miller divans and chairs , walnut panels imposed on light wood , graceful modern lamps , stunning draperies . " Inside the theater space , however , little changed about the proscenium stage and seating .
The Riverview became one of the few remaining single @-@ screen theaters in the Minneapolis β Saint Paul area ; by the end of the 1980s , it was one of only six left , and after 1998 , it was one of only four left , with the Uptown and Parkway Theaters and the Oak Street Cinema , although since 1998 , several new single @-@ screen theaters β the Trylon Microcinema and the Heights Theater β have opened . The owners installed new seats in 1999 that allowed for greater leg room and more space between patrons .
= = Contemporary status = =
The Riverview is located in Minneapolis 's Howe neighborhood and seats over 700 patrons . It typically shows second @-@ run films for between $ 2 β 3 per ticket and its concessions are also " much cheaper than at the suburban multiplexes " . Sometimes , other events are shown , including midnight movies , sporting events , film festivals , and political events such as Barack Obama 's first inauguration in 2009 . Take Up Productions , operator of the nearby 50 @-@ seat Trylon Microcinema , sometimes uses the Riverview for screenings too large for the Trylon to accommodate . The theater won City Pages ' Best Budget Movie Theater award in 2000 , 2004 , and 2005 , and the Best Movie Theater award every year from 2006 to 2014 except 2011 and 2012 . The Riverview 's lobby remains largely unchanged from its 1956 renovation .
= = = Cited = = =
Berger , Todd R. ( July 17 , 2008 ) . Insiders ' Guide to the Twin Cities ( 6th ed . ) . Guilford , CT : Globe Pequot Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7627 @-@ 4788 @-@ 9 .
Kenney , Dave ( November 1 , 2007 ) . Twin Cities Picture Show : A Century of Moviegoing . Saint Paul , MN : Minnesota Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87351 @-@ 595 @-@ 5 .
Millett , Larry ( May 15 , 2007 ) . AIA Guide to the Twin Cities : The Essential Source on the Architecture of Minneapolis and St. Paul . Saint Paul , MN : Minnesota Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87351 @-@ 540 @-@ 5 .
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= Dusky woodswallow =
The dusky woodswallow ( Artamus cyanopterus ) , is a bird species of forests and woodlands in temperate and subtropical regions , extending into tropical areas around the Atherton Tableland , in eastern and southern Australia . The global population of the species has as yet not been formally confirmed , but it has been officially rated in the range of ' Least Concern ' , according to the BirdLife International in 2004 . As such , the bird could be described as common in its local habitat .
The name " woodswallow " is a misnomer as they are not closely related to true swallows . Instead , they belong to the family Artamidae , which also includes butcherbirds , currawongs and the Australian magpie .
= = Taxonomy = =
The dusky woodswallow was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 with the binomial name Loxia cyanoptera . Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words cyanos ' blue ' and pteron ' wing ' .
= = Description = =
The dusky woodswallow is medium @-@ sized and swallow @-@ like , with a dark brown hue , but there have been instances where the bird has appeared grey . The birds have a black patch in front of the eyes , and grey ( sometimes also black ) wings with white streaks on them . The dusky woodswallow has a black , white @-@ tipped tail with a silver underwing . The birds have a blue @-@ grey bill capped with black . Dusky woodswallows are known to spontaneously ' wag ' or swivel their tales fervently , a trait which is common among many other species of woodswallow .
= = = Relations to other woodswallows = = =
In a significant difference from other woodswallows , dusky woodswallows have a distinctive white patch on the outer wing . Dusky woodswallows also seem to typically be more smoky brown than other species of woodswallow . The little woodswallow , a smaller , darker woodswallow is also slightly more smoky brown that other woodswallows , but that is the only similarity that the latter has with the dusky woodswallow ; the little woodswallow does not share a white patch on the outer wing .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The birds live primarily in open eucalyptus forests and woodlands . They range mostly from Atherton Tableland , Queensland , down to Tasmania and west to Eyre Peninsula , in South Australia . They roost communally , usually nocturnally . During the breeding season , they nest in large flocks to make sure to keep predators away from young . These flocks can be 20 @-@ 30 dusky woodswallows in size .
Dusky woodswallows adhere to seasonal migration and movements . The birds are a nomadic species , and tend to move quite spontaneously . However , one certain change of habitat occurs for the south @-@ eastern birds , who migrate northward for Autumn .
Communally roosting birds , the dusky woodswallow has a variety of chattering calls which are used in certain situations . The most distinctive of these calls is perhaps the one which is used when a predator or intruder approaches , which consists of a harsh mobbing call to warn others .
= = Feeding and diet = =
The diet of the bird can be varied . They eat various forms of foliage and other grassy material that they find on the ground on in trees and shrubs . Dusky woodswallows have been seen eating termites , butterflies and other insects . They also eat nectar from flowers . One notable aspect of their feeding habits is the way they hunt flying insects , which is done by picking them up on their wing . They do , however , also eat their prey from the ground , and they often find inconspicuous places to perch while waiting for prey , such as utility lines and the like . They have also been observed engaging in kleptoparasitism , working as a group to rob a restless flycatcher of its prey . Kleptoparasitism is extremely unusual in passerine birds , as is cooperative kleptoparasitsim in general .
= = Breeding = =
The nest of the dusky woodswallow consists of twigs , roots and other similar foliage matted together to form a bowl shape , which is lined with grass . It is positioned safely , behind bark , and / or high in a tree branch , and sometimes in a hollowed out tree stump . The nest is made during the period from August to January , and with the help of several birds . The mated pair will then guard the nest , while others will help them take care of the babies . The female lays white eggs , of which there are usually no more than three or four . While the incubation period lasts for sixteen days , the amount of time taken for fledgling can be this long to around twenty days . The typical clutch is three to four in size , but this may vary .
= = Conservation status = =
The dusky woodswallow has a very large range . The population size of this bird has not yet been quantified or estimated . It is , however , expected to be as populous as other birds within its densest range labeled ' common ' . Because of this , the dusky woodswallow is evaluated to be of Least Concern ( LC ) . This classification may change with new evidence , so is not to be taken with complete accuracy .
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= Operation Royal Flush =
Operation Royal Flush was a military deception employed by the Allied Nations during the Second World War as part of the strategic deception Operation Bodyguard . Royal Flush was a political deception which expanded on the efforts of another Bodyguard deception , Operation Graffham , by emphasising the threat to Norway . It also lent support to parts of Operation Zeppelin via subtle diplomatic overtures to Spain and Turkey . The idea was that information from these neutral countries would filter back to the Abwehr ( German Intelligence ) . Planned in April 1944 by Ronald Wingate , Royal Flush was executed throughout June by various Allied ambassadors to the neutral states . During implementation the plan was revised several times to be less extreme in its diplomatic demands . Information from neutral embassies was not well trusted by the Abwehr ; as a result , Royal Flush had limited impact on German plans through 1944 .
= = Background = =
Operation Royal Flush formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the Normandy landings . Royal Flush developed a series of political misdirections in mid @-@ 1944 to support other deceptions between June and July . It evolved from Operation Graffham , a political deception aimed at Sweden between February and March 1944 .
Graffham was suggested and planned by the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) with the aim of convincing the Swedish government that the Allies intended to invade Norway , in support of Operation Fortitude North . During the war Sweden maintained a neutral position , and had relations with both Axis and the Allied nations . It was therefore assumed that if Sweden believed in an imminent threat to Norway this would be passed on to German intelligence . Graffham was envisioned as an extension of existing pressure the Allies were placing on Sweden to end their neutral stance . By increasing this pressure the head of the LCS , Colonel John Bevan , hoped to further convince the Germans that Sweden was preparing to join the Allied nations .
Royal Flush was also intended to support Operation Zeppelin , the 1944 overall deception plan for the Middle Eastern theatre . Zeppelin developed threats against Greece and Southern France between February and July . Its intention was to tie up German defensive forces in the region during the period of D @-@ Day .
= = Operation = =
Royal Flush was planned in April 1944 by Ronald Wingate , deputy controller of the LCS . His theory was based on the idea that the Allied nations might rely on forms of help from neutral countries following any invasions . Having seen the implementation of Operation Graffham , and with the deceptions aimed at Scandinavia and the Mediterranean , he chose Sweden , Turkey and Spain as the targets . For Sweden this was the continuation of Graffham , with demands from the US , UK and Russia that the Germans be denied access to the country following an Allied invasion of Norway . In the case of Turkey this was built on existing pressure , applied from the outset of the war , to join the Allied nations .
In Turkey the plan called for diplomatic pressure on 8 June 1944 , following the Normandy Landings , to allow the Allied forces access to Turkey for the purposes of staging an invasion of Greece ( in support of the story of Zeppelin ) . At the same time the Russians would make a similar request of Bulgaria . However , it was agreed that this risked a pre @-@ emptive invasion of Turkey by German forces . Instead , the Allies took advantage of German warships being permitted , in June , access to Turkish territorial waters to transit to the Aegean Sea . A complaint to the Turkish government emphasised the Allies ' interest in the Balkans and that they did not wish to see the Germans reinforcing the region .
On 3 June , Spain was approached by the US ambassador with a request to use Spanish ports for evacuating the wounded , following landings in southern France . Originally the plan had been to request access for the purposes of staging the initial invasion . However , this was toned down in light of historical resistance to any foreign occupation of Spanish soil as well as the implausibility of invading France via the Pyrenees . On 5 June the British ambassador reinforced the request , and after some discussion the Spanish government agreed but only after an invasion had occurred , and under the supervision of the Red Cross . To emphasise the change in objective , the Allies followed this up with Operation Ferdinand which threatened an invasion in Italy .
= = Impact = =
Information from neutral countries , such as those targeted by Royal Flush , had limited impact on German plans . In July 1944 a report by the Abwehr identified these countries as " outspoken deception centres " . To make matters worse for the Allies , these political deceptions were not as tightly controlled as the double agents , and so as an overall information channel they could be confusing and disjointed .
The complaint to Turkey had a desired effect locally , with an apology from the country 's government and a commitment to breaking diplomatic ties to Germany if required . However , it failed to elicit a response from Germany . The Allies ' request to the Spanish government was relayed to the Germans , but identified almost immediately as deception and misdirection .
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= 1941 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1941 Atlantic hurricane season was the period during 1941 in which tropical cyclones formed in the Atlantic Basin . It was a relatively inactive hurricane season , with only six known storms . It officially began on June 16 , 1941 , and lasted until November 1 , 1941 . These dates delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic basin . Of the six cyclones , four attained hurricane status , and three became major hurricanes . The active season had an abnormally late start ; the first system formed on September 11 , nearly three months after the official beginning date . The season was also short @-@ lived , as all six storms developed in rapid succession . On September 23 , three hurricanes existed simultaneously in the Atlantic basin .
In total , the season resulted in about 63 fatalities and over $ 10 million in damages . The first and last storms of the season were largely insignificant , although the second , fourth , and fifth storms had considerable effects . Two hurricanes struck the United States : a major hurricane that struck Texas and Louisiana in late September , disrupting the Louisiana Maneuvers , and Hurricane Five , which made two landfalls in Florida , the first of which was near Miami at Category 2 intensity , inflicting widespread damage . Another major storm β Hurricane Four β traversed the Caribbean before striking the Nicaragua β Honduras border at Category 4 intensity , leaving 47 men dead at sea .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the 1941 season formed on September 11 in the northern Gulf of Mexico . This was an abnormally late start to an Atlantic hurricane season : only on two other occasions between 1887 and 1941 had no storms developed prior to September 11 . The storm moved slowly in a generally westward direction for the next few days , peaking as a moderate tropical storm with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It then weakened until it made landfall along the northern Texas coast between Galveston and Port Arthur as a tropical depression , where it caused only minor damage . Near 0600 UTC on September 16 , the storm deteriorated into a depression , and dissipated a few hours later .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Little more than a day after the first storm of the season dissipated , a tropical depression formed on September 17 in the central Gulf of Mexico about 120 mi ( 190 km ) north of the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula . Upon forming , the system began moving generally northward . Early on September 18 , the system developed into a tropical storm more than 300 mi ( 480 km ) to the south @-@ southeast of New Orleans , Louisiana . Over the next three days , the intensifying storm executed a gradual clockwise loop , moving to the south @-@ southeast before turning back to the west . After intensifying to a Category 1 hurricane on September 21 , the storm began assuming a more northwestward course , toward the Texas Gulf Coast . It continued to strengthen into a major hurricane , peaking at 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) late on September 23 . About four hours later , at about 22 UTC , the storm went ashore east of Bay City , Texas , on September 23 . The estimated minimum central pressure fell to as low as 942 millibars ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) . It curved towards the northeast , passing just east of Houston , and accelerated as it continued to move inland . The cyclone transitioned into an extratropical storm on September 25 , and was last recorded at 00 UTC on September 27 over northeastern Quebec , near the Torngat Mountains National Park .
Warnings and advisories declared in response to the storm were widely distributed , and approximately 25 @,@ 000 people in the area evacuated their homes . Officials completed various precautionary measures . Wind gusts along the coast reached up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , and high storm tides were recorded . The hurricane inflicted severe damage ; destruction to property was worth an estimated $ 2 million , with an additional $ 5 million in damage to crops , notably rice and cotton . Overall , the cyclone killed four people . The hurricane affected the southern Louisiana region one week before the Louisiana Maneuvers , a prelude to World War II . Heavy rainfall triggered flooding and swelled rivers , and army vehicles became stuck in the mud as a result . The inclement weather forced hundreds of military aircraft to move inland for shelter .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Early on September 18 , squally weather was reported throughout the Atlantic coast of Florida , with indications that a circulation center was present 150 mi ( 240 km ) offshore . It is estimated that a tropical storm had formed at around this time . The cyclone began to intensify as it briefly moved northeastward , before abruptly executing an eastward turn . It attained Category 1 hurricane status on September 19 , and completed a clockwise loop the next day . It then tracked northwestward toward North Carolina , but began to recurve away from land late on September 22 . It weakened into a tropical storm shortly afterward . The system dissipated on September 25 to the south of Nova Scotia . The storm had little or no effect on land , but caused significant delays for North Atlantic shipping . One vessel en route from Curaçao to New York encountered the storm on two separate occasions , recording Force 8 winds on the Beaufort scale both times .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On September 23 , a minor area of disturbed weather was observed about 75 mi ( 121 km ) to the northwest of Barbados . It is estimated that it developed into a tropical storm shortly thereafter . Tracking westward , it passed just south of St. Lucia and emerged into the Caribbean Sea . By September 25 , the storm had reached hurricane strength . Still intensifying , the storm continued generally westward and reached its peak at Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . By late September 27 , the hurricane was situated near Cape Gracias a Dios , Honduras , and accelerated as it moved across the northernmost stretch of the country . It maintained hurricane intensity despite moving over mountainous terrain . After briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras , it moved ashore again in Belize , with winds of up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . Gradually weakening , the storm continued inland and weakened to a tropical storm by September 29 . The storm emerged over the Bay of Campeche as a tropical depression and dissipated on September 30 while over water .
Approximately 47 lives were lost at sea due to the hurricane . The SS Ethel Sakel displayed a " sinking " message on September 25 , about 125 mi ( 201 km ) north of Aruba ; she later went down with 20 of her 33 crew members . Two other ships sent out distress signals , one of which capsized , all hands lost . Damage on land was also extensive , and three people drowned at Cape Gracias , which was largely destroyed by the storm . Coastal flooding in the town was severe . Inland , a ship encountered the calm eye of the cyclone , and the barometric pressure aboard fell to 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) ; the actual pressure at the coast was believed to have been far lower . In Belize , forests sustained major damage . For example , in the Melinda region , high winds brought down about 10 % of the large pines .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
Tropical Storm Five was first observed to the north of the Virgin Islands on October 3 . The storm tracked generally westward on October 4 , strengthening to its peak intensity of 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) at 12 UTC the next day . Now a Category 3 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , the storm struck Cat Island , causing major damage . However , the rapidly moving storm soon weakened as its track bent more to the northwest . At 00 UTC on October 6 , the eye of the storm passed south of Nassau . Ten hours later , the small hurricane struck the north end of Elliott Key , Florida , and then made a second landfall within the hour on the mainland at Goulds , near Homestead . Winds at landfall reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , and the calm eye was reported over Goulds . After moving across southern Florida , the storm had weakened to a strong tropical storm , but then restrengthened as it curved northwestward over the Gulf of Mexico . At about 09 UTC on October 7 , the storm made another landfall along the Florida Panhandle near Carrabelle with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Turning toward the north and northeast , it crossed Georgia and South Carolina , and entered the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 . The storm fully dissipated several days later .
Preparations for the storm were extensive ; residents boarded up homes and businesses , while evacuations were recommended in some coastal areas . In the Bahamas , where winds reached 104 miles per hour ( 167 km / h ) , the storm killed three people . The city of Nassau was struck particularly hard , though damage elsewhere in the islands was also severe , with many homes reported destroyed . In Florida , damage was relatively severe , and included the deaths of several people . High winds brought down trees and power lines , and wind @-@ driven salt water damaged vegetation well inland across Dade County , though the storm was characterized by unusually light rainfall . Storm surge in the Everglades region flooded local streets , particularly at Everglades City . As the storm progressed northward , the city of Tallahassee suffered widespread power outages and damage to numerous vehicles . Throughout the state , the hurricane inflicted $ 675 @,@ 000 ( 1941 USD ) in damages . The cyclone later killed one person in Georgia .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
A tropical storm formed on October 15 , and passed through the southern Bahamas . It crossed the Florida Straits , and reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 20 , after entering the eastern Gulf of Mexico and turning towards the north . It curved northeastward and made landfall at Cedar Key , Florida . After pushing inland , the storm stalled and weakened to a tropical depression on October 21 before dissipating fully the next day .
The storm 's slow forward motion over the state of Florida led to heavy widespread precipitation , locally amounting to 35 in ( 890 mm ) in Trenton , Florida between October 17 and October 22 . Gale @-@ force winds were also reported . Some flood damage occurred throughout the affected locations . An infant was killed following the destruction of a house , possibly related to a tornado spawned by the tropical storm ; the baby 's parents also sustained injuries .
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= Extraordinary Merry Christmas =
" Extraordinary Merry Christmas " is the ninth episode and mid @-@ season finale of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ third overall . Written by Marti Noxon and directed by Matthew Morrison , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on December 13 , 2011 , and features the members of New Directions starring in a black @-@ and @-@ white Christmas television special that is presented within the episode itself .
Nine songs are performed over the course of the episode , eight of which come from the second Glee Christmas soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 . The episode has the same name as an original song on that album , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , which was written for Glee by the show 's executive music producer Adam Anders , song producer Peer Γ
strΓΆm , and Shelly Peiken . The remaining eight songs are covers , and all nine were released as singles . Reviewers generally praised the music in the episode .
Although reviewers were polarized in their views of the episode as a whole , the special within the episode received mostly favorable comments , though the rest of the episode was deemed light on plot . Some aspects of the framing sequences were criticized , such as Rachel 's excessive demands for Christmas presents despite the fact that she is Jewish . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 13 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 β 49 demographic . The total viewership was up marginally from the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " .
= = Plot = =
Sue ( Jane Lynch ) recruits the glee club to sing at a homeless shelter where she will be volunteering to distract her from the first Christmas without her sister Jean , who died earlier in the year . Finn ( Cory Monteith ) tells Rachel ( Lea Michele ) that all he wants for Christmas is her . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) replies that he is also all she wants , but gives Finn ( Cory Monteith ) a long list of Christmas present suggestions . Her dialogue , " All I want is what I have coming to me . All I want is my fair share " is a verbatim homage to Sally 's Christmas list scene with Charlie Brown in the Christmas classic , A Charlie Brown Christmas . Just as Charlie Brown is with Sally , Finn is appalled by how much Rachel wants , though she assures him that five of the items are enough . When she later hints that an early gift would not be amiss , he surprises her with the donation of a sow in her name to needy Africans . Rachel is unhappy , reminds Finn that she is a vegan , and recommends that he stick to her list to avoid embarrassment , while pointedly mentioning earrings .
New Directions celebrates the holidays as Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) sings " All I Want For Christmas Is You " . Rory ( Damian McGinty ) dedicates the song " Blue Christmas " to his family ; this is his first Christmas away from them . Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) offers to take Rory home with him to show him a true American Christmas . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) announces that New Directions has been asked to create a holiday special for the local PBS station , with Artie ( Kevin McHale ) as director . The station manager agrees to Artie 's concept β a black @-@ and @-@ white homage to both Star Wars Holiday Special and the " Judy Garland Christmas Special " , to feature hosts Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) welcoming their friends for suave banter and happy , cheerful songs . Rory will play Itchy the Holiday Elf and recite " Frosty the Snowman " . Sam points out that " Frosty " does not have a happy ending , and that a little sadness is also part of Christmas . Artie only wants to present the " merry " part and will be rewriting Frosty to fit , so Sam decides not to participate . Sue interrupts a rehearsal for the show to reconfirm that New Directions will be singing at the homeless shelter on Friday , but the special is also set for Friday . Artie asks to reschedule , but Sue says they are already expected and is adamant : it must be Friday night . The club members decide to do the broadcast , and Sue leaves in disgust .
Kurt and Blaine lead off the Glee Holiday Spectacular by performing " Let It Snow " , Rachel and Mercedes arrive and sing " My Favorite Things " with their hosts , Finn and Puck ( Mark Salling ) show up as not @-@ quite @-@ real Star Wars characters and perform " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " , and " Christmas Wrapping " is sung by Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , with backup by Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and several Cheerios . When Rory as Itchy arrives , the others are dismayed when he says he will not be reading " Frosty the Snowman " ; he instead reads the biblical nativity story from the Gospel according to Luke .
Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Sam are at the homeless shelter with Sue , helping to serve the rapidly disappearing meal , when New Directions arrives , late , with more food and some presents . The glee club sings " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " for the people there . Back at McKinley , Rachel has a change of heart and names Finn 's gift sow " Barbra " . Finn does give her the earrings she wanted , but she ultimately returns them and he returns the iPod she gave him : they donate the money to the Salvation Army kettle manned by Sam and Rory , and stay to help .
= = Production = =
The episode is the directorial debut of Glee star Matthew Morrison , who plays Will Schuester . He announced that he would be directing an episode " during an acoustic set and Q & A at LA 's Grammy Museum for their Spotlight series " in late September 2011 . He ultimately did not direct the eighth episode as originally planned , but this ninth one instead .
It is also the second annual Glee Christmas episode , with nine songs , eight of which come from the second annual Glee Christmas soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 . The only song that was not included on the album is " My Favorite Things " from the musical The Sound of Music , which was released as a single β as were all the other songs from the episode β and features Michele , Riley , Colfer and Criss . Although Morrison stated in an interview that the episode would include ten songs , one of them , " Santa Baby " , sung by Rivera and previously released on the soundtrack , had to be cut " because the episode was running long " , though a video of it was made available online the week after the episode aired . A scene of Blaine giving a ring to Kurt , shown in promotional photos for the episode , was also cut , and it was reported the night the episode aired that this scene would " be included in the Season 3 DVD " . Instead , a YouTube video containing the scene was tweeted by Ryan Murphy on August 1 , 2012 .
The episode itself has the same name as an original song on that album , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , which was written for Glee by the show 's executive music producer Adam Anders , song producer Peer Γ
strΓΆm , and Shelly Peiken , and is sung on the second Christmas soundtrack album by Michele and Criss , who also perform it in the episode . The episode also includes covers of eight songs , seven of which are from the soundtrack album : Mariah Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You " performed by Riley , Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " sung by McGinty , Joni Mitchell 's " River " performed by Michele , " Let It Snow " sung by Criss and Colfer , " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " performed by Monteith and Salling β but not by Samuel Larsen , who sings the song with them on the album β in the Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band version , The Waitresses ' " Christmas Wrapping " sung by Morris , and the Band Aid fundraiser " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " performed by New Directions . The filming of this last piece , shot on Thanksgiving eve , involved " lots of children " . All proceeds from the cast 's version of " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " will go to the Band Aid Trust Charity .
In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel , Morrison revealed that the episode " features a Christmas special within the episode that 's a throwback and a tribute to the Star Wars Holiday Special and the Judy Garland Christmas Special " , which are " combined in a way " . Lucasfilm Ltd. gave permission for Glee to use the Star Wars character Chewbacca for the sequence ; the actor who currently plays Chewbacca was flown in for a day of filming , though " he doesn 't sing " in the episode .
The episode serves as the mid @-@ season finale . Before the third season started , co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk announced that it would be structured as two " mini @-@ seasons " that mimic school semesters , and this episode ends the fall semester . Filming began on November 10 , 2011 , while the eighth episode , " Hold on to Sixteen " was still shooting ; they continued in parallel through November 21 , 2011 , when episode eight completed filming . " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " completed filming on November 29 , 2011 . Recurring guest stars that appear in the episode are New Directions members Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) and Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was first broadcast on December 13 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 β 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 13 million American viewers during its initial airing , with an identical rating / share and only marginally higher audience compared to the 7 @.@ 11 million viewers of the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " , which was broadcast on December 6 , 2011 . The episode was broadcast that same evening in Canada , where 1 @.@ 46 million viewers watched the episode , the lowest number of viewers for the third season to that point . It was the thirteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down two slots and over 9 % from the 1 @.@ 61 million viewers who watched " Hold On to Sixteen " the previous week .
Viewership increased in the United Kingdom , though it declined in Australia . In the United Kingdom , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was watched on Sky1 two days later by 952 @,@ 000 viewers , growing over 9 % from " Hold On to Sixteen " the week before , when 869 @,@ 000 viewers were watching . In Australia , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was broadcast on February 10 , 2012 . It was watched by 481 @,@ 000 viewers , the lowest of the third season thus far , and Glee was the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from thirteenth the week before . The viewership was down over 15 % from the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " , which was seen by 567 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics were polarized in their reactions to the episode , though most seemed to agree that it was , as The Washington Post 's Jen Chaney put it , " heavy on holiday music and exceedingly light on plot " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called it a " jumbled mess " and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek a " total mess " , though the latter also characterized it as " absurdly entertaining " . Kevin P. Sullivan of MTV said it was " one of the most confusing episodes of Glee ever " . TV Guide 's reviewing team of Denise Martin and Kate Stanhope described it as " oddly mesmerizing , hilarious and kinda weird , even for Glee " , and Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times wrote that " chipper and the sad were in perfect balance and the kitsch factor was high " .
Several reviewers approved of the black @-@ and @-@ white television special that took up half of the episode . Indeed , most of these would rather the episode had consisted entirely of the special : IGN 's Robert Canning regretted that " the good stuff " was bookended with " inconsequential and awkward real world stories " , and Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone " would have preferred " the whole episode to be the show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called the middle segments " a love letter to the Judy Garland specials it honored " and said it was a " bold move " for a series with mainstream youth appeal , and Rae Votta of Billboard thought the " homage was a shining example of what Glee can do when given the leeway to be strange and different " , and was another who wished it could have run the entire episode . Kubicek , on the other hand , was left cold by the " utterly pointless and plotless Christmas special " , and Flandez called the acting during it " haphazard " . The Huffington Post 's Crystal Bell said it was " just as weird as it sounds " , but she , like Fallon , described the special as a " bold move " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club pointed out that while it was a " pitch @-@ perfect parody " of the Judy Garland and Star Wars specials , the inherent problem is that the originals were " already pretty awful " , so that to be " an accurate parody , Glee has to be awful " .
Rachel 's characterization , especially her Christmas greed even though she is Jewish , was singled out for criticism in many reviews . VanDerWerff wrote that the episode " hinged around Rachel being really excited about what she was going to get for Christmas , even though she 's Jewish " , and her end @-@ of episode shout of " Happy Hanukah " a " last minute patch job " to " stay true to the characters as they were at one time " . Sullivan also discussed her characterization and noted that she was " a character who makes a point of her Jewish heritage often " . He added , " she was basically horrible and played against character the entire episode , so she could eventually realize that she was awful and change her ways . " Bell criticized Rachel 's list of gifts , such as " spray tan and teeth whitening " , as " back to square one " after her nose @-@ job storyline in the second season . Finn 's contribution of a charity pig in Jewish Rachel 's honor was deemed " wrong on at least two levels " by Chaney .
A few reviewers were pleased by the new friendship between Rory and Sam . Kubicek said it was " officially my favorite thing from the entire third season of Glee " , and Bell approved , though she said " the writers don 't know how to use " Rory , and was disappointed that his brotherly relationship with Finn had " fizzled " . VanDerWerff singled out Rory 's reading from the bible , which was , as Canning phrased it , " ripped from A Charlie Brown Christmas " when Linus reads the same passage , as one that " irks " him most , " because it takes a perfectly beautiful little moment from a nearly perfect TV special " and makes it a " cutaway gag " .
Sue 's sudden change of behavior in this episode caused Kubicek to ask when she had become " the moral compass on this show " , and Bell wondered , " how does Ryan Murphy expect us to like a character that continually changes " , given that whenever she seems to go " in a new direction , she heads back to her same glee club @-@ hating ways " . Kubicek also made that point that while " Sam and Quinn seemingly did the right thing by choosing the shelter over the special " , the others did eventually show up , which " muddled " the message .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The reviewers generally praised the music in the episode . Votta wrote that " musically this episode was one of the season 's overall strongest " , though Flandez made reference to the " humdrum holiday songs " . Sullivan pointed out that it was " about the songs and only the songs " , and Kubicek felt it was a " blatant " attempt to sell Christmas albums . Chaney noted that the opening number , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , " sounded much more vibrant and fresh with Mercedes " on lead , Futterman called it " utterly joyful " , and it was the favorite song of the episode for Martin and Stanhope . Votta declared that " Amber Riley shines throughout the episode , but none more than here where she commands attention " , and Sullivan called it a " nice rendition " that was nevertheless presented with " some incredibly awkward cuts from the original song " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West wrote that " Rory 's crooning take " of " Blue Christmas " was " smooth and lovely " , and gave it a " B + " , and Flandez agreed with the in @-@ show assessment that it was " mournfully beautiful " . Futterman said that the song " perfectly suits his vocals " , but was unimpressed with Rory " standing awkwardly " through the song ; Michael Slezak of TVLine noted the static staging and filming of the number and gave it a " C " , and while Chaney said he sang it " just fine " , she said he " didn 't sell it " , and gave it a " C + " . Rachel 's rendition of " River " also received divergent assessments . Chaney and Slezak both gave it an " A β " : the former remarked that she " knows how to make the emotion in a song soar " , and the latter said " damn if she didn 't sound amazing " , though he pointed out the incongruity of Rachel having just stated after Rory 's song that uptempo and jolly is the way to go , only to sing this song , which is anything but . VanDerWerff agreed that there was " no good reason for Rachel to sing it " , and Flandez called it a " forgettable version " . Futterman 's conclusion was that " it feels a little phoned in and doesn 't emotionally connect " .
The original song for which the episode is named , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , received mostly decent marks from reviewers : Slezak gave it a " B " and called it " fun but slight " , and Sullivan said it was " okay , which is high praise for a " Glee " original " . Bell noted that " Blaine and Rachel sound great together " , and Martin and Stanhope also praised their " spirited performances " , though they said the song sounded " very generic " . Kubicek was harsher , and wrote that it was an " embarrassingly awful original song " , but while Votta characterized it as " a weird techno jumble " , she also called it " undeniably catchy " .
The opening number of the black @-@ and @-@ white " special " , " Let It Snow " featuring Blaine and Kurt , garnered the most praise . Slezak gave it an " A " and described it as a " jazzy , uptempo take on the seasonal classic with gorgeous harmonies and retro dancing " , and said it rivaled their Christmas duet from 2010 , " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " . While Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger enjoyed the number , she preferred the previous year 's offering ; Flandez called " Let It Snow " an " admirable job " . Futterman characterized it as " both effortless and full of seasonal spirit " , and Votta said it was " a spot @-@ on tribute to male duets of yesteryear with that knowing undercurrent of romance even when it 's not explicit " . Chaney gave it an " A " , but she wondered at the inclusion of the next song , " My Favorite Things " , since it " technically isn 't a holiday song " . The number was also not as well received as many of the others : Bell described it as taking " a turn for the worse " , Hyman noted that it " didn 't do too much for me " , and Kubicek said it " seemed to drag on and on and on with no real purpose " . However , West called it a " wonderful effort " and Slezak wrote that " a little Rodgers and Hammerstein is always welcome at any party " ; both reviewers gave the performance a " B + " .
Finn and Puck 's rendition of " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " was received tepidly . Votta referred to it as " mildly rocking " , and Slezak and Chaney both gave it a " B β " : the former said it was " fun " but " not deeply exciting " and the latter called it " competent " but " unmemorable " . Martin and Stanhope wrote that it " still packs a cheesy and powerful Christmas punch " ; it was their third favorite number . Their second favorite was the next number , " Christmas Wrapping " , sung by Brittany , which Flandez described as " quite good " and Hyman said " could only have been improved by a little more Mike Chang dancing " . VanDerWerff credited Morris with being " a gifted mimic when singing " though he called the performance " listless " , and Slezak , who gave the song an " A β " , wrote " I was just bummed that the song got cut short before my favorite line : ' A & P has provided me with the world 's smallest turkey . ' "
A number of reviewers had a problem with " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " being set in a homeless shelter ; both Hyman and West called it an " odd choice " , and Slezak said he " struggled " with the location . Chaney called the lyrics " condescending " , and found the juxtaposition of the singers ' smiling faces and the phrase " clanging chimes of doom " to be " weird " . The song itself was given good marks : Hyman called it the episode 's " best performance " because " they each brought something special to it " , and Futterman said that New Directions " channels the emotion of the original for a fitting vocal cap to the night " . Both Slezak and West gave it a " B + " , and the former declared that " they sang the bejeezus out of it " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Of the eight cover versions and one original song that were released as singles , one cover debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts : " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " debuted in the US at number ninety @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , and at number eighty @-@ five on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 , which had been released in the US on November 15 , 2011 , was the source of eight of the nine songs β only " My Favorite Things " was not included on that album β and it moved up to number thirteen on the Billboard 200 that same week , its fifth on that chart , having been number nineteen the previous week , though it originally debuted at number six .
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= Prehistoric Orkney =
Prehistoric Orkney refers to a period in the human occupation of the Orkney archipelago of Scotland that was the latter part of these islands ' prehistory . The period of prehistory prior to occupation by the genus Homo is part of the geology of Scotland . Although some written records refer to Orkney during the Roman invasions of Scotland , prehistory in northern Scotland does not end until the commencement of the Early Historic Period around AD 600 .
There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney , especially from the Neolithic period , four of which form a World Heritage Site . There are diverse reasons for the abundance of the archaeological record . The sandstone bedrock provides easily workable stone materials and the wind @-@ blown sands have helped preserve several sites . The relative lack of industrialisation and low incidence of ploughing also have helped to preserve these ancient monuments . Local tradition hints at both a fear and veneration of these ancient structures ( perhaps inherited from the Norse period of occupation ) that may have helped to retain their structural integrity .
Prehistory is conventionally divided into a number of shorter periods but differentiating these various eras of human history is a complex task β their boundaries are uncertain and the changes between them are gradual . The Paleolithic lasted until the retreat of the ice , the Mesolithic until the adoption of farming and the Neolithic until metalworking commenced . A number of the sites span long periods of time and in particular the distinctions between the Neolithic and the later periods are not clear cut . The extraordinary wealth of structures from the Neolithic is not matched either by the early periods , for which the evidence of human occupation is sparse or non @-@ existent , or the later Bronze Age which provides a relative dearth of evidence . The subsequent Iron Age supported a return to monumental building , especially of brochs .
Formal excavations were first recorded in the late 18th century and as they proceeded an understanding of the structures involved progressed from little more than folklore to modern archaeological science . The sites discussed are found on the Orkney Mainland unless otherwise stated .
= = Paleolithic = =
No traces have yet been found in Scotland of either a Neanderthal presence or of Homo sapiens during the Pleistocene interglacials . The first indications of humans occur only after the ice retreated in the 11th millennium BC and the current Flandrian interglacial began . Since that time the landscape of Orkney has been altered by both human and natural forces . Initially , sea levels were lower than at present due to the large volume of ice that remained . This meant that the Orkney islands may have been attached to the mainland , as was the present @-@ day island of Great Britain to Continental Europe . Much of the North Sea basin was also dry land until after 4000 BC . This would have made travel to northern Scotland relatively easy for early human settlers . The subsequent isostatic rise of land makes estimating post @-@ glacial coastlines a complex task .
= = Mesolithic = =
The very limited archaeological record provides scant evidence of Mesolithic life in Orkney in particular and Scotland north of Inverness in general . " Lithic scatter " sites at Seatter , South Ettit , Wideford Hill , Valdigar and Loch of Stenness have produced small polished stone tools and chippings . A charred hazelnut shell , recovered during the excavations at Longhowe in Tankerness in 2007 , has been dated to 6820 @-@ 6660 BC . However , there is no evidence to suggest whether or not these sites were in year @-@ round occupation and no Mesolithic burial sites have been uncovered anywhere in Scotland to date .
A recently excavated site on Stronsay has produced a thousand pieces of flint and what may be evidence of a temporary camp . With a tentative dating of 7000 BC or older it may prove to be the oldest settlement site found so far on Orkney .
About 6000 BC the Storegga Slides of the coast of Norway created a tsunami that reached 25 metres ( 82 ft ) above normal high tides in places . Evidence of widespread coastal inundations from a wave 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high has been found as far south as Fife and the impact on shore @-@ dwelling mesolithic societies in Orkney would have been considerable .
= = Neolithic = =
The assemblage of monumental Neolithic structures in Orkney is without parallel in the United Kingdom and on the Orkney Mainland provides an entire landscape of features from this period . During this time , complex new societies came to the fore that were a radical departure from the earlier hunter @-@ gatherers and which were capable of creating substantial structures . The Neolithic in Scotland lasted from approximately 4000 to 2200 BC and Orkney as a whole has nearly 3 @,@ 000 identified Neolithic sites all told . British archaeologists have often interpreted this era as having two distinct phases ; the Earlier Neolithic dominated by regional styles of pottery and architecture followed by a relatively abrupt change into the Later Neolithic characterised by new traditions found throughout the British Isles that incorporate structures on a grander scale . In the Orcadian context , there are definite developments during the Neolithic , but the changes are gradual and tend to build on earlier ideas rather than appearing to form two distinct periods .
The great Orcadian Neolithic monuments were constructed contemporaneously with the emergence of the Ancient Egyptian culture , more than 500 years before the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza and almost a millennium before the sarsen stones of Stonehenge were erected . At one time it was believed that this flowering of culture was essentially peripheral and that its origins were to be found to the south on mainland Great Britain . However , recently discovered evidence shows that Orkney was the starting place for much of the megalithic culture , including styles of architecture and pottery , that developed much later in the southern British Isles .
= = = Early dwellings and chambered cairns = = =
Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe . Situated on the island of Papa Westray ( which may have been combined with nearby Westray in the early Neolithic ) , the farmstead consists of two adjacent rounded rectangular thick @-@ walled buildings with low doorways linked by a passageway . This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement . Unstan ware pottery pieces were found on the site , which was only discovered in the 1920s when this part of the coastline was exposed by gales and tides .
The Barnhouse Settlement is a cluster of at least fifteen buildings , including one that may have been used for communal gatherings , occupied between 3200 @-@ 2950 BC . The design of the houses , which were built above ground level , includes a central hearth , recessed box beds and stone dressers . There is a network of stone drains leading to a common ditch . Pottery of the grooved ware type , flints and stone tools have been found , as well as three flakes of pitchstone thought to have come from the Isle of Arran .
Skara Brae consists of ten clustered houses and is northern Europe 's most complete Neolithic village . Occupied between 3100 β 2500 the houses are similar to those at Barnhouse , but they are linked by common passages and were built into a large midden containing ash , bones , shells , stone and organic waste . Only the roofs , which were probably supported by timber or whalebone , would have been visible from the outside . In each case the stone dressers were erected so that they dominated the view on entering the house through the low doors and there are elaborate carvings of unknown meaning on some of the stones in the houses and passages . A variety of bone beads , pins and pendants and four carved stone balls were also discovered at the site , which was only revealed after a storm in the winter of 1850 ripped away the grass from a covering sand dune . The existing ruins mostly belong to a secondary phase of building with the foundations of the first phase largely hidden from view .
There are two main types of chambered cairn on these islands : the Orkney / Cromarty type with a burial chamber approached through a low passage and usually divided into " stalls " by upright stone slabs , and the Maeshowe type ( see below ) , which is a later development with a cruciform layout and an elongated passage .
The island of Rousay has a substantial number of prehistoric sites ( see also below ) , including fifteen of such tombs , resulting it becoming known as the " Egypt of the north " . Midhowe Chambered Cairn on the western shore of the island is the finest example . The exterior walls of this large stone burial mound survive to well over head @-@ height and the constituent stones are arranged in a herring bone pattern . The original interior chambers were simple in style and dived into two or three stalls , but were later enlarged to include twelve separate compartments set along a 23 metres ( 75 ft ) passageway . There are other substantial tombs at Blackhammer , Taversoe Tuick , and Yarso . Enlargement and elaboration of burial cairns as the Neolithic progressed is a theme found throughout Scotland , and the move from simple and private tombs to larger structures , some with entrances apparently designed for public gatherings may also be linked to the emergence of landscape @-@ scale ceremonial complexes . Other chambered tombs of significance include those at Unstan and Bookan on the Mainland and Holm of Papa Westray .
Links of Noltland , a site on the north coast of the island of Westray has been excavated since the 1980s . In 2009 a lozenge @-@ shaped figurine was discovered , which may have been carved 2500 @-@ 3000 BC and is believed to be the earliest representation of a human face ever found in Scotland . The face has two dots for eyes , heavy brows and an oblong nose and a pattern of hatches on the body could represent clothing . Archaeologist Richard Strachan described it as a find of " astonishing rarity " .
= = = The Heart of Neolithic Orkney = = =
Skara Brae , Maeshowe , the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness together form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site in the western part of the Orkney Mainland and which was inscribed in 1999 . This small area has provided a rich archaeological heritage in a location that is relatively remote from both the main centres of population in Scotland and from more densely populated parts of Europe . However , it would be a mistake to imagine that because Orkney is so placed today that this was always so . There is a substantial amount of evidence that suggests that a variety of the smaller islands in the British Isles developed an advanced society in the Neolithic that took several centuries longer to develop on the mainland of Great Britain . It is also clear that whilst the flow of ideas and technologies in Britain has often been from the south to the north , that at this time , it is evident that Orkney played a significant role in the development of British Neolithic culture .
There is also the possibility that tribal differences were part of the Neolithic cultural landscape . Unstan Ware pottery is associated with small settlements like Knap of Howar , and stalled tombs such as Midhowe . Grooved Ware pottery on the other hand tends to be associated with larger ' village ' settlements like Skara Brae and Barnhouse , and with Maes Howe style tombs .
= = = = Maeshowe = = = =
Dating from about 3000 BC , Maeshowe is a large chambered cairn and passage grave . " Howe " as an element in a name , from the Old Norse word haugr meaning mound or barrow , is common throughout Orkney . The grass mound hides a complex of passages and chambers built of carefully crafted slabs of sandstone that in scale and accomplishment has few equals in prehistoric Europe . It is aligned so that the rear wall of its central chamber , a rough cube of 4 @.@ 5 cubic metres ( 5 @.@ 9 cu yd ) is illuminated on the winter solstice . It gives its name to the Maeshowe type of chambered cairns , ( see above ) that include other significant sites such as Cuween Hill , Quanterness and Wideford Hill , and at Quoyness on Sanday .
After it fell into disuse during the Bronze Age , Maeshowe was re @-@ opened and used centuries later by Vikings from about the 9th to the 12th centuries AD . The Norsemen left a series of runic inscriptions on the stone walls of the chamber , some of which were left by a group of crusaders in the winter of 1153 β 54 . Over thirty individual inscriptions remain , one of the largest such collections in Europe .
= = = = Ring of Brodgar = = = =
The Ring of Brodgar is a henge and stone circle 104 metres ( 341 ft ) in diameter , originally made of 60 stones ( of which only 27 remain standing ) set within a circular ditch up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep and 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide . Some of the remaining stones are 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) high and it has been estimated that the ditch alone took 80 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct . The ring stands on a small isthmus between the Lochs of Stenness and Harray and it is generally thought to have been erected between 2500 BC and 2000 BC .
Excavations by Orkney College at the nearby Ness of Brodgar site between the Ring and the Stones of Stenness have revealed several buildings , both ritual and domestic and the works suggest there are likely to be more in the vicinity . One structure appears to be 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long by 11 metres ( 36 ft ) wide . Pottery , bones , stone tools and polished stone mace heads have also been discovered . Perhaps the most important find is the remains of a large stone wall which may have been 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long and 4 metres ( 13 ft ) or more wide . It appears to traverse the entire peninsula the site is on and may have been a symbolic barrier between the ritual landscape of the Ring and the mundane world around it .
In 2010 a rock coloured red , orange and yellow was unearthed . Although containers of pigments have been found previously at sites such as Skara Brae , this was the first discovery in Britain , and possibly in Northern Europe , of evidence that Neolithic peoples used paint to decorate their buildings . It is thought that the primitive paint could have been made from iron ore , mixed with animal fat , milk or eggs . Only a week later a stone with a zigzag chevron pattern painted with a red pigment was discovered nearby .
= = = = Stones of Stenness = = = =
The Stones of Stenness are five remaining megaliths of a henge , the largest of which is 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high . The site is thought to date from 3100 BC , one of the earliest dates for a henge anywhere in Britain . The Stones are part of a landscape that evidently had considerable ritual significance for the " Grooved ware people " . The Ring of Brodgar lies about 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) to the north @-@ west , and Maeshowe is a similar distance to the east . Barnhouse is only 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the north .
The existing megaliths were originally part of an elliptical shaped stone circle of 12 stones , about 32 metres ( 105 ft ) in diameter surrounded by a ditch that was 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 7 metres ( 23 ft ) deep and with a single entrance causeway on the north side that faces towards the Barnhouse Settlement . The Watch Stone stands outside the circle to the north @-@ west and is 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) high . Other smaller stones include a square stone like a huge hearth setting in the centre of the circle and this along with the bones of cattle , sheep , wolves and dogs found in the ditch suggest ritual sacrifice and feasting .
Even in the 18th century the site was still associated with traditions and rituals , by then relating to Norse gods . The " Odin Stone " was pierced with a circular hole , and was used by local couples for plighting engagements by holding hands through the gap . In the early 19th century a local landowner and recent immigrant to Orkney decided to remove the Stones on the grounds that local people were trespassing and disturbing his land in using the stones . He started in December 1814 by smashing the Odin Stone . This caused outrage and he was stopped after destroying one other stone and toppling another . The toppled stone was re @-@ erected in 1906 along with some inaccurate reconstruction inside the circle .
= = = Other Late Neolithic sites = = =
The Isbister Chambered Cairn , popularly known as the " Tomb of the Eagles " is located on the cliffs of South Ronaldsay . This chambered tomb was in use for 800 years or more from 3150 BC , and has five separate stalls and three side @-@ chambers . 16 @,@ 000 human bones were found during the excavations , as well as 725 bird bones , predominantly white @-@ tailed sea eagle and over 25 kilograms ( 55 lb ) of pottery shards .
The Dwarfie Stane tomb on the island of Hoy is made from a single huge block of red sandstone with a hollowed @-@ out central chamber . This style is quite unlike any other Neolithic Orkney site and probably dates from about 2500 BC . It was the first Orcadian ancient monument to be described in writing , appearing in the 16th century Descriptio Insularum Orchadiarum by Joannem Ben who provided the explanation for its existence as having been built and used by giants .
= = Bronze Age = =
The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2200 BC to 800 BC and northern Scotland has produced a relative dearth of remains from this period in comparison to the Neolithic and later Iron Age . This may in part be due to deteriorating weather conditions in the second millennium BC . In Orkney , fewer large stone structures were built during this period , burials were now being made in small cists well away from the great megalithic sites and a new Beaker culture began to dominate . Nonetheless the great ceremonial circles continued in use as bronze metalworking was slowly introduced to Scotland from Europe over a lengthy period . There is agreement amongst historians that from about 1000 BC it is legitimate to talk of a Celtic culture in Scotland , although the nature of the Orcadian Celtic civilisation and their relationships to their neighbours remains largely unknown .
In addition to various Mainland sites such as Knowes of Trotty , Kirbuster Hill and the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar there are various Bronze Age structures on other islands such as Tofts Ness on Sanday , Warness on Eday , the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray , and a burnt mound and farmstead on Auskerry .
= = Iron Age = =
= = = Early Iron Age = = =
The Iron Age provides numerous substantial building remains . In the 1970s excavations at Quanterness , near the site of the Neolithic chambered tomb , revealed an Atlantic roundhouse . This was built about 700 BC using stone stripped from the older building that had fallen into disuse some two millennia previously .
Numerous similar finds have been made at for example , Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray . These are also many impressive broch sites . These are substantial stone towers that developed out of the roundhouse tradition in north and west Scotland , whose dry @-@ stone walls may have reached 13 metres ( 43 ft ) in height . Although Orkney has no broch towers where the surviving walls are more than a few metres high , several important sites have been excavated which have numerous associated buildings forming a " broch village " .
Midhowe Broch lies close to the chambered cairn of the same name on Rousay . There appear to have been at least two separate periods of occupation and at some point buttresses were added to the exterior of the wall , suggesting the structure was in need of support . It is one of 11 broch sites on either side of the Eynhallow Sound . Burroughston Broch on the island of Shapinsay was built in the second half of the first millennium BC and excavated in the mid 19th century . Its earth cladding is intact , allowing visitors to peer down into the broch from above . The walls are up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) thick in places and there is a complete chamber off the entrance passage . The remains of stone furniture are evident in the interior .
Mine Howe , located near Tankerness in the parish of St Andrews , is a prehistoric subterranean man @-@ made chamber dug 7 metres ( 23 ft ) deep inside a large mound . Its purpose is not obvious . The walls are lined with stones fitted to form an arch over the cavity and steep steps lead to a rock floor . The entrance is at the top of the small hill and there is a surrounding ditch and evidence of sophisticated metal working around the site . The Rennibister Earth House is a souterrain consisting of an oval chamber with a corbelled roof supported by pillars . Although these structures are usually associated with the storage of food this site is reminiscent of the Neolithic chambered tombs and excavations revealed 18 human skeletons .
Wheelhouses are stone buildings from the later Iron Age whose characteristic features include an outer wall within which a circle of stone piers ( bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel ) form the basis for lintel arches supporting corbelled roofing with a hearth at the hub . Eight presumed sites have been identified in Orkney although the style is different from those of Shetland and the Western Isles . The Orkney sites are four on Sanday , one on Calf of Eday , one at Hillock of Burroughston on Shapinsay and two on the Mainland at Burrian Broch and Broch of Gurness .
= = = The influence of Rome = = =
For a brief period Orkney emerged from prehistory and into protohistory . The Greek explorer Pytheas visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC and may have circumnavigated the mainland . In his On the Ocean he refers to the most northerly point as Orcas , conceivably a reference to Orkney .
Remarkably , the earliest written record of a formal connection between Rome and Scotland is the attendance of the " King of Orkney " who was one of eleven British kings who submitted to the Emperor Claudius at Colchester in AD 43 following the invasion of southern Britain three months earlier . The long distances and short period of time involved strongly suggest a prior connection between Rome and Orkney , although no evidence of this has been found and the contrast with later Caledonian resistance to Rome is striking . Pomponius Mela , the Roman geographer , recorded in his De Chorographia , written c . 43 AD , that there were thirty Orkney islands . There is certainly evidence of an Orcadian connection with Rome prior to AD 60 from pottery found at the Broch of Gurness and 1st and 2nd century Roman coins have been found at Lingro broch .
The Roman presence in Scotland was however little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of partial military occupation . As Roman influence waned in Scotland from 211 onwards , Orkney faded from history again and the Celtic Iron Age way of life continued , largely unchanged .
= = = Pictish rule = = =
In the centuries following Rome 's excursions into Scottish territory Orkney was , at least for a time , part of the Pictish kingdom . Very little is known about the Pictish Orcadians , the main archaeological relics being symbol stones . One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay ; it shows 3 warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols . This small tidal island has a long history of settlement that continued into the Norse period .
Adomnan , the biographer of St Columba , states that there were Orcadians at the court of the Pictish High King , Bridei , in AD 565 . These Orcadians were described as " hostages " which could imply difficult relations between Orkney and the king , although they may have simply been guests at the court . A Pictish cemetery was found in the grounds of Skaill House ( adjacent to Skara Brae ) in 1996 .
Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century . The Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham β inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of both Irish and Christian origin . Evidence associated with the St Boniface Church on Papa Westray suggests this island had been the seat of the Christian bishopric of Orkney in Pictish times . The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Orkney islands . The Norse era has provided a variety of written records , the substantial Orkneyinga Saga amongst them and at this point the archipelago fully emerges into the historic era .
= = Archaeological history = =
Formal excavations are first recorded at Earl 's Knoll on Papa Stronsay in the Statistical Account of Scotland in 1795 . As with the Dwarfie Stane , the mound was assumed to be a giant 's grave at the time . Following soon after this , work on the " Picts @-@ house " ( i.e. chambered tomb ) at Quanterness commenced , but little else of note was achieved until the mid 19th century . F. W. L. Thomas , whose day job was as a Captain in the Royal Navy published The Celtic Antiquities of Orkney in 1852 , which listed various sites and aimed to interest " antiquarians " in the subject . His hopes were met and about a dozen chambered tombs were worked on between 1849 and 1867 by James Farrer , R.J. Hebden and George Petrie . However , other than work at Unstan near Stromness there was then a lull for about six decades . Then , from the late 1920s , work recommenced with the assistance of the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and the Ministry of Works . The most eminent archaeologist to work here at this time was Vere Gordon Childe . He was involved in excavations at Skara Brae and Rinyo , but it was only when a shard of pottery was discovered at the latter site that it became understood that these settlements dated to the Neolithic rather than the Iron Age . A further 18 tombs were excavated before 1950 , including five on Eday and one on the Calf of Eday and by the 1960s the outlines of a modern understanding of Orcadian prehistory had emerged . The advent of radiocarbon dating enabled even more detailed dates to be established and refuted earlier theories that the chambered tombs of Orkney had developed from similar structures found in the Eastern Mediterranean , such as those built by the Minoans , when it became clear that the former pre @-@ dated the latter by a considerable margin .
= = Neolithic Timeline = =
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= Albany , New York =
Albany ( / ΛΙΛlbΙniΛ / AWL @-@ bΙ @-@ nee ) is the capital of the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County . Roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) north of New York City , Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of its confluence with the Mohawk River . The population of the City of Albany was 97 @,@ 856 according to the 2010 census . Albany constitutes the economic and cultural core of the Capital District of New York State , which comprises the Albany @-@ Schenectady @-@ Troy , NY Metropolitan Statistical Area , including the nearby cities and suburbs of Troy , Schenectady , and Saratoga Springs . With a Census @-@ estimated population of 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 483 in 2013 , the Capital District is the third most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States .
Fortune 500 companies that have headquarters in Albany include American Express , CommerceHub , Merrill Lynch , General Electric , Verizon , Goldman Sachs , International Paper , Key Bank , f.y.e. stores , and the Environment One Corporation . In the 21st century , the Capital District has emerged as a major anchor of Tech Valley , the moniker describing the technologically @-@ focused region of eastern New York State .
This was the first European settlement in the state , settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and Fort Orange in 1624 . They formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples , two major Native American nations in the region . The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange . In 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements , renaming the city as Albany , in honor of the then Duke of Albany , the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland . The city was officially chartered in 1686 under English rule . It became the capital of New York State in 1797 , following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War . Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies , and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States . Its charter is possibly the longest @-@ running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere .
During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th , Albany was a center of trade and transportation . It is located on the north end of the navigable Hudson River , was the original eastern terminus of the Erie Canal connecting to the Great Lakes , and was home to some of the earliest railroad systems in the world . Albany 's main exports at the time were beer , lumber , published works , and ironworks . Beginning in 1810 , Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States , a distinction that it held until the 1860 census .
Albany is one of the first cities in the world to have installed public water mains , sewer lines , natural gas lines and electricity , infrastructure and utilities that attracted and supported substantial new industry to the city and surrounding area during the 19th century .
In the 20th century , the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world , the precursor of today 's Albany International Airport . During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital , connected to politics in New York City as well . It marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities .
The city 's skyline changed in the 1940s and 1950s with the construction of office towers around the Empire State Plaza and at the uptown campus of SUNY Albany , mainly under the direction of Governor Nelson Rockefeller . While Albany experienced a decline in its population due to urban sprawl and suburbanization , many of its historic neighborhoods were saved from destruction through the policies of Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd , the longest @-@ serving mayor of any city in the United States . In the early 21st century , Albany has experienced growth in the high @-@ technology industry , with great strides in the nanotechnology sector .
Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century , with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services . The city has rebounded from the urban decline of the 1970s and 1980s , with noticeable development taking place in the city 's downtown and midtown neighborhoods . Albany is known for its rich history , commerce , culture , architecture , and institutions of higher education . Albany won the All @-@ America City Award in both 1991 and 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial times to 1800 = = =
Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States . The Hudson River area was originally inhabited by Algonquian @-@ speaking Mohican ( Mahican ) , who called it Pempotowwuthut @-@ Muhhcanneuw , meaning " the fireplace of the Mohican nation . " Based to the west along the Mohawk River , the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Mohawk referred to it as Sche @-@ negh @-@ ta @-@ da , or " through the pine woods , " referring to the path they took there . The Mohawk were one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy , or Haudenosaunee , and became strong trading partners with the Dutch and English . It is likely that the Albany area was visited by European fur traders , perhaps as early as 1540 , but the extent and duration of those visits has not been determined .
Permanent European claims began when Englishman Henry Hudson , exploring for the Dutch East India Company on the Half Moon ( Dutch : Halve Maen ) , reached the area in 1609 , claiming it for the United Netherlands . In 1614 , Hendrick Christiaensen built Fort Nassau , a fur @-@ trading post and the first documented European structure in present @-@ day Albany . Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the French colony in Canada and among the natives , all of whom vied to control the trade . In 1618 , a flood ruined the fort on Castle Island , but it was rebuilt in 1624 as Fort Orange . Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch royal House of Orange @-@ Nassau . Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of Beverwijck ( English : Beaver District ) in 1652 . In these early decades of trade , the Dutch , Mohican and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures .
When New Netherland was captured by the English in 1664 , they changed the name Beverwijck to Albany , in honor of the Duke of Albany ( later James II of England and James VII of Scotland ) . Duke of Albany was a Scottish title given since 1398 , generally to a younger son of the King of Scots . The name is ultimately derived from Alba , the Gaelic name for Scotland . The Dutch briefly regained Albany in August 1673 and renamed the city Willemstadt ; the English took permanent possession with the Treaty of Westminster ( 1674 ) . On November 1 , 1683 , the Province of New York was split into counties , with Albany County being the largest . At that time the county included all of present New York State north of Dutchess and Ulster Counties in addition to present @-@ day Bennington County , Vermont , theoretically stretching west to the Pacific Ocean ; the city of Albany became the county seat . Albany was formally chartered as a municipality by provincial Governor Thomas Dongan on July 22 , 1686 . The Dongan Charter was virtually identical in content to the charter awarded to the city of New York three months earlier . Dongan created Albany as a strip of land 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide and 16 miles ( 26 km ) long . Over the years Albany would lose much of the land to the west and annex land to the north and south . At this point , Albany had a population of about 500 people .
In 1754 , representatives of seven British North American colonies met in the Stadt Huys , Albany 's city hall , for the Albany Congress ; Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania presented the Albany Plan of Union there , which was the first formal proposal to unite the colonies . Although it was never adopted by Parliament , it was an important precursor to the United States Constitution . The same year , the French and Indian War , the fourth in a series of wars dating back to 1689 , began ; it ended in 1763 with French defeat , resolving a situation that had been a constant threat to Albany and held back its growth . In 1775 , with the colonies in the midst of the Revolutionary War , the Stadt Huys became home to the Albany Committee of Correspondence ( the political arm of the local revolutionary movement ) , which took over operation of Albany 's government and eventually expanded its power to control all of Albany County . Tories and prisoners of war were often jailed in the Stadt Huys alongside common criminals . In 1776 , Albany native Philip Livingston signed the Declaration of Independence at Independence Hall in Philadelphia .
During and after the Revolutionary War , Albany County saw a great increase in real estate transactions . After Horatio Gates ' win over John Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777 , the upper Hudson Valley was generally at peace as the war raged on elsewhere . Prosperity was soon seen all over Upstate New York . Migrants from Vermont and Connecticut began flowing in , noting the advantages of living on the Hudson and trading at Albany , while being only a few days ' sail from New York City . Albany reported a population of 3 @,@ 498 in the first national census in 1790 , an increase of almost 700 % since its chartering . In 1797 , the state capital of New York was moved permanently to Albany . From statehood to this date , the Legislature had frequently moved the state capital between Albany , Kingston , Hurley , Poughkeepsie , and the city of New York . Albany is the tenth @-@ oldest state capital in the United States , but only the second @-@ oldest state capital that is a city , after Santa Fe , New Mexico .
= = = 1800 to 1942 = = =
Albany has been a center of transportation for much of its history . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , Albany saw development of the turnpike and by 1815 , Albany was the turnpike center of the state . Simeon De Witt developed a grid block system in 1794 , and renamed streets for birds and mammals that had previously honored British royalty . This grid was intersected by the major arterials coming out of Albany , which cut through the city at unexpected angles . The construction of the turnpike across the state , in conjunction with canal and railroad systems , made Albany the hub of transportation for pioneers going to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory in the early- and mid @-@ 19th century .
In 1807 , Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany , the first successful enterprise of its kind . By 1810 , with 10 @,@ 763 people , Albany was the 10th @-@ largest urban place in the nation . The town and village were known as " the Colonie " to the north of Albany was annexed in 1815 . In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed , forming a continuous water route from the Great Lakes to New York City . Unlike the current Barge Canal , which ends at nearby Waterford , the original Erie Canal ended at Albany ; Lock 1 was located north of Colonie Street . The Canal emptied into a 32 @-@ acre ( 13 ha ) man @-@ made lagoon called the Albany Basin , which was Albany 's main port from 1825 until the Port of Albany @-@ Rensselaer opened in 1932 . In 1829 , while working as a professor at the Albany Academy , Joseph Henry , widely regarded as " the foremost American scientist of the 19th century " , built the first electric motor . Three years later , he discovered electromagnetic self @-@ induction ( the SI unit for which is now the henry ) . He went on to be the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution . In the 1830 and 1840 censuses , Albany was ranked as the 9th @-@ largest urban place in the nation , then back to 10th in 1850 . This was the last time the city was one of the top ten largest urban places in the nation .
Albany also has significant history with rail transport , as the location of two major regional railroad headquarters . The Delaware and Hudson Railway was headquartered in Albany at what is now the SUNY System Administration Building . In 1853 , Erastus Corning , a noted industrialist and Albany 's mayor from 1834 to 1837 , consolidated ten railroads stretching from Albany to Buffalo into the New York Central Railroad ( NYCRR ) , headquartered in Albany until Cornelius Vanderbilt moved it to New York City in 1867 . One of the ten companies that formed the NYCRR was the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad , which was the first railroad in the state and the first successful steam railroad running regularly scheduled service in the country .
While the key to Albany 's economic prosperity in the 19th century was transportation , industry and business also played a role . Largely thanks to the city 's Dutch and German roots , beer was one of its biggest commodities . Beverwyck Brewery , originally known as Quinn and Nolan ( Nolan being mayor of Albany 1878 β 1883 ) , was the last remaining brewer from that time when it closed in 1972 . The city 's location at the east end of the Erie Canal gave it unparalleled access to both raw products and a captive customer base in the west . Albany was known for its publishing houses , and to some extent , still is . Albany was second only to Boston in the number of books produced for most of the 19th century . Iron foundries in both the north and south ends of the city brought thousands of immigrants to the city . To this day , one can see many intricate wrought @-@ iron details on older buildings . The iron industry waned by the 1890s due to increased costs associated with a newly unionized workforce and the opening of mines in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota .
Albany 's other major exports during the 18th and 19th centuries were furs , wheat , meat , and lumber ; by 1865 , there were almost 4 @,@ 000 saw mills in the Albany area and the Albany Lumber District was the largest lumber market in the nation . The city was also home to a number of banks . The Bank of Albany ( 1792 β 1861 ) was the second chartered bank in New York . The city was the original home of the Albank ( founded in 1820 as the Albany Savings Bank ) , KeyBank ( founded in 1825 as the Commercial Bank of Albany ) , and Norstar Bank ( founded as the State Bank of Albany in 1803 ) . American Express was originally founded in Albany in 1850 as an express mail business . In 1871 , the northwestern portion of Albany β west from Magazine Street β was annexed to the neighboring town of Guilderland after the town of Watervliet refused annexation of said territory . In return for this loss , portions of Bethlehem and Watervliet were added to Albany . Part of the land annexed to Guilderland was ceded back to Albany in 1910 , setting up the current western border .
Albany opened one of the first commercial airports in the world , and the first municipal airport in the United States , in 1908 . Originally located on a polo field on Loudon Road , it moved to Westerlo Island in 1909 and remained there until 1928 . The Albany Municipal Airport β jointly owned by the city and county β was moved to its current location in Colonie in 1928 . In 1960 , the mayor sold the city 's stake in the airport to the county , citing budget issues . It was known from then on as Albany County Airport until a massive upgrade and modernization project between 1996 and 1998 , when it was rechristened Albany International Airport . By 1916 Albany 's northern and southern borders reached their modern courses ; Westerlo Island , to the south , became the second @-@ to @-@ last annexation , which occurred in 1926 .
= = = 1942 to present day = = =
Erastus Corning 2nd , arguably Albany 's most notable mayor ( and great @-@ grandson of the former mayor of the same name ) , was elected in 1941 . Although he was one of the longest @-@ serving mayors of any city in United States history ( 1942 until his death in 1983 ) , one historian describes Corning 's tenure as " long on years , short on accomplishments . " Grondahl cited Corning 's preference for maintaining the status quo as a factor that held back potential progress during his tenure . While Corning brought stability to the office of mayor , it is said that even those who admire him greatly cannot come up with a sizable list of " major concrete Corning achievements . " Corning is given credit for saving β albeit somewhat unintentionally β much of Albany 's historic architecture .
During the 1950s and 1960s , a time when federal aid for urban renewal was plentiful , Albany did not have growth in its economy or infrastructure . It lost more than 20 percent of its population during the Corning years , as people moved to newer housing in the suburbs , followed by most of the downtown businesses moving there as well . While cities across the country grappled with similar issues , the problems were magnified in Albany : interference from the Democratic political machine hindered progress considerably .
Governor Nelson Rockefeller ( 1959 β 1973 ) ( R ) tried to stimulate the city with grandiose , monumental architecture and large , government @-@ sponsored building projects ; he drove construction of the Empire State Plaza , SUNY Albany 's uptown campus , and much of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus . Albany County Republican Chairman Joseph C. Frangella once quipped , " Governor Rockefeller was the best mayor Albany ever had . " Corning , though opposed to the project , was responsible for negotiating the payment plan for the Empire State Plaza . Rockefeller did not want to be limited by the Legislature 's power of the purse , so Corning devised a plan to have the county pay for the construction and have the state sign a lease @-@ ownership agreement . The state paid off the bonds until 2004 . It was Rockefeller 's only viable option , and he agreed . Due to the clout Corning gained from the situation , he was able to get the State Museum , a convention center , and a restaurant , back in the plans β ideas which Rockefeller had originally vetoed . The county gained $ 35 million in fees and the city received $ 13 million for lost tax revenue . Having the state offices located in the city enabled it to keep good jobs .
Another major project of the 1960s and 1970s was Interstate 787 and the South Mall Arterial . Construction began in the early 1960s . One of the project 's main results , since regretted , was separating the city from the Hudson River , its source of development . Corning has been described as shortsighted with respect to use of the waterfront , as he could have used his influence to change the location of I @-@ 787 , which now cuts the city off from " its whole raison d 'Γͺtre " . Much of the original plan never came to fruition , however : Rockefeller had wanted the South Mall Arterial to pass through the Empire State Plaza . The project would have required an underground trumpet interchange below Washington Park , connecting to the ( eventually cancelled ) Mid @-@ Crosstown Arterial . To this day , evidence of the original plan is still visible . In 1967 the hamlet of Karlsfeld was the last annexation by the city , taken from the Town of Bethlehem .
When Corning died in 1983 , Thomas Whalen assumed the mayorship and was reelected twice . He encouraged redevelopment of historic structures and helped attract federal dollars earmarked for that purpose . What Corning had saved from destruction , Whalen refurbished for continued and new uses . The Mayor 's Office of Special Events was created in an effort to increase the number of festivals and artistic events in the city , including a year @-@ long Dongan Charter tricentennial celebration in 1986 . Whalen is credited for an " unparalleled cycle of commercial investment and development " in Albany due to his " aggressive business development programs " .
Prior to the recession of the 1990s , downtown Albany was home to four Fortune 500 companies . After the death of Corning and the retirement of Congressman Sam Stratton , the political environment changes . Long @-@ term office holders became rare in the 1980s . Local media began following the drama surrounding county politics ( specifically that of the newly created county executive position ) ; the loss of Corning ( and eventually the machine ) led to a lack of interest in city politics . The election of Gerald Jennings was a surprise , and he served as Mayor from 1994 until his retirement at the end of 2013 . His tenure essentially ended the political machine that had been in place since the 1920s .
During the 1990s , the State Legislature approved the $ 234 million " Albany Plan " , " a building and renovation project [ that ] was the most ambitious building project to affect the area since the Rockefeller era . " Under the Albany Plan , renovation and new building projects were initiated around the downtown area . Many state workers were relocated from the Harriman State Office Campus to downtown , helping its retail businesses and vitality . During the first decade of the 21st century , progress was made on a long @-@ discussed and controversial Albany Convention Center . As of August 2010 , the Albany Convention Center Authority ( authorized by the state legislature ) had already purchased 75 % of the land needed to build the downtown project .
= = Geography = =
Albany is located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) north of New York City on the Hudson River . It has a total area of 21 @.@ 8 square miles ( 56 km2 ) , of which 21 @.@ 4 square miles ( 55 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) is water . The city is bordered on the north by the town of Colonie ( along with the village of Menands ) , on the west by the town of Guilderland , and on the south by the town of Bethlehem . The Hudson River represents the city 's eastern border . Patroon Creek , along the northern border , and the Normans Kill , along the southern border , are the two major streams in the city . The former Foxes Creek , Beaver Kill , and Rutten Kill still exist , but were diverted underground in the 19th century . There are four lakes within city limits : Buckingham Lake ; Rensselaer Lake at the mouth of the Patroon Creek ; Tivoli Lake , which was formed as a reservoir and once connected to the Patroon Creek ; and Washington Park Lake , which was formed by damming the Beaver Kill .
The highest natural point in Albany is a USGS benchmark near the Loudonville Reservoir off Birch Hill Road , at 378 feet ( 115 m ) above sea level . The lowest point is sea level at the Hudson River ( the average water elevation is 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) ) , which is still technically an estuary at Albany and is affected by the Atlantic tide . The interior of Albany consists of rolling hills which were once part of the Albany Pine Bush , an area of pitch pine and scrub oak , and has arid , sandy soil that is a remnant of the ancient Lake Albany . Due to development , the Pine Bush has shrunk from an original 25 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 400 ha ) today . A preserve was set up by the State Legislature in 1988 and is located on the western edge of the city , spilling into Guilderland and Colonie ; it is the only sizable inland pine barrens sand dune ecosystem in the United States , and is home to many endangered species , including the Karner Blue butterfly .
= = = Climate = = =
Albany is located in the humid continental climate zone ( KΓΆppen climate classification : Dfa ) , and has cold , snowy winters , and hot , wet summers ; the city experiences four distinct seasons . Albany is located in plant hardiness zone 6a near downtown and along the shore of the Hudson and 5b at its western end . Albany receives 39 @.@ 4 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain per year , with 138 days of at least 0 @.@ 01 in ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) of precipitation each year . Snowfall is significant , totaling 59 @.@ 1 inches ( 150 cm ) annually , but with less accumulation than the lake @-@ effect areas to the north and west , as it is further from Lake Ontario . However , Albany is close enough to the Atlantic coast to receive heavy snow from Nor 'easters and the city occasionally receives Alberta clippers . Winters can be very cold with fluctuating conditions ; temperatures drop to 0 Β° F ( β 18 Β° C ) or below on nine nights per annum . Summers in Albany can contain stretches of excessive heat and humidity , with temperatures of 90 Β° F ( 32 Β° C ) or hotter on nine days per year . Record temperature extremes range from β 28 Β° F ( β 33 Β° C ) , on January 19 , 1971 , to 104 Β° F ( 40 Β° C ) on July 4 , 1911 .
= = Crime = =
New York has an effective statewide crime rate of 385 / 100 @,@ 000 people as of 2009 . Albany 's violent crime rate is nearly on a par with Rochester ( 1028 violent crimes / 100 @,@ 000 population vs 968 / 100 @,@ 000 in Rochester ) and much lower than Buffalo at 1514 / 100 @,@ 000 . By comparison , New York City 's violent crime rate was 639 / 100 @,@ 000 in 2013 .
= = Cityscape = =
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Albany 's neighborhoods are varied demographically , geographically , architecturally , and historically . Downtown Albany is the city 's oldest neighborhood , centered on State Street , one of Albany 's oldest streets and its original main street . Today downtown consists mostly of office buildings inhabited by state agencies , though a recent push to bring in permanent residents has led to proposed apartments and condominiums . North and south of Downtown are old residential communities often consisting of row houses . North is Sheridan Hollow , Arbor Hill , and North Albany ; to the south is the super @-@ neighborhood of the South End , which consists of a multitude of smaller neighborhoods including the Mansion District , the Pastures , Kenwood , Groesbeckville , Delaware Avenue , and Krank Park . These neighborhoods tend to have more minorities and lower @-@ income residents than the western , more suburbanized sections of the city .
West of Downtown is the Empire State Plaza , which effectively cuts Downtown off from the gentrified neighborhoods of Center Square , Hudson / Park , Lark Street , and Washington Park . Collectively referred to as mid @-@ town , these neighborhoods are often compared to New York City 's Greenwich Village for their eclectic mix of residential and commercial uses , including bars , night clubs , restaurants , and unique stores . Albany 's gay culture is vibrant in this area . Nearby Park South , a nine @-@ block area surrounding New Scotland Avenue is undergoing an urban renewal as existing housing units are removed or renovated and new office , commercial , and apartment buildings are added . New construction includes expansion of Albany Medical Center , one of the largest employers in Albany . Nearby is University Heights , a united campus consisting of Albany Medical Center Hospital , Albany Medical College , Albany Law School , Albany College of Pharmacy , and the Sage College of Albany .
Western neighborhoods , such as Pine Hills , Delaware Avenue , Whitehall , Helderberg , New Scotland , and Beverwyck , tend to have larger lots and more suburban surroundings . The eastern section of Pine Hills is a popular living choice for college students due to its proximity to the campuses of the College of Saint Rose and University at Albany . Further west , the neighborhoods become more affluent and are dominated almost exclusively by single @-@ family dwellings . These neighborhoods , such as Melrose , Western Pine Hills , New Albany , Eagle Hill , Westland Park , Campus , and Buckingham Pond more closely resemble neighboring areas of the suburban towns than they do the downtown parts of the city . Further west is the W. Averell Harriman State Office Campus and the University at Albany 's main campus .
= = = Parks and recreation = = =
Albany has more than 60 public parks and recreation areas . Washington Park was organized as the Middle Public Square in 1806 . Its current location has been public property since the Dongan Charter of 1686 gave the city title to all property not privately owned . Washington Park was designed by John Bogart and John Cuyler in 1870 , and opened for public use the following year . The original lake house , designed by Frederick W. Brown , was added in 1876 . The park had previously been used as a cemetery ; its graves were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery . Washington Park is a popular place to exercise and play sports ; skate during the winter ; people @-@ watch during Tulip Fest ; and attend plays at the amphitheater during the summer .
Other parks in Albany include Lincoln Park , Buckingham Park , the Corning Preserve , and the Pine Bush . Lincoln Park , southwest of the Empire State Plaza , was organized in 1886 and was originally known as Beaver Park . Today , the park has a pool that is open during the summer months . Buckingham Lake Park is between Manning Boulevard and Route 85 in the Buckingham Pond neighborhood ; it contains a pond with fountains , a footpath , a playground , and picnic tables . The Albany Riverfront Park at the Corning Preserve has an 800 @-@ seat amphitheatre that hosts events in non @-@ winter months , most notably the Alive at 5 summer concert series . The Preserve 's visitors center details the ecology of the Hudson River and the local environment . The park has a bike trail and boat launch and was effectively separated from downtown by Interstate 787 until the opening of the Hudson River Way in 2002 .
Other public parks include Westland Hill Park , Hoffman Park , Beverwyck Park , Ridgefield Park , and Liberty Park , today a small circular grassy patch in downtown on Hudson Avenue , which is Albany 's oldest park . The municipal golf course , New Course at Albany , was constructed in 1929 as the Albany Municipal Golf Course , later renamed the Capital Hills at Albany , and remodeled in 1991 .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Empire State Plaza , a collection of state agency office buildings , dominates almost any view of Albany . Built between 1965 and 1978 at the hand of Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and architect Wallace Harrison , the complex is a powerful example of late American modern architecture and remains a controversial building project both for displacing city residents and for its architectural style . The most recognizable aspect of the complex is the Erastus Corning Tower , the tallest building in New York outside of New York City . Juxtaposed at the north end of the Plaza is the 19th @-@ century New York State Capitol , the seat of the New York State Legislature and the home of the Governor 's office .
Albany 's initial architecture incorporated many Dutch influences , followed soon after by those of the English . Quackenbush House , a Dutch Colonial brick mansion , was built c . 1736 ; Schuyler Mansion , a Georgian @-@ style mansion , was built in 1765 ; and the oldest building currently standing in Albany is the 1728 Van Ostrande @-@ Radliff House at 48 Hudson Avenue . Albany 's housing varies greatly , with mostly row houses in the older sections of town , closer to the river . Housing type quickly changes as one travels westward , beginning with two @-@ family homes of the late 19th century , and one @-@ family homes built after World War II in the western end of the city .
Albany City Hall , designed by Henry Hobson Richardson , was opened in 1883 . The New York State Capitol was opened in 1899 ( after 32 years of construction ) at a cost of $ 25 million , making it the most expensive government building at the time . Albany 's Union Station , a major Beaux @-@ Arts design , was under construction at the same time ; it opened in 1900 . In 1912 , the Beaux @-@ Arts styled New York State Department of Education Building opened on Washington Avenue near the Capitol . It has a classical exterior , which features a block @-@ long white marble colonnade . The 1920s brought the Art Deco movement , which is illustrated by the Home Savings Bank Building ( 1927 ) on North Pearl Street and the Alfred E. Smith Building ( 1930 ) on South Swan Street , two of Albany 's tallest high @-@ rises .
Architecture from the 1960s and 1970s is well represented in the city , especially at the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus ( 1950s and 1960s ) and on the uptown campus of the University at Albany ( 1962 β 1971 ) . The state office campus was planned in the 1950s by governor W. Averell Harriman to offer more parking and easier access for state employees . The uptown SUNY campus was built in the 1960s under Governor Rockefeller on the site of the city @-@ owned Albany Country Club . Straying from the popular open campus layout , SUNY Albany has a centralized building layout with administrative and classroom buildings at center surrounded by four student housing towers . The design called for much use of concrete and glass , and the style has slender , round @-@ topped columns and pillars reminiscent of those at Lincoln Center in New York City .
Downtown has seen a revival in recent decades , often considered to have begun with Norstar Bank 's renovation of the former Union Station as its corporate headquarters in 1986 . The Times Union Center ( TU Center ) was originally slated for suburban Colonie , but was instead built downtown and opened in 1990 . Other development in downtown includes the construction of the State Dormitory Authority headquarters at 515 Broadway ( 1998 ) ; the State Department of Environmental Conservation building , with its iconic green dome , at 625 Broadway ( 2001 ) ; the State Comptroller headquarters on State Street ( 2001 ) ; the Hudson River Way ( 2002 ) , a pedestrian bridge connecting Broadway to the Corning Preserve ; and 677 Broadway ( 2005 ) , " the first privately owned downtown office building in a generation " .
= = Demographics = =
= = = City of immigrants = = =
Historically , Albany 's population has been mixed . First dominated by the Dutch and Germans , it was overtaken by the English in the early 19th century . Irish immigrants soon outnumbered most other ethnicities by the mid @-@ 19th century , and were followed by Italians and Poles . The mid @-@ to @-@ late 20th century saw a rise in the African @-@ American population . As historian ( and Albany Assemblyman ) John McEneny puts it ,
Dutch and Yankee , German and Irish , Polish and Italian , black and Chinese β over the centuries Albany 's heritage has reflected a succession of immigrant nationalities . Its streets have echoed with a dozen languages , its neighborhoods adapting to the distinctive life @-@ style and changing economic fortunes of each new group .
Until after the Revolution , Albany 's population consisted mostly of ethnic Dutch descendants . Settlers moving in from New England tipped the balance toward British ethnicity in the early 19th century . Jobs on the turnpikes , canals , and railroads brought in floods of Irish immigrants in the early 19th century , especially in the 1840s during the Irish potato famine , solidifying the city 's Irish base . Albany elected its first Irish Catholic mayor ( Michael Nolan ) two years before Boston did . Polish and Italian immigrants began arriving in Albany in the wave of immigration in the latter part of the 19th century . Their numbers were smaller than in many other eastern cities mainly because most had found manufacturing jobs at General Electric in Schenectady . The Jewish community , with Sephardic Jewish members part of the Beverwijck community , also saw a rise in population during the late 19th century , when many Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from eastern Europe . In that period , there was also an influx of Chinese and east Asian immigrants , who settled in the downtown section of the city . Many of their descendants have since moved to suburban areas . Immigration all but halted after the Immigration Act of 1924 . Albany was also a destination of internal migration , as many African Americans moved north in their Great Migration from the rural South before and after World War I to fill industrial positions . As a percentage , the black community has grown substantially since then : African Americans made up 3 percent of the population in 1950 , 6 percent in 1960 , 12 percent in 1970 , and 30 percent in 2010 . The change in proportion is related mostly to middle @-@ class white families moving to the suburbs , and black families remaining within city limits during the same time period .
Since 2007 there has been an ever growing number of Burmese refugees , mostly of the Karen ethnicity , with an estimate 5 @,@ 000 now residing in Albany .
= = = Modern overview = = =
As of the 2010 census , there were 97 @,@ 856 people residing in the city . The population of the census area in 2009 was estimated to be 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 483 . The population density in 2010 was 4 @,@ 572 @.@ 7 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 779 @.@ 2 / km Β² ) . There were 46 @,@ 362 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 166 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 842 @.@ 9 / km Β² ) ; 5 @,@ 205 of these units ( 11 @.@ 2 % ) were vacant . The racial makeup of the city residents was 52 @.@ 3 % white ; 27 % black or African American ; 0 @.@ 06 % Native American or Native Alaskan ; 7 @.@ 4 % Asian ; 0 @.@ 1 % Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ; .06 % from other races ; and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . A total of 9 @.@ 2 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 52 @.@ 0 % of the population in 2010 , compared to 87 @.@ 0 % in 1970 .
As of the 2000 census , the top five ancestry groups in the city were Irish ( 18 @.@ 1 % ) , Italian ( 12 @.@ 4 % ) , German ( 10 @.@ 4 % ) , English ( 5 @.@ 2 % ) , and Polish ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) ; ( 33 @.@ 1 % ) of the population reported " other ancestries " . Albany is home to a Trique language @-@ speaking community of Mexican @-@ Americans .
The population had 20 @.@ 0 % under the age of 18 , 19 @.@ 3 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 2 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 13 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 31 @.@ 4 years . For every 100 females there were 90 @.@ 6 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 86 @.@ 5 males . Some 81 @.@ 3 % of the population had completed high school or earned an equivalency diploma .
There were 40 @,@ 709 households in 2000 , out of which 22 @.@ 0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 25 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 1 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 54 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 41 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 11 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 95 .
The median income for a household in the city in 2000 was $ 71 @,@ 083 , and the median income for a family was $ 73 @,@ 773 ( male , year @-@ round worker ) and $ 66 @,@ 922 ( female , year @-@ round worker ) . The per capita income for the city was $ 54 @,@ 378 . About 16 @.@ 0 % of families and 21 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 28 @.@ 8 % of those under age 18 and 12 @.@ 5 % of those age 65 or over . The rate of reported violent crimes for 2008 ( 1 @,@ 095 incidents per 100 @,@ 000 residents ) is more than double the rate for similarly sized US cities . Reported property crimes ( 4 @,@ 669 incidents per 100 @,@ 000 residents ) are somewhat lower .
Demographically speaking , the population of Albany and the Capital District mirrors the characteristics of the United States consumer population as a whole better than any other major municipality in the country . According to a 2004 study conducted by the Acxiom Corporation , Albany and its environs are the top @-@ ranked standard test market for new business and retail products . Albany , Rochester , and Syracuse all scored within the top five .
= = Culture = =
= = = Nightlife and entertainment = = =
Albany 's geographic situation β roughly equidistant between New York City to the south and Montreal to the north , as well as approximately 4 @.@ 5 hours east of Buffalo , and 2 @.@ 5 hours west of Boston β makes it a convenient stop for nationally touring artists and acts . The Palace Theatre and The Egg provide mid @-@ sized forums for music , theater , and spoken word performances , with the Capital Repertory Theatre filling the small @-@ sized niche . The TU Center serves as the city 's largest musical venue for nationally and internationally prominent bands , and hosts trade shows , sporting events , and other large @-@ scale community gatherings . While some praise the cultural contributions of Albany and the greater Capital District , others suggest that the city has a " cultural identity crisis " due to its massive geography and the need for a car ( and driving time ) to experience most of what the area has to offer , a necessity not seen in larger metropolitan areas like New York and Boston .
In recent years , the city 's government has invested resources to cultivate venues and neighborhoods that attract after @-@ hours business . Madison Avenue , Pearl Street , Delaware Avenue and Lark Street serve as the most active entertainment areas in the city . Many restaurants , clubs , and bars have opened since the mid @-@ 1990s , revitalizing numerous areas that had once been abandoned ; various establishments have reclaimed old row houses , businesses , and even a pump station . The bar scene generally incorporates three main strips . The downtown scene is focused on Pearl Street , stretching about two blocks . Up State Street , past the business district , is the Lark Street strip , home to smaller bars that fit into the neighborhood 's artistic and eclectic style . Lastly , the midtown strip , with several bars located on Western and Madison Avenues , centers around the campuses of the College of Saint Rose and SUNY Albany 's downtown campus . The midtown strip generally draws a younger crowd , as it is popular to the local college students .
Last call in Albany is 4 : 00 am nightly per New York law that sets that time as last call throughout the state by default , though counties may set an earlier time individual municipalities may not . Even though more than half of the state 's counties have an earlier closing time , Albany County , as with all counties in the Capital District , has retained the 4 : 00 am last call time .
= = = Festivals = = =
The Tulip Festival , one of Albany 's largest festivals , is set in Washington Park and celebrates the city 's Dutch heritage . This traditional Albany event marks the beginning of spring as thousands of tulips bloom in the park in early May . Attendance to the festival in 2010 was approximately 80 @,@ 000 . Alive at 5 is a free , weekly concert series held downtown during the summer on Thursdays . With 10 concerts in 2010 total attendance was roughly 100 @,@ 000 . The Price Chopper Fabulous Fourth and Fireworks Festival at the Empire State Plaza celebrates Independence Day with musical performances and the region 's largest fireworks display . Freihofer 's Run for Women is a 5 @-@ kilometer run through the city that draws more than 4 @,@ 000 participants from across the country ; it is an annual event that began in 1978.The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival : Wine & Dine for the Arts is an annual Festival that hosts more than 3500 people over 3 days . The Festival showcases more than 70 Regional Chefs & Restaurants , 250 Global Wines & Spirits , a NYS Craft Beer Pavilion , 4 competitions ( The Signature Chef Invitational , Rising Star Chef , Barista Albany and Battle of the Bartenders ) and one Grand Gala Reception , Dinner & Auction featuring 10 f Albany 's Iconic Chefs . The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival donates all net proceeds to deserving Albany Arts Organizations and is held the Thursday @-@ Saturday preceding Martin Luther King Weekend .
Smaller events include the African American Family Day Arts Festival each August at the Empire State Plaza ; the Latin Fest , held each August at the Corning Preserve ; the Albany Jazz Festival , an annual end @-@ of @-@ summer event held at the Corning Preserve ; Lark Fest , a music and art festival held each fall ; and the Capital Pride Parade and Festival , a major gay pride event , held each June . The once @-@ popular First Night , celebrating the New Year holiday each December 31 , was replaced by the Albany Winterfest in 2006 due to declining interest ; Winterfest occurs each year on December 30 .
= = = Museums and historic sites = = =
Because of Albany 's historical and political significance , the city has numerous museums , historical buildings , and historic districts . Albany is home to the New York State Museum , the New York State Library and the New York State Archives ; all three facilities are located in the Cultural Education Center at the south end of Empire State Plaza and are free to the public . The USS Slater ( DE @-@ 766 ) , a decommissioned World War II destroyer escort that was restored in 1998 , is a museum ship docked in the Hudson River at Quay Street . It is the only ship of its kind still afloat . The Albany Heritage Area Visitors Center , located at the corner of Clinton Avenue and Broadway at Quackenbush Square , hosts a museum , gift shop , and the Henry Hudson Planetarium . In early 2012 , the Irish American Heritage Museum opened in downtown Albany . The museum is home to exhibits highlighting the contributions of the Irish people in America .
The Albany Institute of History and Art , located on Washington Avenue near the Center Square Neighborhood and State Capitol , is " dedicated to collecting , preserving , interpreting and promoting interest in the history , art , culture of Albany and the Upper Hudson Valley region . " The museum 's most notable permanent exhibits include an extensive collection of paintings by the Hudson River School and an exhibit on Ancient Egypt featuring the Institute 's " Albany Mummies . "
Albany is home to 57 listings on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) and five National Historic Landmarks . The Ten Broeck Mansion , a 1797 Federal @-@ style mansion ( later renovated in the Greek @-@ Revival style ) built for Abraham Ten Broeck ( mayor of Albany 1779 β 1783 and 1796 β 1798 ) is currently a historic house museum and the headquarters of the Albany County Historical Association ; it was added to the NRHP in 1971 . Later known as " Arbor Hill " , it gave the current neighborhood its name .
= = = Literature and film = = =
Albany has been the subject , inspiration , or location for many written and cinematic works . Many non @-@ fiction works have been written on the city . One of the city 's more notable claims to fame is Ironweed ( 1983 ) , the 1984 Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning book by Albany native William Kennedy . Ironweed was the third in a series of books by Kennedy known as the " Albany Cycle " . The elusive author Trevanian also grew up in Albany and wrote The Crazyladies of Pearl Street ( 2005 ) , about a North Albany neighborhood along Pearl Street . The book is considered a semi @-@ autobiographical memoir . Gregory Maguire , author of Wicked : The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West ( inspiration for the Broadway hit Wicked ) , grew up in North Albany and graduated from SUNY Albany in 1976 .
In 1987 , the film version of Ironweed premiered at the Palace Theatre . The movie starred Jack Nicholson and Meryl Streep , each of whom were nominated for Academy Awards for their performances ; much of the filming was done on location in Albany . Most recently the downtown area was the site of filming for the action @-@ thriller Salt , starring Angelina Jolie , and the action @-@ comedy The Other Guys , starring Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg .
Authors Herman Melville and Henry James lived in Albany . Isabel Archer , the heroine of James ' novel The Portrait of a Lady , is from Albany .
= = Education = =
The City School District of Albany ( CSDA ) operates the city 's public school system , which consists of 17 schools and learning centers ; in addition , there are 7 charter schools . In the 2015 @-@ 16 school year , over 9 @,@ 000 students were enrolled in the public school system . The district had an average class size of 18 , an 81 @-@ percent graduation rate , and a 5 @-@ percent dropout rate . The district 's 2010 β 11 budget is $ 202 @.@ 8 million . Although considered by the state to be one of the lowest @-@ achieving high schools in New York , Albany High was listed as the nation 's 976th best high school in a 2010 Newsweek / Washington Post report . Albany also has a number of private schools , including the coed Bishop Maginn High School and Albany Free School ; the all @-@ boys Albany Academy and La Salle Institute ; and the all @-@ girls Academy of the Holy Names and Albany Academy for Girls .
Albany has a prominent history in higher education and was ranked third in a Forbes survey called " The Best Places with the Best Education " in 2005 ; it ranked top on Forbes ' " IQ Campuses " list as part of its 150 Cheap Places to Live series in 2006 . The Albany Medical College ( private ) , today part of Albany Medical Center , was founded in 1838 . Albany Law School ( private ) is the oldest law school in New York and the fourth oldest in the country ; it was opened in 1851 . President William McKinley was an alumnus . The Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences ( private ) is the second oldest pharmacy school in New York and the fifteenth oldest in the United States .
The New York State Normal School , one of the oldest teachers colleges in the United States , opened in 1905 ; it was later known as the State Teachers College . It eventually evolved into the University at Albany , also known as SUNY Albany ( public ) , which inherited the Normal School 's original downtown campus on Western Avenue . The center of the campus moved to its current Uptown Campus in the west end of the city in 1970 . SUNY Albany is a unit of the State University of New York and one of only four university centers in the system . Other colleges and universities in Albany include Empire State College , The College of Saint Rose , Excelsior College , Maria College , Mildred Elley , and Sage College of Albany . Nearby Hudson Valley Community College ( HVCC ) fills the community college niche in the Albany @-@ Troy area . The effect of the campuses on the city 's population is substantial : Combining the student bodies of all the aforementioned campuses ( except HVCC ) results in 63 @,@ 149 students , or almost 70 percent of the 2008 estimate of Albany 's permanent population .
= = Economy = =
Albany 's economy , along with that of the Capital District in general , is heavily dependent on government , health care , education , and more recently , technology . Because of these typically steady economic bases , the local economy has been relatively immune to national economic recessions in the past . More than 25 percent of the city 's population works in government @-@ related positions . The current recession has been more difficult to deal with because of the many issues on Wall Street , from which the state government receives much of its tax revenue . In March 2010 , the Albany area had the lowest unemployment rate of any major metropolitan area in New York , at 7 @.@ 8 % , compared to 9 @.@ 4 % in New York as a whole . Albany 's estimated daytime population is more than 162 @,@ 000 . Companies based in Albany include Trans World Entertainment and Clough Harbour .
= = = Tech Valley = = =
Since the 2000s , the economy of Albany and the surrounding Capital District has been redirected toward a high technology focus . Tech Valley is a marketing name for the eastern part of New York State , encompassing Albany , the Capital District , and the Hudson Valley . Originated in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high @-@ tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston , it has since grown to represent the counties in the Capital District and extending to 19 counties from IBM 's Westchester County plants in the south to the Canadian border in the north . The area 's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute . Tech Valley encompasses 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway , and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy , has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high @-@ technology industry , with great strides in the nanotechnology sector , digital electronics design , and water- and electricity @-@ dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing .
In 2012 , the Albany @-@ Schenectady area was listed fourth on Forbes Magazine 's annual " Best Cities for Jobs " list , noting that job losses in state and local government were overcome by expansion of the high @-@ tech field .
= = Government = =
Albany has a mayor @-@ council form of government , which currently functions under a charter adopted in 1998 . The 1998 charter completely overwrote the original 17th @-@ century Dongan Charter . However , in an effort to keep Dongan in effect , the new charter was applied strictly as an amendment to Dongan , meaning Dongan is technically still in effect , giving Albany the distinction of having the oldest active city charter in the United States and " arguably the longest @-@ running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere . " The mayor , who is elected every four years , heads the executive branch of city government . The current mayor , Kathy Sheehan , was first elected in 2013 . She replaced former mayor Gerald Jennings who was mayor for 20 years from 1994 to 2013 . The Common Council represents the legislative branch of city government and is made up of fifteen council members ( each elected from one ward ) and an at @-@ large Common Council President . The current president is Carolyn McLaughlin ; she began her term in January 2010 .
While Albany has its own city government , it has also been the seat of Albany County since the county 's formation in 1683 and the capital of New York since 1797 . As such , the city is home to all branches of the county and state governments , as well as its own . Albany City Hall sits on Eagle Street , opposite the State Capitol , and the Albany County Office Building is on State Street . The state government has offices scattered throughout the city .
Albany is in the 20th Congressional district , represented by Paul Tonko ( D ) in the United States House of Representatives . The city is represented by Chuck Schumer ( D ) and Kirsten Gillibrand ( D ) in the United States Senate . On the state level , the city is in the 44th district in the New York Senate , represented by Neil Breslin ( D ) . In the New York Assembly , the western portion of the city is in the 109th district , represented by Patricia Fahy ( D ) and the eastern portion is in the 108th district , represented by John T. McDonald , III ( D ) . As the seat of Albany County , the city is the location of the county 's courts including Family Court , County Court , Surrogate Court , Supreme Court , and Court of Appeals . Albany is the site of a United States district court for the Northern District of New York courthouse .
= = = Politics = = =
Albany 's politics have been dominated by the Democratic Party since the 1920s ; Daniel ( Uncle Dan ) O 'Connell established a political machine in the city with the election of William Stormont Hackett as mayor in 1922 . Prior to that , William ( Billy ) Barnes had set up a Republican machine in the 1890s . Barnes ' success is attributed to the fact that he owned two newspapers in Albany and that he was the grandson of Thurlow Weed , the influential newspaper publisher and political boss . O 'Connell 's organization overcame Barnes ' in 1922 and survived well into the 1980s ( even after his death ) , as the machine put forth candidates for whom the electorate dutifully voted . In many instances , votes were outright bought ; it was not uncommon for the machine to " buy poor folks ' loyalty and trust with a fiver " .
Gerald Jennings ' upset in the 1993 Democratic mayoral primary over Harold Joyce , who had the Democratic Party 's formal endorsement and had only recently been its county chairman , is often cited as the end of the O 'Connell era in Albany . Albany continues to be dominated by the Democratic party as enrollment in the city was 38 @,@ 862 in 2009 compared to Republican enrollment of 3 @,@ 487 . This gives Democrats a 10 β 1 advantage in the general election . Every elected city position has been held by a Democrat since 1931 .
In November 2013 , Kathy Sheehan became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Albany .
= = Religious life = =
Like most cities of comparable age and size , Albany has well @-@ established Orthodox Christian , Roman Catholic , Protestant , and Jewish communities . Albany is home to the oldest Christian congregation in Upstate New York and the Mother Churches of two Christian dioceses . As of June 2010 , eight churches or religious buildings in the city were listed on the National Register of Historic Places , one of which β St. Peter 's Episcopal Church on State Street β is a National Historic Landmark .
Established in 1642 , the congregation of the First Church in Albany ( Reformed ) , also known as the North Dutch Church ( located on North Pearl Street ) , is the second @-@ oldest Reformed Church in America . The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( Eagle Street and Madison Avenue , built 1852 ) is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic diocese , led by Bishop Howard J. Hubbard , and the Cathedral of All Saints ( South Swan Street and Elk Street , built 1888 ) is the cathedral of the Episcopal diocese , led by Bishop William Love . The city is home to eleven Catholic churches and six Episcopal churches .
A significant Jewish presence has existed in Albany since as early as 1658 , and today includes many synagogues ; there are two Conservative , a Chabad @-@ Lubavitch , an Orthodox , and two Reform synagogues . Albany is also home to one of the few Karaite synagogues outside Israel . The city has a membership of between 12 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 .
Exact numbers on religious denominations in Albany are not readily available . Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the United States Census Bureau , which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its decennial census . It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics , but these are not representative of a city the size of Albany . One report from 2000 offers religious affiliations for Albany County . According to the data , 59 @.@ 2 % of Albany County residents identified as Christian : 47 % are Roman Catholic , 8 @.@ 4 % are mainline Protestants , 2 @.@ 7 % are Evangelical Protestants , and 1 @.@ 1 % are Eastern or Oriental Orthodox Christians . Residents who practice Judaism make up 4 @.@ 2 % of the population and Muslims represent 0 @.@ 2 % . Note that these values are county @-@ wide ; city values could be significantly different .
= = Media = =
The Times Union is Albany 's primary daily newspaper and the only one based close to the city ; its headquarters moved from within city limits to suburban Colonie in the 1960s after a dispute with Mayor Corning over land needed for expansion . Its circulation totals about 73 @,@ 000 on weekdays and 143 @,@ 000 on Sundays . Serving Albany to a lesser degree are The Daily Gazette , based in Schenectady , and The Record , of Troy . Metroland is the alternative newsweekly in the area , publishing each Thursday , while The Business Review is a business weekly published each Friday . The Legislative Gazette , another weekly newspaper , focuses exclusively on issues related to the Legislature and the state government .
The Albany @-@ Schenectady @-@ Troy media market is the 63rd largest in the country in terms of radio and the 57th largest in terms of television audiences . It is a broadcast market with historical significance . The pioneering influence of General Electric in Schenectady directly contributed to the area emerging as the birthplace of station @-@ based television with WRGB ; the station was also the first affiliate of NBC . In 1947 , the region was home to the first independently owned and operated commercial FM radio station in the United States : W47A . WGY was the second commercial radio station in New York and the twelfth in the nation . The Capital District is home to ABC affiliate WTEN , CBS affiliate WRGB ( also operating CW affiliate WCWN ) , Fox affiliate WXXA , and NBC affiliate WNYT ( also operating MyNetworkTV affiliate WNYA ) ; Time Warner Cable hosts Time Warner Cable News Capital Region , the area 's only local 24 @-@ hour news channel . The area has numerous radio stations .
= = Transportation = =
The Northway ( Interstate 87 north of the New York State Thruway ) connects Albany by car to Canada at Champlain ; Autoroute 15 continues into Quebec , linking Albany to Montreal . Interstate 90 connects Albany to both Buffalo and Boston , via the New York State Thruway and the Massachusetts Turnpike respectively , both of which use I @-@ 90 ( the NYS Thruway partially , the Massachusetts Turnpike fully ) . South of Albany , I @-@ 87 becomes part of the Thruway and ends at Interstate 278 in the Bronx . Albany is literally at the crossroad of I @-@ 87 and I @-@ 90 , creating a junction between Buffalo and Boston , and Montreal and New York . Interstate 787 links Albany to Watervliet , Colonie , and Menands ; by way of Route 7 , I @-@ 787 connects to the Northway , offering Saratoga County residents a rather direct , albeit congested route to and from Albany during rush hour .
Albany , long an important Hudson River port , today serves domestic and international ships and barges through the Port of Albany @-@ Rensselaer , located on both sides of the river . The port has the largest mobile harbor crane in the state of New York . The New York State Barge Canal , the ultimate successor of the Erie Canal , is in use today , largely by tourist and private boats .
With the closure of Union Station on Broadway , area passenger @-@ rail service is provided by Amtrak at the Albany @-@ Rensselaer station in Rensselaer . In 2009 , the station saw more than 720 @,@ 000 passengers , making it Amtrak 's second @-@ busiest in New York , behind New York 's Penn Station . Low cost curbside bus service from the SUNY Albany campus and the Rensselaer station is also provided by Megabus , with direct service to New York City .
Albany 's nearest airport is Albany International Airport in Colonie . Six major airlines service Albany : Cape Air , Delta Air Lines , Southwest Airlines , United Air Lines , and US Airways ; Million Air is the local fixed @-@ base operator . In 2010 , Albany had the highest average airfare in New York , though the per @-@ mile cost on its busiest routes was second @-@ lowest in the state .
The Capital District Transportation Authority ( CDTA ) provides bus service throughout Albany and the surrounding area , including Schenectady , Troy , and Saratoga Springs . The city was once served by an urban streetcar service maintained by the United Traction Company . As in many American cities , after the advent of the automobile , light rail services declined in Albany and were replaced by bus and taxi services . Greyhound Lines , Trailways , Peter Pan , Short Line , Vermont Translines , and Yankee Trails buses all serve a downtown terminal . Brown Coach provides commuter service .
= = Sports = =
Albany has no major league professional sports teams , and minor league teams have low support . The only minor league team currently active are the Albany Devils ice hockey team , which moved to the city for the 2010 β 2011 season . They play in the American Hockey League and are affiliated with the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League . The Devils replaced the Albany River Rats , who played in the Capital Region from 1990 to 2010 , when they relocated to Charlotte , North Carolina .
The Albany Firebirds played in the Arena Football League from 1990 to 2000 , while a second team , originally known as the Albany Conquest and later the Firebirds , played in af2 , the AFL 's developmental league , from 2002 to 2009 . The Tri @-@ City ValleyCats short season minor league baseball team have played at the Joseph L. Bruno Stadium on the Hudson Valley Community College campus in North Greenbush since 2002 . Prior to the ValleyCats ' arrival , the Albany @-@ Colonie Diamond Dogs ( 1995 β 2002 ) played at Heritage Park in Colonie ; due to financial pressures , and facing impending competition from the ValleyCats , the franchise folded in 2002 . The local basketball team is the Albany Legends ( International Basketball League ) , who play in the Washington Avenue Armory . The Albany Patroons were two basketball teams that played at the Armory . Both folded due to financial problems .
With the large number of local colleges and universities around Albany , college sports are popular . The University at Albany 's Great Danes currently play at the Division I level in all sports . The football team is a member of the Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) , while all other sports teams play as members of the America East Conference ( AEC ) . In 2006 , UAlbany became the first SUNY @-@ affiliated school to send a team to the NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament . UAlbany has also hosted the New York Giants training camp since 1996 . The Siena Saints have seen a rise in popularity after their men 's basketball team made it to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship ( March Madness ) in 2008 , 2009 , and 2010 . All 18 Saints teams are Division I and play in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference ( MAAC ) . Although Siena 's campus is in nearby Colonie , the men 's basketball team plays at the TU Center .
= = Sister cities = =
Albany has five official sister city agreements and two other twin @-@ city relationships . The city of Nijmegen , Netherlands connected with Albany following World War II . With the help of the Catholic university in Albany , the Catholic University of Nijmegen ( Radboud University Nijmegen ) rebuilt its partly destroyed library , with over 50 @,@ 000 books being donated to the Dutch university . To show its gratitude for post @-@ war assistance , the city sent Albany 50 @,@ 000 tulip bulbs in 1948 ; this act led to the establishment of the annual Tulip Festival . Most of the other connections were made in the 1980s during Mayor Whalen 's term in office as part of his cultural expansion program . The official sister cities are :
Nassau , Bahamas ;
Nijmegen , Netherlands ;
Quebec City , Quebec ;
Tula , Russia ; and
Verona , Italy .
The additional twin @-@ city relationships are with :
Ghent , Belgium
Extremadura ( region ) , Spain .
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= No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 11 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 11 EFTS was established in June 1941 at Benalla , Victoria , and operated Tiger Moths and Wackett Trainers during the war . It ceased training in July 1945 after almost 3 @,@ 000 students had passed through , and was re @-@ formed as Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Benalla in February 1946 . CMU Benalla was disbanded in October 1948 .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 β 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 11 EFTS ) was formed at Benalla , Victoria , on 26 June 1941 , and came under the control of Southern Area Command . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader I.C.C. Thomson . Before being taken over by the RAAF , Benalla was an emergency runway for civil aircraft on the journey between Sydney and Melbourne . No. 11 EFTS 's infrastructure , which included medical facilities and two satellite airstrips , had been budgeted at some Β£ 85 @,@ 000 , primarily for buildings and engineering works . When the school opened , however , only stores depots and living quarters for the 100 @-@ odd staff were completed ; instructional courses , which commenced on 24 July , were initially held in tents near the main airstrip . No hangars were constructed for the de Havilland Tiger Moth training aircraft until towards the end of the year .
Flying at Benalla was hampered by bad weather , and the runway was unusable from September to November 1941 , necessitating the detachment of over 250 personnel to Essendon , home of No. 3 EFTS , to continue their training . In October 1941 , six airmen of No. 11 EFTS were court @-@ martialled for mutiny . Their main grievance was having to undertake guard duty at night and attend parades at 7 : 15 am in addition to their regular ground support work . One of the men was found guilty of incitement and the other five for failing to report their knowledge of the matter to the commanding officer . The former was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment and the others to between five and six months detention ; all were discharged from the Air Force . On 11 December 1941 , one of the school 's Tiger Moths made a crash landing in a field and struck four people on the ground , killing two and injuring the others ; the two pilots were uninjured . The outbreak of war in the Pacific saw slit trenches being dug at the base .
The school began replacing its Tiger Moths with CAC Wackett Trainers in January 1942 . No. 11 EFTS absorbed No. 3 EFTS 's instructors , students and Wackett Trainers in April , shortly before the latter unit disbanded . The same month at Benalla , thirty @-@ two United States Army Air Corps pilots undertook four weeks of flying in the Wacketts . On 5 September 1942 , one of the Wacketts crashed after apparently stalling on takeoff , killing the trainee and seriously injuring the pilot . The Wackett Trainers were taken out of service for upgrades in February 1943 , and the school again began operating Tiger Moths . One pilot was killed and another seriously injured when their Tiger Moths collided shortly after takeoff on 15 June . On 7 July , one of the Tiger Moths crashed during a night @-@ flying exercise just east of Benalla , killing both pilots . Another Tiger Moth and its pilot were lost in a crash west of Benalla on 20 October 1943 . On 14 May 1944 , a pilot was killed and a trainee seriously injured when their Tiger Moth spun out of control during an instrument test north of Benalla .
Flying training at No. 11 EFTS had largely wound down by May 1945 . Ten students from the Netherlands East Indies underwent courses in June , and in July all instruction stopped , by which time 2 @,@ 953 trainees had attended the school . No. 11 EFTS 's facilities were used to establish Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Benalla on 28 February 1946 . It was one of many CMUs that the RAAF raised after the war for the storage and upkeep of surplus aircraft prior to their disposal . CMU Benalla was responsible for maintaining North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs . It transferred all its aircraft to CMU Tocumwal , New South Wales , on 15 October 1948 , and disbanded the same day .
A memorial to No. 11 EFTS was dedicated at Benalla on 17 June 1995 .
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= Book of Kells =
The Book of Kells ( Irish : Leabhar Cheanannais ; Dublin , Trinity College Library , MS A. I. [ 58 ] , sometimes known as the Book of Columba ) is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin , containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables . It was created in a Columban monastery in Ireland or may have had contributions from various Columban institutions from both Britain and Ireland . It is believed to have been created c . 800 . The text of the Gospels is largely drawn from the Vulgate , although it also includes several passages drawn from the earlier versions of the Bible known as the Vetus Latina . It is a masterwork of Western calligraphy and represents the pinnacle of Insular illumination . It is also widely regarded as Ireland 's finest national treasure .
The illustrations and ornamentation of the Book of Kells surpass that of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity . The decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art . Figures of humans , animals and mythical beasts , together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colours , enliven the manuscript 's pages . Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism and so further emphasise the themes of the major illustrations .
The manuscript today comprises 340 folios and , since 1953 , has been bound in four volumes . The leaves are on high @-@ quality calf vellum , and the unprecedentedly elaborate ornamentation that covers them includes ten full @-@ page illustrations and text pages that are vibrant with decorated initials and interlinear miniatures and mark the furthest extension of the anti @-@ classical and energetic qualities of Insular art . The Insular majuscule script of the text itself appears to be the work of at least three different scribes . The lettering is in iron gall ink , and the colours used were derived from a wide range of substances , many of which were imports from distant lands .
The manuscript takes its name from the Abbey of Kells , which was its home for centuries . Today , it is on permanent display at Trinity College Library , Dublin . The Library usually displays two of the current four volumes at a time , one showing a major illustration and the other showing typical text pages , and the entire manuscript can be viewed on the Library 's Digital Collections Repository .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The Book of Kells is one of the finest and most famous of a group of manuscripts in what is known as the Insular style , produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in Ireland , Scotland and England and in continental monasteries with Hiberno @-@ Scottish or Anglo @-@ Saxon foundations . These manuscripts include the Cathach of St. Columba , the Ambrosiana Orosius , fragmentary Gospel in the Durham Dean and Chapter Library ( all from the early 7th century ) , and the Book of Durrow ( from the second half of the 7th century ) . From the early 8th century come the Durham Gospels , the Echternach Gospels , the Lindisfarne Gospels ( see illustration at right ) , and the Lichfield Gospels . Among others , the St. Gall Gospel Book belongs to the late 8th century and the Book of Armagh ( dated to 807 β 809 ) to the early 9th century . Scholars place these manuscripts together based on similarities in artistic style , script , and textual traditions . The fully developed style of the ornamentation of the Book of Kells places it late in this series , either from the late 8th or early 9th century . The Book of Kells follows many of the iconographic and stylistic traditions found in these earlier manuscripts . For example , the form of the decorated letters found in the incipit pages for the Gospels is surprisingly consistent in Insular Gospels . Compare , for example , the incipit pages of the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels and in the Book of Kells , both of which feature intricate decorative knot work patterns inside the outlines formed by the enlarged initial letters of the text . ( For a more complete list of related manuscripts , see : List of Hiberno @-@ Saxon illustrated manuscripts ) .
The name Book of Kells is derived from the Abbey of Kells in Kells , County Meath , which was its home for much of the medieval period . The manuscript 's date and place of production have been the subject of considerable debate . Traditionally , the book was thought to have been created in the time of Columba , possibly even as the work of his own hands . This tradition has long been discredited on paleographic and stylistic grounds : most evidence points to a composition date c . 800 , long after St. Columba 's death in 597 . The proposed dating in the 9th century coincides with Viking raids on Iona , which began in 794 and eventually dispersed the monks and their holy relics into Ireland and Scotland . There is another tradition , with some traction among Irish scholars , that suggests the manuscript was created for the 200th anniversary of the saint 's death .
There are at least five competing theories about the manuscript 's place of origin and time of completion . First , the book , or perhaps just the text , may have been created at Iona , then brought to Kells , where the illuminations were perhaps added , and never finished . Second , the book may have been produced entirely at Iona . Third , the manuscript may have been produced entirely in the scriptorium at Kells . Fourth , it may have been produced in the north of England , perhaps at Lindisfarne , then brought to Iona and from there to Kells . Finally , it may have been the product of an unknown monastery in Pictish Scotland , though there is no actual evidence for this theory , especially considering the absence of any surviving manuscript from Pictland . Although the question of the exact location of the book 's production will probably never be answered conclusively , the first theory , that it was begun at Iona and continued at Kells , is widely accepted . Regardless of which theory is true , it is certain that the Book of Kells was produced by Columban monks closely associated with the community at Iona .
= = = Medieval period = = =
Kells Abbey was plundered and pillaged by Vikings many times in the 10th century , and how the book survived is not known . The earliest historical reference to the book , and indeed to the book 's presence at Kells , can be found in a 1007 entry in the Annals of Ulster . This entry records that " the great Gospel of Columkille , ( Columba ) the chief relic of the Western World , was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine " . The manuscript was recovered a few months later β minus its golden and bejewelled cover β " under a sod " . It is generally assumed that the " great Gospel of Columkille " is the Book of Kells . If this is correct , then the book was in Kells by 1007 and had been there long enough for thieves to learn of its presence . The force of ripping the manuscript free from its cover may account for the folios missing from the beginning and end of the Book of Kells . The description in the Annals of the book as " of Columkille " β that is , having belonged to , and perhaps being made by Columba β suggests that the book was believed at that time to have been made on Iona .
Regardless , the book was certainly at Kells in the 12th century , when land charters pertaining to the Abbey of Kells were copied onto some of its blank pages . The practice of copying of charters into important books was widespread in the medieval period , and such inscriptions in the Book of Kells provide concrete evidence about its location at the time .
The Abbey of Kells was dissolved due to the ecclesiastical reforms of the 12th century . The abbey church was converted to a parish church in which the Book of Kells remained .
= = = = Book of Kildare = = = =
The 12th @-@ century writer Gerald of Wales , in his Topographia Hibernica , described in a famous passage seeing a great Gospel Book in Kildare which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells . The description certainly matches Kells :
This book contains the harmony of the Four Evangelists according to Jerome , where for almost every page there are different designs , distinguished by varied colours . Here you may see the face of majesty , divinely drawn , here the mystic symbols of the Evangelists , each with wings , now six , now four , now two ; here the eagle , there the calf , here the man and there the lion , and other forms almost infinite . Look at them superficially with the ordinary glance , and you would think it is an erasure , and not tracery . Fine craftsmanship is all about you , but you might not notice it . Look more keenly at it and you will penetrate to the very shrine of art . You will make out intricacies , so delicate and so subtle , so full of knots and links , with colours so fresh and vivid , that you might say that all this were the work of an angel , and not of a man .
Since Gerald claims to have seen this book in Kildare , he may have seen another , now lost , book equal in quality to the Book of Kells , or he may have misstated his location .
= = = Modern period = = =
The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654 . In that year , Cromwell 's cavalry was quartered in the church at Kells , and the governor of the town sent the book to Dublin for safekeeping . Henry Jones , who later became bishop of Meath after the Restoration , presented the manuscript to Trinity College in Dublin in 1661 , and it has remained there ever since , except for brief loans to other libraries and museums . It has been on display to the public in the Old Library at Trinity since the 19th century .
Over the years , the Book of Kells received several additions to its text . In the 16th century , one Gerald Plunkett of Dublin added a series of Roman numerals numbering the chapters of the Gospels according to the division created by 13th @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton . The prominent Anglican clergyman James Ussher counted and numbered its folios in 1621 , shortly after James VI and I named him Bishop of Meath . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were invited to sign the book in 1849 ; however , they in fact signed a modern flyleaf which was erroneously believed to have been one of the original folios . The page bearing their signatures was removed when the book was rebound in 1953 .
Over the centuries , the book has been rebound several times . During an 18th @-@ century rebinding , the pages were rather unsympathetically cropped , with small parts of some illustrations being lost . The book was also rebound in 1895 , but that rebinding broke down quickly . By the late 1920s , several folios had detached completely and were kept separate from the main volume . In 1953 , bookbinder Roger Powell rebound the manuscript in four volumes and stretched several pages that had developed bulges . Two volumes can normally be seen displayed at Trinity , one opened at a major decorated page , and one opened to show two text pages with smaller decorations .
In 2000 , the volume containing the Gospel of Mark was sent to Canberra , Australia , for an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts . This was only the fourth time the Book of Kells had been sent abroad for exhibition . Unfortunately , the volume suffered what has been called " minor pigment damage " while en route to Canberra . It is thought that the vibrations from the aeroplane 's engines during the long flight may have caused the damage .
= = = Reproductions = = =
In 1951 , the Swiss publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first facsimile of the Book of Kells . The majority of the pages were reproduced in black @-@ and @-@ white photographs , but the edition also featured forty @-@ eight colour reproductions , including all the full @-@ page decorations . Under licence from the Board of Trinity College Dublin , Thames and Hudson produced a second facsimile edition in 1974 . This edition included all the full @-@ page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative section of the ornamentation of the text pages , together with some enlarged details of the illustrations . The reproductions were all in full colour , with photography by John Kennedy , Green Studio , Dublin .
In 1979 , Swiss publisher Faksimile @-@ Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full @-@ colour facsimile of the book . Permission was initially denied , because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high . By 1986 , Faksimile @-@ Verlag had developed a process that used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it and so won permission to publish a new facsimile . After each page was photographed , a single @-@ page facsimile was prepared so the colours could be carefully compared to the original and adjustments made where necessary . The completed work was published in 1990 in a two @-@ volume set containing the full facsimile and scholarly commentary . One copy is held by the Anglican Church in Kells , on the site of the original monastery .
Mario Kleff also reproduced folios from the Book of Kells and together with Faksimile @-@ Verlag Publisher Urs DΓΌggelin , curated an exhibition of the Book of Kells which included these facsimile pages . These facsimiles were created using the original techniques and were also presented in the Diocesan Museum of Trier .
In 1994 , Bernard Meehan , Keeper of Manuscripts at Trinity College Dublin , produced an introductory booklet on the Book of Kells , with 110 colour images of the manuscript . His 2012 book contained more than 80 pages from the manuscript reproduced full @-@ size and in full colour .
A digital copy of the manuscript was produced by Trinity College in 2006 and was made available for purchase through Trinity College on DVD @-@ Rom . It included the ability to leaf through each page , two pages at a time or look at a single page in a magnified setting . There were also a number of commentary tracks about the specific pages as well as the history of the book . Users were given the option to search by specific illuminated categories including animals , capitols and angels . It retailed for approximately β¬ 30 but has since been discontinued . The Faksimile @-@ Verlag images are now online at Trinity College 's Digital Collections portal .
= = Description = =
The Book of Kells contains the four Gospels of the Christian scriptures written in black , red , purple , and yellow ink in an insular majuscule script , preceded by prefaces , summaries , and concordances of Gospel passages . Today , it consists of 340 vellum leaves , or folios . The majority of the folios are part of larger sheets , called bifolios , which are folded in half to form two folios . The bifolios are nested inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called quires . On occasion , a folio is not part of a bifolio but is instead a single sheet inserted within a quire . The extant folios are gathered into 38 quires . There are between four and twelve folios ( two to six bifolios ) per quire ; the folios are commonly , but not invariably , bound in groups of ten . Some folios are single sheets , as is frequently the case with the important decorated pages . The folios had lines drawn for the text , sometimes on both sides , after the bifolios were folded . Prick marks and guide lines can still be seen on some pages . The vellum is of high quality , although the folios have an uneven thickness , with some being close to leather while others are so thin as to be almost translucent .
The book 's current dimensions are 330 by 250 mm . Originally , the folios were of no standard size , but they were cropped to the current size during a 19th @-@ century rebinding . The text area is approximately 250 by 170 mm . Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text . The manuscript is in remarkably good condition considering its great age , though many pages have suffered some damage to the delicate artwork due to rubbing . The book must have been the product of a major scriptorium over several years , yet was apparently never finished , the projected decoration of some pages appearing only in outline . It is believed that some 30 folios of the original manuscript have been lost over the centuries . Ussher counted 344 folios in 1621 , but several leaves had already been lost by then . The overall estimate is based on gaps in the text and the absence of certain key illustrations .
= = = Contents = = =
The extant book contains preliminary matter , the complete text of the Gospels of Matthew , Mark and Luke , and the Gospel of John through John 17 : 13 . The remainder of John and an unknown amount of the preliminary matter is missing and was perhaps lost when the book was stolen early in the 11th century . The remaining preliminary matter consists of two fragmentary lists of Hebrew names contained in the Gospels , Breves causae ( Gospel summaries ) , Argumenta ( short biographies of the Evangelists ) , and Eusebian canon tables . It is probable that , like the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Books of Durrow and Armagh , part of the lost preliminary material included the letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus I beginning Novum opus , in which Jerome explains the purpose of his translation . It is also possible , though less likely , that the lost material included the letter of Eusebius to Carpianus , in which he explains the use of the canon tables . Of all the insular Gospels , only the Lindisfarne manuscript contains this letter .
There are two fragments of the lists of Hebrew names ; one on the recto of the first surviving folio and one on folio 26 , which is currently inserted at the end of the prefatory matter for John . The first list fragment contains the end of the list for the Gospel of Matthew . The missing names from Matthew would require an additional two folios . The second list fragment , on folio 26 , contains about a fourth of the list for Luke . The list for Luke would require an additional three folios . The structure of the quire in which folio 26 occurs is such that it is unlikely that there are three folios missing between folios 26 and 27 , so that it is almost certain that folio 26 is not now in its original location . There is no trace of the lists for Mark and John .
The first list fragment is followed by the canon tables of Eusebius of Caesarea . These tables , which predate the text of the Vulgate , were developed to cross @-@ reference the Gospels . Eusebius divided the Gospel into chapters and then created tables that allowed readers to find where a given episode in the life of Christ was located in each of the Gospels . The canon tables were traditionally included in the prefatory material in most mediaeval copies of the Vulgate text of the Gospels . The tables in the Book of Kells , however , are almost unusable because the scribe condensed the tables in such a way as to make them confused . In addition , the corresponding chapter numbers were never inserted into the margins of the text , making it impossible to find the sections to which the canon tables refer . The reason for the omission remains unclear : the scribe may have planned to add the references upon the manuscript 's completion , or he may have deliberately left them out so as not to spoil the appearance of pages .
The Breves causae and Argumenta belong to a pre @-@ Vulgate tradition of manuscripts . The Breves causae are summaries of the Old Latin translations of the Gospels and are divided into numbered chapters . These chapter numbers , like the numbers for the canon tables , are not used on the text pages of the Gospels . It is unlikely that these numbers would have been used , even if the manuscript had been completed , because the chapter numbers corresponded to old Latin translations and would have been difficult to harmonise with the Vulgate text . The Argumenta are collections of legends about the Evangelists . The Breves causae and Argumenta are arranged in a strange order : first come the Breves causae and Argumenta for Matthew , followed by the Breves and Argumenta for Mark , then , quite oddly , come the Argumenta of both Luke and John , followed by their Breves causae . This anomalous order mirrors that found in the Book of Durrow , although in the latter instance , the misplaced sections appear at the very end of the manuscript rather than as part of a continuous preliminary . In other insular manuscripts , such as the Lindisfarne Gospels , the Book of Armagh , and the Echternach Gospels , each Gospel is treated as a separate work and has its preliminaries immediately preceding it . The slavish repetition in Kells of the order of the Breves causae and Argumenta found in Durrow led scholar T. K. Abbott to the conclusion that the scribe of Kells had either the Book of Durrow or a common model in hand .
= = = Text and script = = =
The Book of Kells contains the text of the four Gospels based on the Vulgate . It does not , however , contain a pure copy of the Vulgate . There are numerous differences from the Vulgate , where Old Latin translations are used in lieu of Jerome 's text . Although such variants are common in all the insular Gospels , there does not seem to be a consistent pattern of variation amongst the various insular texts . Evidence suggests that when the scribes were writing the text they often depended on memory rather than on their exemplar .
The manuscript is written primarily in insular majuscule with some occurrences of minuscule letters ( usually e or s ) . The text is usually written in one long line across the page . Françoise Henry identified at least three scribes in this manuscript , whom she named Hand A , Hand B , and Hand C. Hand A is found on folios 1 through 19v , folios 276 through 289 , and folios 307 through the end of the manuscript . Hand A , for the most part , writes eighteen or nineteen lines per page in the brown gall @-@ ink common throughout the West . Hand B is found on folios 19r through 26 and folios 124 through 128 . Hand B has a somewhat greater tendency to use minuscule and uses red , purple and black ink and a variable number of lines per page . Hand C is found throughout the majority of the text . Hand C also has greater tendency to use minuscule than Hand A. Hand C uses the same brownish gall @-@ ink used by hand A and wrote , almost always , seventeen lines per page .
= = = = Errors and deviations = = = =
There are a number of differences between the text and the accepted Gospels . In the genealogy of Jesus , which starts at Luke 3 : 23 , Kells names an extra ancestor .
Matthew 10 : 34b The canonised Bible reads " I came not to send peace , but a sword , " but the manuscript reads gaudium ( " joy " ) where it should read gladium ( " sword " ) and so translates as " I came not [ only ] to send peace , but joy . "
The lavishly decorated opening page of the Gospel according to John in the Book of Kells had been deciphered by George Bain as : " In principio erat verbum verum " [ In the beginning was the True Word ] . Therefore , the Incipit is a free translation into Latin of the Greek original Ξ»ΞΏΞ³ΞΏΟ rather than a mere copy of the Roman version .
= = = Decoration = = =
The text is accompanied by many full @-@ page miniatures , while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities . The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions . The characteristics of the Insular manuscript initial , as described by Carl Nordenfalk , here reach their most extreme realisation : " the initials ... are conceived as elastic forms expanding and contracting with a pulsating rhythm . The kinetic energy of their contours escapes into freely drawn appendices , a spiral line which in turn generates new curvilinear motifs ... " . The illustrations feature a broad range of colours , with purple , lilac , red , pink , green , and yellow being the colours most often used . Earlier manuscripts tend toward more narrow palettes : the Book of Durrow , for example , uses only four colours . As is usual with Insular work , there was no use of gold or silver leaf in the manuscript . The pigments for the illustrations , which included red and yellow ochre , green copper pigment ( sometimes called verdigris ) , indigo , and possibly lapis lazuli , would have been imported from the Mediterranean region and , in the case of the lapis lazuli , from northeast Afghanistan . Though the presence of lapis lazuli has long been considered evidence of the great cost required to create the manuscript , recent examination of the pigments has proven that lapis lazuli was not used .
The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving Insular Gospel book . There are ten surviving full @-@ page illuminations including two evangelist portraits , three pages with the four evangelist symbols , a carpet page , a miniature of the Virgin and Child , a miniature of Christ enthroned , and miniatures of the Arrest of Jesus and the Temptation of Christ . There are thirteen surviving full pages of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of the Gospels . Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have extensive decoration . It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost . In addition to these major pages , there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated initials throughout the text ; in fact only two pages have no decoration .
The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names . This fragment occupies the left @-@ hand column of folio 1r . A miniature of the four evangelist symbols , now much abraded , make up the right @-@ hand column . The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees to view it properly . The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book . They are almost always shown together to emphasise the doctrine of the four Gospels ' unity of message .
The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables . The canon tables themselves inherently illustrate the unity of the Gospels by organising corresponding passages from the Gospels . The Eusebian canon tables normally require twelve pages . In the Book of Kells , the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages ( folios 1v through 7r ) but for unknown reasons , condensed them into ten , leaving folios 6v and 7r blank . This condensation rendered the canon tables unusable . The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean , where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an arcade ( as seen in the London Canon Tables ) . The Kells manuscript presents this motif in an Insular spirit , where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylised geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation . The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the arches . The last two canon tables are presented within a grid . This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow .
The remainder of the book is broken into sections with the divisions set off by miniatures and full pages of decorated text . Each of the Gospels is introduced by a consistent decorative programme . The preliminary matter is treated as one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread . In addition to the preliminaries and the Gospels , the " second beginning " of the Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration .
The preliminary matter is introduced by an iconic image of the Virgin and Child ( folio 7v ) . This miniature is the first representation of the Virgin in a Western manuscript . Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three @-@ quarter pose . This miniature also bears a stylistic similarity to the carved image on the lid of St. Cuthbert 's coffin of 698 . The iconography of the miniature may derive from an Eastern or Coptic icon .
The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the Breves Causae of Matthew , which begins Nativitas Christi in Bethlem ( the birth of Christ in Bethlehem ) . The beginning page ( folio 8r ) of the text of the Breves Causae is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame . The two @-@ page spread of the miniature and the text makes a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material . The opening line of each of the sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated ( see above for the Breves causae of Luke ) , but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of the Breves Causae of Matthew .
The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme . Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols , followed by a blank page . Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the Gospel which was given an elaborate decorative treatment . The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait ( folio 28v ) and its page of Evangelist symbols ( folio 27r , see above ) . The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist portrait but retains its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 129v ) . The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page . The Gospel of John , like the Gospel of Matthew , retains both its portrait ( folio 291v , see at right ) and its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 290v ) . It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed but have been lost . The use of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the Gospels .
The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish . These pages were , in effect , turned into carpet pages . The decoration of these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible . The opening page ( folio 29r ) of Matthew may stand as an example . ( See illustration at left . ) The page consists of only two words : Liber generationis ( " The book of the generation " ) . The lib of Liber is turned into a giant monogram which dominates the entire page . The er of Liber is presented as an interlaced ornament within the b of the lib monogram . Generationis is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page . The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border .
The border and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals and knot work , many of them zoomorphic . The opening words of Mark , Initium evangelii ( " The beginning of the Gospel " ) , Luke , Quoniam quidem multi , and John , In principio erat verbum ( " In the beginning was the Word " ) , are all given similar treatments . Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells , these pages were decorated in all the other Insular Gospel Books .
The Gospel of Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus . At Matthew 1 : 18 , the actual narrative of Christ 's life starts . This " second beginning " to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books , so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works . The second beginning begins with the word Christ . The Greek letters chi and rho were normally used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate the word Christ . In Insular Gospel Books , the initial Chi Rho monogram was enlarged and decorated . In the Book of Kells , this second beginning was given a decorative programme equal to those that preface the individual Gospels . Folio 32 verso has a miniature of Christ enthroned . ( It has been argued that this miniature is one of the lost evangelist portraits . However , the iconography is quite different from the extant portraits , and current scholarship accepts this identification and placement for this miniature . ) Facing this miniature , on folio 33 recto , is the only carpet page in the Book of Kells , which is rather anomalous ; the Lindisfarne Gospels has five extant carpet pages and the Book of Durrow has six . The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early mediaeval period , the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram , which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ .
In the Book of Kells , the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the entire page . The letter chi dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page . The letter rho is snuggled underneath the arms of the chi . Both letters are divided into compartments which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other patterns . The background is likewise awash in a mass of swirling and knotted decoration . Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects . Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the chi . This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that started with the Book of Durrow .
The Book of Kells contains two other full @-@ page miniatures , which illustrate episodes from the Passion story . The text of Matthew is illustrated with a full @-@ page illumination of the Arrest of Christ ( folio 114r ) . Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures . In the text of Luke , there is a full sized miniature of the Temptation of Christ ( folio 202v ) . Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple . To his right is a crowd of people , perhaps representing his disciples . To his left and below him is a black figure of Satan . Above him hover two angels .
The verso of the folio containing the Arrest of Christ contains a full page of decorated text which begins " Tunc dicit illis " . Facing the miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text ( folio 203r " Iesus autem plenus " ) . In addition to this page , five other full pages also receive elaborate treatment . In Matthew , there is one other full @-@ page treatment ( folio 124r , " Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones " ) . In the Gospel of Mark , there are also two pages of decorated text ( folio 183r , " Erat autem hora tercia " , and folio 187v , " [ Et Dominus ] quidem [ Iesus ] postquam " ) . The Gospel of Luke contains two pages of fully decorated text ( folio 188v , " Fuit in diebus Herodis " , and folio 285r , " Una autem sabbati valde " ) . Although these texts do not have miniatures associated with them , it is probable that miniatures were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been lost or were never completed . There is no surviving full page of text in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit . However , in the other three Gospels , all the full pages of decorated text , except for folio 188c , which begins the Nativity narration , occur within the Passion narrative . However , since the missing folios of John contain the Passion narrative , it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost .
The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages . Scattered through the text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans often twisted and tied into complicated knots . Many significant texts , such as the Pater Noster have decorated initials . The page containing text of the Beatitudes in Matthew ( folio 40v ) has a large miniature along the left margin of the page in which the letter B which begins each line is linked into an ornate chain . The genealogy of Christ found in the Gospel of Luke ( folio 200r ) contains a similar miniature in which the word qui is repeatedly linked along the left margin . Many of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a " turn @-@ in @-@ the @-@ path " ( that is , a place where a line is finished in a space above or below the original line ) . Many other animals serve to fill spaces left at the end of lines . No two of these designs are the same . No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of decoration .
The decorations are all high quality and often highly complex . In one decoration , which occupies a one @-@ inch square piece of a page , there are 158 complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either side . Some decorations can only be fully seen with magnifying glasses , although lenses of the required power are not known to have been available until hundreds of years after the book 's completion . The complicated knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period . Since their gradual rediscovery from the 19th century on , these designs have also had an enduring popularity . Many of these motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and tattoos .
= = Purpose = =
The book had a sacramental rather than educational purpose . Such a large , lavish Gospel would have been left on the high altar of the church and removed only for the reading of the Gospel during Mass , with the reader probably reciting from memory more than reading the text . It is significant that the Chronicles of Ulster state the book was stolen from the sacristy , where the vessels and other accoutrements of the Mass were stored , rather than from the monastic library . Its design seems to take this purpose in mind ; that is , the book was produced with appearance taking precedence over practicality . There are numerous uncorrected mistakes in the text . Lines were often completed in a blank space in the line above . The chapter headings that were necessary to make the canon tables usable were not inserted into the margins of the page . In general , nothing was done to disrupt the look of the page : aesthetics were given priority over utility .
= = In film = =
The 2009 animated film The Secret of Kells tells a fictional story of the creation of the Book of Kells by an elderly monk Aidan and his young apprentice Brendan , who struggle to work on the manuscript in the face of destructive Viking raids . It was directed by Tomm Moore and nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2009 . It was praised for sequences of animation drawing from the illuminated pages .
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= Harry Toulmin ( Unitarian minister ) =
Harry Toulmin ( sometimes called Henry Toulmin ) ( April 7 , 1766 β November 11 , 1823 ) was a Unitarian minister and politician . The son of noted Dissenting minister Joshua Toulmin , Toulmin fled his native England for the United States after he and his followers were persecuted for their beliefs . He arrived in Virginia in 1793 , and aided by recommendations from Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe , he was chosen president of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky . His Unitarian views , however , offended many of the orthodox Presbyterian members of Transylvania 's board of regents , and Toulmin resigned after two years .
Shortly after his resignation , Toulmin was appointed Secretary of State of Kentucky by Governor James Garrard . He influenced Garrard β a Baptist minister β to adopt some doctrines of Socinianism , for which he was expelled from the local Baptist association , ending his ministry . As Secretary of State , Toulmin endorsed the Kentucky Resolutions and revised the state 's code of laws in conjunction with Attorney General James Blair . After the expiration of his term as Secretary of State in 1804 , Thomas Jefferson appointed him Superior Court Judge for the Tombigbee District of the Mississippi Territory . He was the first U.S. district judge to hold court on Alabama soil . As the highest @-@ ranking authority in the large territory , he tried to prevent residents in his jurisdiction from conducting raids against the Spanish in West Florida and from participating in the Creek War between two rival factions of Creek Indians . When the state of Alabama was formed from part of Toulmin 's district , he helped write the new state 's constitution and was elected to the state legislature . Again , he was asked to compile a digest of the region 's laws , which he completed in 1823 .
Toulmin died in Washington County , Alabama on November 11 , 1823 . Because of his work compiling the laws of several states , later historians called him the " frontier Justinian " . His grandson , Harry Theophilus Toulmin was appointed district judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama by President Grover Cleveland in 1886 . In 2005 , Toulmin was inducted into the Alabama Lawyer 's Hall of Fame , and in December 2009 he was honored with the installation of a plaque in front of the Baldwin County , Alabama , courthouse .
= = Early life and family = =
Toulmin was born April 7 , 1766 , in Taunton , Somersetshire , England . His parents were Joshua Toulmin , a noted Dissenting minister , and his wife Jane ( Smith ) Toulmin . He received little formal education , but frequently read books in his mother 's bookstore and benefited from listening to conversations between his father and other noted ministers such as Joseph Priestley and Theophilus Lindsey . After attending Hoxton Academy and studying under Thomas Barnes and William Hawes , he followed his father into the ministry in 1786 .
During his ministry in England , Toulmin served two Dissenting congregations in Lancashire . From 1786 to 1788 , he was pastor of a church in Monton , and from 1787 to 1793 , he served another congregation at Chowbent Chapel in Atherton . He soon had nearly 1 @,@ 000 followers , Many of his followers supported the French Revolution , attracting the attention of anti @-@ dissenting partisans in England . A group of these partisans once took advantage of Toulmin 's absence to threaten his house , necessitating his swift return to protect his family . Upon arriving , he was able to break up the mob via diplomacy alone .
About 1787 , Toulmin married Ann Tremlett . The couple had nine children , five of whom survived infancy . In 1808 , one of these children , Lucinda Jane , married Colonel Daniel Garrard , the son of James Garrard , the second governor of Kentucky . After the death of Toulmin 's first wife , he married Martha Johnson in 1812 . They had one child together .
= = Resettlement in Kentucky = =
Spurred by the persecution endured by his followers and himself , in 1792 Toulmin published an anonymous pamphlet entitled " Thoughts on Emigration " , containing his thoughts on members of the Dissenter movement relocating to another country . The following year , his congregants raised enough money to send him to the United States to explore the possibility of relocating there . Dr. Priestly gave him letters of introduction to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to present on his arrival . During his two @-@ month voyage from England to Norfolk , Virginia , Toulmin kept a diary , which was later published under the title The Western Country in 1793 ; Reports on Kentucky and Virginia .
Following his arrival in the United States , Toulmin wrote letters back to England , giving potential immigrants information they would need to know for their journey ; these letters were published in the local Monthly Magazine . The following year , he published A Description of Kentucky , a pamphlet encouraging emigration from Europe to Kentucky .
After seeing Toulmin 's letters of recommendation from Jefferson and Madison , the board of trustees of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky , elected him president of the seminary in February 1794 . He was the first president of the seminary who was not a Presbyterian , and his election was effected when the Baptist and more liberal members of the board united against the more conservative Presbyterian members . His Unitarian views offended many of the conservative board members , and at their insistence , the Kentucky General Assembly passed legislation requiring a unanimous vote of the board of regents to re @-@ elect the seminary 's president . Toulmin resigned in protest in April 1796 .
Shortly after Toulmin 's resignation , James Garrard , a Baptist minister who had supported Toulmin as a trustee of Transylvania , was elected governor of Kentucky . At first , Garrard elected to re @-@ appoint sitting Secretary of State James Brown , but when Brown retired in October 1796 , Garrard appointed Toulmin as his replacement . He served in this capacity from 1796 to 1804 , spanning both of Garrard 's consecutive terms as governor . As a result of Garrard 's relationship with Toulmin , he began to accept some tenets of Unitarianism , specifically the doctrines of Socinianism . By 1802 , Garrard and his associate Augustine Eastin had not only adopted these beliefs , but had indoctrinated their Baptist congregations with them as well . The Elkhorn Baptist Association condemned Garrard and Eastin 's beliefs as heretical and tried to persuade the two men to abandon them . When that effort failed , the Association ceased correspondence and association with both men . This event ended Garrard 's ministry and his association with the Baptist church .
As Secretary of State , Toulmin was signatory to the Kentucky Resolutions , the legislature 's official protest of the Alien and Sedition Acts , which he regarded as an " unwarranted government intrusion into free thought , free association , and free speech " . In 1801 , he published The Magistrate 's Assistant , a guide to the state 's magisterial laws . He also promoted public awareness of governmental activity by compiling and publishing the proceedings of the General Assembly as The Public Acts of the General Assembly . Government officials chose Toulmin and state Attorney General James Blair to revise the state 's code of laws . The results of their work β a three @-@ volume tome entitled Review of the Criminal Law of Kentucky β was published in 1806 .
Near the end of Governor Garrard 's term , he appointed Toulmin registrar of the state land office . Toulmin was the first of six candidates that the state senate rejected in a bitter showdown between Garrard and the legislature . The seventh candidate , John Adair was finally confirmed by the senate .
= = Life in Alabama = =
Toulmin supported President Thomas Jefferson 's re @-@ election bid in 1804 . Following his victory , Jefferson appointed Toulmin to succeed Ephraim Kirby as Superior Court Judge for the Tombigbee District of the Mississippi Territory in 1804 . Because Kirby only served six months and never held court in the present @-@ day state of Alabama , Toulmin is regarded as the first U.S. federal judge on Alabama soil .
Toulmin and his family relocated to Fort Stoddert , just north of the border between the United States and the Spanish territory of West Florida . Toulmin 's district was large β by his estimate , 340 miles long and 330 miles wide β and he served as minister , physician , judge , postmaster , and diplomat for the area . He published both the Mississippi Magistrate 's Guide and The Laws of Mississippi in 1807 .
The residents of Tombigbee District objected to Spanish control of Mobile Bay , which prevented them from accessing the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans . In 1805 , he formally petitioned Congress to intervene , but they did not . Although he personally favored U.S. annexation of West Florida , he defended it as an independent nation until the annexation occurred . In 1807 , he arrested former Vice @-@ President Aaron Burr ; Burr had been accused of conspiring to create an independent state in the Southwest that would belong to neither the U.S. nor Spain . In 1810 , he arrested Reuben Kemper and two other members of a group styled the " Mobile Society " following an unsuccessful attempt to " liberate " Mobile and Pensacola . Toulmin 's actions were seen as supportive of Spain , and a Baldwin County grand jury charged him with acting on behalf of Spain . A congressional investigation cleared him of any wrongdoing in May 1812 . Toulmin was less successful in preventing residents of his district from entering the Creek War between to rival factions of Creek Indians .
In 1817 , Alabama Territory was formed from part of Mississippi Territory . When the state of Alabama was created from part of the Tombigbee District in 1819 , Toulmin was chosen to represent Baldwin County at the state 's constitutional convention in July 1819 . He served on the Committee of Fifteen that drafted the first Constitution of Alabama . The document was influenced by the Kentucky Constitution of 1800 , which contained more democratic provisions than some of the older state constitutions .
After the constitutional convention , he was elected to the Alabama Legislature . In 1821 , his fellow legislators chose him to write a digest of the state 's laws . The final product , Digest of the Laws of the State of Alabama , was published in 1823 . It comprised over 1 @,@ 000 pages and contained the laws of Mississippi and Alabama territories as well as the acts passed by the Alabama Legislature to date .
Toulmin maintained a cotton plantation in Washington County , Alabama . Although he was opposed to slavery when initially arriving in the United States , and he advocated for provisions in the Alabama Constitution that permitted the eventual emancipation of slaves , nevertheless he eventually came to be a slave owner himself . In his will , he provided for one of his slaves to be freed , deeming him " fit for freedom which few negroes are . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Toulmin died on his plantation on November 11 , 1823 . He is presumed to have been buried on his plantation , but the exact location of his grave is unknown . Because of his work in codifying the laws of several states and territories , later literary scholars referred to Toulmin as the " frontier Justinian " , an allusion to Byzantine Emperor Justinian I , who was known for codifying the empire 's laws .
One of Toulmin 's sons became a prominent state legislator in Alabama , and his grandson , Harry Theophilus Toulmin was appointed district judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama by President Grover Cleveland in 1886 .
The original Judge Toulmin was elected to the Alabama Lawyer 's Hall of Fame in 2005 . A plaque honoring Toulmin was placed in front of the Baldwin County , Alabama , courthouse in December 2009 .
= = Works published by Harry Toulmin = =
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The American Attorney 's Pocket Book : Being a Collection from the Best Authorities of Approved Precedents in Conveyancing : Interspersed with Various Legal Provisions from the Statutes of Several of the United States . Mathew Carey .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The American Public Prosecutor 's Assistant : Being a Collection of Precedents in Criminal Prosecutions , More Immediately Founded on the Common Law , and of the Statutes of Kentucky , but Generally Applicable to the Laws of the Several States of America . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The Clerk 's Magazine and American Conveyancer 's Assistant : Being a Collection Adopted to the United States : of the Most Approved Precedents of Affidavits , Agreements and Covenants [ etc . ] Mathew Carey .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1802 ) . A Collection of All the Public and Permanent Acts of the General Assembly of Kentucky Which are Now in Force . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1823 ) . A Digest of the Laws of the State of Alabama : containing the statutes and resolutions in force at the end of the General Assembly in January , 1823 : to which is added , an appendix containing the Declaration of Independence , the Constitution of the United States , the Act Authorizing the People of Alabama to Form a Constitution and State Government and the constitution of the State of Alabama : with a copious index . Ginn & Curtis .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1807 ) . The Magistrate 's Assistant : Being an Alphabetical Illustration of Sundry Legal Principles and Usages , Accompanied with a Variety of Necessary Forms : Compiled for the Use of the Justices of the Peace , in the Mississippi Territory . Samuel Terrell .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1817 ) . Petition from the Citizens of the Counties of Clarke , Monroe , Washington , Mobile , and Baldwin , in the Alabama Territory . October 1817 : December 30 , 1817 . Referred to the Select Committee , Appointed on the 17th Instant , on a Memorial of the Mississippi Convention , Relating to an Extension of the Limits of that State . E. De Krafft .
Toulmin , Harry ; James Blair ( 1804 ) . A Review of the Criminal Law of the Commonwealth of Kentucky . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1807 ) . The Statutes of the Mississippi Territory , Revised and Digested by the Authority of the General Assembly . Samuel Terrell .
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= Seabird =
Seabirds ( also known as marine birds ) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment . While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle , behaviour and physiology , they often exhibit striking convergent evolution , as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations . The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period , and modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene .
In general , seabirds live longer , breed later and have fewer young than other birds do , but they invest a great deal of time in their young . Most species nest in colonies , which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions . Many species are famous for undertaking long annual migrations , crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases . They feed both at the ocean 's surface and below it , and even feed on each other . Seabirds can be highly pelagic , coastal , or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely .
Seabirds and humans have a long history together : they have provided food to hunters , guided fishermen to fishing stocks and led sailors to land . Many species are currently threatened by human activities , and conservation efforts are under way .
= = Classification of seabirds = =
There exists no single definition of which groups , families and species are seabirds , and most definitions are in some way arbitrary . In the words of two seabird scientists , " The one common characteristic that all seabirds share is that they feed in saltwater ; but , as seems to be true with any statement in biology , some do not . " However , by convention all of the Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes , all of the Pelecaniformes except the darters , and some of the Charadriiformes ( the skuas , gulls , terns , auks and skimmers ) are classified as seabirds . The phalaropes are usually included as well , since although they are waders ( " shorebirds " in North America ) , two of the three species are oceanic for nine months of the year , crossing the equator to feed pelagically .
Loons and grebes , which nest on lakes but winter at sea , are usually categorized as water birds , not seabirds . Although there are a number of sea ducks in the family Anatidae that are truly marine in the winter , by convention they are usually excluded from the seabird grouping . Many waders ( or shorebirds ) and herons are also highly marine , living on the sea 's edge ( coast ) , but are also not treated as seabirds .
= = Evolution and fossil record = =
Seabirds , by virtue of living in a geologically depositional environment ( that is , in the sea where sediments are readily laid down ) , are well represented in the fossil record . They are first known to occur in the Cretaceous period , the earliest being the Hesperornithiformes , like Hesperornis regalis , a flightless loon @-@ like seabird that could dive in a fashion similar to grebes and loons ( using its feet to move underwater ) but had a beak filled with sharp teeth .
While Hesperornis is not thought to have left descendants , the earliest modern seabirds also occurred in the Cretaceous , with a species called Tytthostonyx glauconiticus , which seems allied to the Procellariiformes and Pelecaniformes . In the Paleogene the seas were dominated by early Procellariidae , giant penguins and two extinct families , the Pelagornithidae and the Plotopteridae ( a group of large seabirds that looked like the penguins ) . Modern genera began their wide radiation in the Miocene , although the genus Puffinus ( which includes today 's Manx shearwater and sooty shearwater ) might date back to the Oligocene . The highest diversity of seabirds apparently existed during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene . At the end of the latter , the oceanic food web had undergone a period of upheaval due to extinction of considerable numbers of marine species ; subsequently , the spread of marine mammals seems to have prevented seabirds from reaching their erstwhile diversity .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Adaptations to life at sea = = =
Seabirds have made numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the sea . Wing morphology has been shaped by the niche an individual species or family has evolved , so that looking at a wing 's shape and loading can tell a scientist about its life feeding behaviour . Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more pelagic species , while diving species have shorter wings . Species such as the wandering albatross , which forage over huge areas of sea , have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of gliding called dynamic soaring ( where the wind deflected by waves provides lift ) as well as slope soaring . Seabirds also almost always have webbed feet , to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species . The Procellariiformes are unusual among birds in having a strong sense of smell , which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean , and possibly to locate their colonies .
Salt glands are used by seabirds to deal with the salt they ingest by drinking and feeding ( particularly on crustaceans ) , and to help them osmoregulate . The excretions from these glands ( which are positioned in the head of the birds , emerging from the nasal cavity ) are almost pure sodium chloride .
With the exception of the cormorants and some terns , and in common with most other birds , all seabirds have waterproof plumage . However , compared to land birds , they have far more feathers protecting their bodies . This dense plumage is better able to protect the bird from getting wet , and cold is kept out by a dense layer of down feathers . The cormorants possess a layer of unique feathers that retain a smaller layer of air ( compared to other diving birds ) but otherwise soak up water . This allows them to swim without fighting the buoyancy that retaining air in the feathers causes , yet retain enough air to prevent the bird losing excessive heat through contact with water .
The plumage of most seabirds is less colourful than that of land birds , restricted in the main to variations of black , white or grey . A few species sport colourful plumes ( such as the tropicbirds and some penguins ) , but most of the colour in seabirds appears in the bills and legs . The plumage of seabirds is thought in many cases to be for camouflage , both defensive ( the colour of US Navy battleships is the same as that of Antarctic prions , and in both cases it reduces visibility at sea ) and aggressive ( the white underside possessed by many seabirds helps hide them from prey below ) .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Seabirds evolved to exploit different food resources in the world 's seas and oceans , and to a great extent , their physiology and behaviour have been shaped by their diet . These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems , leading to remarkable convergent evolution , such as that between auks and penguins . There are four basic feeding strategies , or ecological guilds , for feeding at sea : surface feeding , pursuit diving , plunge diving and predation of higher vertebrates ; within these guilds there are multiple variations on the theme .
= = = = Surface feeding = = = =
Many seabirds feed on the ocean 's surface , as the action of marine currents often concentrates food such as krill , forage fish , squid or other prey items within reach of a dipped head .
Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches , surface feeding while flying ( for example as practiced by gadfly petrels , frigatebirds and storm petrels ) , and surface feeding while swimming ( examples of which are practiced by fulmars , gulls , many of the shearwaters and gadfly petrels ) . Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds , which either snatch morsels from the water ( as do frigate @-@ birds and some terns ) , or " walk " , pattering and hovering on the water 's surface , as some of the storm @-@ petrels do . Many of these do not ever land in the water , and some , such as the frigatebirds , have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so . Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the skimmer , which has a unique fishing method : flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water β this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water . The skimmer 's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle , with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one .
Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills as well , adapted for their specific prey. prions have special bills with filters called lamellae to filter out plankton from mouthfuls of water , and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast @-@ moving prey . Gulls have more generalised bills that reflect their more opportunistic lifestyle .
= = = = Pursuit diving = = = =
Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures ( both evolutionary and physiological ) on seabirds , but the reward is a greater area in which to feed than is available to surface feeders . Propulsion underwater can be provided by wings ( as used by penguins , auks , diving petrels and some other species of petrel ) or feet ( as used by cormorants , grebes , loons and several types of fish @-@ eating ducks ) . Wing @-@ propelled divers are generally faster than foot @-@ propelled divers . In both cases , the use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations : loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty ( if at all ) , penguins cannot fly , and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of underwater diving . For example , the razorbill ( an Atlantic auk ) requires 64 % more energy to fly than a petrel of equivalent size . Many shearwaters are intermediate between the two , having longer wings than typical wing @-@ propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface @-@ feeding procellariids , leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long @-@ distance travellers . The deepest diving exhibited by shearwaters is found in the short @-@ tailed shearwater , which has been recorded diving below 70 m . Some albatross species are also capable of limited diving , with light @-@ mantled sooty albatrosses holding the record at 12 m . Of all the wing @-@ propelled pursuit divers , the most efficient in the air are the albatrosses , and they are also the poorest divers . This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments , as it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters . With their poor flying ability , many wing @-@ propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds , especially during the breeding season when hungry chicks need regular feeding .
= = = = Plunge diving = = = =
Gannets , boobies , tropicbirds , some terns and brown pelicans all engage in plunge diving , taking fast moving prey by diving into the water from flight . Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy ( caused by air trapped in plumage ) , and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers , allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources , for example , in impoverished tropical seas . In general , this is the most specialised method of hunting employed by seabirds ; other non @-@ specialists ( such as gulls and skuas ) may employ it but do so with less skill and from lower heights . In brown pelicans the skills of plunge diving take several years to fully develop β once mature , they can dive from 20 m ( 70 ft ) above the water 's surface , shifting the body before impact to avoid injury . It has been suggested that plunge divers are restricted in their hunting grounds to clear waters that afford a view of their prey from the air , and while they are the dominant guild in the tropics , the link between plunge diving and water clarity is inconclusive . Some plunge divers ( as well as some surface feeders ) are dependent on dolphins and tuna to push shoaling fish up towards the surface .
= = = = Kleptoparasitism , scavenging and predation = = = =
This catch @-@ all category refers to other seabird strategies that involve the next trophic level up . Kleptoparasites are seabirds that make a part of their living stealing food of other seabirds . Most famously , frigatebirds and skuas engage in this behaviour , although gulls , terns and other species will steal food opportunistically . The nocturnal nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy . Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species , and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting . A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40 % of the food they needed , and on average obtained only 5 % . Many species of gull will feed on seabird and sea mammal carrion when the opportunity arises , as will giant petrels . Some species of albatross also engage in scavenging : an analysis of regurgitated squid beaks has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive , and include mid @-@ water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatrosses . Some species will also feed on other seabirds ; for example , gulls , skuas and pelicans will often take eggs , chicks and even small adult seabirds from nesting colonies , while the giant petrels can kill prey up to the size of small penguins and seal pups .
= = = Life history = = =
Seabirds ' life histories are dramatically different from those of land birds . In general , they are K @-@ selected , live much longer ( anywhere between twenty and sixty years ) , delay breeding for longer ( for up to ten years ) , and invest more effort into fewer young . Most species will only have one clutch a year , unless they lose the first ( with a few exceptions , like the Cassin 's auklet ) , and many species ( like the tubenoses and sulids ) , only one egg a year .
Care of young is protracted , extending for as long as six months , among the longest for birds . For example , once common guillemot chicks fledge , they remain with the male parent for several months at sea . The frigatebirds have the longest period of parental care of any bird except a few raptors and the southern ground hornbill , with each chick fledging after four to six months and continued assistance after that for up to fourteen months . Due to the extended period of care , breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species . This life @-@ history strategy has probably evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea ( collecting widely scattered prey items ) , the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions , and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land @-@ living birds .
Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site , in all seabird species except the phalaropes , both parents participate in caring for the young , and pairs are typically at least seasonally monogamous . Many species , such as gulls , auks and penguins , retain the same mate for several seasons , and many petrel species mate for life . Albatrosses and procellariids , which mate for life , take many years to form a pair bond before they breed , and the albatrosses have an elaborate breeding dance that is part of pair @-@ bond formation .
= = = Breeding and colonies = = =
Ninety @-@ five percent of seabirds are colonial , and seabird colonies are among the largest bird colonies in the world , providing one of Earth 's great wildlife spectacles . Colonies of over a million birds have been recorded , both in the tropics ( such as Kiritimati in the Pacific ) and in the polar latitudes ( as in Antarctica ) . Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding ; non @-@ breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated .
Seabird colonies are highly variable . Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced , as in an albatross colony , or densely packed as with a murre colony . In most seabird colonies , several different species will nest on the same colony , often exhibiting some niche separation . Seabirds can nest in trees ( if any are available ) , on the ground ( with or without nests ) , on cliffs , in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices . Competition can be strong both within species and between species , with aggressive species such as sooty terns pushing less dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces . The tropical Bonin petrel nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive wedge @-@ tailed shearwater . When the seasons overlap , the wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters will kill young Bonin petrels in order to use their burrows .
Many seabirds show remarkable site fidelity , returning to the same burrow , nest or site for many years , and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour . This increases breeding success , provides a place for returning mates to reunite , and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site . Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony , and often nest close to where they hatched . This tendency , known as philopatry , is so strong that a study of Laysan albatrosses found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m ; another study , this time on Cory 's shearwaters nesting near Corsica , found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony bred in the burrow they were raised in , and two actually bred with their own mother .
Colonies are usually situated on islands , cliffs or headlands , which land mammals have difficulty accessing . This is thought to provide protection to seabirds , which are often very clumsy on land . Coloniality often arises in types of bird that do not defend feeding territories ( such as swifts , which have a very variable prey source ) ; this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds . There are other possible advantages : colonies may act as information centres , where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species . There are disadvantages to colonial life , particularly the spread of disease . Colonies also attract the attention of predators , principally other birds , and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation .
= = = Migration = = =
Like many birds , seabirds often migrate after the breeding season . Of these , the trip taken by the Arctic tern is the farthest of any bird , crossing the equator in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica . Other species also undertake trans @-@ equatorial trips , both from the north to the south , and from south to north . The population of elegant terns , which nest off Baja California , splits after the breeding season with some birds travelling north to the Central Coast of California and some travelling as far south as Peru and Chile to feed in the Humboldt Current . The sooty shearwater undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic tern ; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan , Alaska and California , an annual round trip of 40 @,@ 000 statute miles ( 64 @,@ 000 km ) .
Other species also migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites , their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food . If oceanic conditions are unsuitable , seabirds will emigrate to more productive areas , sometimes permanently if the bird is young . After fledging , juvenile birds often disperse further than adults , and to different areas , so are commonly sighted far from a species ' normal range . Some species , such as the auks , do not have a concerted migration effort , but drift southwards as the winter approaches . Other species , such as some of the storm petrels , diving petrels and cormorants , never disperse at all , staying near their breeding colonies year round .
= = = Away from the sea = = =
While the definition of seabirds suggests that the birds in question spend their lives on the ocean , many seabird families have many species that spend some or even most of their lives inland away from the sea . Most strikingly , many species breed many tens , hundreds or even thousands of miles inland . Some of these species still return to the ocean to feed ; for example , the snow petrel , the nests of which have been found 480 kilometres ( 300 mi ) inland on the Antarctic mainland , are unlikely to find anything to eat around their breeding sites . The marbled murrelet nests inland in old growth forest , seeking huge conifers with large branches to nest on . Other species , such as the California gull , nest and feed inland on lakes , and then move to the coasts in the winter . Some cormorant , pelican , gull and tern species have individuals that never visit the sea at all , spending their lives on lakes , rivers , swamps and , in the case of some of the gulls , cities and agricultural land . In these cases it is thought that these terrestrial or freshwater birds evolved from marine ancestors . Some seabirds , principally those that nest in tundra , as skuas and phalaropes do , will migrate over land as well .
The more marine species , such as petrels , auks and gannets , are more restricted in their habits , but are occasionally seen inland as vagrants . This most commonly happens to young inexperienced birds , but can happen in great numbers to exhausted adults after large storms , an event known as a wreck , where they provide prized sightings for birders .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Seabirds and fisheries = = =
Seabirds have had a long association with both fisheries and sailors , and both have drawn benefits and disadvantages from the relationship .
Fishermen have traditionally used seabirds as indicators of both fish shoals , underwater banks that might indicate fish stocks , and of potential landfall . In fact , the known association of seabirds with land was instrumental in allowing the Polynesians to locate tiny landmasses in the Pacific . Seabirds have provided food for fishermen away from home , as well as bait . Famously , tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish directly . Indirectly , fisheries have also benefited from guano from colonies of seabirds acting as fertilizer for the surrounding seas .
Negative effects on fisheries are mostly restricted to raiding by birds on aquaculture , although long @-@ lining fisheries also have to deal with bait stealing . There have been claims of prey depletion by seabirds of fishery stocks , and while there is some evidence of this , the effects of seabirds are considered smaller than that of marine mammals and predatory fish ( like tuna ) .
Some seabird species have benefited from fisheries , particularly from discarded fish and offal . These discards compose 30 % of the food of seabirds in the North Sea , for example , and compose up to 70 % of the total food of some seabird populations . This can have other impacts ; for example , the spread of the northern fulmar through the United Kingdom is attributed in part to the availability of discards . Discards generally benefit surface feeders , such as gannets and petrels , to the detriment of pursuit divers like penguins .
Fisheries also have negative effects on seabirds , and these effects , particularly on the long @-@ lived and slow @-@ breeding albatrosses , are a source of increasing concern to conservationists . The bycatch of seabirds entangled in nets or hooked on fishing lines has had a big impact on seabird numbers ; for example , an estimated 100 @,@ 000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long @-@ line fisheries . Overall , many hundreds of thousands of birds are trapped and killed each year , a source of concern for some of the rarest species ( for example , only about 2 @,@ 000 short @-@ tailed albatrosses are known to still exist ) . Seabirds are also thought to suffer when overfishing occurs .
= = = Exploitation = = =
The hunting of seabirds and the collecting of seabird eggs have contributed to the declines of many species , and the extinction of several , including the great auk and the spectacled cormorant . Seabirds have been hunted for food by coastal peoples throughout history β one of the earliest instances known is in southern Chile , where archaeological excavations in middens has shown hunting of albatrosses , cormorants and shearwaters from 5000 BP . This pressure has led to some species becoming extinct in many places ; in particular , at least 20 species of an original 29 no longer breed on Easter Island . In the 19th century , the hunting of seabirds for fat deposits and feathers for the millinery trade reached industrial levels . Muttonbirding ( harvesting shearwater chicks ) developed as important industries in both New Zealand and Tasmania , and the name of one species , the providence petrel , is derived from its seemingly miraculous arrival on Norfolk Island where it provided a windfall for starving European settlers . In the Falkland Islands , hundreds of thousands of penguins were harvested for their oil each year . Seabird eggs have also long been an important source of food for sailors undertaking long sea voyages , as well as being taken when settlements grow in areas near a colony . Eggers from San Francisco took almost half a million eggs a year from the Farallon Islands in the mid @-@ 19th century , a period in the islands ' history from which the seabird species are still recovering .
Both hunting and egging continue today , although not at the levels that occurred in the past , and generally in a more controlled manner . For example , the MΔori of Stewart Island / Rakiura continue to harvest the chicks of the sooty shearwater as they have done for centuries , using traditional methods ( called kaitiakitanga ) to manage the harvest , but now work with the University of Otago in studying the populations . In Greenland , however , uncontrolled hunting is pushing many species into steep decline .
= = = Other threats = = =
Other human factors have led to declines and even extinctions in seabird populations , colonies and species . Of these , perhaps the most serious are introduced species . Seabirds , breeding predominantly on small isolated islands , have lost many predator defence behaviours . Feral cats are capable of taking seabirds as large as albatrosses , and many introduced rodents , such as the Pacific rat , can take eggs hidden in burrows . Introduced goats , cattle , rabbits and other herbivores can lead to problems , particularly when species need vegetation to protect or shade their young . Disturbance of breeding colonies by humans is often a problem as well β visitors , even well @-@ meaning tourists , can flush brooding adults off a colony leaving chicks and eggs vulnerable to predators .
The build @-@ up of toxins and pollutants in seabirds is also a concern . Seabirds , being apex predators , suffered from the ravages of DDT until it was banned ; among other effects , DDT was implicated in embryo development problems and the skewed sex ratio of western gulls in southern California . Oil spills are also a threat to seabird species , as both a toxin and because the feathers of the birds become saturated by the oil , causing them to lose their waterproofing . Oil pollution threatens species with restricted ranges or already depressed populations .
= = = Conservation = = =
The threats faced by seabirds have not gone unnoticed by scientists or the conservation movement . As early as 1903 , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt was convinced of the need to declare Pelican Island in Florida a National Wildlife Refuge to protect the bird colonies ( including the nesting brown pelicans ) , and in 1909 he protected the Farallon Islands . Today many important seabird colonies are given some measure of protection , from Heron Island in Australia to Triangle Island in British Columbia .
Island restoration techniques , pioneered by New Zealand , enable the removal of exotic invaders from increasingly large islands . Feral cats have been removed from Ascension Island , Arctic foxes from many islands in the Aleutian Islands , and rats from Campbell Island . The removal of these introduced species has led to increases in numbers of species under pressure and even the return of extirpated ones . After the removal of cats from Ascension Island , seabirds began to nest there again for the first time in over a hundred years .
Seabird mortality caused by long @-@ line fisheries can be greatly reduced by techniques such as setting long @-@ line bait at night , dying the bait blue , setting the bait underwater , increasing the amount of weight on lines and by using bird scarers , and their deployment is increasingly required by many national fishing fleets . The international ban on the use of drift nets has also helped reduce the mortality of seabirds and other marine wildlife .
One of the Millennium Projects in the UK was the Scottish Seabird Centre , near the important bird sanctuaries on Bass Rock , Fidra and the surrounding islands . The area is home to huge colonies of gannets , puffins , skuas and other seabirds . The centre allows visitors to watch live video from the islands as well as learn about the threats the birds face and how we can protect them , and has helped to significantly raise the profile of seabird conservation in the UK . Seabird tourism can provide income for coastal communities as well as raise the profile of seabird conservation . For example , the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in New Zealand attracts 40 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
The plight of albatross and large seabirds , as well as other marine creatures , being taken as bycatch by long @-@ line fisheries , has been addressed by a large number of non @-@ governmental organizations ( including BirdLife International , the American Bird Conservancy and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ) . This led to the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels , a legally binding treaty designed to protect these threatened species , which has been ratified by eleven countries as of 2008 ( namely Argentina , Australia , Chile , Ecuador , France , New Zealand , Norway , Peru , South Africa , Spain and the United Kingdom ) .
= = = Role in culture = = =
Many seabirds are little studied and poorly known , due to living far out to sea and breeding in isolated colonies . However , some seabirds , particularly , the albatrosses and gulls , have broken into popular consciousness . The albatrosses have been described as " the most legendary of birds " , and have a variety of myths and legends associated with them , and today it is widely considered unlucky to harm them , although the notion that sailors believed that is a myth that derives from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's famous poem , " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner " , in which a sailor is punished for killing an albatross by having to wear its corpse around his neck .
Instead of the Cross the AlbatrossAbout my neck was hung
Sailors did , however , consider it unlucky to touch a storm petrel , especially one that has landed on the ship .
Gulls are one of the most commonly seen seabirds , given their use of human @-@ made habitats ( such as cities and dumps ) and their often fearless nature . They therefore also have made it into the popular consciousness β they have been used metaphorically , as in Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach , or to denote a closeness to the sea , such as their use in The Lord of the Rings β both in the insignia of Gondor and therefore NΓΊmenor ( used in the design of the films ) , and to call Legolas to ( and across ) the sea . Other species have also made an impact ; pelicans have long been associated with mercy and altruism because of an early Western Christian myth that they split open their breast to feed their starving chicks .
= = Seabird families = =
The following are the groups of birds normally classed as seabirds .
Sphenisciformes ( Antarctic and southern waters ; 16 species )
Spheniscidae penguins
Procellariiformes ( Tubenoses : pan @-@ oceanic and pelagic ; 93 species )
Diomedeidae albatrosses
Procellariidae fulmars , prions , shearwaters , gadfly and other petrels
Pelacanoididae diving petrels
Hydrobatidae storm petrels
Pelecaniformes ( Worldwide ; 57 species )
Pelecanidae pelicans
Sulidae gannets and boobies
Phalacrocoracidae cormorants
Fregatidae frigatebirds
Phaethontidae tropicbirds
Charadriiformes ( Worldwide ; 305 species , but only the families listed are classed as seabirds . )
Stercorariidae skuas
Laridae gulls
Sternidae terns
Rhynchopidae skimmers
Alcidae auks
For an alternative taxonomy of these groups , see also Sibley @-@ Ahlquist taxonomy .
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= The Witch Way =
The Witch Way is the branding for long @-@ standing English bus route X43 , which runs between Nelson and Manchester . The service is currently operated by Transdev in Burnley & Pendle .
The route has operated continuously since 1948 . It was previously operated by Ribble Motor Services , Stagecoach North West and Burnley & Pendle , while GM Buses briefly competed with Stagecoach on the route . During its history it has served several places no longer on the present route , including Bury , Colne , Skipton and the Trafford Centre . ( Transdev extended the route to Skipton once again in Spring 2016 ) .
The service was rebranded as The Witch Way in 2005 to coincide with the introduction of new vehicles . It had previously been branded as The X43 and before then was unbranded . Between 1982 and 1986 the route was known as Timesaver , with buses carrying dedicated liveries .
= = History = =
Route X43 was introduced between Colne and Manchester by Ribble Motor Services in 1948 , replacing another route between Burnley and Manchester . In the early 1950s it was extended to start from Skipton . In 1978 , the route was rerouted to use the new M66 motorway , bypassing Bury . Some journeys continued to serve the traditional route , as route number 743 .
Ribble Motor Services was privatised in 1986 in a management buyout . In April 1989 it was sold to Stagecoach . In 1992 , in response to competition on route 192 , GM Buses used its Charterplan coaching subsidiary to compete with route X43 between Manchester and Burnley . The competition ended in 1994 following Stagecoach 's withdrawal from route 192 . Stagecoach went on to acquire the southern half of GM Buses in February 1996 .
For a short time in the late 1990s , the route operated through to Keighley , this ceased in 1999 . In 1998 the route was extended south of Manchester to the Trafford Centre . A further change in 2000 saw the northern end of route X43 rerouted to avoid Barnoldswick , prompting some criticism from local residents .
Stagecoach 's operations in the Burnley area were sold to the Blazefield Group on 15 April 2001 and rebranded as Burnley & Pendle.In June 2001 one X43 journey in each direction was extended through to Skipton and Hawes on summer Sundays . This proved relatively successful , and the single @-@ deck coach initially used was replaced by a double @-@ decker . It continued to operate into 2003 , but was withdrawn at the end of September . Fares on the route increased by 30 % in the two years up to August 2004 , prompting some passengers to abandon the route in favour of a car sharing scheme . Despite this , the route saw an average of 12 % yearly growth between 2001 and 2004 .
In August 2005 , the route was upgraded with new vehicles and rebranded as The Witch Way . The service frequency was increased to every 20 minutes , with a Saturday frequency of every 30 minutes and a Sunday frequency of one bus per hour , while the extension to the Trafford Centre was withdrawn . The section of route between Nelson and Colne was also abandoned , prompting criticism from local councillors , although the parallel " Mainline " routes 20 @-@ 29 were increased in frequency to partially replace these journeys .
Blazefield was sold to Transdev in January 2006 . During the first six months after the new vehicles were introduced , passenger numbers on the remaining section of route increased by 24 @.@ 1 % , with total passenger numbers up by 16 @.@ 1 % . The route was shortlisted for a UK Bus Award in October 2006 , going on to win the Viacom Outdoor Bus Marketing Campaign of the Year award .
In October 2011 , the Witch Way services underwent a revamp with an increase of journeys between Burnley and Manchester , running every 15 minutes Monday @-@ Saturday daytime , but with a reduction of journeys between Nelson and Manchester , running every 30 minutes Monday @-@ Saturday daytime . Route X44 , which differed from the regular route by additionally serving Edenfield , was also withdrawn from service , being partly replaced by route X8 , which ran between Burnley , Rawtenstall and Manchester via Bacup , and First Greater Manchester 's route X35 , which was extended from Stubbins .
On 1 November 2013 , all buses were replaced with Volvo B9TL 's which received a new Black , white and grey livery . These buses currently serve the X43 .
On May 1st 2016 the route will see further changes with :
faster buses introduced at peak time between Manchester and Burnley
2 buses an hour will continue beyond Burnley to Skipton via the M65 and Colne
Nelson will no longer be served by Off Peak X43 buses
The 872 number will be dropped in favour of the X43 - All buses to Skipton / Grassington will start in Manchester
= = Route description = =
Route X43 currently runs between Nelson and Manchester , serving the intermediate communities of Burnley , Rawtenstall and Prestwich . The service make use of both the M60 and M66 motorways . The routes also connect three notable educational establishments : Alder Grange Community and Technology School , Burnley College and Nelson and Colne College . Another point of interest on the route is the Singing Ringing Tree near Burnley .
On Sundays , there are 7 journeys continuing on from Burnley towards Grassington via Skipton as the DalesBus service 872 , and 7 return journeys from Grassington towards Burnley from where the normal X43 Sunday service towards Manchester continues . From May 1st 2016 all 872 journeys will be operated as the X43 and will start / end at Manchester .
= = Vehicles and marketing = =
Route X43 was initially served with a mixture of double @-@ deck Leyland Titans and single @-@ deck Leyland Tigers . In the early 1960s these were replaced by new Leyland Leopards . From 1974 coaches were used on the route , with Leyland Leopards again the preferred choice . In 1982 a small number were branded for the route , using the name Timesaver and the tagline Regular Motorway service .
In 1984 the route was converted to double @-@ deck operation using new Leyland Olympians painted in a unique white and blue livery with Timesaver branding . Four Leyland Tiger coaches in a yellow and red livery also using the Timesaver name , arrived a year later . The route branding was replaced by Stagecoach 's corporate image of white with red , orange and blue stripes following their takeover of Ribble Motor Services in 1989 .
New Dennis Javelin coaches were introduced to route X43 by Stagecoach in response to the competition from Charterplan in 1992 . The route was marketed as The Mancunian , with the vehicles carrying the name alongside Stagecoach corporate livery . The route was briefly operated with articulated coaches in 1996 , but this proved short @-@ lived owing to restrictions on their use in Rawtenstall , with services returning to Javelin operation .
The Javelins were transferred away from the route shortly prior to Stagecoach 's sale of the operation to Transdev , and the service was briefly operated with 15 @-@ year @-@ old Leyland Olympians . In July 2001 a fleet of 15 new Volvo B7TLs , which included improved interiors and CCTV cameras , were introduced to the route .
In August 2005 , the route was again re @-@ launched , with 16 new Wright Eclipse Gemini bodied Volvo B7TLs , again with unusual features including CCTV and leather seats . The new service took the branding " The Witch Way " , with buses named after the Pendle witches from the 17th century , and was advertised with the slogan " business class as standard " . The older B7TLs were displaced to Lancashire United 's routes X40 and X41 .
On the 1st of November 2013 new vehicles were introduced to the route , in the form of 15 Wright Gemini bodied Volvo B9TLs . The buses carry a new silver livery which also features a new witch design . Additionally , free WiFi is featured to allow passengers to remain connected on their journey .
= = Variants = =
There has been five alternative routes similar to route X43 operated in the past . When route X43 was diverted away from Bury in 1978 , some journeys continued to serve the town . These were numbered 743 and were operated by Ribble Motor Services with a mixture of coaches and buses . Route X43 's infrequent extension to Skipton was also transferred onto route 743 . The route was withdrawn in 1985 due to a fall in passenger numbers which coincided with the rebranding of the main route as Timesaver .
Route X53 took a different route between Burnley and Rawtenstall , via Water and Waterfoot in the upper Irwell Valley . In the early 1960s these journeys were 4 @-@ hourly and started / ended at Burnley . By the 1970s frequency had declined to a southbound morning and northbound evening peak working , but it survived to be renumbered 753 when X43 became 743 . It was withdrawn along with the 743 .
A variation of the route operating via the Rossendale Valley between Rawtenstall and Burnley was introduced in 2002 , taking the number X45 . It was operated with route branded Volvo B10M coaches , but was cancelled after a year because of low patronage . In early 2002 , route X43 journeys which extended beyond Manchester to the Trafford Centre were renumbered to X42 to distinguish them from the short workings . This pattern continued until the August 2005 rebranding , when the extension was withdrawn . The most recent variation was route X44 , which ran until October 2011 . It ran via Edenfield between Rawtenstall and the M66 motorway . This allowed commuters and shoppers to travel to / from Manchester with the service running several journeys during the day Mondays to Saturdays . The service was partly replaced by route X8 , which operated two weekday journeys to Manchester and four weekday journeys from Manchester , leaving Edenfield without a weekend service to Manchester . Route X8 has since been withdrawn .
= = Accidents = =
In November 1999 , a bus travelling on the route from Manchester to Barnoldswick was involved in a crash with a car travelling in the opposite direction in Earby . Four passengers and the car driver suffered minor injuries .
In September 2006 , the driver of an X43 on the M60 motorway fell unconscious while the vehicle was moving . Irene King , a 47 @-@ year @-@ old passenger , was able to take over control of the bus to prevent a serious accident . She won several awards for this action , including an award for Outstanding Bravery at the 2006 Pride of Britain Awards , a Vodafone Life Savers Award , a Royal Humane Society Testimonial on Vellum , a Chief Constable 's Commendation .
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= The Walk ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Walk " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by John Shiban and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode aired in the United States on November 10 , 1995 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " The Walk " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , being watched by 15 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . Critical reception was mixed .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , a failed suicide attempt by a patient in a U.S. Army hospital interests Mulder with the talk of a " phantom soldier " who has prevented the man 's death . The U.S. Army General in charge of the hospital is initially opposed to the FBI 's involvement until the invisible killer begins stalking him . Everyone involved in the case is shocked to learn that the primary suspect could in fact , be a quadruple amputee .
" The Walk " is the first X @-@ Files script by John Shiban , who commented that it was a challenge for him . He was inspired by the film The Men , which features a character who has lost his legs in war and wishes to be able to walk again . The episode required several visual effects which were almost not completed in time .
= = Plot = =
At a VA hospital in Fort Evanston , Maryland , Lieutenant Colonel Victor Stans makes his third suicide attempt ; he claims that a mysterious figure will not let him die . Stans attempts to drown in a tub of scalding water , but is rescued by the hospital staff and subsequently is disfigured due to the hot water .
When Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) question Stans , they learn that his wife and children died in a house fire he claims was started by the mysterious soldier he says will not allow him to die himself . Captain Janet Draper stops the questioning , as Mulder and Scully were not granted permission to see Stans by his superior officer , General Thomas Callahan . After meeting with the agents , Callahan glimpses the phantom soldier Stans described . He also finds his answering machine replaying an unintelligible message . Later , while using the base 's swimming pool , Draper is killed by an invisible force .
Callahan tells the agents about the soldier and the voicemail , which was received twice before at his home . When they visit his house , his young son , Trevor , believes he saw someone go inside ; Scully herself glimpses someone in the backyard . Fingerprints are found on the property which belong to the hospital mailman , Quinton " Roach " Freely . As Mulder and Scully take Roach into custody , Trevor is attacked and killed by the invisible force in his sandbox . Under the agent 's questioning , Roach admits to his role in the deaths and states he is " Rappo 's mailman " .
" Rappo " turns out to be Leonard Trimble ( Ian Tracey ) , a Gulf War veteran and quadruple amputee . Scully doesn 't believe Roach , even though he insists that Rappo will kill him next . Scully later finds Roach dead in his cell with a bedsheet shoved down his throat . Scully assumes that he committed suicide , but Mulder shows her X @-@ ray dental plates he had carried in the rehab room , the pool , Callahan 's office , and Callahan 's house ; all show signs of radiation . Mulder thinks that Rappo is leaving his body through astral projection , doing so with a psychic connection forged through Roach 's letters . He also plays the voicemail backwards ; it is actually a warning from the phantom soldier .
Under questioning , an embittered Rappo states his belief that the Gulf War took his life away . Meanwhile , Callahan finds his wife 's dead body . He goes to the hospital to talk to Stans , who reveals that Rappo β whom he doesn 't know β is responsible for the deaths . When Callahan confronts Rappo , he openly admits his crimes . Rappo tries to goad Callahan to killing him , but Callahan decides to " stand down , " shooting over Rappo 's head . The agents arrive and find Rappo in a trance ; Mulder realizes what is happening and tries to find Callahan . Rappo 's apparition attacks Callahan with steam from the pipes in the hospital 's basement . Stans enters Rappo 's room , locks the door , and smothers Rappo with a pillow . With Rappo dead , his apparition disappears before it attacks Mulder . Callahan remains unharmed .
Since there is no physical evidence to prove that Rappo killed Callahan 's wife and son , the case remains unsolved . Mulder 's narration states that Rappo 's family tries to have him buried at Arlington National Cemetery ; he is instead buried in a civilian cemetery in Pennsylvania .
= = Production = =
" The Walk " is the first X @-@ Files script by John Shiban . He found it challenging to write , particularly Mulder and Scully 's first scene where " they have to come together on a case , yet they have to be at odds " . Shiban was inspired by the film The Men and realizing that the main character , who had been injured in war and lost his legs , wanted to walk more than anything . He stated that the paranormal concept of astral projection " just sort of fit " . Some members of the writing staff were concerned about killing Callahan 's young son , Trevor , but Shiban was not bothered by it and felt that Rappo wanted to take everything from Callahan , and the worst blow would be to kill his son .
Director Rob Bowman felt that Ian Tracey , who played Rappo , was " an incredibly strong actor " and fit the role . Deryl Hayes , who played an army psychiatrist in this episode , previously appeared as a CIA operative in the first season episode " Shadows " . Draper 's drowning was achieved by pulling actress Nancy Sorel down with a cable that was attached to the bottom of the pool . The image of the wave launching over Draper in the pool was accomplished by the teamwork of special effects department members Mat Beck and David Gauthier . One of the crew members was also buried in sand in the scene where Trevor is killed . The effect in the climax when Rappo 's apparition throws Callahan and Mulder across the room was accomplished with a device called the " Air @-@ Ram " that uses compressed air . The visual effects were almost not completed in time .
= = Reception = =
" The Walk " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 10 , 1995 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 15 @.@ 91 million viewers .
In a retrospective of the third season by Entertainment Weekly , " The Walk " was given a grade of C , noting its similarities to other episodes and being critical of the characters . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave it a grade of B , describing it as " straightforward " , with a " well @-@ realized " military hospital and " terrific " directing . However , he felt that Ian Tracey was not a good enough actor to make Rappo 's motives seem believable . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode two and a half stars out of four , calling it a " solid episode " with a good supporting cast and effects . However , she felt the characterization of Mulder and Scully was " off @-@ balance " and noted that some of the military detail was wrong . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three and a half stars out of five , noting its similarities to other episodes such as the previous " 2Shy " , but felt that Shiban " has put real blood and passion into it which raises it high above the trappings of its clichΓ©s " . They criticized the plot for being too predictable and formulaic , but said it succeeded in emotion and was " well @-@ written " and " well @-@ directed " .
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= Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home =
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " is the opening track on the Scottish post @-@ rock band Mogwai 's 1997 debut album , Mogwai Young Team . It was primarily composed by the band 's bassist , Dominic Aitchison , prior to the 1997 Mogwai Young Team recording sessions .
The song features electric guitar , bass guitar , drum kit , organ , and glockenspiel , bookended by sampled monologues from friends of the band . It is an example of the predominantly electric guitar @-@ based genre the band employed at the time ; featuring quiet , clean sections contrasting with loud , distorted sections , sometimes connected with crescendos and diminuendos . This dynamic contrast was referred to by the band as " serious guitar music . "
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " received a positive reception from music journalists , with album reviews focusing mainly on the effectiveness of the dynamic contrast featured within the song , the band 's usage of instrumentation , and the track 's overall representation of the band 's genre at the time .
= = Origins and recording = =
The first live performance documented of " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " was on 6 April 1997 at Highbury Garage in London β the band 's first show promoting the Ten Rapid ( Collected Recordings 1996 β 1997 ) compilation album . This performance , as well as several other performances of the track throughout 1997 , was instrumental . During this period , " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " sometimes went under the title of " New Dom " .
The song took its title from an exclamation from Lee Cohen , a Chicagoan friend of the band , at Brighton in May 1997 . The band recorded " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " during the Mogwai Young Team sessions from July to August 1997 at MCM Studios in Hamilton , South Lanarkshire , Scotland , where the band had previously recorded the majority of their earlier material . The song was produced by Mogwai and Paul Savage , who handled production and mixing duties on the bulk of the band 's previous recordings .
= = Musical composition = =
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " is 5 minutes 58 seconds long , in the key of A major , in 4 / 4 time .
The song begins with an organ pedal point of an A note , accompanied by a recording of a monologue passage from a Bergen Student Newspaper , being recited by Mari Myren , referring to when Mogwai played a show on 15 March 1997 at the Hulen , in Bergen , Norway . Myren describes the band 's music as " bigger than words and wider than pictures " and states that " If the stars had a sound , it would sound like this . " The sound of clapping is heard , followed at ( 0 : 54 ) , by a bassline . This is joined at ( 1 : 09 ) by a soft drumbeat and a clean , two @-@ note guitar melody , based around the chord of A major . At ( 1 : 31 ) , the guitars and bass guitar modulate to the relative minor chord , F β― minor , and D major , and play alternate melody , before returning to the main melody .
This is repeated until ( 2 : 32 ) , when the drumbeat gradually fades out , leaving only the ride cymbal keeping the beat , and the guitars , which repeat a melody based around the chord of A major , using harmonics . At ( 3 : 11 ) , the bass guitar joins in , followed by the drum kit , building to a gradual crescendo , eventually climaxing at ( 3 : 42 ) into a distortion @-@ laden chord progression , using the chords F β― minor , D major , and A major . At ( 3 : 46 ) , a guitar solo is played over these chords . This continues until ( 5 : 09 ) , after all instruments have faded out except for the tremolo @-@ laden feedback of the guitar .
= = Release and reception = =
During professional reviews , " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " received largely positive reception . Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine described the song as " gorgeous , moving from a gentle beginning to a series of shattering crescendos " , also noting that it " describes almost all of Mogwai β s music at this stage of their career . " David Wilson of The Daily Nebraskan described the song as having " low @-@ key harmonics and [ a ] delicate melody " , followed by " a blistering shard of explosive distortion [ bursting ] out of nowhere " , noting that the dynamic contrast within the song , " sets the seesaw pace for the whole record . "
Lee Harvey of Vox also referred to the dynamic contrast , noting that it " [ goads ] and [ entices ] you with gentle percussion , leaving you helpless before the surge of sky @-@ swallowing guitars that follows " . Scott Irvine of UpBeetMusic described it as a " standout track " , also noting " [ the ] track alone is worth checking out 1997 β s best bet for an instrumental tour de force " .
Christopher Jackson of Fluffhouse described the track as a " to @-@ the @-@ point introduction to the classic Mogwai sound - elegant musings on a web of bass @-@ heavy guitars , growing patiently to a peak filled out with massive distorted chords and fat drum fills " . Brandon Wu of Ground and Sky described the song 's progression , " [ starting ] with a quietly pretty melody . . . [ building ] to a massive climax of guitar and bass noise . " and " woven through [ the ] crescendo is a beautiful , lyrical guitar line . . . simply stunning . "
= = Personnel and credits = =
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= Scotland during the Roman Empire =
Scotland during the Roman Empire refers to the protohistorical period during which the Roman Empire interacted with the area that is now Scotland , which was known to them as " Caledonia " . Roman legions arrived around AD 71 , having conquered the Celtic tribes of " Britain " ( England and Wales ) over the preceding three decades . Aiming to annex all of the island of " Albion " , Romans under Q. Petillius Cerialis and Gn . Julius Agricola invaded the Caledonians in the 70s and 80s . An account by Agricola 's son @-@ in @-@ law Tacitus mentions a Roman victory at " Mons Graupius " which became the namesake of the Grampians but has been questioned by modern scholarship . The Romans then seem to have repeated an earlier Greek circumnavigation of the island and received submission from local tribes , establishing their border of actual control first along the Gask Ridge before withdrawing to a line south of the Solway Firth . This line was fortified as Hadrian 's Wall . Several Roman commanders attempted to fully conquer lands north of this line , including a brief expansion that was fortified as the Antonine Wall . Despite grandiose claims made by an 18th @-@ century forged manuscript , however , it is now believed that the Romans at no point controlled even half of present @-@ day Scotland and that Roman legions ceased to affect the area after around 211 .
The history of the period is complex and not well @-@ documented . The province of Valentia , for instance , may have been the lands between the two Roman walls , or the territory around and south of Hadrian 's Wall , or Roman Wales . Romans held most of their Caledonian territory only a little over 40 years ; they probably only held any Scottish land at all for about 80 years . Some Scottish historians such as Moffat go so far as to say Rome 's presence was entirely uninfluential . " Scots " and " Scotland " proper would not emerge as unified ideas until centuries later . In fact , the Roman Empire influenced every part of Scotland during the period : by the time of the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410 , the various Iron Age tribes native to the area had united as or fell under the control of the Picts while the southern half of the country was overrun by tribes of Romanized Britons . The Scoti , Gaelic Irish raiders who would give Scotland its English name , had begun to settle along the west coast as well . All three groups may have been involved in the Great Conspiracy that overran Roman Britain in 367 . The era also saw the emergence of the earliest historical accounts of the natives . The most enduring legacies of Rome , however , were Christianity and literacy , both of which arrived indirectly via Irish missionaries .
= = The dawn of Scottish history = =
Scotland had been inhabited for thousands of years before the Romans arrived . However , it is only during the Greco @-@ Roman period that Scotland is recorded in writing .
The work On the Cosmos by Aristotle or Pseudo @-@ Aristotle mentions two " very large " British Isles called Albion ( Great Britain ) and Ierne ( Ireland ) . The Greek explorer and geographer Pytheas visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC and may have circumnavigated the mainland , which he describes as being triangular in shape . In his work On the Ocean , he refers to the most northerly point as Orcas ( Orkney ) .
The earliest written record of a formal connection between Rome and Scotland is the attendance of the " King of Orkney " who was one of 11 British kings who submitted to the Emperor Claudius at Colchester in AD 43 following the invasion of southern Britain three months earlier . The long distances and short period of time involved strongly suggest a prior connection between Rome and Orkney , although no evidence of this has been found and the contrast with later Caledonian resistance is striking . Originals of On the Ocean do not survive , but copies are known to have existed in the 1st century so at the least a rudimentary knowledge of the geography of north Britain would have been available to Roman military intelligence . Pomponius Mela , the Roman geographer , recorded in his De Chorographia , written around AD 43 , that there were 30 Orkney islands and seven Haemodae ( possibly Shetland ) . There is certainly evidence of an Orcadian connection with Rome prior to AD 60 from pottery found at the broch of Gurness .
By the time of Pliny the Elder ( d . AD 79 ) , Roman knowledge of the geography of Scotland had extended to the Hebudes ( The Hebrides ) , Dumna ( probably the Outer Hebrides ) , the Caledonian Forest , and the Caledonians .
Ptolemy , possibly drawing on earlier sources of information as well as more contemporary accounts from the Agricolan invasion , identified 18 tribes in Scotland in his Geography , but many of the names are obscure . His information becomes much less reliable in the north and west , suggesting early Roman knowledge of these area was confined to observations from the sea . Famously , his coΓΆrdinates place most of Scotland north of Hadrian 's Wall bent at a right angle , stretching due eastward from the rest of Britain .
= = Iron Age culture in Scotland = =
Ptolemy 's tribes located north of the Forth @-@ Clyde isthmus include the Cornovii in Caithness , the Caereni , Smertae , Carnonacae , Decantae , Lugi and Creones also north of the Great Glen , the Taexali in the north @-@ east , the Epidii in Argyll , the Venicones in Fife , the Caledonians in the central Highlands and the Vacomagi centred near Strathmore . It is likely that all of these cultures spoke a form of Celtic language known as Pritennic . The occupants of southern Scotland were the Damnonii in the Clyde valley , the Novantae in Galloway , the Selgovae on the south coast and the Votadini to the east . These peoples may have spoken a form of Brythonic language .
Despite the discovery of many hundreds of Iron Age sites in Scotland there is still a great deal that remains to be explained about the nature of the Celtic life in the early Christian era . Unfortunately radiocarbon dating for this period is problematic and chronological sequences are poorly understood . For a variety of reasons much of the archaeological work to date in Scotland has concentrated on the islands of the west and north and both excavations and analysis of societal structures on the mainland are more limited in scope .
The peoples of early Iron Age Scotland , particularly in the north and west , lived in substantial stone buildings called Atlantic roundhouses . The remains of hundreds of these houses exist throughout the country , some merely piles of rubble , others with impressive towers and outbuildings . They date from about 800 BC to AD 300 with the most imposing structures having been created around the 2nd century BC . The most massive constructions that date from this time are the circular broch towers . On average , the ruins only survive up to a few metres above ground level , although there are five extant examples of towers whose walls still exceed 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) in height . There are at least 100 broch sites in Scotland . Despite extensive research , their purpose and the nature of the societies that created them are still a matter of debate .
In some parts of Iron Age Scotland , quite unlike almost all of recorded history right up to the present day , there does not seem to have been an hierarchical elite . Studies have shown that these stone roundhouses , with massively thick walls must have contained virtually the entire population of islands such as Barra and North Uist . Iron Age settlement patterns in Scotland are not homogenous , but in these places there is no sign of a privileged class living in large castles or forts , or of an elite priestly caste or of peasants with no access to the kind of accommodation enjoyed by the middle classes .
Over 400 souterrains have been discovered in Scotland , many of them in the south @-@ east , and although few have been dated those that have suggest a construction date in the 2nd or 3rd centuries . Unfortunately the purpose of these small underground structures is also obscure . They are usually found close to settlements ( whose timber frames are much less well @-@ preserved ) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products .
Scotland also has numerous vitrified forts but again an accurate chronology has proven to be evasive . Extensive studies of such a fort at Finavon Hill near Forfar in Angus , using a variety of techniques , suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BC or the mid @-@ 1st millennium . The lack of Roman artifacts ( common in local souterrain sites ) suggests that many sites were abandoned before the arrival of the legions .
Unlike the earlier Neolithic and Bronze Ages , which have provided massive monuments to the dead , Iron Age burial sites in Scotland are rare , and a recent find at Dunbar may provide further insight into the culture of this period . A similar site of a warrior 's grave at Alloa has been provisionally dated to AD 90 β 130 . A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast in or shortly before AD 83 . He stated that it was " a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands " but that he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men . He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island .
= = The invasion of Caledonia = =
The apparently cordial beginnings recorded in Colchester did not last . We know nothing of the foreign policies of the senior leaders in mainland Scotland in the 1st century , but by AD 71 the Roman governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis had launched an invasion . The Votadini , who occupied the south @-@ east of Scotland , came under Roman sway at an early stage and Cerialis sent one division north through their territory to the shores of the Firth of Forth . The XXth Legion took a western route through Annandale in an attempt to encircle and isolate the Selgovae who occupied the central Southern Uplands . Early success tempted Cerialis further north and he began constructing a line of Glenblocker forts to the north and west of the Gask Ridge which marked a frontier between the Venicones to the south and the Caledonians to the north .
In the summer of AD 78 Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor . Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose . Excavations in the 20th century produced significant finds including the foundations of several successive structures , Roman coins and pottery . Remains from the Roman army were also found , including a collection of Roman armour ( with ornate cavalry parade helmets ) , and horse fittings ( with bronze saddleplates and studded leather chamfrons ) . Agricola is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the " River Taus " ( usually assumed to be the River Tay ) and established forts there , including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil .
= = Mons Graupius = =
In the summer of AD 84 the Romans faced the massed armies of the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Agricola , whose forces included a fleet , arrived at the site with light infantry bolstered with British auxiliaries . It is estimated that a total of 20 @,@ 000 Romans faced 30 @,@ 000 Caledonian warriors .
Agricola put his auxiliaries in the front line , keeping the legions in reserve , and relied on close @-@ quarters fighting to make the Caledonians ' unpointed slashing swords useless . Even though the Caledonians were put to rout and therefore lost this battle , two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish Highlands or the " trackless wilds " as Tacitus called them . Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be about 10 @,@ 000 on the Caledonian side and roughly 360 on the Roman side . A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in the Grampian Mounth within sight of the North Sea . In particular , Roy , Surenne , Watt , Hogan and others have advanced notions that the site of the battle may have been Kempstone Hill , Megray Hill or other knolls near the Raedykes Roman camp . These points of high ground are proximate to the Elsick Mounth , an ancient trackway used by Romans and Caledonians for military manoeuvres . Other suggestions include the hill of Bennachie in Aberdeenshire , the Gask Ridge not far from Perth and Sutherland . It has also been suggested that in the absence of any archaeological evidence and Tacitus ' low estimates of Roman casualties , that the battle was simply fabricated .
= = = Calgacus = = =
The first resident of Scotland to appear in history by name was Calgacus ( " the Swordsman " ) , a leader of the Caledonians at Mons Graupius , who is referred to by Tacitus in the Agricola as " the most distinguished for birth and valour among the chieftains " . Tacitus even invented a speech for him in advance of the battle in which he describes the Romans as :
Robbers of the world , having by their universal plunder exhausted the land , they rifle the deep . If the enemy be rich , they are rapacious ; if he be poor , they lust for dominion ; neither the east nor the west has been able to satisfy them . Alone among men they covet with equal eagerness poverty and riches . To robbery , slaughter , plunder , they give the lying name of empire ; they make a solitude and call it peace .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Calgacus ' fate is unknown but , according to Tacitus , after the battle Agricola ordered the prefect of the fleet to sail around the north of Scotland to confirm that Britain was an island and to receive the surrender of the Orcadians . It was proclaimed that Agricola had finally subdued all the tribes of Britain . However , the Roman historian Cassius Dio reports that this circumnavigation resulted in Titus receiving his 15th acclamation as emperor in AD 79 . This is five years before Mons Graupius is believed by most historians to have taken place .
Marching camps may have been constructed along the southern shores of the Moray Firth , although their existence is questioned . The total size of the Roman garrison in Scotland during the Flavian period of occupation is thought to be some 25 @,@ 000 troops , requiring 16 β 19 @,@ 000 tons of grain per annum . In addition , the material to construct the forts was substantial , estimated at 1 million cubic feet ( 28 @,@ 315 m3 ) of timber during the 1st century . Ten tons of buried nails were discovered at the Inchtuthil site , which may have had a garrison of up to 6 @,@ 000 men and which itself consumed 30 linear kilometres of wood for the walls alone , which would have used up 100 hectares ( 247 acres ) of forest .
Soon after his announcement of victory , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian and his post passed to Sallustius Lucullus . Agricola 's successors were seemingly unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north . Despite his apparent successes , Agricola himself fell out of favour and it is possible that Domitian may have been informed of the fraudulence of his claims to have won a significant victory . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge ( erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius ) were abandoned within the space of a few years . It is possible that the costs of a drawn @-@ out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was deemed more profitable to leave the Caledonians to themselves . By AD 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the 1st century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . Elginhaugh fort , in Midlothian , dates to about this period as may Castle Greg in West Lothian , which was most likely used as a monitoring base for an east @-@ west road running along the foot of the nearby Pentlands , from the Forth to the Clyde Valley .
Presumably as a consequence of the Roman advance , various hill forts such as Dun Mor in Perthshire , which had been abandoned by the natives long ago , were re @-@ occupied . Some new ones may even have been constructed in the north @-@ east such as Hill O ' Christ 's Kirk in Aberdeenshire .
= = Settlements and southern brochs = =
Ptolemy 's Geography identifies 19 " towns " from intelligence gathered during the Agricolan campaigns . No archaeological evidence of any truly urban places has been found from this time and the names may have indicated hill forts or temporary market and meeting places . Most of the names are obscure : Devana may be the modern Banchory ; Alauna ( " the rock " ) in the west is probably Dumbarton Rock and the place of the same name in the east Lowlands may be the site of Edinburgh Castle . Lindon may be Balloch on Loch Lomond side .
There are the remains of various broch towers in southern Scotland that appear to date from the period immediately prior to or following Agricola 's invasion . They are about fifteen in number and are found in four locations : the Forth valley , close to the Firth of Tay , the far south @-@ west and the eastern Borders . Their existence so far from the main centres of broch @-@ building is something of a mystery . The destruction of the Leckie broch may have come at the hands of the Roman invaders , yet like the nearby site of Fairy Knowe at Buchlyvie a substantial amount of both Roman and native artefacts have been recovered there . Both structures were built in the late 1st century and were evidently high @-@ status buildings . The inhabitants raised sheep , cattle and pigs , and benefited from a range of wild game including Red Deer and Wild Boar .
Edin 's Hall Broch in Berwickshire is the best preserved southern broch and although the ruins are superficially similar to some of the larger Orcadian broch villages it is unlikely that the tower was ever more than a single story high . There is an absence of Roman artefacts at this site . Various theories for the existence of these structures have been proposed , including their construction by northern invaders following the withdrawal of Roman troops after the Agricolan advance , or by allies of Rome encouraged to emulate the impressive northern style in order to suppress native resistance , perhaps even the Orcadian chiefs whose positive relationship with Rome may have continued from the beginnings of Romano @-@ British relations . It is also possible that their construction had little to do with Roman frontier policy and was simply the importation of a new style by southern elites or it may have been a response by such elites to the growing threat of Rome prior to the invasion and an attempt to ally themselves , actually or symbolically , with the free north .
= = Hadrian 's Wall = =
Quintus Pompeius Falco became governor of Britannia between 118 and 122 and is thought to have suppressed an uprising involving the Brigantes of northern Britannia and the Selgovae . In his last year of office he hosted a visit to the province by the Emperor Hadrian that resulted in the construction of Hadrian 's Wall ( Latin : Rigore Valli Aeli , " the line along Hadrian 's frontier " ) .
This line of occupation of Britain was consolidated as one of the limites ( defensible frontiers ) of the empire by its construction . It is a stone fortification built across the width of what is now northern England . The wall was 80 Roman miles ( 73 @.@ 5 statute miles or 117 kilometres ) long , its width and height dependent on the construction materials which were available nearby . East of the River Irthing the wall was made from squared stone and measured 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 7 ft ) wide and 5 β 6 metres ( 16 β 20 ft ) high , while west of the river the wall was originally made from turf and measured 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) high ; it was subsequently rebuilt in stone . The wall was augmented by various ditches , berms , and forts .
The wall had several purposes . Defence was the most obvious , but it also controlled movement behind the line , enabled the rapid transmission of military intelligence , and facilitated the collection of customs dues . Its scale also demonstrated the power of Rome to her enemies , and was surely intended to enhance the prestige of its builder . Hadrian 's Wall remained the frontier between the Roman and Celtic worlds in Britain until 139 . It was briefly superseded by the Antonine Wall .
= = Antonine Wall = =
Quintus Lollius Urbicus was made governor of Roman Britain in 138 , by the new Emperor Antoninus Pius . Urbicus was the son of a Libyan landowner and a native of Numidia ( modern Algeria ) . Prior to coming to Britain he served during the Jewish Rebellion of 132 β 135 , and then governing Germania Inferior .
Antoninus Pius soon reversed the containment policy of his predecessor Hadrian , and Urbicus was ordered to begin the reconquest of Lowland Scotland by moving north . Between 139 and 140 he rebuilt a fort at Corbridge and by 142 or 143 , commemorative coins were issued celebrating a victory in Britain . It is therefore likely that Urbicus led the reoccupation of southern Scotland c . 141 , probably using the 2nd Augustan Legion . He evidently campaigned against several British tribes ( possibly including factions of the northern Brigantes ) , certainly against the lowland tribes of Scotland , the Votadini and Selgovae of the Scottish Borders region , and the Damnonii of Strathclyde . His total force may have been about 16 @,@ 500 men .
It seems likely that Urbicus planned his campaign of attack from Corbridge , advancing north and leaving garrison forts at High Rochester in Northumberland and possibly also at Trimontium as he struck towards the Firth of Forth . Having secured an overland supply route for military personnel and equipment along Dere Street , Urbicus very likely set up a supply port at Carriden for the supply of grain and other foodstuffs before proceeding against the Damnonii .
Success was swift and the construction of a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde commenced . Contingents from at least one British legion are known to have assisted in the erection of the new turf barrier , as evidenced by an inscription from the fort at Old Kilpatrick , the Antonine Wall 's western terminus . Today , the sward @-@ covered wall is the remains of a defensive line made of turf circa 7 metres ( 20 ft ) high , with nineteen forts . It was constructed after AD 139 and extended for 60 km ( 37 mi ) . It was possibly after the defences were finished that Urbicus turned his attention upon the fourth lowland Scottish tribe , the Novantae who inhabited the Dumfries and Galloway peninsula . The main lowland tribes , sandwiched as they were between Hadrian 's Wall of stone to the south and the new turf wall to the north , later formed a confederation against Roman rule , collectively known as the Maeatae .
The Antonine Wall had a variety of purposes . It provided a defensive line against the Caledonians . It cut off the Maeatae from their Caledonian allies and created a buffer zone north of Hadrian 's Wall . It also facilitated troop movements between east and west , but its main purpose may not have been primarily military . It enabled Rome to control and tax trade and may have prevented potentially disloyal new subjects of Roman rule from communicating with their independent brethren to the north and coordinating revolts . Urbicus achieved an impressive series of military successes , but like Agricola 's they were short @-@ lived . Having taken twelve years to build , the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after AD 160 .
The destruction of some of the southern brochs may date to the Antonine advance , the hypothesis being that whether or not they had previously been symbols of Roman patronage they had now outlived their usefulness from a Roman point of view .
= = 3rd century = =
The Roman frontier became Hadrian 's Wall again , although Roman incursions into Scotland continued . Initially outpost forts were occupied in the south @-@ west and Trimontium remained in use but they too were abandoned after the mid @-@ 180s .
Roman troops , however , penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times . Indeed , there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe , as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area . The Antonine Wall was occupied again for a brief period after AD 197 . The most notable invasion was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus , claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae , campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy . Severus invaded Caledonia with an army perhaps over 40 @,@ 000 strong .
According to Dio Cassius , he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50 @,@ 000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics , although it is likely that these figures are a significant exaggeration .
A string of forts was constructed in the north @-@ east ( some of which may date from the earlier Antonine campaign ) . These include camps associated with the Elsick Mounth , such as Normandykes , Ythan Wells , Deers Den and Glenmailen . However , only two forts in Scotland , at Cramond and Carpow ( in the Tay valley ) are definitely known to have been permanently occupied during this incursion before the troops were withdrawn again to Hadrian 's Wall circa 213 . There is some evidence that these campaigns are coincident with the wholesale destruction and abandonment of souterrains in southern Scotland . This may have been due either to Roman military aggression or the collapse of local grain markets in the wake of Roman withdrawal .
By 210 , Severus ' campaigning had made significant gains , but his campaign was cut short when he fell fatally ill , dying at Eboracum in 211 . Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year , he soon settled for peace . The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again : they soon withdrew south permanently to Hadrian 's Wall .
It was during the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall that the first recorded utterance , attributable with any reasonable degree of confidence , to a native of Scotland was made . When Julia Domna , the wife of Septimius Severus , criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women , the wife of Caledonian chief Argentocoxos replied : " We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women ; for we consort openly with the best men , whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest " .
Little is known about this alliance of Iron Age tribes , which may have been augmented by fugitives from Roman rule further south . The exact location of " Caledonia " is unknown , and the boundaries are unlikely to have been fixed . The name itself is a Roman one , as used by Tacitus , Ptolemy , Pliny the Elder and Lucan , but the name by which the Caledonians referred to themselves is unknown . It is likely that the prior to the Roman invasions , political control in the region was highly decentralised and no evidence has emerged of any specific Caledonian military or political leadership .
Later excursions by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions in the buffer zone that developed between the walls , trading contacts , bribes to purchase truces from the natives , and eventually the spread of Christianity . The Ravenna Cosmography utilises a 3rd- or 4th @-@ century Roman map and identifies four loci ( meeting places , possibly markets ) in southern Scotland . Locus Maponi is possibly the modern Lochmabenstane near Gretna which continued to be used as a muster point well into the historic period . Two of the others indicate meeting places of the Damnonii and Selgovae , and the fourth , Manavi may be Clackmannan . From the time of Caracalla onwards , no further attempts were made to permanently occupy territory in Scotland .
= = Picts = =
The intermittent Roman presence in Scotland coincided with the emergence of the Picts , a confederation of tribes who lived to the north of the Forth and Clyde from Roman times until the 10th century . They are often assumed to have been the descendants of the Caledonians though the evidence for this connection is circumstantial and the name by which the Picts called themselves is unknown . They are often said to have tattooed themselves , but evidence for this is limited . Naturalistic depictions of Pictish nobles , hunters and warriors , male and female , without obvious tattoos , are found on their monumental stones . The Gaels of Dalriada called the Picts Cruithne , and Irish poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves .
The means by which the Pictish confederation formed is also unknown , although there is speculation that reaction to the growth of the Roman Empire was a factor . The early history of Pictland is unclear . In later periods multiple kings existed , ruling over separate kingdoms , with one king , sometimes two , more or less dominating their lesser neighbours . De Situ Albanie , the Pictish Chronicle , and the Duan Albanach , along with Irish legends , have been used to argue the existence of seven Pictish kingdoms although more may have existed and some evidence suggests that a Pictish kingdom also existed in Orkney .
The Pictish relationship with Rome appears to have been less overtly hostile than their Caledonian predecessors , at least in the beginning . There were no more pitched battles and conflict was generally limited to raiding parties from both sides of the frontier until immediately prior to and after the Roman retreat from Britannia . Their apparent success in holding back Roman forces cannot be explained solely with reference to the remoteness of Caledonia or the difficulties of the terrain . In part it may have been due to the difficulties encountered in subjugating a population that did not conform to the strictures of local governance that Roman power usually depended on to operate through .
The technology of everyday life is not well recorded , but archaeological evidence shows it to have been similar to that in Ireland and Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Recently evidence has been found of watermills in Pictland and kilns were used for drying kernels of wheat or barley , not otherwise easy in the changeable , temperate climate . Although constructed in earlier times , brochs , roundhouses and crannogs remained in use into and beyond the Pictish period .
Elsewhere in Scotland wheelhouses were constructed , probably for ritualistic purposes , in the west and north . Their geographical locations are highly restricted , which suggests that they may have been contained within a political or cultural frontier of some kind and the co @-@ incidence of their arrival and departure being associated with the period of Roman influence in Scotland is a matter of ongoing debate . It is not known whether the culture that constructed them was " Pictish " as such although they would certainly have been known to the Picts .
As Rome 's power waned , the Picts were emboldened . War bands raided south of Hadrian 's Wall in earnest in 342 , 360 , and 365 and they participated with the Attacotti in the Great Conspiracy of 367 . Rome fought back , mounting a campaign under Count Theodosius in 369 which reΓ«stablished a province which was renamed Valentia in honor of the emperor . Its location is unclear , but it is sometimes placed on or beyond Hadrian 's Wall . Another campaign was mounted in 384 , but both were short @-@ lived successes . Rome had fully withdrawn from Britain by 410 , never to return .
= = Modern study = =
From the mid @-@ 18th century to the mid @-@ 19th century , Charles Bertram 's forged Description of Britain ( Latin : De Situ Britanniæ ) placed Valentia squarely between Hadrian 's Wall and the Antonine Wall and even gave Rome a " short @-@ lived " province named Vespasiana beyond the Antonine Wall in lowland Scotland . The work is now known to have been one of the most successful historical forgeries in history and it is no longer believed to contain any truthful independent content .
In 1984 , a candidate for a Roman fort was identified by aerial photography at Easter Galcantray , south west of Cawdor . The site was excavated between 1984 and 1988 and several features were identified which are supportive of this classification . Roman pottery similar to that found at Inchtuthill Roman fort has been discovered . If confirmed , it would be one of the most northerly known Roman forts in the British Isles .
The possibility that the legions reached further north in Scotland is suggested by discoveries in Easter Ross . The sites of temporary camps have been proposed at Portmahomack in 1949 , although this has not been fully confirmed , In 1991 an investigation of Tarradale on the Black Isle near the Beauly Firth concluded that " the site appears to conform to the morphology of a Roman camp or fort . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical = = =
The military presence of Rome lasted for little more than 40 years for most of Scotland and only as much as 80 years in total anywhere . It 's now generally considered that at no time was even half of Scotland 's land mass under Roman control .
Scotland has inherited two main features from the Roman period , although mostly indirectly : the use of the Latin script for its languages and the emergence of Christianity as the predominant religion . Through Christianity , the Latin language would become used by the natives of Scotland for the purposes of church and government for centuries more .
Roman influence assisted the spread of Christianity throughout Europe , but there is little evidence of a direct link between the Roman Empire and Christian missions north of Hadrian 's Wall . Traditionally , Ninian is credited as the first bishop active in Scotland . He is briefly mentioned by Bede who states that around 397 he set up his base at Whithorn in the south @-@ west of Scotland , building a stone church there , known as Candida Casa . More recently it has been suggested that Ninian was the 6th @-@ century missionary Finnian of Moville , but either way Roman influence on early Christianity in Scotland does not seem to have been significant .
Although little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of military occupation , Imperial Rome was ruthless and brutal in pursuit of its ends . Genocide was a familiar part of its foreign policy and it is clear that the invasions and occupations cost thousands of lives . Alistair Moffat writes :
The reality is that the Romans came to what is now Scotland , they saw , they burned , killed , stole and occasionally conquered , and then they left a tremendous mess behind them , clearing away native settlements and covering good farmland with the remains of ditches , banks , roads , and other sorts of ancient military debris . Like most imperialists they arrived to make money , to gain political advantage and to exploit the resources of their colonies at virtually any price to the conquered . And remarkably , in Britain , in Scotland , we continue to admire them for it .
All the more surprising given that the Vindolanda tablets show that the Roman nickname for the north British locals was Brittunculi meaning " nasty little Britons " .
Similarly , William Hanson concludes that :
For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long @-@ term impact on Scotland . On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment , economy , or , indeed , society . The impact appears to have been very limited . The general picture remains one of broad continuity , not of disruption .... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development . "
The Romans ' part in the clearances of the once extensive Caledonian forest remains a matter of debate . That these forests were once considerably more extensive than they are now is not in dispute , but the timing and causes of the reduction are . The 16th @-@ century writer Hector Boece believed that the woods in Roman times stretched north from Stirling into Atholl and Lochaber and was inhabited by white bulls with " crisp and curland mane , like feirs lionis " . Later historians such as P. F. Tytler and W. F. Skene followed suit as did the 20th @-@ century naturalist Frank Fraser Darling . Modern techniques , including palynology and dendrochronology suggest a more complex picture . Changing post @-@ glacial climates may have allowed for a maximum forest cover between 4000 and 3000 BC and deforestation of the Southern uplands , caused both climatically and anthropogenically , was well underway by the time the legions arrived . Extensive analyses of Black Loch in Fife suggest that arable land spread at the expense of forest from about 2000 BC until the 1st @-@ century Roman advance . Thereafter , there was re @-@ growth of birch , oak and hazel for a period of five centuries , suggesting the invasions had a very negative impact on the native population . The situation outside the Roman @-@ held areas is harder to assess , but the long @-@ term influence of Rome may not have been substantial .
The archaeological legacy of Rome in Scotland is of interest , but sparse , especially in the north . Almost all the sites are essentially military in nature and include about 650 km ( 400 mi ) of roads . Overall , it is hard to detect any direct connections between native architecture and settlement patterns and Roman influence . Elsewhere in Europe , new kingdoms and languages emerged from the remnants of the once @-@ mighty Roman world . In Scotland , the Celtic Iron Age way of life , often troubled , but never extinguished by Rome , simply re @-@ asserted itself . In the north the Picts continued to be the main power prior to the arrival and subsequent domination of the Scots of Dalriada . The Damnonii eventually formed the Kingdom of Strathclyde based at Dumbarton Rock . South of the Forth , the Welsh speaking Brythonic kingdoms of Yr Hen Ogledd ( English : " The Old North " ) flourished during the 5th β 7th centuries .
The most enduring Roman legacy may be that created by Hadrian 's Wall . Its line approximates the border between modern Scotland and England and it created a distinction between the northern third and southern two @-@ thirds of the island of Great Britain that plays a part in modern political debate . This is probably coincidental however , as there is little to suggest its influence played an important role in the early Medieval period after the fall of Rome .
= = = In fiction = = =
The 9th Spanish Legion participated in the Roman invasion of Britain , suffering losses under Quintus Petillius Cerialis in the rebellion of Boudica of 61 , and setting up a fortress in 71 that later became part of Eburacum . Although some authors have claimed that the 9th Legion disappeared in 117 , there are extant records for it later than that year , and it was probably annihilated in the east of the Roman Empire . For a time it was believed , at least by some British historians , that the legion vanished during its conflicts in present @-@ day Scotland . This idea was used in the novels The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff , Legion From the Shadows by Karl Edward Wagner , Red Shift by Alan Garner , Engine City by Ken MacLeod , Warriors of Alavna by N. M. Browne , and in the feature films The Last Legion , Centurion and The Eagle .
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= Norman Selfe =
Norman Selfe ( 9 December 1839 β 15 October 1911 ) was an Australian engineer , naval architect , inventor , urban planner and outspoken advocate of technical education . After emigrating to Sydney with his family from England as a boy he became an apprentice engineer , following his father 's trade . Selfe designed many bridges , docks , boats , and much precision machinery for the city . He also introduced new refrigeration , hydraulic , electrical and transport systems . For these achievements he received international acclaim during his lifetime . Decades before the Sydney Harbour Bridge was built , the city came close to building a Selfe @-@ designed steel cantilever bridge across the harbour after he won the second public competition for a bridge design .
Selfe was honoured during his life by the name of the Sydney suburb of Normanhurst , where his grand house Gilligaloola is a local landmark . He was energetically involved in organisations such as the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts and the Australian Historical Society . As president of the Board of Technical Education , he fought consistently for the establishment of an independent system of technical education to serve the needs of a rapidly industrialising society . He was acknowledged upon his death as one of the best @-@ known people in , and greatest individual influences upon , the city of Sydney .
= = Family background and apprenticeship = =
Selfe came from a long line of inventors and engineers . Both sides of his family came from Kingston upon Thames in London , where one grandfather had owned a plumbing and engineering works . His father Henry was a plumber and inventor , whose high @-@ pressure fire @-@ fighting hose was displayed at The Great Exhibition in London 's Crystal Palace in 1851 . Selfe 's cousin Edward Muggeridge grew up in the same town but moved to the United States in 1855 , restyled himself Eadweard Muybridge , and achieved global fame as a pioneer in the new field of photography .
The Selfe family landed at Sydney 's Semi @-@ circular Quay in January 1855 , when Norman was 15 years old . One of the reasons they emigrated to the colony of New South Wales was to enable him and his brother Harry to undertake engineering apprenticeships without having to pay the heavy premium required by large firms in London . They initially resided in the nearby Rocks district in a small house that had also previously been the first Sydney home of Mary Reibey , a former convict who became Australia 's first businesswoman . Selfe 's parents had high expectations of their children , particularly of Norman , whose ability in mathematics and draughtsmanship was apparent from a young age . The brothers earned a reputation for innovation during their youth , and were the first to construct a velocipede in the country .
Selfe very quickly began his career as an engineer , taking articles of apprenticeship to the ironmaster Peter Nicol Russell , at whose firm he worked in several departments and eventually became its chief draughtsman . He would remain there until 1864 . In 1859 , when PN Russell & Co expanded to a site in Barker Street near the head of Darling Harbour , Selfe drew up plans for the new works and the wharf , and oversaw their construction . In an address to the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1900 , Selfe recalled his work for Russell 's :
While there [ I ] prepared plans for numbers of flour mills , and for the first ice @-@ making machines , designing machinery for the multifarious requirements of colonial industries , many of which ( such as sheep @-@ washing and boiling down ) no longer exist on the old lines .
While at Russell 's , Selfe made several innovations in the design and construction of dredges for " deeping our harbours and rivers " β something of crucial importance to industry in early Sydney . He later recalled the success of Pluto , one of his dredges purchased by the government :
[ I ] n this there were several novelties introduced , and among them , the ladder was lifted by hydraulic power instead of by a chain from a winch ... The day of the official trial ... was a proud one for [ me ] , because during the course of the little festivities which followed their formal approval and official acceptance , [ head engineer ] Mr Dunlop pointedly remarked that " as she was all right , the credit must be given to his boy in the drawing office " .
= = Inventor and engineer = =
Selfe achieved international recognition in 1861 when leading British journal The Engineer published illustrations of his designs for one of the first refrigerating machines . One such machine was installed behind the Royal Hotel in George Street in Sydney 's ice @-@ works β one of the world 's earliest commercial refrigeration plants . The decades following Selfe 's arrival in Australia were watershed years in the development of refrigeration technology , and he was closely involved with its evolution . The introduction of refrigeration to the colony revolutionised farming , allowing the expansion of settlement , and made possible the export of meat and dairy products . In Sydney itself , refrigeration changed commercial practices and led to the eventual demise of city dairies . Selfe became an international authority on refrigeration engineering ; he wrote articles and eventually a definitive textbook on the subject , published in the US in 1900 .
After leaving PN Russell , Selfe went into partnership with his former employer James Dunlop . They designed and built major installations for the Australasian Mineral Oil Company , the Western Kerosene Oil Company and the Australian Gas Light Company . In 1869 Selfe was appointed to the senior post of " chief draftsman and scientific engineer " at Mort 's Dock and Engineering Company in Balmain . In this role he oversaw the design and construction of the mail ship SS Governor Blackall , personally commissioned for the Queensland government by the Premier Charles Lilley in 1869 . The Sydney @-@ built but Queensland @-@ owned ship was an attempt to break what was later described as the " capricious monopoly " of the Australasian Steam Navigation Company on coastal trade and mail delivery from England . However , it ultimately caused the political downfall of Lilley as he had undertaken the contract without consulting his colleagues .
Selfe left Mort 's in 1877 to practice as a consulting engineer at 141 Pitt Street , gaining a reputation for versatility and originality . Upon his return from an overseas trip through America , Britain and continental Europe in 1884 β 85 , where he visited engineering works and technical education facilities in search of new ideas to take back to Sydney , Selfe set up a new office in Lloyd 's Chambers at 348 George Street . He would later move to No. 279 where he operated the consultancy until his death in 1911 . In the late 1890s he employed William Dixson as an engineer , who would later make a major donation of Australiana to the State Library of New South Wales . The collection of Selfe 's own papers and drawings have since been donated to the same library that his former employee greatly augmented .
Selfe designed the hulls or the machinery for some 50 steam vessels , including two torpedo boats for the New South Wales government , which he claimed were the fastest boats on the harbour for 20 years , and the SS Wallaby , Sydney Harbour 's first double @-@ ended screw ferry . Double @-@ ended hulls remain the design of Sydney 's current " Freshwater class " ferries . He designed the first concrete quay wall in Sydney Harbour , and wharves for deep @-@ sea vessels . He also designed the first ice @-@ making machines in New South Wales , introduced the first lifts , patented an improved system of baling wool which increased capacity fourfold , and oversaw hydraulic and electric light installations in the city and the carriages on its railway network . He planned mills , waterworks and pumping stations , including the high @-@ level pumps at the reservoir on Crown Street . He made major electric light installations at the Anthony Hordern & Sons department store and the Hotel Australia , and provided a hot @-@ water system for the hotel . He designed machinery for factories , dairies and railways , including , in 1878 , the incline of what is now the Scenic Railway attraction at Katoomba in the Blue Mountains β which claims to be the world 's steepest . Its original purpose was the transportation of coal from the Jamison Valley to the cliff @-@ top .
During his lifetime Selfe received both local and international recognition for his engineering skill . He had been president of both the Australian mechanical engineers ' and naval architects ' institutes as well as a member of both the British equivalent organisations . He was also elected a full member of the English Institution of Civil Engineers and , by virtue of his writings also being published in Chicago , also an honorary member of an American engineering association .
= = Sydney = =
Selfe 's capacity for invention was not limited to the realm of machinery β he was also an energetic civic and urban reformer . He had high hopes for Sydney :
" Every well wisher of Sydney , who sees and understands what magnificent latent possibilities there are before her must hope that she will for all time be the Queen City of the Southern Hemisphere ; and that the new century will open finding old ways departed from , and a glorious new era of progress , prosperity , morality and cleanliness installed in our midst . When that day arrives , we shall look back with curiosity and wonder at the continued blindness and negligence from which our city β so highly gifted by nature β had suffered so long . "
From the time of Selfe 's return in 1886 from two years ' travel in the United States and Europe , he campaigned for improvements to the city of Sydney . These included proposals for a city railway loop , the redevelopment of the Rocks , and a bridge to the North Shore . His obituary in The Sydney Morning Herald notes , " Mr. Selfe for over twenty years was a strenuous advocate of a circular city railway that should connect up the eastern , western , and northern suburbs of the city with the marine suburbs of the harbour , and stations adjacent to the ferries " . He published plans and proposals elaborating on his ideas , and produced major articles with titles like " Sydney : past , present and possible " and " Sydney and its institutions , as they are , and might be from an engineer 's point of view " .
In 1887 Selfe published proposals for a city underground railway , with stations at Wynyard , the Rocks and Circular Quay , and a loop to Woolloomooloo and the eastern suburbs . The proposal included a bridge across Sydney Harbour for trains , vehicles and pedestrians . He presented these schemes to the Royal Commission on City and Suburban Railways in 1890 ; but nothing was to come of it , largely because the 1890s depression brought public works initiatives to a standstill .
In 1908 β 09 he served as one of 11 expert commissioners to the Royal Commission for the Improvement of the City of Sydney and its Suburbs . Selfe 's proposals included an overhead railway station at Circular Quay and major landscaping works at Belmore Park opposite Central Railway Station . Both of these visions were later realised , but not in his lifetime .
= = = Sydney Harbour Bridge = = =
By the late 1890s a harbour crossing and a city railway extension were again on the agenda . The Lyne government committed to building the new Central Railway Station , and organised a worldwide competition for the design and construction of a Harbour Bridge . Selfe submitted a design for a suspension bridge estimated to cost Β£ 1 @,@ 128 @,@ 000 and won the second prize of Β£ 500 . The first prize went to C. E. W. Crutwell , of Westminster with a design estimated to cost more than twice as much . After the outcome of the competition had become mired in controversy , in 1902 Selfe won a second competition outright , with a design for a steel cantilever bridge stretching from Dawes Point to McMahons Point . The selection board were unanimous , commenting that " The structural lines are correct and in true proportion , and ... the outline is graceful " .
Construction of Selfe 's version of the Sydney harbour bridge never started due to an economic slowdown and a change of government at the 1904 state election . Much to Selfe 's outrage , the Department of Public Works kept his calculations and drawings , and also copied and printed them . Eventually in 1907 , the department contacted Selfe and asked him to collect his drawings , but refused to return the calculations . Selfe was never given the Β£ 1 @,@ 100 prize , nor was he paid for his subsequent work which he estimated to be worth more than Β£ 20 @,@ 000 .
Among the Selfe family papers in Mitchell Library there is a large collection of postcards featuring bridges from across the world . Some were sent to Selfe by friends and relatives from Japan , Italy , New Zealand , and Switzerland . Others , un @-@ postmarked , were collected on his own travels in 1884 @-@ 85 . These would have formed a research catalogue of contemporary international bridge @-@ building practices for Selfe 's own designs .
In 1908 , Selfe presented new proposals based upon the old design to the Royal Commission on Communication between Sydney and North Sydney . However , this time the commissioners preferred a tunnel scheme ; again , no work proceeded . Agitation for a bridge was renewed with the election of a Labor government at the 1910 State election . But with Selfe 's death in 1911 , it was time for a new generation of bridge builders . In 1912 the government appointed J.J. Bradfield as " engineer @-@ in @-@ chief of Sydney Harbour Bridge and City Transit " ; the call for tenders for constructing the bridge was not made until a decade later . Over the following decades , versions of what Selfe had much earlier articulated for a city circle railway link and a bridge to the north shore were realised . Selfe 's contribution received little public or formal recognition .
= = Historian = =
Selfe was founding vice @-@ president of the Australian Historical Society in 1901 , serving with president Andrew Houison and patron David Scott Mitchell ( after whom the Mitchell wing of the State Library of New South Wales is named ) . He remained actively involved in the society for 10 years , despite what he called " the evident lack of interest ... taken in the proceedings of the Society " by the general public in the early years . The society got off to a shaky start , with low attendance of lectures and meetings . Early papers delivered by Selfe included " A century of Sydney Cove " and " Some notes on the Sydney windmills " . Slowly , interest increased , and by 1905 membership had reached 100 . Known as the Royal Australian Historical Society ( RAHS ) since 1918 , and housed in a grand Victorian style townhouse on Macquarie Street , the organisation is Australia 's oldest historical society ; Selfe is celebrated as one of its pioneers .
= = Technical education = =
Selfe was a key figure in the history of technical education in New South Wales . He advocated a more utilitarian and less literary education system , to produce a skilled workforce that could realise Australia 's potential as an efficient industrial state . He was utopian in his vision :
There is no doubt that it is on the work of tools directed by brains that the future of Australia depends more than anything else . With tools our Australian deserts may be turned into gardens ... They will pluck the hidden treasure from the bowels of the earth , enable us to soar in the air , or explore the depths of the water . They will weave a network of communication over our island continent , dot it with the homes of a happy people , and minister to our wants in providing not only the necessities and comforts of life , but the most refined luxuries that are needed to satisfy the novel and exacting wants which arise every day , as the standard of intellectual and technical cultivation is raised and extended among us ...
Selfe believed an overhaul of education was needed , from kindergarten to tertiary study . His concept of technical education encompassed Friedrich FrΓΆbel 's kindergarten activities based around play and occupations ; the teaching of drawing , manual work and science in schools ; and specialised practical training of workmen and professionals in technical colleges . He argued for the establishment of a new kind of university β an " industrial university " , less theory @-@ oriented and more concerned with the practical and the useful . He saw technical education as a distinct sphere of education to be administered and delivered by people with practical industry experience , not government officials or traditional teachers .
= = = Teacher = = =
As early as 1865 Selfe gave regular classes in mechanical drawing to tradesmen at the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts in Pitt Street . Selfe 's class in mechanical drawing was the first technical , vocational offering at the School of Arts , and its popularity led to the introduction of other practical subjects .
Due to colony 's rapidly expanding population and demand for skilled labour , there were increasing calls in the 1870s for a formal system of technical education . In 1870 , Selfe helped found the Engineering Association of New South Wales which amalgamated into Engineers Australia in 1919 . He was its president from 1877 to 1879 and Engineers Australia annually awards the " Norman Selfe Medal " to a student at the Australian Maritime College . In 1878 , the association joined forces with the New South Wales Trades and Labour Council and the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts to form the Technical and Working Men 's College . The College initially operated as an agency of the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts . The college occupied premises in Pitt , Sussex and Castlereagh Streets , and rooms in the Royal Arcade , before it moved to Ultimo in 1889 . The college later became the Sydney Technical College out of which grew the University of New South Wales , the University of Technology , Sydney , and the National Art School . The Ultimo buildings still serve their original purpose , now as the main campus of the Sydney Institute of TAFE .
In 1880 , Selfe became vice president of the School of Arts . He supported the school 's Working Men 's College , but felt a more thorough focus on practical skills was needed . He rejected the non @-@ technical , non @-@ practical approach of the school 's model and campaigned instead for the establishment of a proper institute of technical education , where instructors would be skilled tradesmen with practical industrial experience . He also pushed for the expansion of technical education facilities into the suburban and regional districts .
= = = Critic = = =
On 1 August 1883 the New South Wales government made a proclamation which transferred control of the Technical and Working Men 's College to an independent Board of Technical Education , to which Selfe was appointed , and assumed financial responsibility directly . The government also provided funds to fit out workshops in Kent Street that opened in 1886 . This was an initiative driven by Selfe , who had admired the workshop teaching model abroad . It represented a major innovation in technical education in New South Wales .
Many of the board 's initiatives were based on observations made abroad by Selfe and board president Edward Combes , or recommendations made by the British Royal Commission into Technical Education of 1881 β 84 . However , most of the board 's schemes were frustrated by an unresponsive colonial government . Norm Neill , historian of the early years of the Sydney Technical College , argues that the Board caused many of its own problems :
There was a marked lack of unity ... Members either resigned or became inactive [ and the Board failed ] to accept that its autonomy was more nominal than real . Any expansion of technical education was dependent on government funding and governments were unlikely to allocate resources to an organisation unwilling or unable to cooperate .
Selfe was president of the Board from January 1887 until it was disbanded in 1889 . During this time the relationship between the board and the government deteriorated with Selfe being overtly critical of two powerful institutions : the newly formed Department of Public Instruction and the University of Sydney . Selfe strongly opposed the government 's taking control of technical education , which had been underway since the government first declared its interest in doing so at a special meeting of the Sydney Mechanics School of Arts in September 1883 . He also did not support an alternative proposal that the University of Sydney should take over . In an address at the annual presentation of prizes at Sydney Technical College in 1887 , Selfe alienated the Minister for Public Instruction and others by being openly contemptuous of the traditional pursuits of schools and universities :
[ T ] he whole experience of the past goes to show that the learning of the schools has had little , if anything , to do with the material advancement of the world , and that while it may have produced intellectual giants , subjective teaching has not brought forth those men who have been inventors and manufacturers that have entirely changed the character of our civilisation .
Selfe criticised the classical liberal arts education offered at the University of Sydney as elitist . In his 1888 address to Sydney Technical College students on prize night , he again caused affront to the establishment when he called for greater diversity of educational opportunities in the colony :
[ I ] t is not ... easy ... to see why the general public should pay so many thousands a year to make our future professional men in medicine and law in the colony , to form part of the so @-@ called upper classes , when our " principles " will not allow us to pay just a little more in order to have , say , our locomotives made here , and when we are doing so very little , proportionately , to train and educate the artisans who make these locomotives , and who belong to a much less wealthy and influential level in society .
In 1889 the colonial government , already in financial control , assumed direct operational control by abolishing the Board and placing the College within the Technical Education Branch of the Department of Public Instruction ( now the New South Wales Department of Education ) .
= = = Reformer = = =
In the early years of the 20th century , education remained a major political issue in New South Wales . While Selfe would not be drawn again into the centre of the fray , he supported the efforts of his sister Maybanke and her second husband Francis Anderson towards education reform . Following the Knibbs @-@ Turner Royal Commission into New South Wales Education in 1902 , and the appointment of Peter Board as Director of Education in 1905 , many of Selfe 's ideas for technical education were implemented . Ultimately , in 1949 , a separate Department of Technical Education was created , and the New South Wales University of Technology ( later the University of New South Wales ) was established at Kensington .
Les Mandelson , historian of Australia 's education systems , categorises Selfe as " a nineteenth century protagonist for the New Education " , who helped pave the way for the extensive reforms of the twentieth century . " Without him " , he adds , " education in the late nineteenth century would have been decidedly more mundane " . However , Mandelson sounds a critical note :
Selfe 's contempt for the liberal arts tradition and the priority he accorded practical skill have certain implications which cannot be commended . These reflected and augmented ... one of the less attractive features of the Australian ethos β indifference to higher learning and advanced attainments , an indifference shading into contempt and suspicion ... Selfe may have lost a battle but before long , the liberal arts tradition faced still greater defeats . To these , Selfe certainly contributed , and what must be recognised is that in the vehemence of the struggle , and in the lauding of efficiency over culture , much that was valuable in the liberal arts tradition was lost .
Biographer Stephen Murray @-@ Smith is more generous in his assessment of Selfe 's contribution to education debates around the turn of the twentieth century : " Selfe went beyond the concept of helping the working man to achieve a share of the good things hitherto reserved for others , towards the concept of leading him to create good things for himself . "
Selfe was a noted activist for the Federation of Australia being a member of the Central Federation League . Edward Dowling , his colleague on the inaugural board of the Australian Historical Society , was also the Secretary of the Central League of the Australasian Federation League and his former articled engineer John Jacob Cohen would later be elected at the 1898 New South Wales election in the seat of Petersham representing the National Federal Party .
= = Personal life = =
When Selfe obtained a steady job after his apprenticeship , he brought his family with him from The Rocks to live at Balmain . Selfe bought waterfront land and built twin terraced houses called Normanton and Maybank , which are still at 21 and 23 Wharf Road , Birchgrove . It is likely that Selfe shared Normanton with his widowed mother . Next door lived his brother Harry , his sister Maybanke and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Wolstenholme .
Selfe was a supportive brother , both emotionally and materially . His sister Maybanke bore seven children to her first husband Edmund , four of whom died as infants from tuberculosis . He also provided financial support after Maybanke 's marriage came to an end . Maybanke earned fame in her own right as a prominent suffragist and pioneer of education for women and girls . In the 1890s brother and sister campaigned together for education reform .
On 10 October 1872 at St Mary 's Church , Balmain Selfe married Emily Ann Booth , the daughter of John Booth , a well @-@ known shipbuilder and Balmain 's first mayor ( and formerly the member for East Macquarie in the colonial parliament ) . They lived for many years at Rockleigh in Donnelly Street , Balmain , in a house that has since been demolished . In 1884 their first daughter Rhoda Jane was born , followed by a stillborn daughter in 1886 , and then Norma Catherine in 1888 . In 1885 Selfe bought land in Ashfield and designed a grand house called Amesbury . Described at the time as having β more novelties both externally and internally than any other house in the colony β including terracotta lyrebird reliefs by artist Lucien Henry on the front wall , and a tower purpose @-@ built for Selfe to pursue his hobby of astronomy . Built around 1888 to honour the centenary of the colony , Amesbury still stands at 78 Alt Street and was used by Brahma Kumaris from 1986 as its Australian headquarters until 2014 when it was auctioned for over $ 3 @.@ 5 million . As children , Rhoda and Norma attended their Aunt Maybanke 's school in Dulwich Hill . As adults , they trained in Italy with educator Maria Montessori and returned to Sydney to open a Montessori school of their own in the building knows as Warwick on Bland Street , Ashfield .
Around 1894 , the family moved , this time to Hornsby Shire , where a new Selfe @-@ designed house , Gilligaloola , was built on 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) purchased by Selfe ten years earlier . Situated at what is now 82 Pennant Hills Road , the house is still a local landmark , notable for its distinctive tower and twin chimneys . Selfe was a committed citizen and a natural spokesman for the local community , to the extent that when the railways needed a name for the locality , the community chose Normanhurst ( though Selfe himself felt that St Normans would have been " much more elegant and suggestive " ) .
On 12 May 1906 , four years after the death of his first wife , Selfe married Marion Bolton at St Philip 's Church , Sydney .
= = = Death = = =
Selfe died suddenly on 15 October 1911 . His death certificate states the cause of death as " heart failure brought on by exertion " . His daughter Norma offered some context to a journalist in 1957 . She said :
" On the day of his death he climbed trees in the church grounds to lop branches , as the gardener was too nervous to climb so high . That night he died in his sleep . "
Norma reported that her father had been sanguine to the end , playful with his nephews and learning to play the oboe . However , other reports suggest that Selfe was concealing a bitter sense of disappointment at the end of his life , most particularly over the Harbour Bridge affair . His obituary in the journal Building concluded :
... [ T ] here is none today who can replace the noble personality , that keen energetic brain ever ready to give of its wonderful store of knowledge , and that happy spirit ever bright , ever optimistic , even though crushed beneath the cruel and unjust blow of the non @-@ acceptance of his prize design for the North Shore bridge . " It will crown my life " he said . We will always remember the bright gleam in his eyes as they peered beyond the anxiety of today , looked afar to the future glory of his beloved Sydney where in his dreams he saw his mighty bridge spanning what he called " God 's noblest waterway " .
Selfe 's funeral was held at St Paul 's Church , Wahroonga , where he had been a churchwarden . He was buried in Gore Hill cemetery in the presence of a large gathering of businessmen and representatives of the organisations he had been involved with . He was survived by his two daughters from his first marriage , Rhoda and Jane , and his second wife , Marion . His estate was valued for probate at nearly Β£ 5000 . Twenty @-@ one years later , on 11 March 1932 Marion 's charred body was found in her new house , also in Normanhurst where she lived alone , having reportedly set fire to her clothes when lighting a candle . Marion was buried alongside Norman in plot CE I : 7 . Rhoda 's ashes were also placed nearby when she died aged 69 in 1954 , still living in Gilligaloola .
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= SMS Friedrich Carl =
For the broadside ironclad , see SMS Friedrich Carl ( 1867 )
SMS Friedrich Carl was a German armored cruiser built in the early 1900s for the Imperial German Navy . She was the second ship of the Prinz Adalbert class . Friedrich Carl was built in Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg . She was laid down in 1901 , and completed in December 1903 , at the cost of 15 @,@ 665 @,@ 000 Marks . She was armed with a main battery of four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 20 @.@ 4 kn ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ; 23 @.@ 5 mph ) .
The ship served with the German fleet after her commissioning before being used as a torpedo training ship in 1909 . In August 1914 after the outbreak of World War I , she was brought back to active service to act as Rear Admiral Behring 's flagship in the Baltic Sea . Her wartime career was cut short on 17 November when she struck a pair of Russian mines off Memel at 55 Β° 41 β² N 20 Β° 11 β² E. The mines caused fatal damage , but the ship sank slowly enough to permit the safe evacuation of most of the crew ; only seven men were killed in the incident .
= = Construction = =
Friedrich Carl was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz KΓΆnig Wilhelm and built at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 155 . Her keel was laid in 1900 and she was launched on 22 June 1902 . Fitting @-@ out work followed and this was completed by 12 December 1903 , the day she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy . She had cost the Imperial German Government 15 @,@ 665 @,@ 000 Goldmarks .
Friedrich Carl displaced 9 @,@ 087 t ( 8 @,@ 943 long tons ; 10 @,@ 017 short tons ) as built and 9 @,@ 875 t ( 9 @,@ 719 long tons ; 10 @,@ 885 short tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 126 @.@ 5 m ( 415 ft ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 6 m ( 64 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 43 m ( 24 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines , which produced a total of 17 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 880 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 4 kn ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ; 23 @.@ 5 mph ) on trials . She carried up to 1 @,@ 630 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of up to 5 @,@ 080 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 410 km ; 5 @,@ 850 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns arranged in two twin gun turrets , one on either end of the superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) SK L / 40 guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) guns and four 45 cm ( 18 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow , one in the stern , and one on both beams .
= = Service history = =
Friedrich Carl served with the fleet from her commissioning on 12 December 1903 . She was assigned to I Subdivision of the Cruiser Division of the Active Fleet . Along with the light cruisers Frauenlob , Arcona , and Hamburg , Friedrich Carl 's subdivision was attached to the I Squadron of the Active Fleet . Friedrich Carl was the flagship of Rear Admiral Schmidt , the commander of the Cruiser Division . A second subdivision , composed of an armored cruiser and three light cruisers was attached to the II Squadron . On 20 September 1906 , Franz von Hipper took command of the ship . Under his leadership , the gunners aboard Friedrich Carl won the Kaiser 's Prize for best shooting in the fleet in 1907 . Hipper remained in the position until March 1908 .
Friedrich Carl served with the fleet until 1 March 1909 , when she was withdrawn for use as a torpedo training ship . She served in this capacity until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was again placed in active service with the cruiser division in the Baltic Sea . In October 1914 , Friedrich Carl was the first German warship to carry seaplanes . The ship carried two planes provisionally and had no permanent modifications made to support them . She was made the flagship of Rear Admiral Behring , the commander of the German cruiser squadron in the Baltic Sea . The squadron was based in Neufahrwasser in Danzig . The German naval command was aware that British submarines were operating in the Baltic Sea , and so ordered Behring to attack the Russian port at Libau to prevent it from being used as a British submarine base .
The Russian Navy , however , had begun a campaign of mine @-@ warfare in the Baltic . Russian destroyers laid a series of minefields off Memel , Pillau , and other German ports in October 1914 . The Russian operations went completely undetected by the German navy . During this period , Friedrich Carl used her seaplanes in operations against the port in Libau . Behring was ordered to begin the attack on Libau in November ; poor weather conditions delayed the operation until the 16th . Early on the 17th , Friedrich Carl was steaming some 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) off Memel when she struck two Russian mines . The ship was kept afloat for several hours , which allowed the crew to be evacuated safely . The operation went ahead as scheduled and blockships were sunk at the entrance to Libau . After the crew was removed , Friedrich Carl was abandoned ; she capsized and sank at around 06 : 30 . Only seven men were killed in the attack .
= = In media = =
The sinking of Friedrich Carl is portrayed in the Russian movie Admiral , where Russian admiral Alexander Kolchak tricks the ship into a Russian minefield .
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= Bryan D. Brown =
Bryan Douglas " Doug " Brown ( born October 20 , 1948 ) was a four @-@ star United States Army general , who retired in 2007 after four decades of military service . In his final assignment , he served as the seventh commander of U.S. Special Operations Command ( USSOCOM ) , from September 2 , 2003 until July 9 , 2007 . As USSOCOM 's commander , he was responsible for all unified special operations forces ( SOF ) , both active duty and reserve .
Brown joined the United States Army in 1967 as a private in the infantry and after graduating from Special Forces Qualification Course , he became a Green Beret . Shortly afterwards he fought in the Vietnam War as part of a Special Forces " A " team . After returning from his combat tour he enrolled in Officer Candidate School and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in May 1970 . After attending Army Aviation School he returned to Vietnam as a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot . After the Vietnam War he was part of a task force that would go on to later found the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment in 1981 . During his stint in the 160th SOAR Brown took part in numerous contingency operations in the 1980s and early 1990s . In 1983 Brown participated in the invasion of Grenada where his unit became the first aviation unit to use night vision goggles in combat . In the late 1980s he led all U.S. forces assigned to Operation Prime Chance in the Persian Gulf amidst the Iran @-@ Iraq War . Shortly thereafter he commanded a battalion within 160th SOAR during Operation Desert Storm ; after which he was promoted to colonel and commander of the regiment . After leaving 160th SOAR Brown served at the helm of Joint Special Operations Command from 1998 β 2000 and then U.S. Army Special Operations Command from 2000 β 2002 .
In 2002 , Brown became the deputy commander of U.S. Special Operations Command and , holding the post until 2003 when he was selected to replace Air Force General Charles R. Holland as Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . Shortly after becoming the head of USSOCOM , in 2004 , he was involved in the aftermath of the Pat Tillman friendly fire incident which culminated when he testified before the congressional Committee on Oversight and Government Reform in 2007 . Also during his tenure in command of USSOCOM he announced the creation of Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command in 2006 . Brown retired in 2007 after leading USSOCOM through four years of the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan .
= = Early life and family = =
Brown , a native of Fort Meade , Maryland , was born in 1948 and grew up in a military family . His father , Arnett Brown , was a member of the 89th Infantry Division during World War II , who became a Command Sergeant Major and served in the Vietnam War . His mother was Mary Lou Brown . Brown played baseball and basketball in high school , and eventually made it onto a semi @-@ pro baseball team in Fayetteville , North Carolina . In a 2009 interview with The Year in Special Operations , he commented on his short @-@ lived semi @-@ pro baseball career , saying , " I played three games with them and found that life couldn β t be sustained on $ 3 per game " . Losing interest in college , and with his father in Vietnam , he walked into a recruiting office and joined the Army as an infantryman . He is married to Penelope " Penny " Brown ( nΓ©e Whightsil ) , a native of Fayetteville . Together , they have two daughters and five grandchildren .
= = Military service = =
= = = Early military career and Vietnam = = =
He entered the Army in 1966 as a private in the infantry . While attending Airborne School at Fort Bragg in North Carolina , he signed up for Army Special Forces ( SF ) after meeting Army SF recruiters . After Brown completed the Special Forces Qualification Course , he was assigned to the 7th Special Forces Group . Shortly thereafter , he deployed to Vietnam as part of a Special Forces " A Team " . His interest in aviation started after returning to the United States from his tour in Vietnam . While at Mountain Ranger Camp , he became enthralled with helicopters after he was asked by a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot to assist him in conducting reconnaissance flight over northern Georgia . Immediately afterwards , he signed up for Officer Candidate School ( OCS ) and flight school . He graduated OCS in May 1970 , obtaining a field artillery officer commission as a second lieutenant . He was thereafter stationed at Camp Pelham , South Korea as part of the Headquarters and Headquarters Battery , 2 / 17th Field Artillery Regiment .
Brown went on to earn his aviator badge in 1971 after attending Army Aviation School at Fort Rucker , Alabama . After aviation school , he returned to Vietnam as a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot in the 129th Assault Helicopter Company . He would go on to become the first member of the aviation branch to attain the rank of four @-@ star general . In June 1978 , Brown was assigned to the 158th Aviation Battalion at Fort Campbell , Kentucky flying Sikorsky UH @-@ 60 Black Hawks . While a member of the 158th Aviation Battalion Brown was a Company Commander . The 158th Aviation Battalion was originally part of the 101st Aviation Group , the air arm of the 101st Airborne Division .
= = = Operation Credible Sport = = =
In 1979 , Iranian students seized the American embassy in Tehran and held the embassy staff hostage ; the first rescue operation , code @-@ named Eagle Claw ended in failure due to equipment and coordination problems , culminating in the crash of a RH @-@ 53D Sea Stallion helicopter into a parked C @-@ 130 Hercules in the Iranian desert , killing eight servicemen . A second rescue attempt , Operation Credible Sport , was ordered , and Brown was involved in planning and preparation . The follow @-@ up rescue included U.S. Air Force , U.S. Navy and Army assets . The Army units involved were the battalions that made up the 101st Aviation Group : the 158th Aviation Battalion , the 229th Aviation Battalion and the 159th Aviation Battalion . All three battalions formed Task Force 158 . President Carter meanwhile appointed the former Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral James L. Holloway , III , to head a commission to study the deficiencies revealed by the failure of Eagle Claw . Among the presented findings was the fact that the military lacked aircraft and crews who were trained and prepared to perform these mission types .
The Task Force began night flight training using night vision goggles ( NVG ) to develop nighttime extraction capabilities ; however , they were doing so with AN / PVS @-@ 5 NVGs which were originally developed for ground forces . Never before had anyone in the U.S. Department of Defense flown in NVGs and the Task Force quickly adapted the NVGs for flying and by Brown 's own words " a warrant officer figured out we could cut them apart and mount them to our helmets and increase our efficiency and safety by a huge margin . So there we were , without authority , cutting up goggles and building our own NVGs . " Their nighttime training took place at Dugway Proving Ground , Utah . As a result of the night vision goggle training Brown asserted in a 2011 interview that " most of today 's NVG tactics , techniques , and procedures as well as Black Hawk and Chinook modifications came directly from that mission . " Ultimately Operation Credible Sport did not come to fruition due to a peaceful resolution to the crisis where the hostages were released as a result of long negotiations .
= = = 160th SOAR = = =
After Operation Credible Sport ended the Army leadership decided the unit was needed for future contingency operations . Thusly , on October 16 , 1981 Task Force 158 became the 160th Aviation Battalion , with Brown a founding member . The choice of the unit 's name was accepted by the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry as a logical progression of the 101st 's 158th and 159th Battalions . The 160th Aviation Battalion was later renamed the 160th Special Operations Aviation Group in 1986 ; it was not until 1990 when it would take on its current name , 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment . In October 1983 , Brown participated in the invasion of Grenada , during which his unit became the first aviation unit to use night vision goggles in combat . In the late 1980s , Brown led all U.S. forces assigned to Operation Prime Chance , which provided escort security for American @-@ flagged Kuwaiti tankers during the Iran @-@ Iraq War . During Operation Prime Chance Brown 's unit became the first aviation unit to engage in combat using night vision devices when they engaged an Iranian @-@ flagged ship , Iran Ajr , that was seen deploying mines in the Persian Gulf .
In 1988 , he participated in Operation Mount Hope III , during which U.S. forces recovered a crashed Soviet @-@ made Mi @-@ 24 Hind attack helicopter in Chad . Company E of the 160th deployed to N 'Djamena , Chad via C @-@ 5 Galaxy . Once in Chad the company flew two CH @-@ 47 Chinooks 490 nautical miles at night , without the use of navigational aids , to the crash site . Once at the crash site the crews harnessed the crashed Hind to a Chinook via sling @-@ load . During the returning flight both Chinooks performed an air @-@ to @-@ air refuel with a C @-@ 130 ; and later endured a sandstorm before returning with the Hind .
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991 , Brown commanded a battalion within 160th SOAR for both Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm . Their missions during the operations included inserting and extracting Special Forces teams ; resupplying SOF units ; performing reconnaissance ; and attacking pre @-@ designated targets . Brown became the third commanding officer of the Regiment after Desert Storm .
= = = General Officer = = =
Between 1994 and 1996 , Brown served as assistant division commander for maneuver , 1st Infantry Division ( Mechanized ) , at Fort Riley , Kansas . He later served as director of Plans , Policy and Strategic Assessments ( J5 / J7 ) at U.S. Special Operations Command . As a lieutenant general , he commanded the Joint Special Operations Command ( JSOC ) from 1998 β 2000 . Brown went on to lead U.S. Army Special Operations Command ( USASOC ) from October 2000 to 2002 .
While at the helm of USASOC , Brown sought to modernize neglected aspects of Army special operations , mainly the civil affairs and psychological operations units . By the time Brown left , he had increased USASOC 's budget by 200 percent . After leading all of the Army 's special operations forces for two years , Brown was selected to become the Deputy Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . He held the position from 2002 until 2003 when he was nominated to take over U.S. Special Operations Command .
= = = Commander of USSOCOM = = =
On September 2 , 2003 , Brown replaced Air Force General Charles R. Holland as the Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . During Brown 's tenure as USSOCOM commander , he was involved in the aftermath of the Pat Tillman friendly fire incident that occurred in early 2004 . He testified before the congressional Committee on Oversight and Government Reform in 2007 about receiving a memo from Lt. Gen. Stanley McChrystal , then @-@ commander of JSOC , informing Brown that it was " highly possible that Corporal Tillman was killed by friendly fire " . Ultimately , former commanding general of USASOC Lt. Gen. Philip Kensinger and other Army officers were held responsible for the mishandling of information surrounding Tillman 's death .
On November 23 , 2005 , Brown , together with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , and Marine Corps Commandant General Michael Hagee announced the creation of the Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command ( MARSOC ) . Prior to the creation of MARSOC , the Marine Corps had not been involved in special operations , which were conducted by Army , Navy and Air Force units assigned to U.S. Special Operations Command . After the September 11 attacks , the Secretary of Defense had directed the Marine Corps and Brown 's predecessor to work closer together in the Global War on Terror . This culminated in the creation of MCSOCOM Detachment One on June 19 , 2003 , shortly before Brown took command of USSOCOM . It was nearly three years later on February 24 , 2006 , when MARSOC was activated at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina .
In 2006 Brown oversaw the SOF component of the Quadrennial Defense Review ( QDR ) which is a legislatively @-@ mandated study by the Department of Defense that analyzes strategic objectives and potential military threats . As a result of Brown 's contributions to the 2006 QDR were considered a success and a " major stride forward " in preparing U.S. special forces for future contingencies by increasing the SOF budget and manpower . As a result of the 2006 QDR the capabilities of USSOCOM were greatly expanded , including increasing active @-@ duty Special Forces battalions by one @-@ third , expansion of psychological operations and civil affairs units by 33 % , increasing the number of Navy SEALs , among other major changes .
After four years of leading USSOCOM through the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan , President George W. Bush nominated Rear Admiral Eric T. Olson to succeed Brown as the commander of U.S. Special Operations Command on May 11 , 2007 . Brown and Olson had served at the USSOCOM headquarters in Tampa together for four years , and Olson had been the deputy commander since 2003 . The change of command ceremony took place on July 9 , 2007 , at the Tampa Convention Center . It was presided over by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates . During the ceremony , Gates said , " He came to this post four years ago determined to improve the way special operators fight . He has done just that " . At the time of the change of command ceremony Brown was the longest serving commander in U.S. Special Operations Command history with 1 @,@ 406 days in office . Over the course of his military career , Brown amassed a total of 4 @,@ 400 hours of flight time in fixed and rotary @-@ winged aircraft .
= = Education = =
His military education included the Field Artillery Officer Advance Course , U.S. Army Command and General Staff College and the United States Army War College . At the Army War College in 1992 , a then @-@ Lieutenant Colonel Brown co @-@ wrote a military studies program with future United States Northern Command commander , Victor E. Renuart , Jr . , in a paper titled Combat Search and Rescue : A Search for Tomorrow . In it , Brown was highly critical of the United States Air Force , saying , " The U.S. Air Force is the proponent agency for search and rescue , but chose not to deploy any forces to Desert Storm " . Brown graduated from the Harvard Executive Education Program 's National and International Security Managers Course . He received a bachelor 's degree in history from Cameron University , as well as a master 's degree in business from Webster University .
= = Post @-@ military life = =
In November 2007 , shortly after Brown retired from the Army , he joined the board of directors for Aurora Flight Sciences , which specializes in the scientific and military applications of robotic aircraft and aerospace vehicles . Brown is the president and founder of his own consultation firm , Tier 4 Consulting . He is an advisor to the Patriot Defense Group , LLC , a defense and intelligence contracting company that directly supports the training requirements of the defense and intelligence communities . He serves on the board of directors for the Special Operations Warrior Foundation , and the board of directors for The Protective Group , a company which specializes in developing composite armor for personnel , vehicles and aircraft . He is a senior advisor to the CEO of Smith & Wesson .
= = Awards and honors = =
General Brown was awarded the following military awards and decorations :
= = = Other accolades = = =
Shortly after his retirement , Brown was named " Patriot of the Year " for 2007 by the Congressional Medal of Honor Society , and he also received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor . The following year , he was inducted into the Army Aviation Hall of Fame . The Association of Special Operations Professionals named Brown " Man of the Year " in 2011 . In 2012 , the 160th SOAR compound at Fort Campbell was renamed the " Gen. Bryan " Doug " Brown Compound " in his honor .
= = In film = =
= = Works by Brown = =
Bryan D. Brown ; Victor E. Renuart , Jr . ( 1992 ) . Combat Search and Rescue : A Search for Tomorrow ( PDF ) . Carlisle Barracks , Pennsylvania : United States Army War College . Retrieved May 16 , 2013 .
Bryan D. Brown ( 2001 ) . " The 160th SOAR : The Quiet Aviation Professionals " . Special Warfare : The Professional Bulletin of the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School ( John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School ) 14 ( 3 ) : 2 β 4 . Retrieved May 19 , 2013 .
Bryan D. Brown ( 2006 ) . " U.S. Special Operations Command : Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Century " 4 ( 40 ) . Joint Force Quarterly .
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= Ernest Groth =
Ernest William Groth ( May 3 , 1922 β December 27 , 2004 ) was an American Major League Baseball right @-@ handed pitcher who played for three seasons . He played for the Cleveland Indians during the 1947 and 1948 seasons and the Chicago White Sox during the 1949 season . In four career games , Groth pitched 7 β
innings and had a 4 @.@ 91 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born and raised in Pennsylvania , Groth began his professional career in the Wisconsin State League in 1942 . After his rookie season , he spent the next three years serving in the military during World War II . After he returned , he spent more time in the minor leagues , then spent parts of the 1947 and 1948 seasons with the Cleveland Indians . After the end of the 1948 season , he was traded to the Chicago White Sox , and played with them in 1949 . He spent the next seven seasons pitching in the minor leagues , retiring at the end of the 1956 season . After his retirement , he ran Groth 's Nursery and worked for Standard Steel , and died in 2004 .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Groth was born in Beaver Falls , Pennsylvania to William T. and Clara Court Groth . He played American Legion Baseball in East Palestine , Ohio in his teens , and attended Beaver Falls High School . He grew up pitching in the county league , and was both a right fielder and pitcher for the Chippewa Indians . After pitching for Chippewa in 1941 , he was offered a contract for the 1942 season by the Pittsburgh Pirates . Groth turned down the offer instead signing with the Cleveland Indians , spending the 1942 season with the Indians ' D @-@ Class ( Rookie League ) affiliate , the Appleton Papermakers of the Wisconsin State League , where he played alongside future teammate Mike Garcia . In 26 games , he pitched in 203 innings , had a 16 β 10 win β loss record and a 3 @.@ 59 ERA .
After the 1942 season , Groth spent the following three years serving with the United States Army in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II . After the war , he returned to baseball , spending the 1946 season with the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons , a Cleveland Indians minor league team that played in the Eastern League . His performances that season included a one @-@ hitter against the Elmira Pioneers in the second game of a doubleheader on August 19 . In 29 games , Groth finished with a 13 β 7 record and a 2 @.@ 98 ERA . Shortly afterward , he became engaged to Blanche Klein , a fellow graduate of Beaver Falls High . The two were married shortly after .
= = Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox = =
In 1947 , Groth was promoted to the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League , the Cleveland Indians ' AA @-@ class minor league affiliate . In 33 games with Oklahoma City , he threw 180 innings and finished the season with a 7 β 11 record and a 3 @.@ 45 ERA . After the minor league season ended in September , Groth was called up to the Cleveland Indians major league roster , and made his debut on September 11 , 1947 . He pitched in one more game , finishing the season having pitched 1 β
innings , striking out one batter and not allowing a run .
Groth was looking to stay in the major league in 1948 . He spent spring training on the Indians ' roster , and originally made a great impression on the team . However , he was one of seven Indians stricken with dysentery in early April , causing him to miss some time . By the end of spring training , Groth was optioned to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League , the Indians ' AAA @-@ class minor league affiliate . He spent the season with the Orioles , and his pitching performances included a 13 β 0 victory over the Newark Bears , as well as a 1 β 0 victory where Groth limited the Bears to three hits . Groth finished the season with Baltimore having amassed 29 pitching appearances , 27 of them starts , a 12 β 12 record and a 4 @.@ 48 ERA , while also pitching in two games for the Dallas Eagles . After Baltimore 's season ended , he was promoted to the Indians ' roster , and pitched in one game for the Indians that season .
At the end of the 1948 season , on December 2 , the Indians traded Groth to the Chicago White Sox along with Bob Kuzava for Frank Papish . After signing a contract with the White Sox , Groth took part in spring , training alongside many other newcomers to the White Sox , where his pitching performance earned him a place on the major league roster . He pitched in three games for the White Sox , losing one , and finished his tenure with the White Sox with a 5 @.@ 40 ERA in five innings pitched . After his final game on May 4 , the White Sox purchased Ed Klieman and sold Groth to the Kansas City Blues , a New York Yankees minor league team , ending his major league career .
= = Return to minor leagues = =
Groth spent the 1949 season with the Kansas City Blues , finishing with a 12 β 9 record , a 4 @.@ 28 ERA , and 162 innings pitched . When the 1950 season began , the New York Yankees had five holdouts ( players who wanted more money and would not sign their contracts ) . Groth was one of them , and was the only minor leaguer to hold out . He eventually signed his contract with Kansas City , and after spring training ended , Groth was sent to the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League , the Yankees ' AAA minor league affiliate . The Yankees sent Groth to the Oaks to make up for sending over George Earl Toolson last season , who the Oaks had to return because his condition was poor . Groth finished the season with a 7 β 11 record and a 5 @.@ 09 ERA . In January 1951 , the Oaks sold Groth to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League , now a farm team of the Philadelphia Phillies . He struggled in ten appearances , finishing with an ERA of 7 @.@ 58 , and was sent to the Chattanooga Lookouts , the AA minor league team of the Washington Senators . He pitched in 26 games for the Lookouts , finishing with a 3 β 8 record and a 6 @.@ 29 ERA .
For the next five seasons , Groth played for the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League . He was sold to Oklahoma City by Baltimore in December 1951 . In his first season with Oklahoma City , he finished with a 15 β 12 record , a 3 @.@ 43 ERA , and 207 innings pitched . The following season , Groth started things off with a victory in an early appearance against the Dallas Eagles where he allowed only four hits . He finished the season with an 8 β 8 record and a 5 @.@ 37 ERA . In 1954 , Groth improved his pitching , finishing the season with a 14 β 11 record and a 3 @.@ 75 ERA . After a 9 β 13 season in 1955 , Groth split time between Oklahoma City and the Tulsa Oilers in 1956 , finishing the season with a combined 9 β 16 record . He ended his professional career after the 1956 season .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from baseball , Groth returned to his hometown of Beaver Falls . He and his family ran Groth 's Nursery , and he worked for Standard Steel until his retirement . He and his wife had three daughters ; Elizabeth , Constance , and Suellen . Groth was inducted into the Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame in 1990 . He also spent time playing in local golf tournaments . Groth died on December 27 , 2004 .
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= Cologne War =
The Cologne War ( 1583 β 88 ) devastated the Electorate of Cologne , a historical ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire , within present @-@ day North @-@ Rhine @-@ Westphalia , in Germany . The war occurred within the context of the Protestant Reformation in Germany and the subsequent Counter @-@ Reformation , and concurrently with the Dutch Revolt and the French Wars of Religion .
Also called the Seneschal 's War or the Seneschal Upheaval and occasionally the Sewer War , the conflict tested the principle of ecclesiastical reservation , which had been included in the religious Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) . This principle excluded , or " reserved " , the ecclesiastical territories of the Holy Roman Empire from the application of cuius regio , eius religio , or " whose rule , his religion " , as the primary means of determining the religion of a territory . It stipulated instead that if an ecclesiastical prince converted to Protestantism , he would resign from his position rather than force the conversion of his subjects .
In December 1582 , Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg , the Prince @-@ elector of Cologne , converted to Protestantism . The principle of ecclesiastical reservation required his resignation . Instead , he declared religious parity for his subjects and , in 1583 , married Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben , intending to convert the ecclesiastical principality into a secular , dynastic duchy . A faction in the Cathedral Chapter elected another archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria .
Initially , troops of the competing archbishops of Cologne fought over control of sections of the territory . Several of the barons and counts holding territory with feudal obligations to the Elector also held territory in nearby Dutch provinces ; Westphalia , Liege and the Southern , or Spanish Netherlands . Complexities of enfeoffment and dynastic appanage magnified a localized feud into one including supporters from the Electorate of the Palatinate and Dutch , Scots and English mercenaries on the Protestant side , and Bavarian and papal mercenaries on the Catholic side . In 1586 , the conflict expanded further , with the direct involvement of Spanish troops and Italian mercenaries on the Catholic side , and financial and diplomatic support from Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England on the Protestant side .
The conflict coincided with the Dutch Revolt , 1568 β 1648 , encouraging the participation of the rebellious Dutch provinces and the Spanish . The successful conclusion of the war consolidated Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories and encouraged a Catholic revival on the lower Rhine . Importantly , it also set a precedent for outside intervention in German religious and dynastic conflicts .
= = Background = =
= = = Religious divisions in the Holy Roman Empire = = =
Prior to the 16th century , the Catholic Church had been the sole official Christian faith in the Holy Roman Empire . Martin Luther 's initial agenda called for the reform of the Church 's doctrines and practices , but after his excommunication from the Church his ideas became embodied in an altogether separate religious movement , Lutheranism . Initially dismissed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V as an inconsequential argument between monks , the idea of a reformation of the Church 's doctrines , considered infallible and sacrosanct by Catholic teaching , accentuated controversy and competition in many of the territories of the Holy Roman Empire and quickly devolved into armed factions that exacerbated existing social , political and territorial grievances . These tensions were embodied in such alliances as the Protestant Schmalkaldic League , through which many of the Lutheran princes agreed to protect each other from encroachment on their territories and local authority ; in retaliation , the princes that remained loyal to the Catholic Church formed the defensive Holy League . By the mid @-@ 1530s , the German @-@ speaking states of the Holy Roman Empire had devolved into armed factions determined by family ties , geographic needs , religious loyalties , and dynastic aspirations . The religious issue both accentuated and masked these secular conflicts .
Princes and clergy alike understood that institutional abuses hindered the practices of the faithful , but they disagreed on the solution to the problem . The Protestants believed a reform of doctrine was needed ( especially regarding the Church 's teachings on justification , indulgences , Purgatory , and the Papacy ) while those that remained Catholic wished to reform the morals of the clergy only , without sacrificing Catholic doctrine . Pope Paul III convened a council to examine the problem in 1537 and instituted several internal , institutional reforms intended to obviate some of the most flagrant prebendary abuses , simony and nepotism ; despite efforts by both the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Roman Pontiff , unification of the two strands of belief foundered on different concepts of " Church " and the principle of justification . Catholics clung to the traditional teaching that the Catholic Church alone is the one true Church , while Protestants insisted that the Church Christ founded was invisible and not tied to any single religious institution on earth . Regarding justification , the Lutherans insisted that it occurred by faith alone , while the Catholics upheld the traditional Catholic doctrine that justification involves both faith and active charity . The Schmalkaldic League called its own ecumenical council in 1537 , and set forward several precepts of faith . When the delegates met in Regensburg in 1540 β 41 , representatives agreed on the doctrine of faith and justification , but could not agree on sacraments , confession , absolution , and the definition of the church . Catholic and Lutheran adherents seemed further apart than ever ; in only a few towns and cities were Lutherans and Catholics able to live together in even a semblance of harmony . By 1548 , political disagreements overlapped with religious issues , making any kind of agreement seem remote .
In 1548 Charles declared an interreligio imperialis ( also known as the Augsburg Interim ) through which he sought to find some common ground for religious peace . This effort alienated both Protestant and Catholic princes and the papacy ; even Charles , whose decree it was , was unhappy with the political and diplomatic dimensions of what amounted to half of a religious settlement . The 1551 β 52 sessions convened by Pope Julius III at the supposedly ecumenical Council of Trent solved none of the larger religious issues but simply restated Catholic teaching and condemned Protestant teaching as heresies .
= = = Overcoming religious division = = =
Clearly , Charles ' interim solution could not continue . He ordered a general Diet in Augsburg at which the various states would discuss the religious problem and its solution . He himself did not attend , and delegated authority to his brother , Ferdinand , to " act and settle " disputes of territory , religion and local power . At the conference , Ferdinand cajoled , persuaded and threatened the various representatives into agreement on three important principles . The principle of cuius regio , eius religio provided for internal religious unity within a state : The religion of the prince became the religion of the state and all its inhabitants . Those inhabitants who could not conform to the prince 's religion were allowed to leave , an innovative idea in the 16th century ; this principle was discussed at length by the various delegates , who finally reached agreement on the specifics of its wording after examining the problem and the proposed solution from every possible angle . The second principle covered the special status of the ecclesiastical states , called the ecclesiastical reservation , or reservatum ecclesiasticum . If the prelate of an ecclesiastic state changed his religion , the men and women living in that state did not have to do so . Instead , the prelate was expected to resign from his post , although this was not spelled out in the agreement . The third principle , known as Ferdinand 's Declaration , exempted knights and some of the cities from the requirement of religious uniformity , if the reformed religion had been practiced there since the mid @-@ 1520s , allowing for a few mixed cities and towns where Catholics and Lutherans had lived together . It also protected the authority of the princely families , the knights and some of the cities to determine what religious uniformity meant in their territories . Ferdinand inserted this at the last minute , on his own authority .
= = = Remaining problems = = =
After 1555 , the Peace of Augsburg became the legitimating legal document governing the co @-@ existence of the Lutheran and Catholic faiths in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire , and it served to ameliorate many of the tensions between followers of the so @-@ called Old Faith and the followers of Luther , but it had two fundamental flaws . First , Ferdinand had rushed the article on ecclesiastical reservation through the debate ; it had not undergone the scrutiny and discussion that attended the wide @-@ spread acceptance and support of cuius regio , eius religio . Consequently , its wording did not cover all , or even most , potential legal scenarios . The Declaratio Ferdinandei was not debated in plenary session at all ; using his authority to " act and settle , " Ferdinand had added it at the last minute , responding to lobbying by princely families and knights .
While these specific failings came back to haunt the Empire in subsequent decades , perhaps the greatest weakness of the Peace of Augsburg was its failure to take into account the growing diversity of religious expression emerging in the evangelical ( Lutheran ) and Reformed traditions . Other confessions had acquired popular , if not legal , legitimacy in the intervening decades and by 1555 , the reforms proposed by Luther were no longer the only possibilities of religious expression : Anabaptists , such as the Frisian Menno Simons ( 1492 β 1559 ) and his followers ; the followers of John Calvin , who were particularly strong in the southwest and the northwest ; and the followers of Huldrych Zwingli were excluded from considerations and protections under the Peace of Augsburg . According to the Augsburg agreement , their religious beliefs remained heretical .
= = = Charles V 's abdication = = =
In 1556 , amid great pomp , and leaning on the shoulder of one of his favorites ( the 24 @-@ year @-@ old William , Count of Nassau and Orange ) , Charles gave away his lands and his offices . The Spanish empire , which included Spain , the Netherlands , Naples , Milan and Spain 's possessions in the Americas , went to his son , Philip . His brother , Ferdinand , who had negotiated the treaty in the previous year , was already in possession of the Austrian lands and was also the obvious candidate to succeed Charles as Holy Roman Emperor .
Charles ' choices were appropriate . Philip was culturally Spanish : he was born in Valladolid and raised in the Spanish court , his native tongue was Spanish , and he preferred to live in Spain . Ferdinand was familiar with , and to , the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire . Although he too had been born in Spain , he had administered his brother 's affairs in the Empire since 1531 . Some historians maintain Ferdinand had also been touched by the reformed philosophies , and was probably the closest the Holy Roman Empire ever came to a Protestant emperor ; he remained at least nominally a Catholic throughout his life , although reportedly he refused last rites on his deathbed . Other historians maintain that while Ferdinand was a practising Catholic , unlike his brother he considered religion to be outside the political sphere .
Charles ' abdication had far @-@ reaching consequences in imperial diplomatic relations with France and the Netherlands , particularly in his allotment of the Spanish kingdom to Philip . In France , the kings and their ministers grew increasingly uneasy about Habsburg encirclement and sought allies against Habsburg hegemony from among the border German territories ; they were even prepared to ally with some of the Protestant kings . In the Netherlands , Philip 's ascension in Spain raised particular problems ; for the sake of harmony , order , and prosperity , Charles had not oppressed the Reformation too harshly there , and even had tolerated a high level of local autonomy . An ardent Catholic and rigidly autocratic prince , Philip pursued an aggressive political , economic and religious policy toward the Dutch , resulting in their rebellion shortly after he became king . Philip 's militant response meant the occupation of much of the upper provinces by troops of , or hired by , Habsburg Spain and the constant ebb and flow of Spanish men and provisions over the Spanish road from northern Italy , through the Burgundian lands , to and from Flanders .
= = Cause of the war = =
As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire , the Electorate of Cologne ( German : KurfΓΌrstentum KΓΆln or KurkΓΆln ) included the temporal possessions of the Archbishop of Cologne ( German : Erzbistum KΓΆln ) : the so @-@ called Oberstift ( the southern part of the Electorate ) , the northern section , called the Niederstift , the fiefdom of Vest Recklinghausen and the Duchy of Westphalia , plus several small uncontiguous territories separated from the Electorate by the neighboring Duchies of Cleves , Berg , Julich and Mark . Encircled by the electoral territory , Cologne was part of the archdiocese but not among the Elector 's temporal possessions . The Electorate was ruled by an archbishop prince @-@ elector of the empire . As an archbishop , he was responsible for the spiritual leadership of one the richest sees in the Empire , and entitled to draw on its wealth . As a prince @-@ prelate , he stood in the highest social category of the Empire , with specific and expansive legal , economic , and juridical rights . As an Elector , he was one of the men who elected the Holy Roman Emperor from among a group of imperial candidates .
The Electorate obtained its name from the city , and Cologne had served as the capital of the archbishopric until 1288 . After that , the archbishop and Prince @-@ elector used the smaller cities of Bonn , 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) south of Cologne , and BrΓΌhl , 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Cologne , on the Rhine River , as his capital and residence ; by 1580 , both his residence and the capital were located in Bonn . Although the city of Cologne obtained its status as a free imperial city in 1478 , the Archbishop of Cologne retained judicial rights in the city ; he acted as a Vogt , or reeve , and reserved the right of blood justice , or Blutgericht ; only he could impose the so @-@ called blood punishments , which included capital punishments , but also physical punishments that drew blood . Regardless of his position as judge , he could not enter the city of Cologne except under special circumstances , and between the city council and the elector @-@ archbishop , a politically and diplomatically precarious and usually adversarial relationship developed over the centuries . ( See also History of Cologne for more details . )
The position of archbishop was usually held by a scion of nobility , and not necessarily a priest ; this widespread practice allowed younger sons of noble houses to find prestigious and financially secure positions without the requirements of priesthood . The archbishop and prince @-@ elector was chosen by the cathedral chapter , the members of which also served as his advisers . As members of a cathedral chapter , they participated in the Mass , or sang the Mass ; in addition , they performed other duties as needed . They were not required to be priests but they could , if they wished , take Holy Orders . As prebendaries , they received stipends from cathedral income ; depending on the location and wealth of the cathedral , this could amount to substantial annual income . In the Electorate , the Chapter included 24 canons of various social ranks ; they each had a place in the choir , based on their rank , which in turn was usually derived from the social standing of their families .
= = = Election of 1577 = = =
When his nephew , Arnold , died without issue , Salentin von Isenburg @-@ Grenzau ( 1532 β 1610 ) resigned from the office of Elector ( September 1577 ) and , in December , married Antonia Wilhelmine d 'Arenburg , sister of Charles d 'Ligne , Prince of Arenberg . Salentin 's resignation required the election of a new archbishop and prince @-@ elector from among the Cathedral Chapter . Two candidates emerged . Gebhard ( 1547 β 1601 ) was the second son of William , Truchsess of Waldburg , known as William the younger , and Johanna von FΓΌrstenberg . He was descended from the Jacobin line of the House of Waldburg ; his uncle was a cardinal , and his family had significant imperial contacts . The second candidate , Ernst of Bavaria ( 1554 β 1612 ) , was the third son of Albert V , Duke of Bavaria . As a member of the powerful House of Wittelsbach , Ernst could marshal support from his extensive family connections throughout the Catholic houses of the empire ; he also had contacts in important canonic establishments at Salzburg , Trier , WΓΌrzburg , and MΓΌnster that could exert collateral pressure .
Ernst had been a canon at Cologne since 1570 . He had the support of the neighboring Duke of Jülich and several allies within the Cathedral Chapter . Although supported by both the papacy and his influential father , a 1571 effort to secure for him the office of coadjutor of the electorate of Cologne had failed once Salentin had agreed to abide by the Trentine proceedings ; as the coadjutor bishop , Ernst would have been well @-@ positioned to present himself as Salentin 's logical successor . Since then , however , he had advanced in other sees , becoming bishop of Liège , Freising and Hildesheim , important strongholds of Counter @-@ Reformation Catholicism . He was a career cleric , not necessarily qualified to be an archbishop on the basis of his theological erudition , but by his family connections . His membership in several chapters extended the family influence , and his status as a prebendary gave him a portion of revenues from several cathedrals . He had been educated by Jesuits and the papacy considered collaboration with his family as a means to limit the spread of Lutheranism and Calvinism in the northern provinces .
Also a younger son , Gebhard had prepared for an ecclesiastical career with a broad , Humanist education ; apart from his native German , he had learned several languages ( including Latin , Italian , French ) , and studied history and theology . After studying at the universities of Dillingen , Ingolstadt , Perugia , Louvain and elsewhere , he began his ecclesiastical career in 1560 at Augsburg . His conduct at Augsburg caused some scandal ; the bishop , his uncle , petitioned the Duke of Bavaria to remonstrate with him about it , which apparently led to some improvement in his behavior . In 1561 , he became a deacon at Cologne Cathedral ( 1561 β 77 ) , a canon of St. Gereon , the basilica in Cologne ( 1562 β 67 ) , a canon in Strassburg ( 1567 β 1601 ) , in Ellwangen ( 1567 β 83 ) , and in WΓΌrzburg ( 1569 β 70 ) . In 1571 , he became deacon of Strassburg Cathedral , a position he held until his death . In 1576 , by papal nomination , he also became provost of the Cathedral in Augsburg . Similar to his opponent , these positions brought him influence and wealth ; they had little to do with his priestly character .
If the election had been left to the papacy , Ernst would have been the choice , but the Pope was not a member of the Cathedral Chapter and Gebhard had the support of several of the Catholic canons , and all the Protestant canons in the Chapter . In December 1577 , he was chosen Elector and Archbishop of Cologne after a spirited contest with the papacy 's candidate , Ernst : Gebhard won the election by two votes . Although it was not required of him , Gebhard agreed to undergo priestly ordination ; he was duly consecrated in March 1578 , and swore to uphold the Council of Trent 's decrees .
= = = Gebhard 's conversion = = =
Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( 1551 β 1637 ) was a Protestant canoness at the cloister in Gerresheim , today a district of DΓΌsseldorf . Her family was a cadet line of the old House of Mansfeld which , by the mid @-@ 16th century , had lost much of its affluence , but not its influence . The Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben line retained significant authority in its district ; several of Agnes ' cousins and uncles had signed the Book of Concord , and the family exercised considerable influence in Reformation affairs . She had been raised in Eisleben , the town in which Martin Luther had been born . The family 's estates were located in Saxony , but Agnes ' sister lived in the city of Cologne , married to the Freiherr ( or Baron ) , Peter von Kriechingen . Although a member of the Gerresheim cloister , Agnes was free during her days to go where she wished . Reports differ on how she came to Gebhard 's notice . Some say he saw her on one of her visits to her sister in Cologne . Others claim he noticed her during a religious procession . Regardless , in late 1579 or early 1580 , she attracted Gebhard 's notice . He sought her out , and they started a liaison . Two of her brothers , Ernst and Hoyer Christoph , soon visited Gebhard at the archbishop 's residence and convinced him to marry her . " Gebhard 's Catholic belief , which was by no means based on his innermost conviction , started to waver when he had to decide whether to renounce the bishop 's mitre and stay faithful to the woman he loved , or to renounce his love and remain a member of the church hierarchy . " While he considered this , rumors of his possible conversion flew throughout the Electorate .
The mere possibility of Gebhard 's conversion caused consternation in the Electorate , in the Empire , and in such European states as England and France . Gebhard considered his options , and listened to his advisers , chief among them his brother Karl , Truchsess von Waldburg ( 1548 β 1593 ) , and Adolf , Count von Neuenahr ( 1545 β 1589 ) . His opponents in the Cathedral Chapter enlisted external support from the Wittelsbachs in Bavaria and from the pope . Diplomats shuttled from court to court through the Rhineland , bearing pleas to Gebhard to consider the outcome of a conversion , and how it would destroy the Electorate . These diplomats assured him of support for his cause should he convert and hold the Electorate and threats to destroy him if he did convert . The magistrates of Cologne vehemently opposed any possible conversion and the extension of parity to Protestants in the archdiocese . His Protestant supporters told Gebhard that he could marry the woman and keep the Electorate , converting it into a dynastic duchy . Throughout the Electorate , and on its borders , his supporters and opponents gathered their troops , armed their garrisons , stockpiled foodstuffs , and prepared for war . On 19 December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion , from , as he phrased it , the " darkness of the papacy to the Light " of the Word of God .
= = = Implications of his conversion = = =
The conversion of the Archbishop of Cologne to Protestantism triggered religious and political repercussions throughout the Holy Roman Empire . His conversion had widespread implications for the future of the Holy Roman Empire 's electoral process established by the Golden Bull of 1356 . In this process , seven Imperial Electors β the four secular electors of Bohemia , Brandenburg , the Palatinate , and Saxony ; and the three ecclesiastical electors of Mainz , Trier , and Cologne β selected an emperor . The presence of at least three inherently Catholic electors , who collectively governed some of the most prosperous ecclesiastical territories in the Empire , guaranteed the delicate balance of Catholics and Protestants in the voting ; only one other elector needed to vote for a Catholic candidate , ensuring that future emperors would remain in the so @-@ called Old Faith . The possibility of one of those electors shifting to the Protestant side , and of that elector producing an heir to perpetuate this shift , would change the balance in the electoral college in favor of the Protestants .
The conversion of the ecclesiastic see to a dynastic realm ruled by a Protestant prince challenged the principle of ecclesiastical reservation , which was intended to preserve the ecclesiastical electorates from this very possibility . The difficulties of such a conversion had been faced before : Hermann von Wied , a previous prince @-@ elector and archbishop in Cologne , had also converted to Protestantism , but had resigned from his office . Similarly , Gebhard 's predecessor , Salentin von Isenburg @-@ Grenzau had indeed married in 1577 , but had resigned from the office prior to his marriage . Furthermore , the reason for his marriage β to perpetuate his house β differed considerably from Gebhard 's . The House of Waldburg was in no apparent danger of extinction ; Gebhard was one of six brothers , and only one other had chosen an ecclesiastical career . Unlike his abdicating predecessors , when Gebhard converted , he proclaimed the Reformation in the city of Cologne itself , angering Cologne 's Catholic leadership and alienating the Catholic faction in the Cathedral Chapter . Furthermore , Gebhard adhered not to the teachings of Martin Luther , but to those of John Calvin , a form of religious observation not approved by the Augsburg conventions of 1555 . Finally , he made no move to resign from his position as Prince @-@ elector .
Affairs became further complicated when , on 2 February 1583 , also known as Candlemas , Gebhard married Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben in a private house in Rosenthal , outside of Bonn . After the ceremony , the couple processed to the Elector 's palace in Bonn , and held a great feast . Unbeknownst to them , while they celebrated their marriage , Frederick , Duke of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg ( 1554 β 1586 ) , who was also a member of the Cathedral Chapter , and his soldiers approached the fortified Kaiserswerth , across the river , and took the castle after a brief fight . When the citizens of Cologne heard the news , there was a great public celebration .
Two days after his marriage , Gebhard invested his brother Karl with the duties of Statthalter ( governor ) and charged him with the rule of Bonn . He and Agnes then traveled to ZweibrΓΌcken and from there , to the territory of Dillingen , near Solms @-@ Braunfels , where the Count , a staunch supporter , would help him to raise funds and troops to hold the territory ; Adolf , Count von Neuenahr returned to the Electorate to prepare for its defense .
Gebhard clearly intended to transform an important ecclesiastical territory into a secular , dynastic duchy . This problematic conversion would then bring the principle of cuius regio , eius religio into play in the Electorate . Under this principle , all of Gebhard 's subjects would be required to convert to his faith : his rule , his religion . Furthermore , as a relatively young man , heirs would be expected . Gebhard and his young wife presented the very real possibility of successfully converting a rich , diplomatically important and strategically placed ecclesiastical territory of a prince @-@ prelate into a dynastic territory that carried with it one of the coveted offices of imperial elector .
Pope Gregory XIII excommunicated him in March 1583 , and the Chapter deposed him , by electing in his place the 29 @-@ year @-@ old canon , Ernst of Bavaria , brother of the pious William V , Duke of Bavaria . Ernst 's election ensured the involvement of the powerful House of Wittelsbach in the coming contest .
= = Course of the war = =
The war had three phases . Initially it was a localized feud between supporters of Gebhard and those of the Catholic core of the Cathedral Chapter . With the election of Ernst of Bavaria as a competing archbishop , what had been a local conflict expanded in scale : Ernst 's election guaranteed the military , diplomatic , and financial interest of the Wittelsbach family in the Electorate of Cologne 's local affairs . After the deaths of Louis VI , Elector Palatine in 1583 and William the Silent in 1584 , the conflict shifted gears again , as the two evenly matched combatants sought outside assistance to break the stalemate . Finally , the intervention of Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma , who had at his command the Spanish Army of Flanders , threw the balance of power in favor of the Catholic side . By 1588 , Spanish forces had pushed Gebhard from the Electorate . In 1588 he took refuge in Strassburg , and the remaining Protestant strongholds of the Electorate fell to Parma 's forces in 1589 .
= = = Cathedral feud = = =
Although Gebhard had gathered some troops around him , he hoped to recruit support from the Lutheran princes . Unfortunately for him , he had converted to another branch of the Reformed faith ; such cautious Lutheran princes as Augustus I , Elector of Saxony , balked at extending their military support to Calvinists and the Elector Palatine was unable to persuade them to join the cause . Gebhard had three primary supporters . His brother , Karl , had married Eleonore , Countess of Hohenzollern ( 1551 β after 1598 ) , and Gebhard could hope that this family alliance with the power @-@ hungry Hohenzollerns would help his cause . Gebhard 's long @-@ time ally and supporter Adolf , Count von Neuenahr was a successful and cunning military commander whose army secured the northern part of the territory . Finally , John Casimir ( 1543 β 1592 ) , the brother of the Elector Palatine , had expressed his support , and made a great show of force in the southern part of the Electorate .
In the first months after Gebhard 's conversion , two competing armies rampaged throughout the southern portion of the Electoral territory in the destruction of the so @-@ called Oberstift . Villages , abbeys and convents and several towns , were plundered and burned , by both sides ; Linz am Rhein and Ahrweiler avoided destruction by swearing loyalty to Salentin . In the summer of 1583 , Gebhard and Agnes took refuge , first at Vest in Vest Recklinghausen , a fief of the Electorate , and then in the Duchy of Westphalia , at Arensberg castle . In both territories , Gebhard set in motion as much of the Reformation as he could , although his soldiers indulged in a bout of iconoclasm and plundering .
Initially , despite a few setbacks , military action seemed to go in Gebhard 's favor , until October , 1583 , when the Elector Palatine died , and Casimir disbanded his army and returned to his brother 's court as guardian for the 10 @-@ year @-@ old duke . In November , 1583 , from his castle Arensberg in Westphalia , he wrote to Francis Walsingham , adviser and spymaster to Queen Elizabeth : " Our needs are pressing , and you [ Walsingham ] and the Queen 's other virtuous counsellors we believe can aid us ; moreover , since God has called us to a knowledge of Himself , we have heard from our counsellors that you love and further the service of God . "
On the same day , Gebhard wrote also to the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London , presenting his case : " Verily , the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches .... " Two days later , he wrote a more lengthy letter to the Queen : " We therefore humbly pray your Majesty to lend us 10 @,@ 000 angelots , and to send it speedily , that we may preserve our churches this winter from the invasion of the enemy ; for if we lost Bonn , they would be in the greatest danger , while if God permits us to keep it , we hope , by his grace , that Antichrist and his agents will be foiled in their damnable attempts against those who call upon the true God . "
Godesburg , a fortress a few kilometers from the Elector 's capital city of Bonn , was taken by storm in late 1583 after a brutal month @-@ long siege ; when Bavarian cannonades failed to break the bastions , sappers tunneled under the thick walls and blew up the fortifications from below . The Catholic Archbishop 's forces still could not break through the remains of the fortifications , so they crawled through the garderobe sluices ( hence the name , Sewer War ) . Upon taking the fortress , they killed every defender except three , a Captain of the Guard who could prove he was a citizen of Cologne , and the son of an important Cologne politician , the commander and his wife . The five miles of road between Godesberg and Bonn was filled with so many troops , that it looked like a military camp . At the same time , in one of the few set battles of the war , Gebhard 's supporters won at Aalst ( French : Alost ) over the Catholic forces of the Frederick of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , who had raised his own army and had entered the fray of his own accord a few months earlier .
The Catholics offered Gebhard a great sum of money , which he refused , demanding instead , the restoration of his state . When further negotiations among the Electors and the Emperor at Frankfurt am Main , then at Muhlhausen in Westphalia , failed to reach an agreement settling the dispute , the Pope arranged for the support of several thousand Spanish troops in early 1584 .
= = = Engagement of outside military forces = = =
The election of Ernst of Bavaria expanded the local feud into a more German @-@ wide phenomenon . The pope committed 55 @,@ 000 crowns to pay soldiers to fight for Ernst , and another 40 @,@ 000 directly into the coffers of the new Archbishop . Under the command of his brother , Ernst 's forces pushed their way into Westphalia , threatening Gebhard and Agnes at their stronghold at Arensburg . Gebhard and Agnes escaped to the rebellious provinces of the Netherlands with almost 1000 cavalry , where Prince William gave them a haven in Delft . There , Gebhard solicited the impecunious William for troops and money . After William 's assassination in July 1584 , Gebhard wrote to Queen Elizabeth requesting assistance . Elizabeth responded toward the end of 1585 , directing him to contact Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester , her deputy with the rebellious Dutch , and recently commissioned as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of her army in the Netherlands . Elizabeth had her own problems with adherents of her cousin Mary , Queen of Scots , and the Spanish .
= = = Stalemate = = =
By late 1585 , although Ernst 's brother had made significant inroads into the Electorate of Cologne , both sides had reached an impasse . Sizable portions of the population subscribed to the Calvinist doctrine ; to support them , Calvinist Switzerland and Strassburg furnished a steady stream of theologians , jurists , books and ideas . The Calvinist barons and counts understood the danger of Spanish intervention : it meant the aggressive introduction of the Counter @-@ Reformation in their territories . France , in the person of Henry III , was equally interested , since the encirclement of France by Habsburgs was cause for concern . Another sizable portion of the electorate 's populace adhered to the old faith , supported by Wittelsbach @-@ funded Jesuits . The supporters of both sides committed atrocities of their own : in the city of Cologne , the mere rumor of Gebhard 's approaching army caused rioters to murder several people suspected of sympathizing with the Protestant cause .
Ernst depended on his brother and the Catholic barons in the Cathedral Chapter to hold the territory he acquired . In 1585 , Munster , Paderborn , and OsnabrΓΌck succumbed to Ferdinand 's energetic pursuit in the eastern regions of the electorate , and a short time later , Minden . With their help , Ernst could hold Bonn . Support from the city of Cologne itself was also secure . To oust Gebhard , though , Ernst ultimately had to appeal for aid to Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma , who commanded Spanish forces in the Netherlands .
Parma was more than willing to help . The Electorate , strategically important to Spain , offered another land route by which to approach the rebellious northern Provinces of the Netherlands . Although the Spanish road from Spain 's holdings on the Mediterranean shores led to its territories in what is today Belgium , it was a long , arduous march , complicated by the provisioning of troops and the potentially hostile populations of the territories through which it passed . An alternative route on the Rhine promised better access to the Habsburg Netherlands . Furthermore , the presence of a Calvinist electorate almost on the Dutch border could delay their efforts to bring the rebellious Dutch back to the Spanish rule and the Catholic confession . Philip II and his generals could be convinced to support Ernst 's cause for such considerations . Indeed , the process of intervention had started earlier . In 1581 , Philip 's forces , paid for by papal gold , had taken Aachen , which Protestants had seized ; by the mid β 1580s , the Duke of Parma 's forces , encouraged by the Wittelsbachs and the Catholics in Cologne , had secured garrisons throughout the northern territories of the Electorate . By 1590 , these garrisons gave Spain access to the northern provinces and Philip felt comfortable enough with his military access to the provinces , and with their isolation from possible support by German Protestants , to direct more of his attention to France , and less to his problems with the Dutch .
On the other side of the feud , to hold the territory , Gebhard needed the full support of his military brother and the very able Neuenahr . To push Ernst out , he needed additional support , which he had requested from Delft and from England . It was clearly in the interests of England and the Dutch to offer assistance ; if the Dutch could not tie up the Spanish army in Flanders , and if that army needed a navy to supply it , Philip could not focus his attention on the English and the French . His own diplomats had sought to present his case as one of pressing concern to all Protestant princes : in November , 1583 , one of his advisers , Dr. Wenceslaus Zuleger , wrote to Francis Walsingham : " I assure you if the Elector of Cologne is not assisted , you will see that the war in the Low Countries will shortly spread over the whole of Germany . " The support Gebhard received , in the form of troops from the Earl of Leicester , and from the Dutch , in the form of the mercenary Martin Schenck , had mixed results . Leicester 's troops , professional and well @-@ led , performed well but their usefulness was limited : Elizabeth 's instructions to help Gebhard had not come with financial support and Leicester had sold his own plate and had exhausted his own personal credit while trying to field an army . Martin Schenck had seen considerable service in Spain 's Army of Flanders , for the French king and for Parma himself . He was a skilled and charismatic soldier , and his men would do anything for him ; reportedly , he could sleep in his saddle , and seemed indomitable in the field . Unfortunately , Schenck was little more than a land @-@ pirate , a free @-@ booter , and rascal , and ultimately he did Gebhard more harm than good , as his behavior in Westphalia and at the Battle of Werl demonstrated .
= = = = Sack of Westphalia = = = =
In late February 1586 , Friedrich Cloedt , whom Gebhard had placed in command of Neuss , and Martin Schenck went to Westphalia at the head of 500 foot and 500 horse . After plundering Vest Recklinghausen , on 1 March they captured Werl through trickery . They loaded a train of wagons with soldiers and covered them with salt . When the wagons of salt were seen outside the city gates , they were immediately admitted , salt being a valued commodity . The " salted soldiers " then over @-@ powered the guard and captured the town . Some of the defenders escaped to the citadel , and could not be dislodged . Claude de Berlaymont , also known as Haultpenne after the name of his castle , collected his own force of 4000 and besieged Schenck and Cloedt in Werl . Attacked from the outside by Haultpenne , and from the inside by the soldiers in the citadel , Schenck and Cloedt broke out of the city with their soldiers on 3 March . Unable to break through the lines , they retreated into the city once more , but several of their soldiers did not make it into the city , and plundered the neighboring villages ; 250 local residents were killed . On 8 March , Schenck and Cloedt loaded their wagons , this time with booty , took 30 magistrates as hostages , and attacked Haultpenne 's force , killing about 500 of them , and losing 200 of their own . Included in the hostages were the BΓΌrgermeister Johann von Pappen and several other high @-@ ranking officials ; although von Pappen died during the retreat , the remaining hostages were released after the payment of a high ransom . Schenck retreated to Venlo and Cloedt returned to the city of Neuss .
= = = Spanish intervention = = =
To some extent , the difficulties both Gebhard and Ernst faced in winning the war were the same the Spanish had in subduing the Dutch Revolt . The protraction of the Spanish and Dutch war β 80 years of bitter fighting interrupted by periodic truces while both sides gathered resources β lay in the kind of war it was : Enemies lived in fortified towns defended by Italian @-@ style bastions , which meant the towns had to be taken and then fortified and maintained . For both Gebhard and Ernst , as for the Spanish commanders in the nearby Lowlands , winning the war meant not only mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless cycle of enemy artillery fortresses , but also maintaining the army one had and defending all one 's own possessions as they were acquired . The Cologne War , similar to the Dutch Revolt in that respect , was also a war of sieges , not of assembled armies facing one another on the field of battle , nor of maneuver , feint , and parry that characterized wars two centuries earlier and later . These wars required men who could operate the machinery of war , which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works , and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating . The Spanish faced another problem , distance , which gave them a distinct interest in intervening in the Cologne affair .
= = = = Razing of Neuss = = = =
Gebhard 's supporter , Adolf von Neuenahr , surrounded Neuss in March 1586 , and persuaded Ernst 's small garrison to capitulate . He refortified and restocked the city and placed young Friedrich Cloedt in command of a garrison of 1600 men , mostly Germans and Dutch soldiers . The town 's fortifications were substantial ; 100 years earlier it had resisted a lengthy siege by Charles the Bold ( 1433 β 1477 ) of Burgundy , and between the fortifications , the natural defenses of rivers , and the garrison , it could withstand all but the most determined assaults . In July 1586 , the Duke of Parma approached and surrounded the city ; by some irony , Agnes ' cousin , Karl von Mansfeld and his troops were a part of the Spanish force assembled against Neuss . Parma had an impressive force at his command ; in addition to Mansfeld 's 2000 troops , he had another 6000 or so foot and Tercios , 2000 well @-@ mounted , experienced Italian , Spanish and German soldiers , and some 45 cannons , which he distributed on the redoubt across the river and on the heights a short distance from the city walls . According to the protocols of war generally accepted in 1586 , Parma requested the capitulation of the city prior to the cannonade . Cloedt declined to capitulate , politely . The next day , being the feast of St. James , and the patron day for the Spanish , the bombardment was not initiated , although mendacious reports circulated in the Spanish camp that the Protestants had roasted two Spanish soldiers alive on the Catholic Holy day , a desecration which fanned their enthusiasm for the impending battle .
The following day , Parma 's artillery pounded at the walls for 30 hours with iron cannonballs weighing 30 β 50 pounds ; in total , his artillery fired more than 2700 rounds . The Spanish made several attempts to storm the city , each repelled by Cloedt 's 1600 soldiers . The ninth assault breached the outer wall . The Spanish and Italian forces entered the town from opposite ends and met in the middle . Cloedt , gravely injured ( his leg was reportedly almost ripped off and he had five other serious wounds ) , had been carried into the town . Parma 's troops discovered Cloedt , being nursed by his wife and his sister . Although Parma was inclined to honor the garrison commander with a soldier 's death by sword , Ernst demanded his immediate execution . The dying man was hanged from the window , with several other officers in his force .
Parma made no effort to restrain his soldiers . On their rampage through the city , Italian and Spanish soldiers slaughtered the rest of the garrison , even the men who tried to surrender . Once their blood @-@ lust was satiated , they began to plunder . Civilians who had taken refuge in the churches were initially ignored , but when the fire started , they were forced into the streets and trapped by the rampaging soldiers . Contemporary accounts refer to children , women , and old men , their clothes smoldering , or in flames , trying to escape the conflagration , only to be trapped by the enraged Spanish ; if they escaped the flames and the Spanish , they were cornered by the enraged Italians . Parma wrote to King Philip that over 4000 lay dead in the ditches ( moats ) . English observers confirmed this report , and elaborated that only eight buildings remained standing .
= = = Siege warfare runs its course = = =
Parma had gone to Neuss prepared for a major assault , and the resources of Spain 's Army of the Netherlands quickly changed the balance in favor of Ernst . In 1586 , Ernst 's allies had secured Vest Recklinghausen , even though they had failed to catch the elusive Schenck , and they had reduced Neuss to a pile of rubble , proving their overwhelming fire @-@ power . In 1587 , they encircled and took the fortified towns in the Oberstift , recapturing Bonn , Godesberg , and Linz am Rhein , and dozens of smaller fortified towns , villages and farmsteads throughout the countryside . Throughout , soldiers from both parties marauded and plundered throughout the countryside , searching either for important officials , booty , or other valuables . On 12 November 1587 , one of Walsingham 's informants wrote , the " soldiers of Vartendonc ( Martin Schenck ) go out daily on excursions , doing very great harm in all places , for they have free passage every where . The other evening they went with 180 horse to above Bonn , between Orchel and Linz ( am Rhein ) , to make prisoner Count Salatin d 'Issemburg ( Salentin von Isenburg ) , but their design did not succeed , as he withdrew into a castle . " In early 1588 , Gebhardt 's supporters once more acquired Bonn ; one of Walsingham 's observers in the Palatinate , in Heidelberg , reported that the Prince of Taxis had been slain outside of Bonn , with 300 Spanish soldiers .
By Spring 1588 , Gebhard had run out of options . In 1583 , he had refused the settlement offered to him after the conferences at Frankfurt and in Westphalia , counting on the support of the other Protestant electors . When their support did not materialize , he pursued diplomatic options with the French , the Dutch , and the English ; these also were of limited help . After the destruction of Neuss in 1586 , and the loss of the most of southern part of the Electorate in 1587 , Rheinberg and its environs were the only territories of the Electorate he could claim , and much of this slipped from his grasp in 1588 . He had exhausted his diplomatic , financial and military possibilities . His health problems ( referred to as Gelenkenschmerz , or joint pain ) prohibited him from riding , which limited his ability to travel . In the spring of 1588 , he relinquished his claim on the Electorate to the protection of Neuenahr and Martin Schenck , and retired to Strassburg . Neuenahr and Schenck continued to fight for him , but the former died in an artillery explosion in 1589 , and the latter was killed at Nijmegen that summer . Without them to defend his claim on the Electorate , Rheinberg , Gebhard 's last outpost in the northern Electorate , fell to Parma 's force in 1589 .
= = Aftermath = =
After Gebhard 's expulsion , Ernst assumed full charge of the Electorate of Cologne . In his later years , a nuncio at Cologne took responsibilities for the financial administration of the archdiocese , and Ernst 's nephew , Ferdinand of Bavaria , was elected to the Cathedral Chapter , the Wittelsbach heir @-@ apparent . When Ernst died in 1612 , the Cathedral Chapter duly elected his nephew to the position and Wittelsbachs held the Electorate until 1761 . Ernst 's victory , both in winning the election in 1583 , and in convincing the assembly of other electors to accept him in 1585 , confirmed him as the new archbishop of Cologne and gave the Wittelsbach family a foothold on the northern Rhine .
Ernst 's rule , and that of his four Wittelsbach successors , strengthened the position of his family in Imperial politics . The victory of the Catholic party further consolidated the Counter @-@ Reformation in the northwest territories of the Holy Roman Empire , especially in the bishoprics of MΓΌnster , Paderborn , OsnabrΓΌck and Minden , which were bordered by Protestant territories . Once Ernst 's brother or such allies as the Duke of Parma regained control , Jesuits efficiently identified any recalcitrant Protestants and converted them to Catholicism . The Counter @-@ Reformation was thoroughly applied in the lower Rhineland , with the goal that every Protestant , whether Lutheran or Calvinist , would be brought to the Catholic fold . For their efforts , the Spanish acquired important bridgeheads on the Rhine River , securing a land route to the rebellious northern provinces , which helped to extend an already long war of secession well into the next century .
The German tradition of local and regional autonomy differed structurally and culturally from the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France , England , and Spain . This difference made them vulnerable to the unabashed intervention of Spanish , French , Italian , Dutch , English and Scots mercenaries and the influence of papal gold and changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes . The great " players " of the Early Modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions vis @-@ a @-@ vis one another by assisting , promoting , or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes , as they did in the localized feud between Gebhard and Ernst . Conversely , German princes , dukes , and counts realized that they could gain an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of powerful neighbors . The scale of the engagement of such external mercenary armies as Spain 's Army of Flanders set a precedent to internationalize contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states , a problem not settled until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 . Even after that settlement , German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention and the religious division exemplified in the Cologne war .
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= Every Sunday =
Every Sunday ( sometimes incorrectly listed as Every Sunday Afternoon or Opera vs. Jazz ) is a 1936 American short musical film . It tells the story of two young girls and their efforts to save a public concert series , which was being threatened by poor attendance .
Directed by Felix E. Feist , the film served as a screen test for , and is the first significant screen appearance of , two young actresses who would go on to become major stars , Judy Garland and Deanna Durbin . Although only lightly reviewed at the time of its release , the film has garnered a generally positive reputation among Garland biographers .
= = Plot = =
Small town friends Edna ( Deanna Durbin ) and Judy ( Judy Garland ) are upset . Edna 's grandfather and his orchestra , who play free Sunday concerts at a local park , have been fired by the town council because the concerts are poorly attended . The girls hit upon the idea of singing at the concerts and set about promoting the next concert . The following Sunday Edna and Judy join Granddad on the bandstand . Edna 's operatic style and Judy 's swing bring crowds running from all over the park . The event is a huge success and Granddad 's concerts are saved .
= = Production = =
Deanna Durbin and Judy Garland were both under contract to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer but the studio had not put them to work in films . With their contracts coming up for renewal , feelings among studio executives were that the studio didn 't need two girl singers . Every Sunday would serve as an extended screen test to decide which girl 's contract would be renewed .
Durbin recorded the aria Il Bacio for the film . Composers Con Conrad and Herb Magidson wrote a specialty number for Garland , " The Americana . "
Following the screening of the short for MGM executives , opinion was divided on whether Garland or Durbin should be retained . Finally , Louis B. Mayer , upon his return from a European trip , decreed that both girls should be kept . However , Durbin 's contract option had expired by then . She was signed by Universal Studios , where her first picture , Three Smart Girls , was so successful that it saved Universal from bankruptcy .
= = Critical reception = =
As a short film that served as a second feature , Every Sunday received scant critical attention upon its release . Durbin 's hometown newspaper , the Winnipeg Free Press , did praise the film , lamenting that it was " all too short " and citing Garland as a " girl singer of distinction . "
Garland biographers , when discussing the film in any detail , are generally complimentary both to the film and to Garland . " Unpretentious and fascinating ... Every Sunday gives us a marvelous glimpse of Judy 's talent in an unrefined state " is a typical comment , with the film " reveal [ ing ] how accomplished a performer Judy Garland already was at fourteen . " Durbin does not fare quite as well . Although described by one biographer as appearing " relaxed " and " happy " on film others dismiss her " diffidence " and call her " stiff . "
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= StarCraft =
StarCraft is a military science fiction media franchise created by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , and owned by Blizzard Entertainment . The series centers on a galactic struggle for dominance between four species β the adaptable and mobile Terrans , the ever @-@ evolving insectoid Zerg , the powerfully enigmatic Protoss , and the " god @-@ like " Xel 'Naga creator race β in a distant part of the Milky Way galaxy known as the Koprulu Sector at the beginning of the 26th century . The series debuted with the video game StarCraft in 1998 . Since then it has grown to include a number of other games as well as eight novelizations , two Amazing Stories articles , a board game , and other licensed merchandise such as collectible statues and toys .
Blizzard Entertainment began planning StarCraft in 1995 , with a development team led by Metzen and Phinney . The game debuted at E3 1996 , and used a modified Warcraft II game engine . StarCraft also marked the creation of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department ; the game introduced high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series . Most of the original development team for StarCraft returned to work on the game 's official expansion pack , Brood War ; the game 's development began shortly after StarCraft was released . In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software . Unlike the previous real @-@ time strategy games in the series , Ghost was to be a stealth @-@ action game . After three years of development , work on the game was postponed in 2004 . Development of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty began in 2003 ; the game was later announced on May 19 , 2007 and was released on July 27 , 2010 . The StarCraft II franchise continued with the StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm expansion , which was released on March 12 , 2013 . The third StarCraft II installment is titled StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , released on November 10 , 2015 .
The original game and its official expansion have been praised as one of the benchmark real @-@ time strategy games of its time . The series has gathered a solid following around the world , particularly in South Korea , where professional players and teams participate in matches , earn sponsorships , and compete in televised matches . As of May 31 , 2007 , StarCraft and Brood War have sold almost 10 million copies combined . In addition , the series was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006 , and holds four Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition of 2008 .
= = Story = =
The story focuses on the activities of the three species in a part of the Milky Way known as the Koprulu Sector . Millennia before any of the events of the games , a species known as the Xel 'Naga genetically engineered the Protoss and later the Zerg in attempts to create pure beings . These experiments backfire and the Xel 'Naga are largely destroyed by the Zerg . Centuries before the beginning of StarCraft in 2499 , the hardline international government of Earth , the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) , commissions a colonization program as part of a solution to overpopulation . However , the computers automating the colony ships malfunction , propelling the Terran colonists far off course to the edge of Protoss space . Out of contact with Earth , they form various factions to maintain their interests . Intrigued by the behavior and mentality of the Terrans , the Protoss remain hidden to examine the humans , while protecting them from other threats without their knowledge . However , the Zerg target the Terrans for assimilation to harness their psionic potential , forcing the Protoss to destroy tainted Terran colonies to contain the Zerg infestation .
StarCraft begins just days after the first of these attacks , where the predominant Terran government , the Confederacy of Man , falls into a state of panic as it comes under attack by both the Zerg and the Protoss , in addition to increasing rebel activity led by Arcturus Mengsk against its rule . The Confederacy eventually succumbs to Mengsk 's rebels when they use Confederate technology to lure the Zerg into attacking the Confederate capital , Tarsonis . In the consequent power vacuum , Mengsk crowns himself emperor of a new Terran Dominion . However , during the assault on Tarsonis , Mengsk allows the Zerg to capture and infest his psychic second @-@ in @-@ command , Sarah Kerrigan . This betrayal prompts Mengsk 's other commander , Jim Raynor , to desert him with a small army . Having retreated with Kerrigan to their primary hive clusters , the Zerg are assaulted by Protoss forces commanded by Tassadar and the dark templar Zeratul . Through assassinating a Zerg cerebrate , Zeratul inadvertently allows the Overmind to learn the location of the Protoss homeworld , Aiur . The Overmind quickly launches an invasion to assimilate the Protoss and gain genetic perfection . Pursued by his own people as a heretic for siding with the dark templar , Tassadar returns with Zeratul to Aiur and with the assistance of Raynor and the templar Fenix , Tassadar launches an attack on the Overmind and ultimately sacrifices himself to kill the creature .
In Brood War , the Protoss are now led by Zeratul and Artanis . They begin to evacuate the surviving population of Aiur to the dark templar homeworld of Shakuras under a fragile alliance between the two untrusting branches of the Protoss . On Shakuras , they are misled by Kerrigan into attacking the Zerg to advance Kerrigan 's quest to securing power over the Zerg . This deception comes after she reveals that a new Overmind has entered incubation . Meanwhile , Earth decides to take action in the sector , sending a fleet to conquer the Terran Dominion and capture the new Overmind . Although successfully taking the Dominion capital Korhal and enslaving the Overmind , the UED 's efforts to capture Mengsk are thwarted by a double agent working for Kerrigan , Samir Duran . Kerrigan , allying with Mengsk , Fenix and Raynor , launches a campaign against the UED , recapturing Korhal . However , she turns against her allies ; Fenix and Duke both perish in the ensuing attacks . Kerrigan later blackmails Zeratul into killing the new Overmind , giving her full control over the entire Zerg Swarm . After defeating a retaliatory attack by the Protoss , Dominion and the UED , consequently destroying the last of the UED fleet , Kerrigan and her Zerg broods become the dominant power in the sector .
Four years later , in Wings of Liberty , Kerrigan and the Zerg suddenly vanish from the Koprulu Sector , allowing the Protoss to once again take on a passive role in the galaxy . Meanwhile , Raynor forms a revolutionary group named Raynor 's Raiders in order to overthrow Mengsk . On Mar Sara , Raynor liberates the local population from Dominion control and also discovers a component of a mysterious Xel 'Naga artifact . The Zerg suddenly reappear and overrun Mar Sara , forcing Raynor to arrange an evacuation to his battlecruiser , the Hyperion . The Raiders embark on a series of missions to undermine Mengsk , stop frequent Zerg infestations on Terran worlds , gather psychic individuals for military assets , and find the remaining pieces of the Xel 'Naga artifact , which they sell to the enigmatic Moebius Foundation in order to fund their revolution . Soon after , Zeratul delivers a psychic crystal that allows Raynor to share visions involving an ominous prophecy where Zerg @-@ Protoss hybrids and an enslaved Zerg swarm wipe out the Terrans and the Protoss . The vision reveals that only Kerrigan has the power to prevent the eradication of all life in the sector and beyond . After collecting more artifact pieces , the Raiders forge an alliance with Valerian Mengsk , Arcturus ' son , who is their secret benefactor from Moebius Foundation . After recovering the final artifact piece , Valerian and Raynor work together to invade the Zerg world of Char and use the artifact to restore Kerrigan 's humanity , thus weakening the Zerg at the cost of much of the Dominion fleet . However , an agent of Arcturus makes an attempt on Kerrigan 's life , and Raynor defends her and takes her in for medical examination .
In Heart of the Swarm , the Dominion discovers where Raynor and Kerrigan are hiding and launch an attack on them . Kerrigan manages to escape , but is cut off from Raynor and upon hearing news that he was captured and executed , she returns to Zerg territory to retake control of the swarm and enact revenge on Mengsk . During her quest , she has an encounter with Zeratul , who advises her to travel to Zerus , the original homeworld of the Zerg , where she not only regains her powers as the Queen of Blades , returning stronger than ever , but also learns that a fallen Xel 'Naga named Amon was responsible for making the Zerg what they are : A warring swarm , bound to a single overriding will . After confronting a legion of servants of Amon , including a breed of Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids , Mengsk informs Kerrigan that Raynor is still alive and uses him as a leverage against her , keeping the location where he is imprisoned a secret , until she joins forces with the Hyperion to locate and rescue him . However , seeing that she discarded her humanity after all the effort he took to restore it , Raynor rejects her , despite her confession that she loves him , and part ways with her . Kerrigan then turns her attention to Korhal and sends her forces to bring down Mengsk once and for all . However , during their showdown , Mengsk uses the artifact to immobilize her , but Raynor appears to protect her , and Mengsk is ultimately killed by Kerrigan . With the Dominion under control of Mengsk 's son Valerian , Kerrigan bids farewell to Raynor and departs with the Zerg Swarm to confront Amon and his forces .
In Legacy of the Void , Zeratul invades a Terran installation under control of Amon in order to pinpoint the exact location of his resurrection , taking advantage of a sudden attack by Kerrigan and the Zerg swarm . After obtaining the exact location , he departs to an ancient Xel 'Naga temple where he has a vision of Tassadar , who prompts him to claim the artifact in possession of the Terrans . Zeratul then returns to warn Artanis of Amon 's return , but he decides to proceed with his plans of leading his army to reclaim Aiur . However , Amon awakens on Aiur and takes control of the majority of the Protoss race through the Khala , the telepathic bond that unites all emotions for the Khalai faction of the Protoss . Only Zeratul and the Nerazim , the Dark Templar , are immune due to their lack of connection to the Khala , and the Nerazim proceed to save as many Khalai as they can by severing their nerve chords , which connect them to the Khala , with Zeratul sacrificing himself to save Artanis in the occasion . After escaping the planet with an ancient vessel , the Spear of Adun , Artanis reclaims the artifact as Zeratul suggested and gathers allies among the many Protoss tribes scattered across the galaxy in order to remake his army and launch another assault on Aiur . Using the artifact , Artanis ' forces restrain Amon 's essence , time enough for the other Khalai Protoss who were still under his control to sever their nerve chords and banish Amon to the Void .
In a short epilogue after the end of Legacy of the Void , Kerrigan calls for Artanis and Raynor 's help to confront Amon inside the Void to defeat him once and for all . In the occasion , they meet Ouros , the last of the Xel 'Naga who reveals that to confront Amon on equal terms , Kerrigan must inherit Ouros ' essence and become a Xel 'Naga herself , as Ouros himself is at the last of his strengths . Assisted by the Zerg , Terran and Protoss forces , the empowered Kerrigan vanquishes Amon , before disappearing without a trace . Two years later , Kerrigan appears before Raynor in human form and he departs with her to never be heard from again , while the Zerg , the Terran and the Protoss civilizations begin to rebuild in an age of peace and prosperity .
= = Games = =
The StarCraft series includes a core set of titles which carry the main storyline . These games were released in chronological order , with each new title following on from the events that are depicted in the previous title . A full second game , StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty , was released on July 27 , 2010 , taking place four years after the end of Brood War . Two expansions , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void ( both currently stand alone games ) , were planned from the beginning ; the former was released on March 12 , 2013 .
All the games in the main series are real @-@ time strategy games , where the player views the events as a military commander for each of the three species . In addition , two spin @-@ off titles have been released ; these are authorized expansion packs to the original which focus on other characters and settings based at the same time as the main storyline . Like the main series , these two titles are also real @-@ time strategy games . A spin @-@ off , StarCraft : Ghost , which was to be a third person action @-@ stealth game was in development , but has been placed on indefinite hiatus .
= = = StarCraft = = =
StarCraft , released for Windows on March 31 , 1998 , is the first video game in the StarCraft series . A science fiction real @-@ time strategy game , StarCraft is set in a distant sector of the Milky Way galaxy . A Mac OS version of the game was released by Blizzard Entertainment in March 1999 . A Nintendo 64 port including StarCraft , Brood War and a new secret mission " Resurrection IV " was released in the United States on June 13 , 2000 . The game 's story revolves around the appearance of two alien races in Terran space , and each race 's attempts to survive and adapt over the others . The player assumes three roles through the course of the three campaigns : a Confederate colonial governor who becomes a revolutionary commander , a Zerg cerebrate pushing forward the species ' doctrine of assimilation , and a Protoss fleet executor tasked with defending the Protoss from the Zerg . StarCraft soon gained critical acclaim , winning numerous awards , including being labelled " the best real @-@ time strategy game ever made " and being ranked the seventh best game of all time by IGN in both 2003 and 2005 , and the eleventh best game in 2007 .
StarCraft : Brood War is the official expansion pack for StarCraft , developed by Blizzard Entertainment and Saffire . Released for Windows and Mac OS in the United States on November 30 , 1998 , the expansion directly continues the events of StarCraft . The expansion 's story continues only days after the conclusion of the original game . It starts with the Protoss ' struggle to ensure the survival of their species and continues with the intervention of the United Earth Directorate into local Terran affairs . The livelihood of both the Protoss and the previously silent Earth government is then threatened by the ever @-@ increasing power of Sarah Kerrigan and her Zerg broods . In addition , the expansion introduces new features and improvements . A total of seven new units with different functions and abilities are included , the artificial intelligence behavior was modified , new graphical tilesets for terrain were added and the game 's level editor received improved scripting tools to facilitate cut scenes with the in @-@ game engine . The expansion received critical praise for fixing various balance issues with the original game , development attention on par with that of a full game and for continuing with single player campaigns that were heavily story @-@ driven .
= = = StarCraft II = = =
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty is the official sequel to StarCraft released for Windows and Mac OS X by Blizzard Entertainment on July 27 , 2010 . The game was announced at the Worldwide Invitational in South Korea on May 19 , 2007 with a pre @-@ rendered cinematic cut scene trailer and a gameplay demonstration of the Protoss . Further demonstrations regarding the game 's new features have been showcased at subsequent Blizzcons and other games conventions . The game incorporates a new 3D graphics engine and adds new features such as the Havok physics engine . StarCraft II also incorporates DirectX 10 level effects in Windows . Originally envisioned as a single game , StarCraft II was split into three parts during development , one for focusing on each race . The base game , Wings of Liberty , follows the Terrans , while two expansion packs , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void are to be released to complement Wings of Liberty after release and further the story from the views of the Zerg and Protoss , respectively . The story of Wings of Liberty continues from four years after the conclusion of Brood War , and revolves around Jim Raynor 's struggles against the Terran Dominion .
StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm is an expansion pack to StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty and was released on March 12 , 2013 . It is part two of the StarCraft II trilogy . The expansion includes additional units and multiplayer changes from Wings of Liberty , as well as a continuing campaign focusing on Kerrigan and the Zerg race . It spans 27 missions ( 20 main missions and 7 side missions ) .
The saga of StarCraft is ultimately completed with StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , which was released on November 10 , 2015 . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void is a stand @-@ alone game in which new units are added to all three races as well as changing existing units , and also makes groundbreaking changes to the economy @-@ aspect of the game . The story of Starcraft is concluded by following the Protoss Race in their quest to reclaim their homeworld and for Kerrigan to ultimately slay the greatest threat to the entire universe . The game is divided by a 3 @-@ mission prologue , a 19 @-@ mission main story campaign followed by a 3 @-@ mission epilogue wrapping up .
At BlizzCon 2015 during the " Future of Starcraft 2 " presentation it was revealed that Blizzard will release additional mission packs to keep players engaged with Starcraft 2 . The first pack is called Nova Covert Ops , and will center around the character Nova . The mission pack will consist of three episodes , with a total of nine new missions . It does not require the purchase of StarCraft II , and can be played with the Starter Edition . The release date for the first episode is 29 March 2016 . At the same time Blizzard has announced that new commanders are planned to be added to the Co @-@ Op mode in Legacy of the Void as a DLC , with Karax to be the first addition given for free .
= = = Spin @-@ off titles = = =
The success of StarCraft has spurred the creation of two authorized add @-@ on titles to StarCraft , as well as a deviation into genres other than real @-@ time strategy . Insurrection was the first add @-@ on pack released for StarCraft . Although developed and published by Aztech New Media , it is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment . It was released for the PC on July 31 , 1998 . The expansion 's story focuses on a Confederate colony during the course of the first campaign of StarCraft . As in StarCraft , the player takes control of each race in three separate campaigns . In the first campaign , Terran colonists attempt to defend themselves from the Zerg invasion of the sector as well as from a rising insurgency . The second campaign has the player directing a Protoss task force sent to clear the Zerg infestation of the colony by any means necessary . In the final campaign the player assumes the role of a Zerg cerebrate , whose goal is to crush all opposition on the surface . The expansion contains 30 new campaign missions and over 100 new multiplayer maps , although it does not include new content such as units and graphical terrain tilesets . Insurrection was criticized by reviewers for lacking the quality of the original game and it is not widely available . Although the add @-@ on is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment , they offer no comment on support or availability of the game .
Retribution is the second of the two authorized add @-@ on packs released for StarCraft . The add @-@ on was developed by Stardock and published by WizardWorks Software . It was released for the PC in late 1998 . The game is set during the second campaign in StarCraft , revolving around the acquisition of a crystal of immense power connected to the Xel 'Naga . Divided into three campaigns , the player assumes the roles of a Protoss fleet executor , the commander of a Dominion task force and a Zerg cerebrate , all tasked with retrieving the crystal from a Dominion colony and getting it off the planet as quickly as possible . As with its predecessor , Retribution does not include any new gameplay features beyond its single player campaigns and an abundance of multiplayer levels . The add @-@ on was not well received by reviewers , and instead was regarded as average but at least challenging . Retribution is not widely available , and Blizzard Entertainment offers no comment regarding support or the availability of Retribution despite authorizing the add @-@ on .
StarCraft : Ghost is a tactical stealth game for consoles developed under supervision of Blizzard Entertainment . Announced in 2002 , the game was constantly delayed due to various issues , most notably including a change of development team from Nihilistic Software to Swingin ' Ape Studios in July 2004 . As updates for the game became less frequent and the graphics and game mechanics more outdated , suspicion began to grow that Blizzard would cancel the game . On March 24 , 2006 , Blizzard indefinitely postponed the game 's development . The story of the game is based around Nova , a psychic assassin in the employ of the Terran Dominion . Although frequently used as an example of development hell , Blizzard Entertainment 's Rob Pardo has indicated that he would like the game to be completed in the future , and Blizzard Entertainment refuses to list the game as having been canceled .
On August 23 , 2014 in an interview with Polygon about the cancellation of Blizzard 's next gen MMO Titan Chris Metzen confirmed that StarCraft : Ghost was also cancelled . " It was hard when we canceled Warcraft Adventures . It was hard when we canceled StarCraft : Ghost , " he said . " But it has always resulted in better @-@ quality work . "
= = Development = =
Blizzard Entertainment began planning development on StarCraft in 1995 , shortly after the beginning of development for Diablo . The development was led by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , who also created the game 's fictional universe . Using the Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness game engine as a base , StarCraft made its debut at E3 1996 . The game 's success led to the development of two authorized add @-@ ons , which were both released in 1998 . However , neither of the two add @-@ ons were particularly well received by critics . StarCraft also marked the debut of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department . Previously , cinematic cut scenes were seen as simply gap fillers that often deviated from the game , but with StarCraft and later Brood War introducing high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series , Blizzard Entertainment is cited as having changed this perception and became one of the first game companies to raise the standard regarding such cut scenes .
StarCraft 's success also inspired third @-@ party developer Microstar Software to release an unauthorized add @-@ on , entitled Stellar Forces , in May 1998 . Blizzard Entertainment consequently filed a lawsuit against Microstar for selling the add @-@ on , arguing that as the product was unauthorized and created using StarCraft 's level editing software , it was a breach of the end user license agreement .
In November 1998 , Blizzard Entertainment won the court case against Microstar Software . In the settlement , Microstar agreed to pay an undisclosed amount in punitive damages and to destroy all remaining copies of Stellar Forces in its possession , as well as to formally apologize to Blizzard Entertainment .
After the release of the first two add @-@ on packs , Blizzard Entertainment announced the official expansion pack to StarCraft , entitled Brood War . Most of the team at Blizzard Entertainment responsible for StarCraft returned to work on Brood War . Development on Brood War began shortly after StarCraft 's release , and Blizzard Entertainment were assisted by members of Saffire , who were contracted for a variety of tasks consisting of programming and design for levels , visuals and audio effects .
In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software , with the aim of releasing the game for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube during late 2003 . Unlike previous real @-@ time strategy StarCraft titles , Ghost was to be a tactical third @-@ person action game . Although the press was positive about the video game console direction taken by Ghost , the game was consistently delayed , and during the third quarter of 2004 , Nihilistic Software discontinued their work with the project . Blizzard stated that Nihilistic Software had completed the tasks it had been contracted for and that the game would be delivered on time . The game was never released .
StarCraft II was announced on May 19 , 2007 , nearly a decade after the original , at the Blizzard Worldwide Invitational in Seoul , South Korea . StarCraft II was being developed , under the codename Medusa , for concurrent release on Windows XP , Windows Vista and Mac OS X. Blizzard announced a release date for July 27 , 2010 . Development on the game began in 2003 , shortly after Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne was released .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Novelizations = = =
The StarCraft series is supported by eight novelizations , with at least two more in the works , all published by Simon & Schuster . At BlizzCon 2007 , Chris Metzen stated that he hoped to novelize the entirety of StarCraft and Brood War into a definitive text @-@ based story . The first novel , StarCraft : Uprising , was written by Micky Neilson , a Blizzard Entertainment employee , and originally released only as an e @-@ book in December 2000 . The novel follows the origins of the character Sarah Kerrigan . The second novel , entitled StarCraft : Liberty 's Crusade , serves as an adaptation of the first campaign of StarCraft , following on a journalist following a number of the key Terran characters in the series . Written by Jeff Grubb and published in March 2001 , it was the first StarCraft novel to be released in paperback . StarCraft : Shadow of the Xel 'Naga , published in July 2001 is the third novel , written by Kevin Anderson under the pseudonym Gabriel Mesta . It serves as a link between StarCraft and Brood War . The fantasy author Tracy Hickman was brought in to write the fourth novel , StarCraft : Speed of Darkness , which was published in June 2002 . Speed of Darkness is written from the viewpoint of a Confederate marine during the early stages of StarCraft . The first four novels , including the e @-@ book Uprising , were later re @-@ released as a single anthology entitled The StarCraft Archive in November 2007 .
A fifth novel entitled StarCraft : Queen of Blades was published in June 2006 . Written by Aaron S. Rosenberg , it is a novelization of the second campaign in StarCraft from the perspective of Jim Raynor . This was followed in November 2006 by StarCraft Ghost : Nova , a book focusing on the early origins of the character of Nova from the postponed StarCraft : Ghost game . Written by Keith R.A. DeCandido , the novel was meant to accompany the release of StarCraft : Ghost , but was continued despite the postponement of the game . In 2007 Christie Golden , an author whose previous work included novels in Blizzard 's Warcraft series , was brought in to write a trilogy entitled the StarCraft : The Dark Templar Saga . The trilogy acts as a link between StarCraft and its sequel StarCraft II . The first installment , Firstborn being published in May 2007 and Shadow Hunters , the second novel , being published in November 2007 . The final part of the trilogy , Twilight was released in June 2009 . I , Mengsk was publish in 2009 , a novel that was written by Graham McNeill which focuses on the origins of the characters in the Mengsk family . Last January 2010 Keith R.A. DeCandido and David Gerrold authored the " StarCraft : Ghost Academy " to elaborate the training of Nova as an espionage agent and in September 2011 , Simon & Schuster published the " StarCraft Ghost : Spectres " as a sequel to the novel " StarCraft Ghost : Nova " . Timothy Zahn will release an unnamed Starcraft novel in 2016 .
In addition to these , Blizzard Entertainment authorized two short stories in Amazing Stories magazine , entitled StarCraft : Revelations and StarCraft : Hybrid . Revelations was authored by series creator Chris Metzen and Sam Moore , a Blizzard employee , and was featured on the cover of the 1999 spring edition with art by Blizzard 's art director Samwise Didier . Hybrid was written by Micky Neilson and again was accompanied by artwork by Didier ; the short story was published in the spring edition of 2000 . At New York Comic @-@ Con in 2008 , TokyoPop announced that they would be producing a number of StarCraft graphic novels . Two series were announced : StarCraft : Frontline , which is a series of short story anthologies that spanned four volumes , and StarCraft : Ghost Academy , which was written by Keith R.A. DeCandido and follows several characters , such as Nova , during their training as the psychic assassins called " ghosts " . There was a Starcraft graphic novel released in 2010 , produced by Wildstorm and DC Comics , which features outlaws working on a last job , the assassination of Jim Raynor .
= = = Merchandise = = =
A number of action figures and collectable statues based upon the characters and units in StarCraft have been produced by ToyCom . A number of model kits , made by Academy Hobby Model Kits , were also produced , displaying 1 / 30 scale versions of the marine and the hydralisk . In addition , Blizzard Entertainment teamed up with Fantasy Flight Games to create a board game based in the StarCraft universe . Blizzard Entertainment also licensed Wizards of the Coast to produce an Alternity based game entitled StarCraft Adventures .
= = Reception and cultural impact = =
The StarCraft series has been a commercial success . After its release , StarCraft became the best @-@ selling PC game for that year , selling over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . In the next decade , StarCraft sold over 9 @.@ 5 million copies across the globe , with 4 @.@ 5 million of these being sold in South Korea . Since the initial release of StarCraft , Blizzard Entertainment reported that its Battle.net online multiplayer service grew by 800 percent . StarCraft remains one of the most popular online games in the world . After its release , StarCraft rapidly grew in popularity in South Korea , establishing a successful pro @-@ gaming scene . Pro @-@ gamers in South Korea are niche media celebrities and StarCraft games broadcast over three television channels dedicated to gaming . StarCraft has won numerous Game of the Year awards , is often described as one of the best real @-@ time strategy games made , and is widely credited with popularizing the use of distinct and unique sides β as opposed to sides of equal ability and strength β in real @-@ time strategy games .
Although Insurrection and Retribution were not particularly well received , StarCraft : Brood War generally received very positive reviews , with an aggregate GameRankings score of 95 @.@ 00 % . The magazine PC Zone gave Brood War a short but flattering review , describing it as having " definitely been worth the wait " and also drew note to the cinematic cut scenes , stating that they " actually feel like part of the story rather than an afterthought . " IGN stated that Brood War 's enhancements were " enough to enrich the core gameplay without losing the flavor " while GameSpot noted that the expansion was developed with the same level of care as the full game .
The release of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty performed very well commercially and critically , selling 1 @.@ 8 million copies within the first forty eight hours of release , which breaks the record of best selling strategy game in the history of the gaming industry . It received very positive reviews with an aggregate GameRankings score of 93 % , and was nominated as the " Best PC Game of 2010 " on Gamespot . This success continued with the release of the first expansion pack , StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , which had a GameRankings aggregate score of 86 % . The expansion pack sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies within the first two days of its release on March 12 , 2013 , and was the best @-@ selling PC game in that quarter . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , the third expansion pack , was similarly well received , having a GameRankings aggregate score of 88 % while selling more than 1 million copies worldwide within the first day of its release .
Since the release of StarCraft II a number of tournaments have been hosted in Korea and elsewhere , such as the GOMTV Global StarCraft II League ( GSL ) .
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= Britney and Kevin : Chaotic =
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic is an American reality television series created by Anthony E. Zuiker . Starring American recording artist Britney Spears and her then @-@ husband Kevin Federline , the five @-@ episode series aired on UPN from May 17 to June 14 , 2005 . The series chronicles the couple 's relationship from their courtship , engagement and wedding .
A majority of the footage was originally shot for Spears ' own reality series to document the European leg of The Onyx Hotel Tour in the spring of 2004 . Spears fell and injured her left knee during the shooting of the music video for " Outrageous " , causing the remainder of the tour and the series to be cancelled .
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was heavily criticized by critics , who considered the series to be career suicide for Spears . Critics noted Spears ' excessive narcissism and criticized the themes of the series as being too explicit . The DVD release of Britney and Kevin : Chaotic included Spears ' first extended play of the same name .
= = Background = =
MTV News announced in April 2004 that Spears was planning a reality television series to document her backstage life during the European leg of The Onyx Hotel Tour . Pitched as OnTourage , footage from the six @-@ week leg was to be compiled into a six @-@ episode series , with each episode selling for about $ 1 million , " much more than most reality programs " . Spears was to narrate and shoot footage of her with her dancers and handlers . The show was planned to be completed " as early as summer " .
On June 8 , Spears was shooting the music video for " Outrageous " in Manhattan , when she fell and injured her left knee . She was taken immediately to a local hospital and underwent arthroscopic surgery the next day . She was forced to remain six weeks with a thigh brace , followed by eight to twelve weeks of rehabilitation , which caused any future concerts to be canceled . As a result , OnTourage was also scrapped .
In July , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , whom she had met three months before . As Federline had only recently ended his relationship with actress Shar Jackson , who was pregnant with their second child , this engagement was the subject of extensive media coverage . They held a wedding ceremony on September 18 , 2004 , but were not legally married until three weeks later on October 6 due to a delay finalizing the couple 's prenuptial agreement . In October 2004 , the singer announced she would be taking another career break to start a family .
= = Development = =
After a " fierce bidding war " , on April 5 , 2005 , it was announced that Spears had signed a deal with UPN to air a reality television series documenting her relationship with Federline . The series , which would air in five episodes , was revealed to chronicle the relationship " from the earliest stages of their courtship to their engagement and ultimately , their stroll down the aisle " . In a statement about the series , Spears stated : " From the day that Kevin and I met , there have been constant rumors and inaccurate speculation about our lives together . I feel that last year , the tabloids ran my life , and I am really excited about showing my fans what really happened , rather than all the stories , which have been misconstrued by journalists in the past . As I mentioned before , I am now going to be expressing my personal life through art " .
The series was initially titled Britney and Kevin : Can You Handle Our Truth ? , before its title was changed to Britney and Kevin : Chaotic , with " Can you handle our truth ? " becoming its tagline . A majority of the footage shot for OnTourage was used for Britney and Kevin : Chaotic . According to Spears , the series helped the couple to know each other more , saying : " I didn 't know [ Kevin ] that well , and when I got the camera out , it made me feel better . It 's really weird because it was like all this tension at first . We were so nervous being together . I 'm really shy , and when I had the camera in my hand , it made me feel more outspoken . "
= = Critical response = =
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was heavily criticized by critics . Taylor Carik of Flak Magazine considered the series an " insult to common sense and decency " , while commenting that " Britney 's ridiculous behavior in Chaotic confirms the obvious transparency of her status as a ' celebrity product ' and the calculated nature of her success " . He also noted that music critics would " easily open the floodgates for new and creative ways to discuss her offense to pop culture 's attempts at meaningfulness " . Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk reviewed the series as an " absolute disaster of the highest order " , while writing that : " [ Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ] is an absolutely watchable and horrifying train wreck of a series " . Slant Magazine writer Ed Gonzalez noted that " the show 's extreme shooting style makes it especially hard to stare at what is β no more no less β a totem to the pop singer 's narcissism " . He stated that the views Spears expresses in the series suggest that she is " someone who believes they 're the only person on the face of the earth " .
Josh Wolk of Entertainment Weekly felt that Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was Spears ' " career suicide by videocam " , commenting , " the truth is not only that she 's vapid , but that she 's self @-@ obsessed to a dangerous degree " . Wolk also noted " many intersecting things wrong on this show and with Britney that I can 't possibly prioritize them " . Laura Fries of Variety perceived the series as " a visual assault of nauseating camera angles , likely to upset even the most desensitized TV viewer " . Hayley Butler of Jam ! gave the final episode of the series a mixed review , saying it " was full of tear @-@ jerking moments " and " the only episode not full of stupid jokes , childish behaviour and Britney 's thoughts on life " , commenting that Spears and Federline wedding scenes " looked to be a very emotional and touching event " . Butler also wondered " if they feel their show served its purpose " .
= = U.S. television ratings = =
The first episode of the series was seen by 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , making it UPN 's most @-@ watched piece of regularly scheduled programming in the 9pm Tuesday timeslot since March 2004 . The second episode garnered 3 million viewers , finishing in eighty @-@ first in its timeslot for the week . The third and fourth episode were viewed by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers each , while the final , aired an hour earlier at 8 : 00pm Eastern Standard Time , drew 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . In one month , Britney and Kevin : Chaotic lost 1 @.@ 6 million viewers .
= = Episodes = =
= = Home media = =
Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ... the DVD & More was released on September 27 , 2005 in the United States . The DVD contains the series ' five episodes , as well as unreleased footage and music videos for " Do Somethin ' " ( 2005 ) and " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " ( 2005 ) . Also included is a photo gallery of the couple 's wedding ceremony . Spears ' first extended play of the same name was included as a bonus CD to the DVD release . The presentation is offered in the aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 . In Japan , the DVD peaked at number forty on the Oricon DVD chart , staying on the chart for 4 weeks .
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= Effects of Hurricane Dean in Mexico =
The effects of Hurricane Dean in Mexico were more severe than anywhere else in the storm 's path . Hurricane Dean , the most intense storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , formed in the Atlantic Ocean west of Cape Verde on August 14 , 2007 . The Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane sped through the Caribbean Sea , rapidly intensifying before making landfall on Mexico 's YucatΓ‘n Peninsula . Accurate forecasts of the storm 's location and intensity enabled thorough preparations ; nevertheless when the massive storm made landfall on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula as a catastrophic Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale it damaged thousands of homes .
Weakening as it crossed the peninsula , Dean emerged into the Bay of Campeche and re @-@ strengthened before making a second landfall in Veracruz . Although the second landfall did not bring winds as intense as the first , it brought more rainfall and caused devastating landslides in the states of Veracruz and Tabasco . Between the two landfalls , Dean caused MXN $ 2 billion ( US $ 184 million ; 2007 dollars ) of damage and killed 13 people .
= = Preparations = =
= = = First landfall = = =
Forecasters and computer models at the Miami @-@ based National Hurricane Center predicted that Hurricane Dean would impact the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula a full 6 days before the storm actually arrived . The hurricane 's stable and well predicted path gave all of the countries in the region ample time to prepare for its arrival . On August 17 , at the request of the Quintana Roo state government , which was expecting their state to suffer a direct hit , the Civil Protection Office of Mexico 's federal Interior Ministry declared a state of emergency for the entire state . This included the towns and cities of CancΓΊn , Playa del Carmen , and Chetumal as well as the islands of Cozumel , Isla Mujeres and Holbox .
On August 18 authorities began evacuating people from parts of Quintana Roo , moving 2 @,@ 500 people from Holbox Island and a further 80 @,@ 000 tourists from elsewhere in the state . Air @-@ evacuations of tourists were stopped when Dean 's outer rainbands closed almost a dozen CancΓΊn and Cozumel airports on the evening of August 20 . The Campeche airport closed shortly thereafter . The state government set up 530 storm shelters in schools and other public buildings , prepared to hold 73 @,@ 000 people . With 20 @,@ 000 food packages ready , the state of YucatΓ‘n , Quintana Roo 's neighbor to the northwest , declared a green alert indicating a low but significant level of danger .
World Vision and other international aid agencies prepared blankets , sheets , personal hygiene items and medicines for quick transport to affected areas . The United States pre @-@ positioned a three @-@ person disaster management team into the YucatΓ‘n before the storm 's arrival with the intent of helping coordinate disaster management if necessary . The U.S. State Department urged its citizens in Quintana Roo , YucatΓ‘n , and Campeche to prepare for the storm and to evacuate if necessary . The department also relocated its non @-@ essential personnel from those states to Mexico City . At 1500 UTC on August 19 a hurricane watch was issued on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula from Chetumal to San Felipe and final preparations were rushed to completion .
= = = Second landfall = = =
On August 20 , warnings for Dean 's second landfall were issued . The coast from Progreso to Ciudad del Carmen was put under a hurricane warning and the coast from CancΓΊn at the tip of the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula west to Progreso . At 0300 UCT , August 21 , a tropical storm watch was issued for the coast from Chilitepec to Veracruz , and a hurricane watch was issued from Chilitepec to Tampico , Tamaulipas . As Dean began to cross the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula and maintained its structure better than forecasters had expected , these watches and warnings were expanded . At their peak , a hurricane warning covered the area from Campeche , Campeche , to Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , and a tropical storm warning stretched from Tampico to La Cruz , Tamaulipas .
Residents in Veracruz stocked up on essential supplies , especially food and water , ahead of the storm 's second landfall . At the request of the government of Veracruz , federal Secretary of the Interior Francisco RamΓrez AcuΓ±a declared a state of emergency for 81 municipalities ahead of Hurricane Dean 's expected landfall in the state . This gave local authorities access to the resources of the Revolving Fund of the National Natural Disaster Fund to take care of the nutrition , health , and shelter their populations should the storm 's damage require it .
Although Dean was still a hurricane and was expected to re @-@ strengthen slightly before making its second landfall , the fact that it had weakened caused some residents to let down their guard . As a result , residents of Veracruz and Campeche were much less prepared for the storm than those on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula .
= = Impact = =
= = = First landfall = = =
The hurricane hit land near Majahual on the Quintana Roo coast of the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula at 0830 UTC on August 21 . Wind gusts of 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) were reported . The state 's tourist cities of CancΓΊn and Cozumel were spared the worst of the storm , but it wreaked havoc in the state capital Chetumal , some 40 mi ( 65 km ) south of landfall , causing significant flooding . Communication with the Mayan communities near the landfall location was initially difficult , but the town of Majahual , which had a population of 200 , was " almost flattened " by the storm . Storm surge and high winds severely damaged or destroyed hundreds of buildings and had the strength to crumple steel girders . About 15 @,@ 000 families were left homeless , primarily in small villages around Quintana Roo . At the Costa Maya cruise port , waves tore away portions of the concrete docks and destroyed the boardwalk . The damage made the port unsuitable for cruise ships , effectively freezing the region 's tourism industry until they could be repaired . The hurricane 's winds damaged 2 @.@ 3 million ha ( 5 @.@ 7 million acres ) of jungle , almost all of it in Quintana Roo , YucatΓ‘n , and Campeche .
At its first landfall , the bulk of Hurricane Dean 's damage was to agriculture . 12 @,@ 000 producers suffered losses , mostly in the states of Quintana Roo and YucatΓ‘n . 30 @,@ 000 ha ( 74 @,@ 000 acre ) of habanero peppers were destroyed , along with 150 @,@ 000 ha ( 370 @,@ 000 acre ) of corn and 60 @,@ 000 ha ( 150 @,@ 000 acre ) of citrus . Extensive damage to fields planted with bananas , avocados , cucumbers , squash , jalapeΓ±o peppers , and other crops were also reported on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula .
President Felipe CalderΓ³n cut short a visit to Canada to return to Mexico and assess the damage . Hurricane Dean 's Category 5 landfall β the first such landfall in the Atlantic basin in 15 years β took no lives . International organizations , including the United Nations , attributed this to the government 's thorough preparations and forecasters ' ample warning .
= = = Second landfall = = =
The next day , at 1630 UTC on August 22 , Hurricane Dean made a second landfall , this time near the town of Tecolutla , Veracruz , as a Category 2 hurricane . Following the second landfall on the Veracruz coast , Joloapan town saw the Dean Β΄ s eye , then in a 30 @-@ minute period free clouds and sunny conditions and after that the last strongest eyewall which caused many trees felled and blew roof off ; two rivers in the mountains of the state of Hidalgo overflowed , and rain fell as far west as the Pacific coast . Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera said there was " a tremendous amount of damage " . Petroleum production was not severely damaged and quickly returned to normal , although its brief interruption was responsible for a 6 % year @-@ on @-@ year decrease in third quarter .
Hurricane Dean , at its second landfall , dropped 4 to 8 in ( 100 to 200 mm ) of rainfall across the western states of Jalisco and Nayarit . This rainfall trigged a mudslide in Jalisco which fell on 10 houses and killed one of the occupants . Landslides in Puebla killed five people , and another was crushed when a wall in his house collapsed . One person in Veracruz was electrocuted after touching a power line while repairing his roof . In MichoacΓ‘n , as the outer bands of the storm swept over the state , a man sheltering under a tree was struck by lightning . Two women died in Hidalgo when heavy rain collapsed their house 's roof . Another man drowned while trying to cross a rain @-@ swollen river in Tlacolula , Oaxaca . The heavy rains caused dozens of smaller landslides throughout the country , particularly in Veracruz and Tabasco , but most of them caused no fatalities . At least 50 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to varying degrees throughout the country . Although Dean 's rains caused flooding as far inland as Mexico City , where they closed a portion of Puebla @-@ Mexico highway , the damage was concentrated in the states of Quintana Roo and Veracruz .
As with its first landfall , Hurricane Dean damaged crops throughout its impact area . In Puebla it destroyed 135 @,@ 000 ha ( 335 @,@ 000 acre ) of corn and more than 22 @,@ 000 ha ( 54 @,@ 000 acre ) of coffee , while in Veracruz 15 @,@ 000 ha ( 37 @,@ 000 acre ) of various crops were lost . Unlike in Belize and the Eastern Caribbean , the storm spared the sugarcane crop in Veracruz .
Between the hurricane 's two landfalls , Dean affected an estimated 207 @,@ 800 people in the states of Quintana Roo , Campeche , Veracruz , Hildalgo , Puebla and Tabasco . The storm damaged 85 miles ( 140 km ) of power lines and left more than 100 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Landslides , storm tides , and widespread structural damage combined to compromise water sources throughout the country . The extent of the damage was never calculated at a federal level , but hundreds of villages lost access to fresh water in the days following the storm . Hurricane Dean killed 12 people in Mexico but none of the deaths occurred during its first and most powerful landfall on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula . Between the two landfalls the storm caused a total of Mex $ 2 billion ( US $ 184 million ) of damages .
= = Aftermath = =
Post @-@ storm analysis showed that , while less deadly , Dean 's first and more powerful landfall caused significantly more infrastructural damage than its second . Where the landfall occurred at the town of Majahual specifically , and the state of Quintana Roo generally , communities took longer to recover than in the rest of the country . Quintana Roo Governor FΓ©lix GonzΓ‘lez Canto reported that although the cleanup in the state capital of Chetumal was completed within three weeks , it took more than six months to fix all of the region 's rural roads . Unable to handle the hurricane 's aftermath , the state government appealed to federal authorities and secured Mex $ 755 million ( US $ 74 @.@ 8 million ) of aid . Combined with the state 's contribution of $ 270 million ( US $ 26 @.@ 7 million ) , a housing @-@ repair fund of over $ 1 @,@ 025 million ( US $ 101 @.@ 5 million ) was established . In the three months immediately following the storm , over 37 @,@ 000 houses were rebuilt or repaired using monies from this fund .
In the days following the hurricane , immediate access to clean water was a priority for international aid agencies working in Mexico . The National Commission of Water spent another $ 25 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 47 million ) of federal funds repairing the damaged infrastructure for irrigation and drinking water .
Carnival Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruises , the world 's two largest cuise operators , diverted their ships away from the damaged cruise port of Puerto Costa Maya . Their plans originally expected diversions until at least 2009 , but the central government was quick to fund rebuilding of the destroyed concrete piers . By June 2008 they were rebuilt to accommodate even larger ships than before , and ships scheduled stops there for September 2008 .
The federal government was initially lauded for its swift and thorough preparation to which most observers , including the United Nations , attributed Dean 's low death toll . However , after the storm there were several accusations of political motivation in the distribution of aid . Members of President Felipe CalderΓ³n 's Partido Accion Nacional ( PAN ) distributed bags of bread , funded by the nation 's disaster relief coffers , carrying the party 's logo . In Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera was accused by both the PAN and his own Partido Revolucionario Institucional ( PRI ) of using state resources , including hurricane relief , to support the campaigns of PRI candidates .
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= Beautiful Heartache =
Beautiful Heartache is a 2009 music album by Russian pianist and singer @-@ songwriter , Oksana Grigorieva , with Mel Gibson as executive producer . Born in Saransk , Russia , Grigorieva studied music in Moscow and Kazan , and at the Royal College of Music in London . She later moved to the U.S. and patented a technique of instructing music notation to children . Grigorieva gained attention as a songwriter in 2006 after a song that she wrote , " Un Dia Llegara " , became popular on the Josh Groban album Awake .
Grigorieva signed with Gibson 's music label , and the two began production on her first music album . She composed all songs on the album . Gibson served as co @-@ writer on the song , " Say My Name , " and recorded four music videos for the album 's release . The album was positively received by the media , including ABC News and Reuters . IndieLondon gave the album a rating of 4 out of 5 .
= = Musician = =
Grigorieva was born in Saransk , Russia . Her parents were music professors . She grew up in Ukraine , and at the age of 15 moved to Moscow to attend university in order to learn piano . She said of her experience of learning music as a child , " Diplomas were everything . It wasn 't unusual for students to play ten hours a day . Our skin would start to crack . We 'd literally have bleeding fingers . " Grigorieva finished conservatoire studies in Kazan , and moved to London where she continued her studies and taught music to others . After studying at the Royal College of Music , she moved to the United States and spent time living in New York and Los Angeles , California . She taught music in the U.S. , and patented a technique of instructing music notation to children . Grigorieva composed and performed music , and produced works for theatre and advertisements . A 2006 song she wrote , " Un Dia Llegara " , became popular on the Josh Groban album , Awake ; this garnered her recognition as a songwriter .
= = Production = =
Grigorieva had signed with Gibson 's music label prior to the album 's release . The music project was made by the film production company Icon Entertainment , owned by Gibson . She wrote all of the songs on the album , and received a credit as producer with Gibson listed as executive producer . Grigorieva explained the choice of title for the album , in an interview with IndieLondon , " Well , one of the tracks on the album is called Beautiful Heartache ... everybody has a heartbreak at some point in their lives . It β s how you deal with it that β s important . So , I guess I was drawn to that notion for the album title . "
In an interview with The Times , she commented , " I 'm very lucky they offered me the chance to follow my dreams , but also to allow me to produce my own album , which is hardly ever offered to first @-@ time artists . He believes in me that much . I 'm really blessed ... It 's the most incredible gift that Mr Gibson could have given me . " She acknowledged to the Herald Sun that it was helpful to have Gibson 's production company assist with her music career , " If you think about it , every talent needs a serious push and help from somebody who is stronger , because it 's pretty much impossible for anybody to succeed in this industry . So I 've become very lucky , and I 'm very grateful . You don 't control the situations or the people you meet . I did not plan this . I 'm just doing what I 've always been doing . It 's not like I 've changed my goals at all . "
Gibson contributed lyrics to multiple tracks on the album . The track , " Say My Name " , was co @-@ written by Grigorieva and Gibson . Grigorieva described " Say My Name " , stating , " It is naked , intimate , raw emotion . It is the first and one of the simplest songs on the album , but also one of the most intimate . " She characterized it as , " little more than piano and voice as if it is a cry from the soul " . Gibson provided guest vocals for two tracks on the album . Grigorieva stated of Gibson 's singing on the album , " Mel is an incredible artist . He has a great voice . He is a visionary . He enabled me to produce this , for my music to live . "
Gibson served as director of four music videos intended to accompany the release of the album . The music videos were filmed over a seven @-@ day period in Mexico . Grigorieva stated of working with Gibson as a music video director , " I kept asking him , ' Please , give me directions ! ' I said , ' You can yell at me if you want to ' . But he said , ' No , you 're doing just fine . You 're a good actor ' . He was very much into his own world , painting pictures with the camera . " In describing the music videos , she observed , " They 're like dramatic miniature films a whirlpool of different , exciting , bright images . " Grigorieva toured to promote her album , during October 2009 . The first single from the album , " Say My Name " , was released in June 2009 on the website People.com as a listening exclusive . Beautiful Heartache was released on November 2 , 2009 . It was made available in 2009 on iTunes , and via download on the musician 's official website , at www.oksana.fm.
= = Contents = =
Beautiful Heartache was marketed as " grown @-@ up , piano @-@ led pop , heavy on classical motifs " . The first single released for the album was titled , " Say My Name " . A music video for the second single released from the album featured Grigorieva on the piano , as well as portraying an assistant to a knife @-@ thrower . The album includes a title track , " Beautiful Heartache " , with lyrics including : " I love the way you wear your skin . " The music video for the track , " Beautiful Heartache " , focused on a tango theme . The song " Angel " was named for her son with Timothy Dalton , Alexander .
= = Reception = =
ABC News reported that Beautiful Heartache garnered the singer " rave reviews " from music critics . Reuters commented of the album , " ' Beautiful Heartache ' features a collection of wistful love songs , blending shimmering string arrangements with pop and jazz @-@ influenced arrangements that showcase Grigorieva 's soulful voice . " In a review of the album , Jack Foley of IndieLondon gave it a rating of 4 out of 5 , and observed , " throughout , she displays a keen ear for melody , for honest emotional simplicity and classic values . She β s well worth taking the time to check out " . The track from the album co @-@ written with Mel Gibson , " Say My Name " , was not generally well received by music critics , and received negative comments from listeners at the website E ! Online .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Oksana Grigorieva ; , all music composed by Oksana Grigorieva ; " Say My Name " co @-@ written with Mel Gibson .
= = Personnel = =
Composition
Oksana Grigorieva β writing , composition
Mel Gibson β co @-@ writer , " Say My Name "
Accompaniment
Matt Chamberlain β drums
Paul Bushnell β bass
Lyle Workman β guitar
Greg Suran β guitar
Jamie Muhoberac β keyboard
David Campbell β string arrangements and conducting
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= Great Reality TV Swindle =
The Great Reality TV Swindle ( also known as Project MS @-@ 2 ) was a con perpetrated in 2002 by Nik Russian , a British man who , at the time , was working at an entry @-@ level position in a branch of the UK book chain Waterstone 's . Russian placed advertisements in major publications that invited people to audition for a year @-@ long reality television programme where they could potentially win a prize of GB Β£ 100 @,@ 000 . After receiving hundreds of responses , he auditioned some of them on Raven 's Ait in London , then selected 30 successful auditionees to take part , without informing them that no actual programme had been commissioned . Telling them that the show would last for an entire year , Russian instructed the participants to leave their homes , quit their jobs and then meet him in London on 10 June , where they would be divided into teams of ten and set their challenge for the next twelve months .
The challenge was to make Β£ 1 million in a single year . Realising that they would essentially be making their own prize money , most contestants quit the show within two days . One group stayed together for slightly longer : sleeping on the floor of their cameraman 's flat , they attempted to create their own TV show about themselves . Having also given up his flat and job , Russian was also homeless , and was forced to stay with the contestants he had manipulated . After the programme failed , Russian went into hiding , and was unable to be contacted . He was eventually tracked down by one of his victims to an address in Richmond upon Thames , where he was forced to apologise on camera . As he had not taken any money from his victims , a criminal case against Russian was not pursued β a civil case was also not pursued due to a lack of funds .
= = Background = =
= = = Nik Russian = = =
Nikita " Nik " Russian was born Keith Anthony Gillard in Surrey in 1977 . Raised in Farnham , he legally changed his name to Jack Lister in his early twenties , then changed it again to Nikita Russian . He studied English at Goldsmiths , University of London , but dropped out before the exams . He had set up businesses and written unpublished novels before taking a job working at a branch of Waterstone 's in London β he subsequently decided that he wanted to produce his own reality television programme .
= = = Reality television = = =
Reality TV was a popular genre of television programming in the UK in 2002 . The third series of the UK version of Big Brother β which was showing while Russian 's con took place β attracted audience figures of approximately 5 @.@ 8 million . Most British reality TV programmes at the time centred on a team of people trying to accomplish a specific goal or target . For example , the 2000 series Jailbreak challenged a group to escape from a mock prison , while the 2001 series The Mole gave the contestants the task of discovering which of them was sabotaging their attempts to win money . Most reality TV shows offered a cash reward to successful participants β both Jailbreak and the first series of The Mole offered a prize of Β£ 100 @,@ 000 .
Several reality TV contestants were able to become celebrities in their own right after raising their profiles on television . Craig Phillips and Brian Dowling , the winners of the first two series of Big Brother , both created successful media careers . Phillips had been featured as a DIY expert on programmes such as BBC 's Trading Up and ITV 's Renovation Street , while Dowling became the UK 's first openly gay children 's TV presenter when he hosted the Saturday morning programme SMTV Live . Ben Fogle , a contestant on the BBC reality series Castaway 2000 , went on to become a television presenter for several programmes , and hosted his own series called Extreme Dreams .
= = Swindle = =
= = = Auditions = = =
In early 2002 , Nik Russian placed advertisements for a year @-@ long television programme in publications such as The Stage and the Evening Standard , which invited " characterful , resourceful and energetic " people to apply for the chance to " raise [ their ] profile " and potentially win Β£ 100 @,@ 000 . Russian was e @-@ mailed more than a thousand applications and auditioned some of them on the Raven 's Ait island in London . Some had applied simply for the prize money ; others hoped that exposure from the programme could help them to achieve some of their dreams , such as working as a television presenter or launching a fashion label .
The auditionees were told that the show was being created by the production company Nikita Russian Productions ( NRP ) . For the purposes of the auditions , Russian enlisted the help of his friends to take on roles such as psychoanalysts and runners β his girlfriend , whom he had met on a university access course , acted as a psychological assessor , while his friend Mike was a cameraman . The auditionees were then divided into small groups and given practical and psychological tests to complete , such as baking a cake in under an hour without a kitchen or ingredients . From these auditionees , 30 people were selected to star in Russian 's programme , which he had dubbed " Project MS @-@ 2 " .
The winning candidates were informed of their success in an e @-@ mail from NRP and were also sent various contracts to sign and return . They were told that the project would last for a year , so most of them gave up their flats and jobs . The contracts stated that their food , accommodation and leisure money would be provided , and that they were to meet in London on 10 June 2002 for the programme to begin filming . Each contestant was also told to set up a new bank account to which Russian could have access and to arrive without money or credit cards on the launch day .
= = = Launch day = = =
The 30 contestants were divided into three teams of ten named Team 1 , Team 2 and Team 3 , and each group met in a different London location on 10 June , the day of the programme 's launch . To record what each team did , Russian hired unpaid trainee cameramen . Once the teams were assembled , they were given their challenge : in a year , they had to make Β£ 1 million . Their first task was to find accommodation for themselves for free for a week . The contestants slowly realised that , despite what their contracts had claimed , they would have to find their own food and accommodation , and would essentially be making their own prize money . Some contestants demanded to meet with Russian , who eventually revealed to them that no television channel had actually commissioned his show . Teams 1 and 3 disbanded within two days .
Team 2 remained together for slightly longer β sleeping on the floor of the flat in Dalston that belonged to their cameraman Tim Eagle , they decided to film their own reality TV programme about themselves , and set up a " diary room " to discuss their thoughts about Russian and his show . Having also given up his home and job , Russian had nowhere to stay either , and he too was forced to sleep on Eagle 's floor with Team 2 . On 12 June , Eagle contacted the local news station , London Tonight , and the group locked Russian in the flat , forcing him to speak with the journalists once they had arrived . After their story made the local news , Team 2 stayed together until 14 June before they also split up .
= = Aftermath = =
Having believed that they would be participating in Russian 's television programme for an entire year , most contestants had given up their homes , jobs and partners β most had to find new employment and some were forced to move in with their parents . Russian went into hiding and was unable to be reached by his victims . On 13 June 2002 , Debbie Leigh Driver , one of Russian 's contestants , contacted Caz Gorham and Frances Dickenson of the independent production company Christmas TV & Film and told them about the hoax . Gorham and Dickenson produced a genuine TV programme to document the story of the con and how the participants were now trying to get their lives back together , which was shown on Channel 4 in December 2002 .
Some participants tried to track Russian down to have their questions answered . One contestant , Louise Miles , discovered that Russian 's production company , NRP , did not actually exist and that the woman who had been answering their phone calls was really Russian 's mother , Margaret . Another participant , Daniel Pope , managed to track Russian down to an address in Richmond upon Thames and convinced him to be interviewed by Christmas TV and apologise on camera . As Russian had not actually taken money from his victims , he had not committed a crime , and a civil case was not pursued due to a lack of funds .
= = Media reaction = =
Much of the mainstream media 's reaction to the con was published in December 2002 , around the time that Christmas TV 's documentary was shown on Channel 4 . Although most commentators placed the blame for the swindle on Russian himself by denouncing him as a manipulative con man , others were more sympathetic . Writing for The Daily Mail , Peter Paterson contrasted Russian with Humphry Berkeley , a British politician who committed a similar con in 1948 under the pseudonym H. Rochester Sneath . Paterson observed that , while Berkeley had derived " considerable fun " from his con , Russian had conversely been in a " deep gloom " following his . Similarly , Rupert Smith of The Guardian described Russian as a " tragic figure " .
Some critics placed blame on the contestants ' overly trusting nature and desire for fame , calling them gullible wannabes . Others noted the irony in how the con had , ultimately , put them on television , which Gorham described as " a happy ending " . In another article for The Guardian , Smith remarked : " These are not stupid people . In archive footage from the fake show , they look like any other post @-@ Big @-@ Brother buffoons ; but in the sombre , reflective interviews after the event they come across as likable , wounded individuals . "
Other commentators speculated that Russian 's physical appearance may have helped him perpetrate his con . Critics described him as " beautiful " and " Byronic " , and noted that he " appeared every inch the cocky TV producer he aspired to be " . Some felt that the con represented an indictment on how reality television had altered the public 's notion of celebrity . Paterson called the genre a " Pied Piper call of fleeting TV fame " that had become " as powerful as any religious cult " , while Paul English of The Daily Record noted that the swindle reflected a " fascination with reality TV β and how the draw of being on telly can turn us into gullible fools " . Both of Christmas TV 's producers agreed . Gorham called the con " a fantastic wake @-@ up call for reality TV " ; Dickenson remarked : " I hope [ the swindle ] shows those who may be interested in these programmes that they should be careful . "
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= Discovery Expedition =
The British National Antarctic Expedition , 1901 β 04 , generally known as the Discovery Expedition , was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since James Clark Ross 's voyage sixty years earlier . Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , the new expedition aimed to carry out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent . It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition , Ernest Shackleton , Edward Wilson , Frank Wild , Tom Crean and William Lashly .
Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology , zoology , geology , meteorology and magnetism . The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow @-@ free Antarctic valleys , which contain Antarctica 's longest river . Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony , King Edward VII Land , and the Polar Plateau ( via the western mountains route ) on which the South Pole is located . The expedition did not make a serious attempt on the South Pole itself , with the principal southern journey travelling only as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82 Β° 17 β² S.
As a trailbreaker for later ventures , the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history . After its return home it was celebrated as a success , despite having needed an expensive relief mission to free Discovery and its crew from the ice , and later disputes about the quality of some of its scientific records . It has been asserted that the expedition 's main failure was its inability to master the techniques of efficient polar travel using skis and dogs , a legacy that persisted in British Antarctic expeditions throughout the Heroic Age .
= = Background to the expedition = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Between 1839 and 1843 Royal Naval Captain James Clark Ross , commanding his two ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , completed three voyages to the Antarctic continent . During this time he discovered and explored a new sector of the Antarctic that would provide the field of work for many later British expeditions .
Ross established the general geography of this region , and named many of its features ; the Ross Sea , the Great Ice Barrier ( later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf ) , Ross Island , Cape Adare , Victoria Land , McMurdo Sound , Cape Crozier and the twin volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror . He returned to the Barrier several times , hoping to penetrate it , but was unable to do so , achieving his Farthest South in a small Barrier inlet at 78 Β° 10 β² , in February 1842 . Ross suspected that land lay to the east of the Barrier , but was unable to confirm this .
After Ross there were no recorded voyages into this sector of the Antarctic for fifty years . Then , in January 1895 , a Norwegian whaling trip made a brief landing at Cape Adare , the northernmost tip of Victoria Land . Four years later Carsten Borchgrevink , who had participated in that landing , took his own expedition to the region , in the Southern Cross . This expedition was financed by a donation of Β£ 35 @,@ 000 from British publishing magnate Sir George Newnes , on condition that the venture be called the " British Antarctic Expedition " . Borchgrevink landed at Cape Adare in February 1899 , erected a small hut , and spent the 1899 winter there . The following summer he sailed south , landing at Ross 's inlet on the Barrier . A party of three then sledged southward on the Barrier surface , and reached a new Furthest South at 78 Β° 50 β² .
The Discovery Expedition was planned during a surge of international interest in the Antarctic regions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries . A German expedition under Erich von Drygalski was leaving at about the same time as Discovery , to explore the sector of the continent south of the Indian Ocean . The Swedish explorer Otto NordenskiΓΆld was leading an expedition to Graham Land , and a French expedition under Jean @-@ Baptiste Charcot was going to the Antarctic Peninsula . Finally , the Scottish scientist William Speirs Bruce was leading a scientific expedition to the Weddell Sea .
= = = Royal Navy , Markham and Scott = = =
Under the influence of John Barrow , Second Secretary to the Admiralty , polar exploration had become the province of the peacetime Royal Navy after the Napoleonic War . Naval interest diminished after the disappearance in 1845 of the Franklin expedition , and the many fruitless searches that followed . After the problems encountered by the 1874 β 76 North Pole expedition led by George Nares , and Nares 's own declaration that the North Pole was " impracticable " , the Admiralty decided that further polar quests would be dangerous , expensive and futile .
However , the Royal Geographical Society 's Secretary ( and later President ) Sir Clements Markham was a former naval man who had served on one of the Franklin relief expeditions in 1851 . He had accompanied Nares for part of the 1874 β 76 expedition , and remained a firm advocate for the navy 's resuming its historic role in polar exploration . An opportunity to further this ambition arose in November 1893 , when the prominent biologist Sir John Murray , who had visited Antarctic waters as a biologist with the Challenger Expedition in the 1870s , addressed the RGS . Murray presented a paper entitled " The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration " , and called for a full @-@ scale expedition for the benefit of British science . This was strongly supported , both by Markham and by the country 's premier scientific body , the Royal Society . A joint committee of the two Societies was established to decide the form which the expedition should take . Markham 's vision of a full @-@ blown naval affair after the style of Ross or Franklin was opposed by sections of the joint committee , but his tenacity was such that the expedition was eventually moulded largely to his wishes . His cousin and biographer later wrote that the expedition was " the creation of his brain , the product of his persistent energy " .
It had long been Markham 's practice to take note of promising young naval officers who might later be suitable for polar responsibilities , should the opportunity arise . He had first observed Midshipman Robert Falcon Scott in 1887 , while the latter was serving with HMS Rover in St Kitts , and had remembered him . Thirteen years later , Scott , by now a Torpedo Lieutenant on HMS Majestic , was looking for a path to career advancement , and a chance meeting with Sir Clements in London led him to apply for the leadership of the expedition . Scott had long been in Markham 's mind , though by no means always his first choice , but other favoured candidates had either become in his view too old , or were no longer available . With Markham 's determined backing , Scott 's appointment was secured by 25 May 1900 , followed swiftly by his promotion to Commander .
= = = Science versus adventure = = =
The command structure of the expedition had still to be settled . Markham had been determined from the beginning that its overall leader should be a naval officer , not a scientist . Scott , writing to Markham after his appointment , reiterated that he " must have complete command of the ship and landing parties " , and insisted on being consulted over all future appointments . However , the Joint Committee had , with Markham 's acquiescence , secured the appointment of John Walter Gregory , Professor of Geology at the University of Melbourne and former assistant geologist at the British Museum , as the expedition 's scientific director . Gregory 's view , endorsed by the Royal Society faction of the Joint Committee , was that the organisation and command of the land party should be in his hands : " ... The Captain would be instructed to give such assistance as required in dredging , tow @-@ netting etc . , to place boats where required at the disposal of the scientific staff . " In the dispute that followed , Markham argued that Scott 's command of the whole expedition must be total and unambiguous , and Scott himself was insistent on this to the point of resignation . Markham 's and Scott 's view prevailed , and Gregory resigned , saying that the scientific work should not be " subordinated to naval adventure " .
This controversy soured relations between the Societies , which lingered after the conclusion of the expedition and was reflected in criticism of the extent and quality of some of the published results . Markham claimed that his insistence on a naval command was primarily a matter of tradition and style , rather than indicating disrespect for science . He had made clear his belief that , on its own , the mere attainment of higher latitude than someone else was " unworthy of support . "
= = Personnel = =
Markham had hoped for a fully @-@ fledged Royal Naval expedition , but was warned by the Admiralty that " the present exigencies of the Naval Service [ would ] prevent them from lending officers ... " However , the Admiralty agreed to release Scott and Charles Royds , and later allowed Michael Barne and Reginald Skelton to join the expedition . The remaining officers were from the Merchant Marine , including Albert Armitage , the second @-@ in @-@ command , who had experience with the Jackson β Harmsworth Arctic expedition , 1894 β 97 , and Ernest Shackleton , designated Third Officer in charge of holds , stores and provisions , and responsible for arranging the entertainments . The Admiralty also released around twenty petty officers and seamen , the rest of the crew being from the merchant service , or from civilian employment . Among the lower deck complement were some who became Antarctic veterans , including Frank Wild , William Lashly , Thomas Crean ( who joined the expedition following the desertion of a seaman in New Zealand ) , Edgar Evans and Ernest Joyce . Although the expedition was not a formal Navy project , Scott proposed to run the expedition on naval lines , and secured the crew 's voluntary agreement to work under the Naval Discipline Act .
The scientific team was inexperienced . Dr George Murray , Gregory 's successor as chief scientist , was due to travel only as far as Australia ( in fact he left the ship at Cape Town ) , using the voyage to train the scientists , but with no part to play in the detailed work of the expedition . The only scientist with previous Antarctic experience was Louis Bernacchi , who had been with Borchgrevink as magnetic observer and meteorologist . The geologist , Hartley Ferrar , was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old recent Cambridge graduate who Markham thought " might be made into a man . " Marine biologist Thomas Vere Hodgson , from Plymouth Museum , was a more mature figure , as was the senior of the two doctors , Reginald Koettlitz , who , at 39 , was the oldest member of the expedition . He , like Armitage , had been with the Jackson β Harmsworth expedition . The junior doctor and zoologist was Edward Wilson , who became close to Scott and provided the qualities of calmness , patience and detachment that the captain reportedly lacked .
= = Organisation and objectives = =
= = = Finance = = =
The total cost of the expedition was estimated at Β£ 90 @,@ 000 ( 2009 equivalent about Β£ 7 @.@ 25 million ) , of which Β£ 45 @,@ 000 was offered by the British Government provided that the two Societies could raise a matching sum . They achieved this , thanks largely to a donation of Β£ 25 @,@ 000 from wealthy RGS member Llewellyn W. Longstaff . The RGS itself contributed Β£ 8 @,@ 000 , its largest single contribution to any expedition to that date , and Β£ 5 @,@ 000 came from Alfred Harmsworth , later Lord Northcliffe , who had earlier financed the Jackson @-@ Harmsworth expedition to the Arctic , 1894 β 97 . The rest was raised from smaller donations . The expedition also benefited from significant commercial sponsorship : Colman 's provided mustard and flour , Cadbury 's gave 3 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 600 kg ) of chocolate , Bird 's donated baking and custard powders , Evans , Lescher & Webb provided all the lime juice . Jaeger gave a 40 % discount on special clothing , Bovril supplied beef extract , and others made significant contributions .
= = = Ship = = =
The expedition 's ship was built by the Dundee Shipbuilders Company as a specialist research vessel designed for work in Antarctic waters , and was one of the last three @-@ masted wooden sailing ships built in Britain . The construction cost was Β£ 34 @,@ 050 ( 2009 = Β£ 2 @.@ 7 million ) , plus Β£ 10 @,@ 322 ( Β£ 830 @,@ 000 ) for the engines , and the final cost after all modifications was Β£ 51 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 4 @.@ 1 m ) . The name had historic naval associations , most recently as one of the ships used in the Nares expedition , and certain features of this older vessel were incorporated into the design of the new ship . She was launched by Lady Markham on 21 March 1901 as S.Y. Discovery ( the Royal Research Ship designation was acquired in the 1920s ) .
As she was not a Royal Naval vessel the Admiralty would not allow Discovery to fly the White Ensign . She eventually sailed under the Merchant Shipping Act , flying the RGS house flag and the Blue Ensign and burgee of the Royal Harwich Yacht Club .
= = = Dogs = = =
Scott contacted Fridtjof Nansen in Oslo , whom he trusted more than his own " quarrelling " committee in London , and followed his advice on equipment . Subsequently , Armitage ordered 25 Siberian sledge @-@ dogs via a Scots dog and ski expert based in Archangel , Russia . According to Huntford however , this expert was not invited to join the expedition .
= = = Objectives = = =
The Discovery Expedition , like those of Ross and Borchgrevink before it , was to work in the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica . Other areas of the continent had been considered , but the principle followed was that " in going for the unknown they should start from the known " . The two main objectives of the expedition were summarised in the joint committee 's " Instructions to the Commander " as : " to determine , as far as possible , the nature , condition and extent of that portion of the south polar lands which is included in the scope of your expedition " , and " to make a magnetic survey in the southern regions to the south of the fortieth parallel and to carry out meteorological , oceanographic , geological , biological and physical investigations and researches " . The instructions stipulated that " neither of these objectives was to be sacrificed to the other " .
The instructions concerning the geographical objective became more specific : " The chief points of geographical interest are [ ... ] to explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross to its eastern extremity ; to discover the land which was believed by Ross to flank the barrier to the eastward , or to ascertain that it does not exist [ ... ] If you should decide to winter in the ice ... your efforts as regards geographical exploration should be directed to [ ... ] an advance to the western mountains , an advance to the south , and an exploration of the volcanic region " .
= = Expedition = =
= = = First years = = =
= = = = Outward journey = = = =
Discovery left Isle of Wight on 6 August 1901 , and arrived in New Zealand via Cape Town on 29 November after a detour below 40 Β° S for a magnetic survey . Quail Island in Lyttelton Harbour was used as the quarantine station for the expedition 's dogs . After three weeks of final preparation she was ready for the journey south . On 21 December , as the ship was leaving Lyttelton to the cheers of large crowds , a young able seaman , Charles Bonner , fell to his death from the top of the mainmast , which he had climbed so as to return the crowd 's applause . He was buried at Port Chalmers , two days later .
Discovery then sailed south , arriving at Cape Adare on 9 January 1902 . After a brief landing and examination of the remains of Borchgrevink 's camp , the ship continued southwards along the Victoria Land coast . At McMurdo Sound Discovery turned eastward , touching land again at Cape Crozier where a pre @-@ arranged message point was set up so that relief ships would be able to locate the expedition . She then followed the Barrier to its eastern extremity where , on 30 January , the land predicted by Ross was confirmed , and named King Edward VII Land .
On 4 February , Scott landed on the Barrier and unpacked an observation balloon which he had acquired for aerial surveys . Scott climbed aboard and rapidly ascended to above 600 feet ( 180 m ) in the firmly tethered balloon . Shackleton followed with a second flight . All either could see was unending Barrier surface . Wilson privately thought the flights " perfect madness " .
= = = = Winter Quarters Bay = = = =
Discovery then proceeded westward in search of permanent quarters . On 8 February she entered McMurdo Sound and later that day anchored in a spot near its southern limit which was afterwards christened Winter Quarters Bay . Wilson wrote : " We all realized our extreme good fortune in being led to such a winter quarter as this , safe for the ship , with perfect shelter from all ice pressure . " Stoker Lashly , however , thought it looked " a dreary place . " Work began ashore with the erection of the expedition 's huts on a rocky peninsula designated Hut Point . Scott had decided that the expedition should continue to live and work aboard ship , and he allowed Discovery to be frozen into the sea ice , leaving the main hut to be used as a storeroom and shelter .
Of the entire party , none were skilled skiers and only Bernacchi and Armitage had any experience with dog @-@ sledges . The results of the men 's early efforts to master these techniques were not encouraging , and tended to reinforce Scott 's preference for man @-@ hauling . The dangers of the unfamiliar conditions were confirmed when , on 11 March , a party returning from an attempted journey to Cape Crozier became stranded on an icy slope during a blizzard . In their attempts to find safer ground , one of the group , Able Seaman George Vince , slid over the edge of a cliff and was killed . His body was never recovered ; a cross with a simple inscription , erected in his memory , still stands at the summit of the Hut Point promontory .
During the winter months of May β August the scientists were busy in their laboratories , while elsewhere equipment and stores were prepared for the next season 's work . For relaxation there were amateur theatricals , and educational activities in the form of lectures . A newspaper , the South Polar Times , was edited by Shackleton . Outside pursuits did not cease altogether ; there was football on the ice , and the schedule of magnetic and meteorological observations was maintained . As winter ended , trial sledge runs resumed , to test equipment and rations in advance of the planned southern journey which Scott , Wilson and Shackleton were to undertake . Meanwhile , a party under Royds travelled to Cape Crozier to leave a message at the post there , and discovered an emperor penguin colony . Another group , under Armitage , reconnoitred in the mountains to the west , returning in October with the expedition 's first symptoms of scurvy . Armitage later blamed the outbreak on Scott 's " sentimental objection " to the slaughter of animals for fresh meat . The entire expedition 's diet was quickly revised , and the trouble was thereafter contained .
= = = = Southern journey = = = =
Scott , Wilson and Shackleton left on 2 November 1902 with dogs and supporting parties . Their goal was " to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can , reach the Pole if possible , or find some new land " . The first significant milestone was passed on 11 November , when a supporting party passed Borchgrevink 's Farthest South record of 78 Β° 50 β² . However , the lack of skill with dogs was soon evident , and progress was slow . After the support parties had returned , on 15 November , Scott 's group began relaying their loads ( taking half loads forward , then returning for the other half ) , thus travelling three miles for every mile of southward progress . Mistakes had been made with the dogs ' food , and as the dogs grew weaker , Wilson was forced to kill the weakest as food for the others . The men , too , were struggling , afflicted by snow blindness , frostbite and symptoms of early scurvy , but they continued southwards in line with the mountains to the west . Christmas Day was celebrated with double rations , and a Christmas pudding that Shackleton had kept for the occasion , hidden with his socks . On 30 December 1902 , without having left the Barrier , they reached their Furthest South at 82 Β° 17 β² S. Troubles multiplied on the home journey , as the remaining dogs died and Shackleton collapsed with scurvy . Wilson 's diary entry for 14 January 1903 acknowledged that " we all have slight , though definite symptoms of scurvy " . Scott and Wilson struggled on , with Shackleton , who was unable to pull , walking alongside and occasionally carried on the sledge . The party eventually reached the ship on 3 February 1903 after covering 960 miles ( 1 @,@ 540 km ) including relays , in 93 days ' travel at a daily average of just over 10 miles ( 16 km ) .
= = = Arrival of relief ship = = =
During the southern party 's absence the relief ship Morning arrived , bringing fresh supplies . The expedition 's organisers had assumed that the Discovery would be free from the ice in early 1903 , enabling Scott to carry out further seaborne exploration and survey work before winter set in . It was intended that Discovery would return to New Zealand in March or April , then home to England via the Pacific , continuing its magnetic survey en route . Morning would provide any assistance that Scott might require during this period .
This plan was frustrated , as Discovery remained firmly icebound . Markham had privately anticipated this , and Morning 's captain , William Colbeck , was carrying a secret letter to Scott authorising another year in the ice . This now being inevitable , the relief ship provided an opportunity for some of the party to return home . Among these , against his will , was the convalescent Shackleton , who Scott decided " ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health " . Stories of a Scott @-@ Shackleton rift date from this point , or from a supposed falling @-@ out during the southern journey which had provoked an angry exchange of words . Some of these details were supplied by Armitage , whose relationship with Scott had broken down and who , after Scott , Wilson and Shackleton were all dead , chose to reveal details which tended to show Scott in a poor light . Other evidence indicates that Scott and Shackleton remained on generally good terms for some while ; Shackleton met the expedition on its return home in 1904 , and later wrote a very cordial letter to Scott .
= = = Second year = = =
After the 1903 winter had passed , Scott prepared for the second main journey of the expedition : an ascent of the western mountains and exploration of the interior of Victoria Land . Armitage 's reconnaissance party of the previous year had pioneered a route up to altitude 8 @,@ 900 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) before returning , but Scott wished to march west from this point , if possible to the location of the South Magnetic Pole . After a false start due to faulty sledges , a party including Scott , Lashly and Edgar Evans set out from Discovery on 26 October 1903 .
Ascending a large glacier , which they named after the party 's geologist Ferrar , they reached a height of 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) before being held in camp for a week by blizzards . This prevented them from reaching the glacier summit until 13 November . They then marched on beyond Armitage 's furthest point , discovered the Polar Plateau and became the first party to travel on it . After the return of geological and supporting parties , Scott , Evans and Lashly continued westward across the featureless plain for another eight days , covering a distance of about 150 miles to reach their most westerly point on 30 November . Having lost their navigational tables in a gale during the glacier ascent , they did not know exactly where they were , and had no landmarks to help them fix a position . The return journey to the Ferrar Glacier was undertaken in conditions which limited them to no more than a mile an hour , with supplies running low and dependent on Scott 's rule of thumb navigation . On the descent of the glacier Scott and Evans survived a potentially fatal fall into a crevasse , before the discovery of a snow @-@ free area or dry valley , a rare Antarctic phenomenon . Lashly described the dry valley as " a splendid place for growing spuds " . The party reached Discovery on 24 December , after a round trip of seven hundred miles covered in 59 days . Their daily average of over 14 miles on this man @-@ hauling journey was significantly better than that achieved with dogs on the previous season 's southern journey , a fact which further strengthened Scott 's prejudices against dogs . Polar historian David Crane calls the western journey " one of the great journeys of polar history " .
Several other journeys were completed during Scott 's absence . Royds and Bernacchi travelled for 31 days on the Barrier in a SE direction , observing its uniformly flat character and making further magnetic readings . Another party had explored the Koettlitz Glacier to the south @-@ west , and Wilson had travelled to Cape Crozier to observe the emperor penguin colony at close quarters .
= = = Second relief expedition = = =
Scott had hoped on his return to find Discovery free from the ice , but she remained held fast . Work had begun with ice saws , but after 12 days ' labour only two short parallel cuts of 450 feet ( 140 m ) had been carved , with the ship still 20 miles ( 32 km ) from open water . On 5 January 1904 the relief ship Morning returned , this time with a second ship , the Terra Nova . Colbeck was carrying firm instructions from the Admiralty that , if Discovery could not be freed by a certain date she was to be abandoned and her complement brought home on the two relief ships . This ultimatum resulted from Markham 's dependence on the Treasury for meeting the costs of this second relief expedition , since the expedition 's coffers were empty . The Admiralty would foot the bill only on their own terms . The deadline agreed between the three captains was 25 February , and it became a race against time for the relief vessels to reach Discovery , still held fast at Hut Point . As a precaution Scott began the transfer of his scientific specimens to the other ships . Explosives were used to break up the ice , and the sawing parties resumed work , but although the relief ships were able to edge closer , by the end of January Discovery remained icebound , two miles ( approx . 3 km ) from the rescuers . On 10 February Scott accepted that he would have to abandon her , but on 14 February most of the ice suddenly broke up , and Morning and Terra Nova were at last able to sail alongside Discovery . A final explosive charge removed the remaining ice on 16 February , and the following day , after a last scare when she became temporarily grounded on a shoal , Discovery began the return journey to New Zealand .
= = Homecoming and Results = =
On its return to Britain the expedition 's reception was initially muted . Markham was present to meet the ship in Portsmouth when Discovery docked there on 10 September 1904 , but no dignitaries greeted the party when it arrived in London a few days later . However , there was considerable public enthusiasm for the expedition , and official recognition followed . Scott was quickly promoted to Captain , and invited to Balmoral Castle to meet King Edward VII , who invested him as a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) . He also received a cluster of medals and awards from overseas , including the French LΓ©gion d 'honneur . Polar Medals and promotions were given to other officers and crew members .
The main geographical results of the expedition were the discovery of King Edward VII Land ; the ascent of the western mountains and the discovery of the Polar Plateau ; the first sledge journey on the plateau ; the Barrier journey to a Furthest South of 82 Β° 17 β² S. The island nature of Ross Island was established , the Transantarctic Mountains were charted to 83 Β° S , and the positions and heights of more than 200 individual mountains were calculated . Many other features and landmarks were also identified and named , and there was extensive coastal survey work .
There were also discoveries of major scientific importance . These included the snow @-@ free Dry Valleys in the western mountains , the emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier , scientific evidence that the Ice Barrier was a floating ice shelf , and a leaf fossil discovered by Ferrar which helped to establish Antarctica 's relation to the Gondwana super @-@ continent . Thousands of geological and biological specimens had been collected and new marine species identified . The location of the South Magnetic Pole had been calculated with reasonable accuracy . On the medical side , Wilson discovered the anti @-@ scorbutic effects of fresh seal meat , which resolved the lethal threat of scurvy to this and subsequent expeditions .
A general endorsement of the scientific results from the navy 's Chief Hydrographer ( and former Scott opponent ) Sir William Wharton was encouraging . However , when the meteorological data were published their accuracy was disputed within the scientific establishment , including by the President of the Physical Society of London , Dr Charles Chree . Scott defended his team 's work , while privately acknowledging that Royds 's paperwork in this field had been " dreadfully slipshod " .
The expedition succeeded in combating incipient scurvy through a fresh seal meat diet , and Scott recommended it for future polar expeditions . This was despite the medical profession being ignorant of the causes of the disease . At that time it was known that a fresh meat diet could provide a cure , but not that lack of fresh meat or other fresh food containing the as yet undiscovered vitamin C was a cause . Thus , fresh seal meat was taken on the southern journey " in case we find ourselves attacked by scurvy " , On his 1907 β 09 Nimrod expedition Shackleton also avoided the disease through careful dietary provision , including extra penguin and seal meat . However , Lieutenant Edward Evans almost died of presumably self @-@ inflicted scurvy during the 1910 β 13 Terra Nova expedition , and scurvy was particularly devastating to Shackleton 's marooned Ross Sea party during 1915 β 16 . It remained a danger until its causes were finally established , some 25 years after the Discovery expedition .
= = Aftermath = =
Scott was given leave from the Navy to write the official expedition account , The Voyage of the Discovery ; this was published in 1905 , and sold well . However , Scott 's account in the book of Shackleton 's breakdown during the southern journey led to disagreement between the two men , particularly over Scott 's version of the extent to which his companion had been carried on the sledge . The implication was that Shackleton 's breakdown had caused the relatively unimpressive southern record .
Scott eventually resumed his naval career , first as an assistant to the Director of Naval Intelligence and then , in August 1906 , as Flag @-@ captain to Rear @-@ Admiral George Egerton on HMS Victorious . He had by this time become a national hero , despite his aversion to the limelight , and the expedition was being presented to the public as a triumph . This euphoria was not conducive to objective analysis , or to thoughtful appraisal of the expedition 's strengths and weaknesses . In particular , the glorification by Scott of man @-@ hauling as something intrinsically more noble than other ice travel techniques led to a general distrust of methods involving ski and dogs , a mindset that was carried forward into later expeditions . This mystified seasoned ice travellers such as Fridtjof Nansen , whose advice on such matters was usually sought , but often set aside .
The Discovery Expedition launched the Antarctic careers of several who became stalwarts or leaders of expeditions in the following fifteen years . Apart from Scott and Shackleton , Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce from the lower deck returned repeatedly to the ice , apparently unable to settle back into normal life . William Lashly and Edgar Evans , Scott 's companions on the 1903 western journey , aligned themselves with their leader 's future plans and became his regular sledging partners . Tom Crean followed both Scott and Shackleton on later expeditions . Lieutenant " Teddy " Evans , first officer on the relief ship Morning , began plans to lead an expedition of his own , before teaming up with Scott in 1910 .
Soon after resuming his naval duties , Scott revealed to the Royal Geographical Society his intention to return to Antarctica , but the information was not at that stage made public . Scott was forestalled by Shackleton , who early in 1907 announced his plans to lead an expedition with the twin objectives of reaching the geographic and magnetic South Poles . Under duress , Shackleton agreed not to work from McMurdo Sound , which Scott was claiming as his own sphere of work . In the event , unable to find a safe landing elsewhere , Shackleton was forced to break this promise . His expedition was highly successful , its southern march ending at 88 Β° 23 β² , less than 100 geographical miles from the South Pole , while its northern party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole . However , Shackleton 's breach of his undertaking caused a significant break in relations between the two men , with Scott dismissing his former companion as a liar and a rogue .
Scott 's plans gradually came to fruition β a large @-@ scale scientific and geographical expedition with the conquest of the South Pole as its principal objective . Scott was anxious to avoid the amateurism that had been associated with the Discovery Expedition 's scientific work . He appointed Edward Wilson as his chief scientist , and Wilson selected an experienced team . The expedition set off in June 1910 in Terra Nova , one of Discovery 's relief ships . Its programme was complicated by the simultaneous arrival in the Antarctic of Roald Amundsen 's Norwegian expedition . Amundsen 's party reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911 and returned safely . Scott and four companions , including Wilson , arrived at the Pole on 17 January 1912 ; all five perished on the return journey .
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= Italian battleship Caio Duilio =
Caio Duilio was an Italian Andrea Doria @-@ class battleship that served in the Regia Marina during World War I and World War II . She was named after the Roman fleet commander Gaius Duilius . Caio Duilio was laid down in February 1912 , launched in April 1913 , and completed in May 1916 . She was initially armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , but a major reconstruction in the late 1930s replaced these with ten 320 mm ( 13 in ) guns . Caio Duilio saw no action during World War I owing to the inactivity of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet during the conflict . She cruised the Mediterranean in the 1920s and was involved in the Corfu incident in 1923 .
During World War II , she participated in numerous patrols and sorties into the Mediterranean , both to escort Italian convoys to North Africa and in attempts to catch the British Mediterranean Fleet . In November 1940 , the British launched an air raid on Taranto ; Caio Duilio was hit by one torpedo launched by a Fairey Swordfish torpedo bomber , which caused significant damage . Repairs lasted some five months , after which the ship returned to convoy escort duties . A fuel shortage immobilized the bulk of the Italian surface fleet in 1942 , and Caio Duilio remained out of service until the Italian surrender in September 1943 . She was thereafter interned at Malta until 1944 , when the Allies permitted her return to Italian waters . She survived the war , and continued to serve in the post @-@ war Italian navy , primarily as a training ship . Caio Duilio was placed in reserve for a final time in 1953 ; she remained in the Italian navy 's inventory for another three years before she was stricken from the naval register in late 1956 and sold for scrapping the following year .
= = Design = =
Caio Duilio was 176 meters ( 577 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 28 m ( 92 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) . At full combat load , she displaced up to 24 @,@ 715 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 325 long tons ; 27 @,@ 244 short tons ) . She had a crew of 35 officers and 1 @,@ 198 enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eight oil @-@ fired and twelve coal and oil burning Yarrow boilers . The boilers were trunked into two large funnels . The engines were rated at 30 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) , which provided a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 46 @-@ caliber guns in three triple turrets and two twin turrets . The secondary battery comprised sixteen 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns , all mounted in casemates clustered around the forward and aft main battery turrets . Caio Duilio was also armed with thirteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber guns and six 76 @-@ mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by U.S. Steel . The belt armor was 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main deck was 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = = Modifications = = =
Caio Duilio was heavily rebuilt in 1937 β 1940 at Genoa . Her forecastle deck was extended further aft , until it reached the mainmast . The stern and bow were rebuilt , increasing the length of the ship to 186 @.@ 9 m ( 613 ft ) , and the displacement grew to 28 @,@ 882 t ( 28 @,@ 426 long tons ; 31 @,@ 837 short tons ) . Her old machinery was replaced with more efficient equipment and her twenty boilers were replaced with eight oil @-@ fired models ; the new power plant was rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) and speed increased to 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) . The ship 's amidships turret was removed and the remaining guns were bored out to 320 mm ( 13 in ) . Her secondary battery was completely overhauled ; the 152 mm guns were replaced with twelve 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns in triple turrets amidships . The anti @-@ aircraft battery was significantly improved , to include ten 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , fifteen 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Later , during World War II , four more 37 mm guns were installed and two of the 20 mm guns were removed . After emerging from the modernization , Caio Duilio 's crew numbered 35 officers and 1 @,@ 450 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
Caio Duilio was laid down at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia on 24 February 1912 . She was launched on 24 April 1913 , and completed on 10 May 1916 . She saw no action in World War I , given the fact that the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , Italy 's main naval rival , remained in port for the duration of the conflict . In addition , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
As a result , Caio Duilio only went on four patrols during the war , and was operational for a total of 70 hours . She was based at Taranto starting in November 1918 to April 1919 , but during that time , she deployed to Corfu , from 10 November 1918 to 26 January 1919 . On 26 April 1919 , Caio Duilio was sent to Smyrna to help mediate a dispute over ownership of the area . While there , she had a confrontation with the Greek armored cruiser Georgios Averof , but this was defused when the Greeks landed troops to occupy Smyrna . On 9 June , she was relieved by the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Roma , allowing her to move to Constantinople .
During her deployment to Turkey , Caio Duilio entered the Black Sea to support the White Russians in the Russian Civil War , from 23 June to 13 July . During this period , she was transferred to the Levant Squadron of the Italian Navy . She returned to Izmir after completing her deployment to the Black Sea , and remained there until 9 September , when she was relieved by the battleship Giulio Cesare . She returned to Taranto on 12 September , and was placed in reserve . Placed back into service in 1920 , Caio Duilio went to Albania on 30 June to support the Italian Army contingent occupying the country , and participated in their withdrawal on 5 September . The following year , she was assigned to the Dodecanese Squadron and cruised in the eastern Mediterranean . She returned to Constantinople as part of an Allied fleet from 27 July to 10 November 1921 .
During the 1923 Corfu incident with Greece , the Italian Navy , including Caio Duilio , was deployed to the island to secure a Greek apology following the murder of Enrico Tellini and four others . Later that year , she escorted the battleship Dante Alighieri on a state visit to Spain . A magazine explosion on 8 April 1925 wrecked the No. 3 turret 's barbette hoist . The ship went into reserve while repairs were effected in La Spezia , which lasted until April 1928 . She underwent refitting at Taranto from 18 March to 15 June 1930 . She again went into reserve on 11 August 1932 until 11 August 1933 , when she was made the flagship of the Commanding Officer , Reserve Fleet . Starting on 19 March 1937 , she was taken to Genoa where an extensive reconstruction began at the Cantieri del Tirreno shipyard . The work was completed on 15 July 1940 , at which point she was recommissioned into the 5th Division of the 1st Squadron , based in Taranto .
Caio Duilio 's first wartime patrol took place on 31 August . She and the rest of the fleet sailed to intercept the British battleship HMS Valiant , which was steaming to Alexandria , and a convoy sailing to Malta . The Italian fleet did not have sufficient aerial reconnaissance , which , along with bad weather , prevented the Italians from locating the British forces . They put back in to Taranto on 1 September . Caio Duilio again put to sea on 7 September , in an attempt to catch the British Force H , but the Italian intelligence was faulty , as Force H was in the process of attacking Dakar . Caio Duilio returned to Taranto , where she remained until early November .
= = = Attack at Taranto = = =
On the night of 10 β 11 November , the British Mediterranean Fleet launched a surprise air raid on the harbor in Taranto . Twenty @-@ one Swordfish torpedo bombers launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious attacked the Italian fleet in two waves . They scored one hit on Caio Duilio , three hits on Littorio , and one on Conte di Cavour . The torpedo hit Caio Duilio on her starboard side ; it tore an 11 @-@ by @-@ 7 @-@ meter ( 36 by 23 ft ) hole in the hull and flooded the forward main battery magazines . A water tanker and several smaller craft pushed the battleship aground in shallow water to prevent her from sinking in the harbor . Temporary repairs were effected , and in January 1941 , she was refloated and sent to Genoa for permanent repairs , which began on 26 January .
While Caio Duilio was in dock for repairs , the British Force H departed from its normal role as a convoy escort in the western Mediterranean in early February to attack Genoa . Admiral James Somerville 's surface ships fired over a thousand shells at the port , and aircraft of the carrier HMS Ark Royal dropped magnetic mines in the harbor . Five ships were sunk , but Caio Duilio was not hit in the attack . During the attack , Caio Duilio 's anti @-@ aircraft battery fired some 8 @,@ 000 rounds at the British spotter aircraft . Repair work was completed by May , and on 16 May she was back in Taranto in the 1st Squadron .
= = = Later service = = =
Caio Duilio , now the flagship of the Italian fleet , sailed on 29 November to cover an Italian convoy to North Africa . She was escorted by the cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi and six destroyers . She sailed again on 13 December , to cover the convoy M41 ; the Italian fleet was forced to break off the convoy escort after Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed . Caio Duilio returned to port on the 14th , and departed to cover the convoy M42 two days later . She was stationed south of Messina with three cruisers and four destroyers . During the convoy operation , British forces attacked , resulting in the First Battle of Sirte , but Caio Duilio 's group was too far away to engage the Royal Navy . She returned to Taranto on 19 December . She escorted convoy M43 on 3 β 6 January 1942 , which successfully reached Tripoli unmolested . Convoy T18 followed on 22 β 5 January , and four of the five transports in the convoy reached Tripoli .
Caio Duilio 's next operation was a sortie against the British convoy MW 9 bounded from Alexandria to Malta in February . She departed from Taranto on 14 February with a pair of light cruisers and seven destroyers , but the force could not locate the British ships , and so returned to port . Her mere presence at sea , however , forced the British escort to scuttle the transport Rowallan Castle , previously disabled by German aircraft . On the 21st , she escorted the convoy K7 from Messina and Corfu to Taranto . By this point in 1942 , the Italian fleet began to suffer a severe shortage of fuel , which curtailed its operations . The situation was so bad that Caio Duilio had to be placed in reserve and drained of fuel , in order to keep the escort craft operational . She was at Taranto when Italy surrendered to the Allies in September 1943 , and on 9 September she was taken to Malta , where she was interned with the rest of the Italian fleet .
In June 1944 , the Allies allowed Caio Duilio to return to Italian ports ; she spent the rest of the war in Taranto , Syracuse , and Augusta . She survived the war , and continued to serve in the Italian navy ; she was the fleet flagship from 1 May 1947 until 10 November 1949 , based in Taranto . She was moved to La Spezia in 1953 and removed from active service . Caio Duilio remained there until she was stricken from the naval register on 15 September 1956 . She was sold for scrapping the following year .
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= Hawker Siddeley Harrier =
The Hawker Siddeley Harrier , developed in the 1960s , was the first of the Harrier Jump Jet series of aircraft . It was the first operational close @-@ support and reconnaissance fighter aircraft with vertical / short takeoff and landing ( V / STOL ) capabilities and the only truly successful V / STOL design of the many that arose in that era . The Harrier was developed directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft , following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft , the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. The British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) ordered the Harrier GR.1 and GR.3 variants in the late 1960s . It was exported to the United States as the AV @-@ 8A , for use by the US Marine Corps ( USMC ) , in the 1970s .
During the Harrier 's service the RAF positioned the bulk of the aircraft in West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Warsaw Pact forces ; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases . The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support , operating from amphibious assault ships , and , if needed , forward operating bases . Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas . The Harrier 's ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed @-@ wing aircraft . The Harrier received criticism for having a high accident rate and for a time @-@ consuming maintenance process .
In the 1970s the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy ( RN ) on Invincible @-@ class aircraft carriers . The Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War , in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile . The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed @-@ wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground @-@ attack missions in support of the advancing British land force . The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV @-@ 8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace . The innovative Harrier family and its Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus engines with thrust vectoring nozzles have generated long @-@ term interest in V / STOL aircraft . Similar V / STOL operational aircraft include the contemporary Soviet Yakovlev Yak @-@ 38 . The F @-@ 35B V / STOL variant of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II is under development .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Harrier 's design was derived from the Hawker P.1127. Prior to developing the P.1127 Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter , the Hawker P.1121. The P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Government 's 1957 Defence White Paper , which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles . This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of aircraft development projects then underway for the British military . Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off / Landing ( VTOL ) aircraft , which did not need runways . According to Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine this interest may have been stimulated by the presence of Air Staff Requirement 345 , which sought a V / STOL ground attack fighter for the Royal Air Force .
Design work on the P.1127 was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm , Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft , and Stanley Hooker ( later Sir Stanley Hooker ) of the Bristol Engine Company . The close cooperation between Hawker , the airframe company , and Bristol , the engine company , was viewed by project engineer Gordon Lewis as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to continue in spite of technical obstacles and political setbacks . Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust , the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine , the Pegasus . The Pegasus I was rated at 9 @,@ 000 pounds ( 40 kN ) of thrust and first ran in September 1959 . A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960 . Of the six prototypes built three crashed β including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show .
= = = Tripartite evaluation = = =
In 1961 the United Kingdom , United States and West Germany jointly agreed to purchase nine aircraft developed from the P.1127 , for the evaluation of the performance and potential of V / STOL aircraft . These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated Kestrel FGA.1 by the UK . The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft and to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended , only having 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 67 kN ) of thrust instead of the projected 18 @,@ 200 pounds ( 81 kN ) . The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots ; four each from the UK and US and two from West Germany . The Kestrel 's first flight took place on 7 March 1964 .
A total of 960 sorties had been made during the trials , including 1 @,@ 366 takeoffs and landings , by the end of evaluations in November 1965 . One aircraft was destroyed in an accident and six others were transferred to the United States , assigned the US designation XV @-@ 6A Kestrel , and underwent further testing . The two remaining British @-@ based Kestrels were assigned to further trials and experimentation at RAE Bedford with one being modified to use the uprated Pegasus 6 engine .
= = = P.1154 = = =
At the time of the development of the P.1127 Hawker and Bristol had also undertaken considerable development work on a supersonic version , the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 , to meet a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) requirement issued for such an aircraft . The design used a single Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine with four swivelling nozzles , in a fashion similar to the P.1127 , and required the use of plenum chamber burning ( PCB ) to achieve supersonic speeds . The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement against strong competition from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation 's Mirage IIIV . The French government did not accept the decision and withdrew ; the NATO requirement was cancelled shortly after in 1965 .
The Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy planned to develop and introduce the supersonic P.1154 independently of the cancelled NATO requirement . This ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services β while the RAF wanted a low @-@ level supersonic strike aircraft , the Navy sought a twin @-@ engine air defence fighter . Following the election of the Labour Government of 1964 the P.1154 was cancelled , as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR @-@ 2 's ongoing development . Work continued on elements of the project , such as a supersonic PCB @-@ equipped Pegasus engine , with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for the decades following cancellation .
= = = Production = = =
Following the collapse of the P.1154 's development the RAF began considering a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V / STOL ground attack jet . Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre @-@ production aircraft in 1965 , designated P.1127 ( RAF ) , of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966 . An order for 60 production aircraft , designated as Harrier GR.1 , was received in early 1967 . The aircraft was named for the Harrier , a small bird of prey .
The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967 . It officially entered service with the RAF on 18 April 1969 when the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft . The aircraft were built in two factories β one in Kingston upon Thames , southwest London , and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome , Surrey β and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold . The ski @-@ jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977 . Following these tests ski @-@ jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards , in preparation for the new variant for the navy , the Sea Harrier .
In the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States . Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production , but Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV @-@ 8A on the pre @-@ existing production lines in the United Kingdom β hence all AV @-@ 8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley . Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years . The USMC received 102 AV @-@ 8A and 8 TAV @-@ 8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976 .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Harrier was typically used as a ground attack aircraft , though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges . The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage . The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated : two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust . Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted , in the nose , tail and wingtips , for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight . It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units , one near each wing tip . The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks .
The Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance , though approximately 90 per cent of the Kestrel 's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier . The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine ; new air intakes with auxiliary blow @-@ in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed . Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened . Several hardpoints were installed , two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage ; two 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to the underside of the fuselage . The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel ; a navigational @-@ attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system , originally for the P.1154 , was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head @-@ up display and a moving map display .
The Harrier 's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields . It was believed that , in a high @-@ intensity conflict , air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out . The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small " alert pads " on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability . Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation , saving fuel and allowing the aircraft to carry more ordnance .
" I still don 't believe the Harrier . Think of the millions that have been spent on VTO in America and Russia , and quite a bit in Europe , and yet the only vertical take @-@ off aircraft which you can call a success is the Harrier . When I saw the Harrier hovering and flying backwards under control , I reckoned I 'd seen everything . And it 's not difficult to fly . " -Thomas Sopwith
The Harrier , while serving for many decades in various forms , has been criticised on multiple issues ; in particular a high accident rate , though Nordeen notes that several conventional single @-@ engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A @-@ 4 Skyhawk and LTV A @-@ 7 Corsair II had worse accident rates . The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier " ... has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service . Forty @-@ five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents " . Colonel Lee Buland of the USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a " challenge " ; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine , including engine replacements , meant the Harrier required considerable man @-@ hours in maintenance , more than most aircraft . Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V / STOL aircraft .
= = = Engine = = =
The Pegasus turbofan jet engine , developed in tandem with the P.1127 then the Harrier , was designed specifically for V / STOL manoeuvring . Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan . The engine 's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles . The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions ; in normal V / STOL operations the system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load . The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman , who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team . Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust , if only for a limited time , and was typically used during landing , especially in high ambient temperatures .
The aircraft was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process . The primary focus throughout the engine 's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible , tempered by the amount of funding that was available . Following the Harrier 's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life ; a formal joint US β UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a Β£ 3 @-@ million annual budget to develop engine improvements . Several variants have been released ; the latest is the Pegasus 11 β 61 ( Mk 107 ) , which provides 23 @,@ 800 lbf ( 106 kN ) thrust , more than any previous engine .
= = = Controls and handling = = =
The Harrier has been described by pilots as " unforgiving " . The aircraft is capable of both forward flight ( where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed @-@ wing aircraft above its stall speed ) , as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres ( where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless ) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters . Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots , as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft . Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots .
In addition to normal flight controls , the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles . It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success , that to enable and control the aircraft 's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit . For horizontal flight , the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position ; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings , the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards .
The Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed @-@ wing aircraft : the thrust vector and the reaction control system . The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0 Β° ( horizontal , pointing directly backwards ) and 98 Β° ( pointing down and slightly forwards ) . The 90 Β° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring . The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter . While irrelevant during forward flight mode , these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres .
The wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres . The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind . The thrust vector is set to 90 Β° and the throttle is brought up to maximum , at which point the aircraft leaves the ground . The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude . The short @-@ takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector ( less than 90 Β° ) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed ; usually the point of application is around 65 knots ( 120 km / h ) . For lower takeoff speeds the thrust vector is greater . The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft 's fuselage and nose , also the wingtips . Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft 's pitch and roll during vertical flight .
Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward @-@ facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight , or " VIFFing " . This is a dog @-@ fighting tactic , allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates . Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing , a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s .
= = = Differences between versions = = =
The two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) . The exported model of the aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV @-@ 8A Harrier , which was broadly similar to the RAF 's Harrier GR.1. Changes included the removal of all magnesium components , which corroded quickly at sea , and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe ( IFF ) systems ; furthermore the outer pylons , unlike the RAF aircraft , were designed from delivery to be equipped with self @-@ defence AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder heat @-@ seeking air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Most of the AV @-@ 8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1. Two @-@ seat Harriers were operated for training purposes ; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added . The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions , while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy 's Sea Harrier , with appropriate fittings . The US and Spain flew the TAV @-@ 8A and TAV @-@ 8S , respectively .
All RAF GR.1s and the initial AV @-@ 8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation / attack suite , but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface / Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions . The Martin @-@ Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU @-@ 3A in the American aircraft . The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard , which featured improved sensors , a nose @-@ mounted laser tracker , the integration of electronic countermeasure ( ECM ) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103 . The USMC upgraded their AV @-@ 8As to the AV @-@ 8C configuration ; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft 's avionics . Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices , to increase VTOL performance ; at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft . Spain 's Harriers , designated AV @-@ 8S or VA.1 Matador for the single @-@ seater and TAV @-@ 8S or VAE.1 for the two @-@ seater , were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted .
The Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier , the British Aerospace Sea Harrier . The Sea Harrier was not intended for ground @-@ attack duties and , unlike the standard Harrier , was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties and fleet air defence . The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings , modifications to reduce corrosion and a raised bubble @-@ canopy for greater visibility . The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM beyond @-@ visual @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air @-@ to @-@ air combat , as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti @-@ ship missions .
The McDonnell Douglas AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant , a second @-@ generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service ; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF , USMC and FAA . In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers : joining McDonnell Douglas ( MDD ) in developing the BAE Harrier II , or the independent development of a " Big Wing " Harrier . This proposal would have increased the wing area from 200 to 250 square feet ( 19 to 23 m2 ) , allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves . The option of cooperation with MDD was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1 , No. 1 Squadron , started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969 . An early demonstration of the Harrier 's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in the Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969 , flying between St Pancras railway station , London and downtown Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling . The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes . Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF 's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany ; another squadron was formed there two years later . In 1977 , these three squadrons were moved forward to the air base at GΓΌtersloh , closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war . One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two .
In RAF service , the Harrier was used in close air support ( CAS ) , reconnaissance , and other ground @-@ attack roles . The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long @-@ term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression ; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany . Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize , a former British colony . No. 1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war , operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe . The Harrier 's capabilities were necessary in the Belize deployment , as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport 's short runway ; British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory ; the forces were withdrawn in 1993 , two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize .
In the Falklands War in 1982 , 10 Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron operated from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes . As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service , the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force . Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck @-@ based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier . Transponders to guide aircraft back to the carriers during night @-@ time operations were also installed , along with flares and chaff dispensers .
As there was little space on the carriers , two requisitioned merchant container ships , Atlantic Conveyor and Atlantic Causeway , were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic . The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions ; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority . Sea Harriers were also used in the war , primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters . However , both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground @-@ attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley .
If most of the Sea Harriers had been lost , the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties , even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations ; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air @-@ to @-@ air Sidewinder missiles . From 10 to 24 May 1982 , prior to British forces landing in the Falklands , a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility . During the Falklands War , the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAMs ) and small arms fire from the ground . In total , four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire , accidents , or mechanical failure . More than 2 @,@ 000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict β equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft .
Following the Falklands war , British Aerospace explored the Skyhook , a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships . Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane ; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re @-@ arming . This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas . The system was marketed to foreign customers , and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as the Russian Typhoon class , but the system attracted no interest .
The first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War , although they continued to serve for years afterwards . As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts , No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985 . However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia , Iraq , and Afghanistan . The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the improved Harrier II , which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace .
= = = United States Marine Corps = = =
The United States Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969 , and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase . Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role , the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement .
The AV @-@ 8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971 , replacing other aircraft in the Marines ' attack squadrons . The service became interested in performing ship @-@ borne operations with the Harrier . Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship , a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters , to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy . An amphibious assault ship , USS Guam , was converted into the Interim Sea Control Ship and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel . Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re @-@ examinations and studies , often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers .
Other exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV @-@ 8A 's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers , including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard USS Franklin D. Roosevelt for six months in 1976 . The tests showed , amongst other things , that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not . In support of naval operations , the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate the Harrier . One result was Arapaho , a stand @-@ by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers , to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon .
When the reactivation of the Iowa @-@ class battleships was under consideration , a radical design for a battleship @-@ carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced the ship 's rear turret with a flight deck , complete with a hangar and two ski jumps , for operating several Harriers . However , the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations , while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant , and the concept was dropped .
The Marines Corps ' concept for deploying the Harriers in a land @-@ based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed . Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area . The forward bases , containing one to four aircraft , were to be located 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the forward edge of battle ( FEBA ) , while a more established permanent airbase would be located around 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the FEBA . The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption .
The AV @-@ 8A 's abilities in air @-@ to @-@ air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs ; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring @-@ in @-@ forward @-@ flight ( VIFF ) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air @-@ to @-@ air fighters at close range . The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V / STOL aircraft , which had been judged to be expensive failures in the past . Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft .
Starting in 1979 the USMC began upgrading their AV @-@ 8As to the AV @-@ 8C configuration β the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance . The AV @-@ 8C and the remaining AV @-@ 8A Harriers were retired by 1987 . These were replaced by the Harrier II , designated as the AV @-@ 8B , which was introduced into service in 1985 . The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC 's own plans , but these never resulted in Air Force orders . Since the late 1990s , the AV @-@ 8B has been slated to be replaced by the F @-@ 35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , a more modern V / STOL jet aircraft .
Like the next generation AV @-@ 8Bs , nevertheless , the AV @-@ 8A / C Harriers suffered many accidents , with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during ' 70 and ' 80s .
= = = Other operators = = =
Due to the Harrier 's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations , often as attempts to make their own V / STOL jets were unsuccessful , such as in the cases of the American XV @-@ 4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B . Operations by the USMC aboard USS Nassau in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft were highly effective in combat . These operations also demonstrated that " Harrier Carriers " provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers .
Following the display of Harrier operations from small carriers , the navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier @-@ based fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Spain 's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long @-@ standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era ; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary . During tests in November 1972 , the British pilot John Farley showed that the wooden deck of Daedalus was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier . Since 1976 , the Spanish Navy operated the AV @-@ 8S Matador from their aircraft carrier DΓ©dalo ( formerly the USS Cabot ) ; the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet . Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government to replace losses .
Hawker Siddeley aggressively marketed the Harrier for export . At one point the company was holding talks with Australia , Brazil , Switzerland , India and Japan . Of these only India became a customer , purchasing the Sea Harrier . At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier . Following an overture by the UK in the early 1970s , when relations with the West were warming , China became interested in the aircraft as it sought to modernise its armed forces ; British Prime Minister James Callaghan noted significant hostility from the USSR over the sales bid . The deal was later cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash after China invaded Vietnam in 1979 .
The Spanish Navy , Thai Navy , Royal Air Force , and United States Marine Corps have all retired their first @-@ generation Harriers . Spain sold seven single @-@ seat and two twin @-@ seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998 . The Royal Thai Navy 's AV @-@ 8S Matadors were delivered as part of the air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier HTMS Chakri Naruebet . The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment , leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time . In 1999 , two years after being delivered , only one airframe was in airworthy condition . Around 2003 , Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers , which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence , to replace their AV @-@ 8S Harriers ; this investigation did not progress to a purchase . The last first @-@ generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006 .
= = Variants = =
Harrier GR.1 , GR.1A , GR.3
Single @-@ seat versions for the RAF . The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1 / GR.3 series , with the last production aircraft delivery in December 1986 . 122 built .
AV @-@ 8A , AV @-@ 8C Harrier
Single @-@ seat versions for the US Marine Corps . The USMC ordered 102 AV @-@ 8As ( company designation : Harrier Mk . 50 ) . The AV @-@ 8C was an upgrade to the AV @-@ 8A . 110 built .
AV @-@ 8S Matador
Export version of the AV @-@ 8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy , who designated them as VA @-@ 1 Matador . 10 built .
Harrier T.2 , T.2A , T.4 , T.4A
Two @-@ seat training versions for the RAF , with a stretched body and taller tail fin . 25 built .
Harrier T.4N , T.8 , T.60
Two @-@ seat training versions for the Royal Navy and Indian Navy with avionics based on the Sea Harrier .
TAV @-@ 8A Harrier
Two @-@ seat training version for the USMC , powered by a Pegasus Mk 103 .
TAV @-@ 8S Matador
Two @-@ seat training version for the Spanish Navy and later sold to the Royal Thai Navy .
= = Operators = =
Thailand
Royal Thai Navy
India
Indian Navy
Spain
Spanish Navy
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force
Royal Navy
United States
United States Marine Corps
= = Aircraft on display = =
= = = Canada = = =
AV @-@ 8A
158966 - Canada Aviation and Space Museum , Ottawa , Ontario .
= = = Germany = = =
GR.1
XV278 - Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr , Gatow .
GR.3
XZ998 - Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil .
= = = Poland = = =
GR.3
XW919 - Polish Aviation Museum , KrakΓ³w , Poland .
= = = New Zealand = = =
GR.3
XZ129 - Ashburton Aviation Museum , Ashburton , New Zealand .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
GR.1
XV277 - National Museum of Flight , East Fortune .
GR.3
XV744 - Tangmere Military Aviation Museum , Chichester , West Sussex .
XV748 - Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington .
XV751 - Gatwick Aviation Museum , Surrey .
XV752 - South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum , Doncaster , South Yorkshire .
XV753 - Classic Air Force , St Mawgan , Newquay , Cornwall .
XV779 - RAF Wittering ( Gate Guardian ) .
XZ133 - Imperial War Museum , Duxford .
XZ968 - Muckleburgh Collection , Norfolk .
XZ997 - RAF Museum , Hendon .
ZD667 - Bentwaters Cold War Museum , Suffolk .
Mk.52 G @-@ VTOL
ZA250 - Brooklands Museum , Surrey .
T.2
XW269 - Airworld Aviation Museum Caernarfon Wales
T.4
XW934 - Farnborough Air Sciences Trust , Farnborough , Hampshire .
AV @-@ 8A
159233 - Imperial War Museum North
= = = United States = = =
AV @-@ 8A
158695 - Air Park , Yuma MCAS , Yuma , Arizona .
159239 - San Diego Air and Space Museum , San Diego , California .
158963 - Craven County Regional Airport , Grantham , North Carolina .
158976 - City of Havelock , Havelock , North Carolina .
TAV @-@ 8A
159381 - Oakland Aviation Museum , Oakland , California .
159382 - Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , Arizona .
AV @-@ 8C
158387 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum , Marine Corps Air Station Miramar , San Diego , California .
158710 - Quonset Air Museum , North Kingstown , Rhode Island .
158959 - Pacific Coast Air Museum , Santa Rosa , California .
158975 - National Naval Aviation Museum , NAS Pensacola , Pensacola , Florida .
158977 - Museum of Flight , Seattle , Washington .
159232 - Intrepid Sea , Air & Space Museum , New York City , New York .
159238 - Hangar 25 Museum , Webb AFB ( formerly ) , Big Spring , Texas .
159241 - Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , Arizona .
159247 - Naval Inventory Control Point ( NAVICP ) Philadelphia , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
159249 - United States Naval Museum of Armament and Technology , NCC China Lake ( North ) , Ridgecrest , California .
= = Specifications ( Harrier GR.3 ) = =
Data from Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 1988 β 89
General characteristics
Crew : One
Length : 46 ft 10 in ( 14 @.@ 27 m )
Wingspan : 25 ft 3 in ( 7 @.@ 70 m )
Height : 11 ft 11 in ( 3 @.@ 63 m )
Wing area : 201 @.@ 1 ft Β² ( 18 @.@ 68 m Β² )
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 535 lb ( 6 @,@ 140 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 25 @,@ 200 lb ( 11 @,@ 430 kg )
Powerplant : 1 Γ Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus 103 turbofan with four swivelling nozzles , 21 @,@ 500 lbf ( 95 @.@ 6 kN ) Four vertical flight puffer jets use engine bleed air , mounted in the nose , wingtips , and tail .
Performance
Maximum speed : 730 mph ( 635 knots , 1 @,@ 176 km / h ) at sea level
Combat radius : 230 mi ( 200 nmi , 370 km ) lo @-@ lo @-@ lo with 4 @,@ 400 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) payload
Ferry range : 2 @,@ 129 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 nmi , 3 @,@ 425 km )
Endurance : 1 hr 30 min ( combat air patrol β 115 mi ( 185 km ) from base )
Service ceiling : 51 @,@ 200 ft ( 15 @,@ 600 m )
Time to climb to 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 200 m ) : 2 min 23 s
Armament
Guns : 2 Γ 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN cannon pods under the fuselage
Hardpoints : 4 Γ under @-@ wing & 1 Γ under @-@ fuselage pylon stations with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 268 kg ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : 4 Γ Matra rocket pods with 18 Γ SNEB 68 mm rockets each
Missiles : 2 Γ AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles
Bombs : A variety of unguided iron bombs , BL755 cluster bombs or laser @-@ guided bombs
Others :
1 Γ Reconnaissance pod
2 Γ drop tanks for extended range / loitering time
= = Popular culture = =
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= New York State Route 104 =
New York State Route 104 ( NY 104 ) is a 182 @.@ 41 @-@ mile ( 293 @.@ 56 km ) long east β west state highway in Upstate New York in the United States . It spans six counties and enters the vicinity of four cities β Niagara Falls , Lockport , Rochester , and Oswego β as it follows a routing largely parallel to that of the southern shoreline of Lake Ontario , along a ridge of the old shoreline of Glacial Lake Iroquois . The western terminus of NY 104 is at an intersection with NY 384 in Niagara Falls , Niagara County , while its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 13 in the town of Williamstown , Oswego County . The portion of NY 104 between Rochester and the village of Webster east of the city is a limited @-@ access highway known as the Keeler Street Expressway west of NY 590 and the Irondequoit β Wayne County Expressway east of NY 590 ; from Williamson to Oswego , NY 104 is a super two highway .
The majority of Ridge Road and modern NY 104 from the village of Red Creek to the town of Mexico were originally designated as part of Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route , early in the 20th century . All of Ridge Road and its continuation through Oswego to the hamlet of Maple View gained a signed designation by 1926 and became part of U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ) , a United States Numbered Highway extending from Niagara Falls to Maple View , c . 1935 . US 104 , which never connected to US 4 , its implied parent route , was redesignated as NY 104 c . 1972 . As part of the redesignation , NY 104 was extended east to NY 13 in Williamstown over what had been New York State Route 126 .
Over time , the 104 designation , whether it be US 104 or NY 104 , has been shifted from surface streets to expressways and super twos , particularly from Rochester east to Oswego . The first such realignment occurred in the 1940s in Wayne County and was completed by the realignment of NY 104 onto the Irondequoit β Wayne County Expressway near Webster in the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Niagara County = = =
NY 104 begins near the Rainbow Bridge at the intersection of First Street and Niagara Street ( NY 384 ) in downtown Niagara Falls . The Seaway Trail crosses over NY 384 and follows NY 104 north on First Street for one block to the Robert Moses State Parkway , where the byway and NY 104 veer onto Main Street . NY 104 follows Main Street through the largely commercial west side of the city and intersects the northern or eastern terminus for both US 62 ( Ferry Avenue and Walnut Avenue ) and US 62 Business ( Pine Avenue ) . North of US 62 Business , the area becomes more residential as NY 104 meets NY 182 southeast of the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge . To the north , the name of NY 104 changes to Lewiston Road as it passes by the south campus of Niagara University . Near the northern extent of the campus , NY 104 intersects the western terminus of NY 31 , here named College Avenue . At the city limits , NY 104 meets the northbound Robert Moses State Parkway by way of a half @-@ interchange . The portion of NY 104 between Third Street and the Lewiston town line is maintained by the city of Niagara Falls , and is the only part of NY 104 that is not maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation .
Now in the town of Lewiston , NY 104 comes within view of the Niagara River gorge and begins to run along its eastern rim . NY 104 meets the northernmost point of NY 61 at the northern campus of Niagara University . Past NY 61 , the route passes by the Niagara Power Visitors Center and over the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant . On the opposite side of the plant , NY 104 connects with Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 ) at exit 25 via Upper Mountain Road and passes under the eastern approach to the Lewiston β Queenston Bridge , which links I @-@ 190 with Ontario 's Highway 405 .
Past I @-@ 190 , NY 104 begins to deviate from the Niagara River . It heads through a small neighborhood situated between the Moses Parkway and NY 104 and intersects the northern end of NY 265 . North of this junction , NY 104 curves northeast to descend the Niagara Escarpment . As it heads downward in elevation , it intersects the western terminus of NY 18 by way of an interchange . As part of the same exit , NY 104 meets the parkway one more time as well as the southern terminus of NY 18F near the village of Lewiston . Here , the Seaway Trail leaves NY 104 to follow NY 18F . East of the exit , NY 104 intersects NY 18 again by way of another interchange .
East of Lewiston village , NY 104 follows Ridge Road through a sparsely populated area of Niagara County . Much of this portion of NY 104 is bordered on its southern end by the Tuscarora Indian Reservation . At the Lewiston hamlet of Dickersonville , the extents of the reservation head south , and development along NY 104 increases slightly . NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 429 at the Lewiston β Cambria town line and crosses over NY 425 at Streeters Corners . Just east of this location is an intersection with NY 93 in the community of Molyneaux Corners . The two routes form a concurrency east to Warrens Corners , a hamlet situated on the Cambria β Lockport town line , where NY 93 turns south to serve the city of Lockport .
NY 104 heads northeast through the extreme northwest corner of the town of Lockport to the town line , where it turns eastward to straddle the boundary between the towns of Lockport and Newfane . As it approaches the hamlet of Wrights Corners , the amount of development along NY 104 increases substantially with the level of development peaking at the junction of NY 104 and NY 78 . The two routes join for roughly 0 @.@ 35 miles ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) into the town of Newfane before splitting north of the hamlet . Ridge Road continues northeast through a residential district , which gives way to open fields once more at Ridgewood . NY 104 turns east here , passing through the town of Hartland and intersecting the southern terminus of NY 148 and the northern terminus of NY 271 . The route crosses into Orleans County at a junction with the southern terminus of NY 269 , which straddles the county line .
= = = Orleans and Monroe counties = = =
The route heads northeast through the town of Ridgeway to the hamlet of the same name , where NY 104 meets NY 63 . NY 63 joins NY 104 east along Ridge Road for about 300 yards ( 270 m ) before continuing north toward Lake Ontario . NY 104 , meanwhile , continues through the rural towns of Ridgeway and Gaines to a junction with NY 279 north of Albion . Not far to the east , NY 104 intersects NY 98 , the primary north β south highway through Albion , in the hamlet of Childs . Just past the intersection on the north side of the road are two of the three cobblestone buildings of the Cobblestone Historic District , a National Historic Landmark .
Farther east , Ridge Road enters the town of Murray , where it meets the northern terminus of NY 387 and intersects NY 237 in the hamlet of Murray . The two routes join for just under a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before NY 237 breaks away to the south toward Holley . NY 104 exits Orleans County 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later in the same fashion as it entered : by intersecting a state highway . After meeting the southern terminus of NY 272 , NY 104 crosses into Monroe County and becomes West Ridge Road as it heads through the town of Clarkson . In the densely populated hamlet of Clarkson Corners , NY 104 intersects NY 19 . The open fields return east of the hamlet , and largely surround Ridge Road as NY 104 intersects NY 260 . NY 104 heads onward into Parma , where it widens to four lanes and has a junction with NY 259 in Parma Corners .
East of Parma Corners , development on NY 104 steadily increases as it heads toward the town of Greece . By the Parma β Greece town line , where NY 104 intersects the southern terminus of NY 261 , Ridge Road is lined with commercial properties of varying size . Continuing east , NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 386 . Here , NY 104 widens to a six @-@ lane divided highway . Between NY 386 and NY 390 exit 24 , NY 104 passes by several large shopping malls , the largest of which is The Mall at Greece Ridge at the intersection of NY 104 and Long Pond Road . At NY 390 , NY 104 continues to be a six @-@ lane divided highway as it heads toward Rochester . It enters the city limits upon meeting Mount Read Boulevard at an interchange .
In Rochester , NY 104 passes through an area known as Kodak Park , the large industrial complex owned by Eastman Kodak that occupies an entire neighborhood . In the middle of the complex , NY 104 crosses the Rochester and Southern Railroad and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Charlotte Running Track and intersects the eastern terminus of NY 18 . Continuing east , NY 104 crosses the Genesee River gorge on the Veterans Memorial Bridge . On the opposite bank , it loses the name West Ridge Road and becomes a limited @-@ access highway known as the Keeler Street Expressway .
North of the first exit with St. Paul Street , Ridge Road resurfaces as East Ridge Road , which parallels the expressway to the north . NY 104 continues through Rochester and Irondequoit , connecting to North Clinton Avenue , Seneca Avenue , Hudson Avenue , Carter Street , Portland Avenue , North Goodman Street and Culver Road by way of interchanges . Between the Goodman Street and Culver Road exits , NY 104 passes the former Medley Centre . East of Culver , NY 104 encounters NY 590 and connects to NY 590 southbound by way of an interchange . East Ridge Road runs through the middle of this interchange , although there are no connections between Ridge and NY 104 . There is also no access from NY 104 eastbound to NY 590 northbound ; eastbound traffic must take Culver Road in order to go north toward Sea Breeze . Just east of the NY 590 interchange , NY 104 becomes the Irondequoit β Wayne County Expressway and crosses the Irondequoit Bay by way of the Irondequoit Bay Bridge . An access road between NY 104 just west of the bridge and NY 590 at Titus Avenue was once planned . Although entrance and exit ramps were built for the connection along NY 104 , the rest of the link was never built , leaving no access from NY 104 westbound to NY 590 northbound and from NY 590 southbound to NY 104 eastbound .
On the other side of the bridge in the town of Webster , NY 104 has exits leading to Bay Road , Five Mile Line Road , Hard Road , and Holt Road prior to entering the village of Webster . Within the village , NY 104 meets NY 250 ( North Avenue ) and Phillips Road by way of interchanges before exiting the village . The expressway loosely parallels the southern edge of the primary Xerox campus to an exit with Salt Road , where it downgrades to a divided highway as it continues east to Basket Road and the Monroe β Wayne county line , partially delimited by NY 404 .
= = = Wayne and Cayuga counties = = =
As Ridge Road follows to the south , NY 104 continues east through Ontario , where it meets the northern terminus of NY 350 in Ontario Center . The four @-@ lane divided highway continues east to Williamson , where the median separating the two directions of NY 104 comes to an end west of the hamlet of Williamson . In the center of the hamlet , NY 104 intersects the northern terminus of NY 21 . NY 104 narrows to two lanes east of Williamson as development along the route declines once more , giving way to open fields and thick forests .
Near the center of the county in the town of Sodus , NY 104 serves as the northern terminus of NY 88 northwest of the village of Sodus . While NY 88 heads east into the village , NY 104 bypasses Sodus to the north . East of the village , Ridge Road and NY 104 intersect as Ridge Road flips to the north side of NY 104 . The two highways follow parallel routings southeast toward Alton , where NY 104 intersects NY 14 . East of Alton , the gap between the two widens as Ridge Road veers north to access Sodus Bay . NY 104 , meanwhile , follows a nearly linear routing into the town of Huron , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 414 .
NY 104 continues on the eastward routing to the vicinity of the village of Wolcott , where it connects to the northern terminus of NY 89 via a half @-@ diamond interchange south of the village . Northeast of this location in the town of Wolcott , Ridge Road intersects NY 104 once again , returning to the south side of the route . The two roads follow parallel routings once more to a junction south of Red Creek . At this rural intersection , NY 104 acts as the southern and northern ( western ) terminus of both NY 104A and NY 370 , respectively , both occupying an extension of Ridge Road . Just east of the intersection is the Wayne β Cayuga county line . Only 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the route are situated in Cayuga County , and the only junction of note within the county is with NY 38 , which it meets in the Sterling hamlet of Martville . East of the junction , NY 104 turns sharply to the northeast and enters Oswego County .
= = = Oswego County = = =
The route continues northeast through the town of Hannibal to the village of the same name . Instead of entering the community , NY 104 bypasses it to the east . It intersects NY 3 east of Hannibal and heads north toward Lake Ontario . In the town of Oswego , NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 104A and assumes its northeasterly routing . It is here that the Seaway Trail rejoins NY 104 . NY 104 heads along the Lake Ontario shoreline to the lake @-@ side city of Oswego , the first location with significant development along the route since Williamson . The route intersects Sweet Road , a connector leading to the campus of SUNY Oswego , just west of the city limits .
NY 104 enters the city as the two @-@ laned West Seneca Street . At Baylis Street , the road widens to four lanes separated by a median . After seven blocks , NY 104 veers onto West Bridge Street , a four @-@ lane street with no median . NY 104 continues along Bridge Street into downtown , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 48 on the west bank of the Oswego River and the northern terminus of NY 481 on the east bank . As NY 104 heads through eastern Oswego , it separates from East Bridge Street and curves east to follow a more inland routing . The route reverts to two lanes as it exits the city limits .
The high level of development along NY 104 continues to the Scriba hamlet of the same name , where it begins to become more sporadic and give way to fields and dense forests . NY 104 heads northeast to New Haven and the western terminus of NY 104B . While NY 104B heads northeast toward the lake shore as part of the Seaway Trail , NY 104 cuts southeast to serve the village of Mexico . In the village center , NY 104 briefly overlaps NY 3 and intersects the western terminus of NY 69 . The route continues due east through the rural town of Mexico to the small hamlet of Maple View , centered around the junction between NY 104 and US 11 . Just outside the hamlet , NY 104 meets I @-@ 81 at exit 34 . Past I @-@ 81 , NY 104 heads east and southeast for nine miles ( 14 km ) through the predominantly rural towns of Albion and Williamstown to its eastern terminus at a junction with NY 13 .
= = History = =
= = = Early designations = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature established Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Niagara Falls , Niagara County in the southwest to Rouses Point , Clinton County , in the northeast . From Rochester to Red Creek , Route 30 was assigned to Ridge Road . Between Red Creek and the hamlet of Union Square ( now Maple View ) in the town of Mexico , it included most of modern NY 104 . At the same time , the roadway alongside the Niagara River between Ridge Road in Lewiston and Pine Avenue in downtown Niagara Falls was designated , but not signed , as part of Route 18 . By 1914 , Route 30 was amended to also include the section of Ridge Road from Porter ( modern NY 429 ) to Ridgeway ( NY 63 ) . In 1914 , another section β from Ridgeway to the Orleans β Monroe county line β was also included in Route 30 's definition as a spur route . The spur route became part of Route 30 on March 1 , 1921 , when the mainline route was realigned to follow Ridge Road between Ridgeway and Rochester .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the segments of Route 30 from Rochester to Red Creek and from Oswego to Maple View became part of NY 3 . Between Red Creek and Oswego , NY 3 was routed on what is now NY 104A . Farther west , the portion of Route 18 from Niagara Falls to Lewiston was included as part of NY 34 . By 1926 , all of legislative Route 30 west of Rochester was designated as part of NY 31 . In the late 1920s , however , NY 31 was realigned to follow Ridge Road west from Porter to Lewiston . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 34 became part of an extended NY 18 while NY 3E was assigned to the portion of former legislative Route 30 between Red Creek and Oswego . NY 3E was renumbered to NY 3F c . 1932 .
= = = Establishment of US 104 = = =
US 104 was assigned across Upstate New York in April 1935 , extending from Niagara Falls to Maple View via Lewiston , Rochester , and Oswego . It overlapped NY 18 from Niagara Falls to Lewiston and replaced NY 3 and NY 31 from Lewiston to Maple View ( except from Red Creek to Oswego , where US 104 followed NY 3F instead ) . As a result , NY 31 was shifted south onto most of its modern alignment while NY 3 was rerouted south of Watertown to follow what had been NY 3D . Although US 104 was technically a child route of US 4 , it did not connect to US 4 . A highway extending eastward from US 11 and US 104 at Maple View to NY 13 in Williamstown was designated as NY 126 c . 1940 .
When it was first assigned , US 104 dipped south to serve downtown Rochester instead of bypassing it to the north . US 104 left Ridge Road at Lake Avenue and followed Lake Avenue and State Street south to Main Street in downtown . It followed Main Street and Winton Road to Empire Boulevard , where it turned east to rejoin Ridge Road in Webster . It was rerouted c . 1937 to continue east on Ridge Road over the Veterans Memorial Bridge and through Irondequoit to Culver Road . US 104 turned here , following Culver Road south to Empire Boulevard and the latter east to Winton Road , where it reconnected to its original routing through the city . The realignment created a significant overlap with NY 18 , which joined US 104 in the vicinity of Kodak Park and separated at Culver Road , where it headed north instead .
= = = Conversion to expressways = = =
Work began in the 1940s on new super two alignments for US 104 in Wayne , Cayuga , and Oswego counties . The new highway was built on a routing parallel to that of Ridge Road and served as a bypass of the communities along Ridge Road . The first portion of the super two , extending from the Monroe β Wayne county line at Union Hill to west of Sodus , was built in the mid @-@ 1940s and completed by 1947 . An extension of the highway around Sodus to NY 414 in Huron was constructed in the mid @-@ 1960s and opened by 1968 . In between the end of the super two and Ridge Road , US 104 was routed on Lake Bluff Road . The remainder of the super two between Huron and Red Creek was finished by 1974 . East of the super two , a bypass was constructed around the village of Hannibal during the early 1960s and opened to traffic by 1964 .
Similar conversion projects were also conducted elsewhere . In Irondequoit , the portion of the Sea Breeze Expressway ( now NY 590 ) from Empire Boulevard to Culver Road opened in the late 1950s . US 104 and NY 18 were extended eastward along East Ridge Road to meet the expressway at what is now exit 11 . Both designations entered the freeway ; however , NY 18 followed the roadway north to Culver Road while US 104 progressed south to Empire Boulevard , where it rejoined its former surface alignment towards Webster . The 0 @.@ 71 miles ( 1 @.@ 14 km ) of Empire Boulevard between the Rochester city line and the Sea Breeze Expressway remains state @-@ maintained to this day as NY 941B , an unsigned reference route .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , construction began on the Keeler Street Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway extending across Irondequoit from the Genesee River ( at the Veterans Memorial Bridge ) to the Sea Breeze Expressway . The first section from North Goodman Street to the Sea Breeze Expressway was completed by 1968 while the remainder opened in late 1969 . The name of the expressway was derived from Keeler Street , a small residential street that originally connected to East Ridge Road and St. Paul Street by way of a traffic circle on the east bank of the Genesee River . The street was turned into a dead @-@ end street as a result of the expressway 's construction . US 104 was moved from East Ridge Road to the expressway , which remains known , albeit infrequently , as the Keeler Street Expressway to this day . NY 18 remained on East Ridge Road , however , reducing the overlap between US 104 and NY 18 to just the portion on the Veterans Bridge . NY 18 was truncated to its current eastern terminus c . 1973 , eliminating the overlap entirely .
The first segment of an eastward extension of the Keeler Street Expressway , named the Irondequoit β Wayne County Expressway , opened c . 1971 between the Sea Breeze Expressway ( at this point designated as part of NY 47 ) and Five Mile Line Road . In between , US 104 crossed Irondequoit Bay by way of the Irondequoit Bay Bridge . US 104 's former surface alignment between NY 47 and Five Mile Line Road was redesignated NY 404 while US 104 was temporarily realigned onto Five Mile Line Road between the expressway and Ridge Road to connect to its former alignment .
= = = Redesignation and completion = = =
The segment of I @-@ 81 through central New York was built on an alignment that closely paralleled US 11 from the Pennsylvania state line northward to the city of Watertown . The portion of I @-@ 81 near Maple View was completed in late 1961 , at which time US 104 was extended 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) eastward over NY 126 to meet the new highway . NY 126 was truncated on its west end to the I @-@ 81 interchange as a result . US 104 was redesignated as NY 104 c . 1972 , making the route the third to bear the NY 104 designation . As part of the change , NY 104 was extended east to NY 13 , completely supplanting NY 126 .
By 1978 , the frontage roads between Five Mile Line Road and NY 250 in Webster were completed . NY 104 was rerouted eastward along the roadways while NY 404 was extended over NY 104 's old alignment to NY 250 in Webster . The section from NY 250 to the existing expressway at the Wayne County line was built in the late 1970s while the main carriageway of NY 104 between Five Mile Line Road and NY 250 was completed in the early 1980s . NY 404 was extended east along the former alignment of NY 104 to the county line upon the total completion of the Five Mile Line Road β NY 250 segment .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 104 has two suffixed routes , both of which were assigned c . 1935 .
NY 104A ( 17 @.@ 38 miles or 27 @.@ 97 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 104 between Red Creek , Wayne County , and the town of Oswego , Oswego County .
NY 104B ( 6 @.@ 07 miles or 9 @.@ 77 kilometres ) is a spur in Oswego County that extends from NY 104 in New Haven to NY 3 in Texas .
= = NY 104 Truck = =
New York State Route 104 Truck is a 1 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) long truck route of NY 104 through the city of Rochester and town of Irondequoit in Monroe County . The route , which exists in the eastbound direction only , extends from the ramps connecting NY 104 to St. Paul Street east along East Ridge Road to Hudson Avenue , where it turns south to access NY 104 . A 0 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) long segment of NY 104 Truck follows the former alignment of US 104 east along East Ridge Road from St. Paul Street to Hudson Avenue .
= = Major intersections = =
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= White House FBI files controversy =
The White House FBI files controversy of the Clinton Administration , often referred to as Filegate , arose in June 1996 around improper access in 1993 and 1994 to Federal Bureau of Investigation security @-@ clearance documents . Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , improperly requested , and received from the FBI , background reports concerning several hundred individuals without asking permission . The revelations provoked a strong political and press reaction because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top presidential advisors . Under criticism , Livingstone resigned from his position . Allegations were made that senior White House figures , including First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , may have requested and read the files for political purposes , and that the First Lady had authorized the hiring of the underqualified Livingstone .
The matter was investigated by the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , the Senate Judiciary Committee , and the Whitewater Independent Counsel . In 1998 , Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton of any involvement in the matter . In 2000 Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Filegate , stating that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter and no credible evidence that senior White House figures or the First Lady had requested the files or had acted improperly or testified improperly regarding Livingstone 's hiring . A separate lawsuit on the matter brought by Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , lingered on for years and was dismissed by a federal judge in 2010 .
= = Improper use of files issue = =
" Filegate " began on June 5 , 1996 , when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger , Jr . , chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight , announced that the committee had found , during their ongoing " Travelgate " investigations , that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House . The following day , the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration , for which Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , had improperly requested and received background reports from the FBI in 1993 and 1994 , without asking permission of the subject individuals . Estimates ranged from 400 to 700 to 900 unauthorized file disclosures . The incident caused an intense burst of criticism because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top figures such as James Baker , Brent Scowcroft , and Marlin Fitzwater .
Initial White House explanations for what had happened varied , but generally characterized it as a series of mistakes made without bad intent and offered apologies to those affected . President Clinton said that , " It appears to have been a completely honest bureaucratic snafu . " However his Republican opponent in the ongoing 1996 presidential election , Senator Bob Dole , compared it to the enemies list kept by the Nixon administration . Republicans made other charges , including that the White House was trying to dig up damaging information about Republicans in general and that the file transfer was motivated by a desire to slander Dale and other White House Travel Office officials , thereby justifying their dismissal .
On June 18 , 1996 , Attorney General Janet Reno asked the FBI to look into it ; FBI Director Louis Freeh acknowledged that both the FBI and especially the White House had committed " egregious violations of privacy " ( in some cases the background reports contained information about extramarital affairs , trangressions with the law , and medical issues ) . On June 21 Reno decided it was a conflict of interest for the U.S. Department of Justice to further investigate the matter , and thus recommended that it be folded into the overall umbrella of the Whitewater investigations , under charge of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr . In any case , Starr had already begun looking into it .
On June 26 , 1996 , Clinger 's Government Reform and Oversight Committee held hearings on the matter . Livingstone , who announced his resignation at the start of his testimony that day , and his assistant , Anthony Marceca , insisted during the committee 's hearings that the mishandled files were a result of a bureaucratic mixup and that no improper motivations were behind it . They said that when the George H. W. Bush administrative staff left the White House in January 1993 , they had taken all the files of the Office of Personnel Security with them for use in the Bush Library , as they were permitted to do under law . The OPS staff were trying to rebuild these records to include those of permanent White House employees who remained to work in the Clinton administration ; Marceca , a civilian investigator for the Army , had been hired for this task . In doing so , they received an outdated list from the Secret Service of White House employees , which included many names who were no longer employees . This list was then given to the FBI and the personnel background files returned as a result . Lisa Wetzl , another assistant , testified that she discovered the mistake in mid @-@ 1994 and destroyed the request list .
Also called to testify were former White House counsel Bernard Nussbaum and former associate counsel William Kennedy III . Livingstone , Nussbaum , and Kennedy all offered apologies to those whose files had been obtained . On September 24 , 1996 , the Government Reform and Oversight Committee approved , on party lines , an interim report on the affair , blasting the Clinton Administration for a " cavalier approach " towards sensitive security procedures and saving that further investigation was necessary to determine if the events surrounding the files handling were " a blunder , the result of colossal incompetence , or whether they are established to be more serious or even criminal . " The Committee does not seem to have ever issued a final report .
The Senate Judiciary Committee was also involved in investigating the matter , holding hearings beginning June 29 , 1996 , and focussing on allegations that White House was engaged in a " dirty tricks " operation reminiscent of the Nixon administration . Looking into accusations that senior White House officials or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton may have inappropriately perused the files , in October 1996 Republican committee chair Orrin Hatch requested that the FBI do a fingerprint analysis of them . On November 3 , 1996 , the FBI informed the committee that no fingerprints of either the First Lady or any other named senior official were on the files .
= = Who hired Livingstone issue = =
A secondary question of the Filegate controversy revolved around what the Office of Personnel Security was , who had authorized the hiring of Livingstone , and whether he was qualified for the job . The Office was not responsible for actual White House security , as that was the charge of the United States Secret Service , nor did it perform background checks on potential White House employees , a task done by the FBI , nor did it keep the regular personnel files of employees , which were held in a different office within the White House . Rather , its role was to keep track of who was employed by the White House , make sure their security clearances were up to date , and give security briefings to new hires . Nevertheless , Livingstone seemed to lack qualifications for even this position ; he had worked on a number of Democratic Party campaigns and transitions , including being an advance man for the Clinton @-@ Gore 1992 campaign , and his only prior job in the " security " field was that of a local bar bouncer at a Washington , D.C. , night club . ( At the congressional hearings , Livingstone objected to " false and unfair caricatures of who I am . [ ... ] I have worked hard for little or no pay in political campaigns for candidates who I felt would make this country a better place to live . " In later years Livingstone would continue to maintain on the Internet that he had been qualified for the position , that the First Lady had signed off on hiring him , and that his character had been maligned by the general media . ) Clinton opponents stated that Livingstone had the highest level of security clearances in the U.S. government . White House officials could not explain why Livingstone was hired , nor who had hired him .
An FBI document suggested that Livingstone had been given his position because First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was a friend of Livingstone 's mother and recommended him . Hillary Clinton stated that while she was once photographed with the mother in a large group , she did not know her . Hillary Clinton was briefly deposed at the White House by the Independent Counsel regarding this matter on January 14 , 1998 . ( That same day , the same Office of the Independent Counsel staff were listening to taped conversations of Linda Tripp and Monica Lewinsky ; the Lewinsky scandal was soon to break . ) In 1999 , Clinton gave a sworn statement that she had nothing to do with Livingstone 's hiring . Livingstone also stated under oath there was no truth to the supposed hiring relationship . Hillary Clinton would later refer to the whole files matter as a " pseudoscandal " .
= = Official findings = =
On November 19 , 1998 , Independent Counsel Starr testified before the House Judiciary Committee in connection with the Impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal . Here , for the first time , Starr exonerated both President Clinton and the First Lady of complicity in the FBI files matter , saying " while there are outstanding issues that we are attempting to resolve with respect to one individual [ we ] found no evidence that anyone higher [ than Livingstone or Marceca ] was in any way involved in ordering the files from the FBI . Second , we have found no evidence that information contained in the files of former officials was used for an improper purpose . " ( Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Travelgate matter , and to say that he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter ; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections . )
In March 2000 , Independent Counsel Robert Ray , Starr 's successor , issued the office 's final report on the matter , as part of a concerted effort to wrap up all Whitewater @-@ related cases before the end of Bill Clinton 's term . Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter . It attributed the improper collection of the files by Marceca due to his having an outdated Secret Service list of White House passes , as Marceca had originally claimed . It stated that even though Marceca 's statements were sometimes " contradictory and misleading " , they were " sufficiently transparent " and there was insufficient evidence to prove that Anthony Marceca had made false statements to Congress during his testimony . The report ascribed the FBI files matter to " a failure of process at many levels , " saying that the Secret Service had provided critically erroneous data , and that this was compounded by the White House 's informal process of requesting sensitive information by " inexperienced , untrained , and unsupervised personnel with backgrounds as political operatives . "
Based on an investigation that included the prior fingerprint analysis , the report further stated that :
there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official , or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , was involved in seeking confidential Federal Bureau of Investigation background reports of former White House staff from prior administrations of President Bush and President Reagan .
Ray 's report also concluded that there was no credible evidence that Bernard Nussbaum testified falsely about not having discussed Livingstone 's hiring with the First Lady , and found as well that there was no personal relationship between the First Lady and Livingstone that had formed the basis for his hiring .
= = Judicial Watch lawsuit = =
Separately from the Independent Counsel investigation , Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , engaged in long @-@ running litigation over the White House personnel file controversy . Judicial Watch 's Cara Leslie Alexander et al. vs. Federal Bureau of Investigation et al. class action lawsuit , filed on behalf of several members of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush Administrations , alleged that Livingstone , along with Anthony Marceca and William Kennedy , obtained the files and then rifled through them . Judicial Watch founder and Clintons antagonist suprΓͺme Larry Klayman attracted enough attention with the case to have the recurring Larry Claypool character modeled after him on the television series The West Wing . As late as January 2000 , Judicial Watch was filing affidavits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia under Judge Royce C. Lamberth related to the case . In their $ 90 million lawsuit , they claimed that the First Lady did , despite her denials , know Livingstone β indeed , that Livingstone had bragged to associates he was very close to both the president and his wife β and that Clinton had personally hired him for the security job . ( White House defenders pointed out that Livingstone had a long history of exaggerating his importance and connections . ) Judicial Watch also said they had five sources who claimed Livingstone had been hired by and worked under the First Lady , and also discovered some photographs of Livingstone in the vicinity of the First Lady ( but not talking with him ) . In December 2002 Judicial Watch obtained a ruling from Judge Lamberth that recently uncovered White House e @-@ mails be searched for possible evidence in the lawsuit . Klayman said , " Hillary Clinton was the mastermind of Filegate . She will not escape justice . " Klayman and Judicial Watch had a severe falling out in 2003 , however , and several years went by with little or nothing happening in the lawsuit .
On March 9 , 2010 , Judge Lamberth dismissed the case . The judge asserted that the plaintiffs , despite years of opportunity , had failed to provide any evidence that the affair was a grand conspiracy rather than a bureaucratic mistake , and said that " this court is left to conclude that with the lawsuit , to quote Gertrude Stein , ' there 's no there there . ' " Nussbaum , one of the defendants , derisively said " No kidding " when informed of the dismissal . Media reports concluded that , fourteen years after the initial events were set in motion , Filegate was finally over . In May 2010 , Judicial Watch filed an appeal of the dismissal with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , but the Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal on November 14 , 2011 , finally bringing the case to an end .
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= Pug =
The Pug is a breed of dog with a wrinkly , short @-@ muzzled face and curled tail . The breed has a fine , glossy coat that comes in a variety of colours , most often fawn or black , and a compact square body with well @-@ developed muscles .
Pugs were brought from China to Europe in the sixteenth century and were popularized in Western Europe by the House of Orange of the Netherlands , and the House of Stuart . In the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century Queen Victoria developed a passion for Pugs which she passed on to other members of the Royal family .
Pugs are known for being sociable and gentle companion dogs . The breed remains popular into the twenty @-@ first century , with some famous celebrity owners . A Pug was judged Best in Show at the World Dog Show in 2004 .
= = Description = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
While the Pugs that are depicted in eighteenth century prints tend to be long and lean , modern breed preferences are for a square cobby body , a compact form , a deep chest , and well @-@ developed muscle . Their smooth and glossy coats can be fawn , apricot fawn , silver fawn or black . The markings are clearly defined and there is a trace of a black line extending from the occiput to the tail . The tail normally curls tightly over the hip .
Pugs have two distinct shapes for their ears , " rose " and " button " . " Rose " ears are smaller than the standard style of " button " ears , and are folded with the front edge against the side of the head . Breeding preference goes to " button " style ears .
Pugs ' legs are very strong , straight , of moderate length , and are set well under . Their shoulders are moderately laid back . Their ankles are strong , their feet are small , their toes are well split @-@ up , and their nails are black . The lower teeth normally protrude further than their upper , resulting in an under @-@ bite .
= = = Temperament = = =
The breed is often described by the Latin phrase multum in parvo , or " much in little " or " a lot of dog in a small space " , alluding to the Pug 's remarkable and charming personality , despite its small size . Pugs are strong willed but rarely aggressive , and are suitable for families with children . The majority of the breed is very fond of children and sturdy enough to properly play with them . Depending on their owner 's mood , they can be quiet and docile but also vivacious and teasing . Pugs tend to be intuitive and sensitive to the moods of their owners and are usually eager to please them . Pugs tend to have a somewhat lazy nature and spend a lot of time napping . They are often called " shadows " because they follow their owners around and like to stay close to the action , craving attention and affection from their owners .
= = History = =
= = = Chinese origins = = =
In ancient times , Pugs were bred to be companions for ruling families in China . The pet Pugs were highly valued by Chinese Emperors , and the royal dogs were kept in luxury and guarded by soldiers . Pugs later spread to other parts of Asia . In Tibet , Buddhist monks kept Pugs as pets in their monasteries . The breed has retained its affectionate devotion to its owners since ancient times .
The early history of the Pug is not attested to in detail ; it is accepted that modern Pugs are descended from dogs imported to Europe from China in the 16th century . Similar dogs were popular in the Imperial court during the Song Dynasty .
= = = 16th and 17th centuries = = =
Pugs were popular at European courts , and reportedly become the official dog of the House of Orange in 1572 after a Pug named Pompey saved the life of the Prince of Orange by alerting him to the approach of assassins .
A Pug travelled with William III and Mary II when they left the Netherlands to accept the throne of England in 1688 . During this period , the Pug may have been bred with the old type King Charles spaniel , giving the modern King Charles Spaniel its Pug characteristics .
The breed eventually became popular in other European countries as well . Pugs were painted by Goya in Spain , and in Italy they rode up front on private carriages , dressed in jackets and pantaloons that matched those of the coachman . They were used by the military to track animals and people , and were also employed as guard dogs .
= = = 18th century to present day = = =
The English painter William Hogarth was the devoted owner of a series of Pugs . His 1745 self @-@ portrait , which is now in London 's Tate Gallery , includes his Pug , Trump . The Pug was also well known in Italy . In 1789 , a Mrs. Piozzi wrote in her journal , " The little Pug dog or Dutch mastiff has quitted London for Padua , I perceive . Every carriage I meet here has a Pug in it . " The popularity of the Pug continued to spread in France during the eighteenth century . Before her marriage to Napoleon Bonaparte , JosΓ©phine had her Pug Fortune carry concealed messages to her family while she was confined at Les Carmes prison , it having alone been given visiting rights .
In nineteenth century England , the breed flourished under the patronage of Queen Victoria . Her many Pugs , which she bred herself , included Olga , Pedro , Minka , Fatima and Venus . Her involvement with dogs in general helped to establish the Kennel Club , which was formed in 1873 . Queen Victoria favoured apricot and fawn colours . Queen Victoria 's passion for Pugs was passed on to many other members of the Royal family , including her grandson King George V and his son King Edward VIII . Many responded to the breed 's image of anti @-@ functionalism and diminutive size during this period .
In paintings and engravings of the 18th and 19th centuries , Pugs usually appear with longer legs and noses than today , and sometimes with cropped ears . The modern Pug 's appearance probably changed after 1860 when a new wave of Pugs were imported directly from China . These Pugs had shorter legs and the modern @-@ style Pug nose . The British aristocrat Lady Brassey is credited with making black Pugs fashionable after she brought some back from China in 1886 . Ear cropping was made illegal in 1895 .
Pugs arrived in the United States during the nineteenth century and were soon making their way into the family home and the show ring . The American Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1885 . The Pug Dog Club of America was founded in 1931 and was recognised by the American Kennel Club that same year . In 1981 , the Pug Dhandys Favorite Woodchuck won the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in the United States , the only Pug to have won there since the show began in 1877 . The World Champion , or Best in Show at the 2004 World Dog Show held in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , was a Pug named Double D Cinoblu 's Masterpiece .
= = Health problems = =
Since Pugs lack longer snouts and prominent skeletal brow ridges , they are susceptible to eye injuries such as proptosis , scratched corneas , and painful entropion . They also have compact breathing passageways , leaving many prone to breathing difficulties or unable to efficiently regulate their temperature through evaporation from the tongue by panting . A Pug 's normal body temperature is between 101 Β° F ( 38 Β° C ) and 102 Β° F ( 39 Β° C ) . If this temperature rises to 105 Β° F ( 41 Β° C ) , oxygen demand is greatly increased and immediate cooling is required . If body temperature reaches 108 Β° F ( 42 Β° C ) , organ failure can occur . Their breathing problems can be worsened by the stresses of travelling in air cargo , which may involve high temperatures . Following the deaths of Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds , several airlines either banned their transport in cargo or enacted seasonal restrictions .
Pugs that live a mostly sedentary life can be prone to obesity , though this is avoidable with regular exercise and a healthy diet . The median life span of Pugs is 11 years , which is in line with other breeds of the same size .
= = = Common conditions = = =
Pugs , like other short @-@ snouted breeds , have elongated palates . When excited , they are prone to " reverse sneezing " which causes them to quickly ( and seemingly laboriously ) gasp and snort . The veterinary name for this is pharyngeal gag reflex and it is caused by fluid or debris getting caught under the palate and irritating the throat or limiting breathing . Reverse sneezing episodes are usually not harmful , and massaging the dog 's throat or covering its nose in order to make it breathe through its mouth can often shorten a sneezing fit .
Some pugs are also born with stenotic nares which can also inhibit their breathing . In serious cases , the pinched nostrils make breathing even more difficult for this breed and put added pressure on the larynx . In some cases , the dog could pass out from blocked airways . If this happens , one should inquire with their veterinarian whether or not surgery is needed to modify the breathing passages .
Eye prolapse is a common problem among Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds ( see Brachycephalic syndrome ) and can be caused by a trauma to the head or neck , or even by the owner using a tight leash instead of a harness . While the eye can usually be pushed back into its socket by the owner or by a vet , veterinary attention is usually advisable . If the prolapse happens on a regular basis , the Pug might require surgery .
Pugs have many wrinkles in their faces , so owners will often clean inside the creases to avoid irritation and infection . If this is not done , the dog may develop a condition known as skin fold dermatitis .
An abnormal formation of the hip socket , known as hip dysplasia , affected nearly 64 % of Pugs in a survey performed by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals ; the breed was ranked the second worst @-@ affected by this condition out of 157 breeds tested .
Pugs are one of several breeds that are more susceptible than other dogs to demodectic mange , also known as " demodex " . This condition is caused when parasitic mites , that are often present in a dog 's skin without causing symptoms , are allowed to do damage because their host has a weakened immune system . It is a problem for many young Pugs , although not usually a major one , and is easily treatable , but some are especially susceptible and present with a systemic form of the condition . This vulnerability is thought to be genetic and breeders will avoid producing puppies from adults who have this condition . In 2008 , an investigative documentary carried out by the BBC found significant inbreeding between pedigree dogs , with a study by Imperial College , London , showing that the 10 @,@ 000 Pugs in the UK are so inbred that their gene pool is the equivalent of only 50 individuals .
= = = Serious issues = = =
Pugs can suffer from necrotizing meningoencephalitis ( NME ) , also known as Pug dog encephalitis ( PDE ) , an inflammation of the brain and meninges . NME also occurs in other small dogs , such as the Yorkshire Terrier , Maltese , and Chihuahua . There is no known cure for NME , which is believed to be an inherited disease . Dogs usually die or have to be put to sleep within a few months of onset , which , in those susceptible to this condition , is typically between six months and seven years of age .
This breed , along with other brachycephalic dogs ( e.g. , boxers , bulldogs ) , are also prone to hemivertebrae . The curled tail of a British bulldog is an example of a hemivertebrae , but when it occurs not in the coccygeal vertebrae but in other areas of the spine , it can cause paralysis . The condition occurs when two parts of a spinal vertebra do not fuse properly while a young Pug is still growing , resulting in an irregularly shaped spinal cavity which can put pressure on the spinal cord .
= = Historical depictions of Pugs = =
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= Svalbard and Jan Mayen =
Svalbard and Jan Mayen ( Norwegian : Svalbard og Jan Mayen , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 : SJ , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 3 : SJM , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 numeric : 744 ) is a statistical designation defined by ISO 3166 @-@ 1 of two parts of Norway under separate jurisdictions β Svalbard and Jan Mayen . While the two are combined for the purposes of the International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) category , they are not administratively related . This has further resulted in the country code top @-@ level domain .sj being issued for Svalbard and Jan Mayen , and ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : SJ . The United Nations Statistics Division also uses this code , but has named it Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands .
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean under the full sovereignty of Norway , but is subject to the special status granted by the Svalbard Treaty . Jan Mayen is a remote island in the Arctic Ocean ; it has no permanent population and is administrated by the County Governor of Nordland . Svalbard and Jan Mayen have in common that they are the only integrated parts of Norway not allocated to counties . While a separate ISO code for Svalbard was proposed by the United Nations , it was the Norwegian authorities who took initiative to include Jan Mayen in the code . It 's Official Language Is Norwegian .
= = Constituents = =
= = = Svalbard = = =
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic about midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole . The group of islands range from 74 Β° to 81 Β° north latitude , and from 10 Β° to 35 Β° east longitude . The area is 61 @,@ 022 square kilometres ( 23 @,@ 561 sq mi ) and there were 2 @,@ 572 residents in 2009 . Spitsbergen is the largest island , followed by Nordaustlandet and EdgeΓΈya . The administrative center is Longyearbyen , and other settlements , in addition to research outposts , are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg , the research community of Ny @-@ Γ
lesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva .
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty , and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway . The archipelago is administrated by the Governor of Svalbard , which is subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police . Unlike the rest of Norway ( including Jan Mayen ) , Svalbard is a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone , and is not part of the Schengen Area nor the European Economic Area .
= = = Jan Mayen = = =
Jan Mayen is a volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean located at the border of the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea . The single island covers an area of 377 square kilometres ( 146 sq mi ) and is dominated by the 2 @,@ 277 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 470 ft ) tall Beerenberg volcano . The island 's only population is a combined military and meteorological outpost that operates a LORAN @-@ C transmitter at Olonkinbyen . The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the island for Norway in 1922 . On 27 February 1930 , the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway . Since 1994 , the island has been administrated by the County Governor of Nordland , with some authority delegated to the station commander .
= = Application = =
The ISO designation is congruent with an equivalent United Nations Statistics Division category and users of these classification systems may in some cases report separately for " Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands " instead of rolling up this information into the " Norway " category . Neither Svalbard nor Jan Mayen have their own flag or coat of arms , and the flag of Norway is used for both of them , both alone and as a group .
An attempt to change the ISO code to just " Svalbard " has previously failed because of opposition from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs . However , for statistics use within population and trade , " Svalbard and Jan Mayen " essentially means just " Svalbard " .
= = = ISO 3166 @-@ 2 = = =
ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : SJ is the entry for Svalbard and Jan Mayen in ISO 3166 @-@ 2 , a system for assigning codes to subnational administrative divisions . However , further subdivision for Svalbard and Jan Mayen occurs under Norway 's entry , ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : NO :
NO @-@ 21 Svalbard
NO @-@ 22 Jan Mayen
The hierarchical administrative subdivision codes for Svalbard is SJ.SV and for Jan Mayen is SJ.JM.
= = = Top @-@ level domain = = =
By virtue of the ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 code SJ , Svalbard and Jan Mayen were grouped together and allocated the Internet country code top @-@ level domain ( ccTLD ) .sj. Norid , who also administrated the Norway 's .no ccTLD , was given the responsibility for the .sj and Bouvet Island 's .bv domain in 1997 . Policy prohibits any registration with either of the domains , as institutions connected to Svalbard can use the .no domain . Norwegian authorities do not want to commercialize the domain resources , and therefore .sj will not be sold to a third party .
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= The Eleventh Hour ( Doctor Who ) =
For other series with this name , see The Eleventh Hour .
" The Eleventh Hour " is the first episode of the fifth series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 3 April 2010 . The episode saw a complete change in cast and production crew . The episode was written by new head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith .
In the episode , the newly regenerated Doctor ( Matt Smith ) crashes his time and space machine , the TARDIS , into the small English village of Leadworth , where he meets a young Scottish girl named Amelia Pond ( Caitlin Blackwood ) . The Doctor is forced to leave , but promises Amelia he will return in five minutes . However , he arrives twelve years late and is confronted by the grown @-@ up Amelia , now known as Amy ( Karen Gillan ) , who does not trust him . He attempts to gain her trust to help return the shape @-@ shifting alien Prisoner Zero to the galactic police , the Atraxi , before they destroy the planet .
The episode is the debut of Smith as the eleventh incarnation of the Doctor and Gillan as his new companion . It also introduced Arthur Darvill as Amy 's boyfriend Rory Williams , who would later become a main cast member . The show 's tradition is for the Doctor to rest after he regenerates , but Moffat decided to have him save the world instead . The episode sets up the main story arc of the series by introducing the cracks in the universe . " The Eleventh Hour " was seen by 10 @.@ 08 million viewers in the UK , the highest rated premiere since " Rose " . It also attracted popularity on the online BBC iPlayer and on BBC America in the United States . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who welcomed Smith and Gillan into the series .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from the end of " The End of Time , Part 2 " , the newly regenerated Doctor crash @-@ lands his damaged TARDIS in Leadworth , in 1996 . He meets seven @-@ year @-@ old Amelia Pond . While waiting for the TARDIS to self @-@ repair , he explores his new face , and discovers that while he has a distaste for many foods , his new body likes the taste of " fish custard " ( a dish he invented which consists of fish fingers and custard ) . Amelia then shows the Doctor a scary crack in her bedroom wall . The Doctor discovers it is a crack in time and space itself , briefly opening it to discover an Atraxi prison . The Atraxi send a psychic message to the Doctor that " Prisoner Zero has escaped " . Then the TARDIS 's cloister bell is heard ; the Doctor races back to his machine , needing to travel in time to prevent its systems from overheating , and promises Amelia that he will return in five minutes . Amelia hastily packs a suitcase and waits near where the TARDIS had previously landed .
The Doctor lands the TARDIS outside Amelia 's house , unaware 12 years have passed . On searching the house , he is knocked out and wakes up handcuffed and without his sonic screwdriver . He discovers his assailant is a much older Amelia , now going by the name Amy . Her fascination in waiting for his return led her to create toys and stories about him , and she was ridiculed by other villagers . The Doctor then reveals to Amy that Prisoner Zero has been hiding in a room in her house that she had never noticed , due to a perception filter . After venturing into the room , she frees the Doctor and grants him his sonic screwdriver . They dodge an attack by Prisoner Zero and flee the house .
Shortly afterwards , the Atraxi arrive in orbit , alerted by the Doctor 's arrival , and issue an ultimatum : if Prisoner Zero does not " vacate the human residence " , meaning the Earth , " the human residence will be incinerated " . Meeting Amy 's boyfriend Rory , the Doctor realises that Prisoner Zero , a multiform that can take the form of any unconscious being by forming a telepathic link with them , is borrowing the forms of a nearby hospital 's coma patients . The Doctor uses a laptop to gatecrash an online meeting of scientific experts discussing the Atraxi situation and send instructions to them .
The Doctor races to the hospital , just in time to save Amy and Rory from Prisoner Zero . The Doctor reveals his plan : he has created a computer virus that will broadcast the number " zero " across the world . It is tied to Rory 's phone , which contains images of the coma patients , identifying Prisoner Zero in whatever form it may take . Prisoner Zero reveals it has one more form that is not on Rory 's phone . Prisoner Zero knocks out Amy and transforms into the Doctor and young Amelia , whom he was able to link with during the years of the Doctor 's absence . The Doctor realises that Amy can hear him speaking and manipulates her subconscious to remember the form of Prisoner Zero she had seen in her house . This forces Prisoner Zero to revert to his true form ; it is identified by the Atraxi and captured . Before being transported away , Prisoner Zero warns the Doctor that " Silence , Doctor ... silence will fall . " The Atraxi fleet leaves , but the Doctor , invoking the Shadow Proclamation , orders their return and reprimands them for threatening the planet . The Doctor shows the Atraxi images of the many past alien invaders who have attempted to seize or destroy the Earth , but who have been defeated by his past incarnations , causing the Atraxi to take him at his word , and " run . "
The Doctor finds the TARDIS and departs before Amy or Rory can catch up . The Doctor later returns to Amy 's house , finding that another two years have passed . Though Amy is still upset , she readily accepts his offer to travel together , as long as he can return her the next day . In response to why he chose her , he declares that he is lonely , although he is shown analyzing the crack and possibly wants to monitor his new companion . As the TARDIS dematerialises , the viewer is shown Amy 's bedroom , where , alongside her toys and drawings of the " raggedy Doctor , " lies her wedding dress .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and casting = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " , marked several production changes . Steven Moffat succeeded Russell T Davies as executive producer and head writer . Piers Wenger and Beth Willis replaced Julie Gardner as executive producer . A new logo was incorporated into a new title sequence with a new variation of the theme tune , composed by Murray Gold . By the end of " The Eleventh Hour " , the Doctor has a new sonic screwdriver and the TARDIS sported a new interior and exterior , similar to the one used from 1963 @-@ 1966 . The previous TARDIS interior was shown at the beginning of " The Eleventh Hour " ; the Time Rotor on the console had to be rebuilt due to the explosive special effects that were used in The End of Time .
The End of Time saw the end of David Tennant 's tenure of the Doctor and his regeneration into Matt Smith . Moffat was originally looking to cast a middle @-@ aged actor , but he and Wenger went with the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Smith in what they considered an easy decision . Karen Gillan was cast as the Doctor 's new companion Amy Pond ; she had previously appeared in the fourth series episode " The Fires of Pompeii " and was suggested to Moffat by casting director Andy Pryor . Gillan auditioned for the role in both her natural Scottish and English accents . Only after Gillan was cast was Amy made Scottish .
The young Amy , known as Amelia , was played by Karen Gillan 's real @-@ life cousin Caitlin Blackwood . Though Gillan recommended Blackwood , the young actor first had to undergo rigorous auditions , lacking any formal acting experience . " The Eleventh Hour " was also the debut of Arthur Darvill as Rory Williams , who became a regular in the sixth series . Moffat stated that what stood out about Darvill 's audition was " just how funny " he was . EastEnders star Nina Wadia was chosen for the part of the doctor at the Leadworth Hospital . Wadia speculated that she was cast because she had worked with Adam Smith before . Patrick Moore appears as himself in the video conference with a brief speaking part , though not all his lines survived the final cut . The man above Moore is the brother of Adam Smith . Marcello Magni , who played a man Prisoner Zero impersonates that barks like his dog , had already worked as a canine impersonator .
= = = Writing = = =
The title of the episode is a play on words , referring both to the introduction of the eleventh Doctor and to the fact that he was nearly too late , the connotation of the phrase . In the DVD commentary , Moffat said it was originally titled The Doctor Returns , and that it was the most difficult script he had ever written , as he had to introduce a new Doctor , a new companion , convince the audience that it was both a new and an old show , and deliver a fast @-@ paced story . While traditionally the Doctor rests after he regenerates , Moffat thought it would be fun to make him save the world instead . He described it as a comedy of a man whose day keeps getting worse and worse . Believing that London and companions from London had become a clichΓ© and the audience had become bored with it , Moffat set the episode in the fictional village of Leadworth . Moffat , a Scot , debated whether to locate the episode in a village in Scotland . He ultimately decided on England , in keeping with the notion of Amelia as an unconventional girl .
Throughout the episode , the Doctor behaves erratically , as he gradually gets used to his new body and tastes while developing a new personality . Willis stated that he " finally clicks into place " after picking out his new outfit . " The rooftop scene was not in the original script ; the Doctor simply ran away from the ward and returned to the TARDIS . Moffat felt that he did not really have a formal introduction , and that more could be made of the costume , as many previous Doctors had picked theirs out quietly . The main story arc is the Doctor meeting the grown @-@ up Amy . Moffat felt that over time the relationships between the Doctor and his companions had become too adult . He wanted to create a childlike relationship like that between Peter Pan and Wendy , rather than boyfriend and girlfriend . He believed this was the kind of relationship viewers had with the Doctor , regardless of their age . When the Doctor returns for Amy , she is a very different person from the seven @-@ year @-@ old he had met before . Moffat explains that she developed a tough element and had become distrustful and cynical due to him not returning as promised , forcing her to accept that he was an imaginary friend . Rory was completely in love with Amy , but Amy wanted adventures before admitting she loved him , too . Moffat described Rory as someone who had grown up in the shadow of Amy 's imaginary Doctor .
Moffat was inspired by a crack in his son 's bedroom wall and developed the idea into the main story arc for the fifth series . He thought that a child might think that something interesting lived inside such a crack . The hidden room in Amelia 's house was based on Moffat 's recurring childhood dream of a nonexistent hidden room in his grandmother 's house . Moffat was keen to give the monster a giant eyeball , and commented that the Atraxi 's design β a giant eyeball on a star β was easy for children to draw , as he used to draw Doctor Who monsters as a child . These aspects reflect Doctor Who 's " domestically @-@ scaled menace " principle . Moffat wrote a scene that explained Prisoner Zero 's crime , but cut it because he figured no one would care .
The opening sequence , in which the Doctor barely hangs onto the crashing TARDIS as it flies over London , was later added to the script to bridge from the conclusion of The End of Time to the TARDIS 's crash into Amy 's garden . Moffat thought it would be funny if they showed him hanging out of the TARDIS and nearly crashing into London , which would start an episode set in a small town in a big way . Moffat also referenced the scene from A.A. Milne 's The House at Pooh Corner , where Tigger claims to like everything , but then proceeds to reject all food offered to him until he finally finds that he likes extract of malt . Moffat 's variant had the newly regenerated Doctor reject a variety of foods , with the exception of fish fingers with custard , offered to him by the young Amy . Moffat felt that appealing to children was important to the show 's success . The scene where the Doctor creates the virus using Jeff 's laptop was originally set in a classroom where the Doctor used the students ' computers ; this was changed for production reasons . In the episode , the Doctor snaps his fingers to open the TARDIS , a trick his previous incarnation learned from River Song in " Silence in the Library " / " Forest of the Dead " . He also repeats the lines " wibbley @-@ wobbley , timey @-@ wimey " and " some cowboys in here " from the Moffat @-@ written episodes " Blink " and " The Girl in the Fireplace " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for the episode took place in September 2009 . Though it is the first episode of the series , " The Eleventh Hour " was not the first to be shot . It was filmed in the third production block , after the completion of episodes 2 @-@ 5 . As Smith was aware of how his Doctor would act in the following episodes , he used this one to establish the character . The plan was to retain traces of Smith 's predecessor , but the executive producers wanted Smith to be " stranger " . The episode was directed by Adam Smith , who was attracted to the " brilliant script " and working with Matt Smith after seeing him on stage . Smith was asked to direct " the same but make it a bit different β the producers didn 't want it to be radically different , but they did want it to be different " . The goal was to make it more " cinematic " and magical , and Smith took inspiration from E.T. and Tim Burton 's work .
Amelia 's house was designed to appear " spooky but ordinary " and reminiscent of a castle . Most scenes based in Leadworth were filmed in Llandaff village in Cardiff on 29 September , 5 β 7 October , and 20 November 2009 . Photographs were taken on 5 October for the stop @-@ frame animation sequence representing the Doctor 's thought process . As the stills were taken by members of the crew and not computers the result was not perfect , which Adam Smith thought provided an " organic " feel . Plagued by torrential rain , the crew returned on 20 November to shoot the final Leadworth scenes . The production crew heavily dressed the area , adding flowers , street signs and souvenirs specific to Leadworth .
The Doctor hanging out of the TARDIS was filmed with Smith in front of a greenscreen , while the aerial footage of London was achieved with a helicopter . Smith stated that the scene was hard to visualise as it relied heavily on computer @-@ generated images . Nearly every scene in the sequence is a visual effects shot , including a 3 @-@ D TARDIS flying over London and a CG Doctor hanging out of the TARDIS in the aerial shots . Moffat realised that the Millennium Dome was visible in the final footage , and so the scene could not be set in 1996 before it had been built . Instead of a reshoot , Moffat explained that the TARDIS could be just about to go back in time and materialise in Amelia 's garden . In post @-@ production , 30 tracks of sound effects , music composed by Murray Gold specifically for the sequence , and Smith 's " grunting and groaning " were added . The primarily music @-@ led sequence was produced by Nikki Wilson , who receives a " special thanks " credit .
While Amelia waits for the Doctor in the garden , the camera returns to her house where something , presumably Prisoner Zero , darts past the camera . It is actually Smith in footage intended for the finale , " The Big Bang " , but when it did not fit into that episode it was recycled here . Originally the scene where the Doctor confirms that he is the man she remembers by showing her the apple she gave him that day was cut due to pacing issues and that the fact had been established in a previous scene . The previous scene was then cut and the apple scene returned . Due to the rain , the scene where the Doctor tries to gain the Atraxi 's attention with his sonic screwdriver had to be simplified . Adam Smith based the style of the confrontation on a Western film . The destruction of the sonic screwdriver shortly after was achieved with a spark effect concealed inside the screwdriver , activated by an electrical charge that reached the screwdriver by an electrical wire that ran up Smith 's sleeve and connected to a receiver . Special effects head Danny Hargreaves then used a remote control to activate the device . Contrary to reports , the effect did not injure Smith . The " fish fingers and custard " scene was shot in 12 takes . The fish fingers were actually a breaded coconut @-@ flavored food item ; Smith estimated that he had eaten some 14 of them .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Eleventh Hour " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 3 April 2010 . Overnight figures reported that 8 million watched the episode on BBC One and the simulcast on BBC HD . Final consolidated figures rose to 9 @.@ 59 million on BBC One and 494 @,@ 000 on BBC HD , making the final rating for the episode 10 @.@ 08 million viewers , the most @-@ watched premiere since " Rose " and the eighth highest rated episode since Doctor Who 's 2005 return . The episode was second for the entire week on BBC One and number four for the week across all channels . The episode earned an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
The episode was also popular on BBC 's online iPlayer . Within one week of broadcast , " The Eleventh Hour " received 1 @.@ 27 million hits on BBC 's online iPlayer service , the record for most requests in a week . It went on to become the most requested episode of 2010 with 2 @.@ 241 million views ; Doctor Who was named the most watched programme of the year on the service .
" The Eleventh Hour " was first broadcast in the US on BBC America on 17 April 2010 and in Canada on the same date on Space . It set a record for BBC America , with an average of 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and 0 @.@ 9 million in the adults aged 25 β 54 demographic . The episode aired in Australia on 18 April on ABC1 . It could also be viewed on ABC 's website iView two days prior to the television air date , on 16 April . The show was broadcast two weeks after airing in Britain , as the BBC required a fortnight to edit down the Doctor Who Confidential : Cut Down . There was no room for the accompanying Doctor Who Confidential due to the hour @-@ long running time , but ABC holds the rights and has made it available on iView . The episode aired in New Zealand on 2 May on Prime .
" The Eleventh Hour " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray with the following episodes " The Beast Below " and " Victory of the Daleks " on 7 June 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " received positive reviews from critics . The Mail on Sunday reviewer Sinclair McKay called " The Eleventh Hour " a " deft first episode " that was " packed with one @-@ liners and an even more fantastical feel than of late . But it had that old reassuring combination of intense Britishness , quirkiness and a sense of the macabre " . He also praised Gillan 's " winning " performance and Smith 's adaption to the role , concluding , " Smith might turn out to be one of the best Time Lords of the lot " . Benji Wilson , for The Daily Telegraph , wrote " It was ridiculous but it felt right : mad , alien , brand @-@ new but very old . A + to the casting director . A + to Smith " . He also said that Gillan " 110 per cent nailed it " . Though he compared Prisoner Zero 's low @-@ budget CGI makeup to a " draught excluder " , he said that Moffat " turned a weakness into a strength " by having Prisoner Zero take the form of humans .
Daniel Martin of The Guardian called " The Eleventh Hour " " an absolute triumph " and the fact that " the story wisely doesn 't waste too much time with an unstable regeneration " . Though he praised Smith , he commented he was " still not feeling " the " Geronimo ! " catchphrase . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern believed it was " obvious " that Smith 's Doctor would be " up there with the greatest " and also praised Gillan , though he was unsure of the rescored theme tune . He also praised Moffat 's script for " [ offering ] funny lines ... directorial flourishes and a host of blink @-@ and @-@ miss star turns " . Zap2it 's Sam McPherson gave the episode an A + , saying that it was " definitely " his favourite and praised the debut of Smith , Gillan and the redesigned TARDIS . Paul Kerton , also of the site , praised Adam Smith for " [ handling ] the episode beautifully " , the depth in Amy 's character , and Matt Smith 's take on the role . However , he thought the downside to the episode were the " slightly poor effects " and " somewhat lightweight story " , and while he called the new title sequence " absolutely beautiful " , he was unsure of the new variation of the theme tune .
Dave Golder of SFX magazine gave " The Eleventh Hour " five out of five stars , thinking that Moffat captured " the way children perceive the Doctor " and praising the debuts of Smith and Gillan . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps gave the episode an A- , explaining that he liked Smith " a lot " but was not sure if the Eleventh Doctor was separate enough from the Tenth yet . He called Gillan " instantly winning " and that the story was " no exception " from Moffat 's typical " exceptionally strong narratives , keen sense of character , and efficient plotting " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune stated that the episode " works " as an introduction , though it could be " almost too jokey at times " . Though she felt the series was in good hands with Smith and Gillan , she derided the Atraxi for being " alarmingly static and ultimately uninteresting " and the story 's " little substance " . IGN 's Matt Wales rated the episode 8 out of 10 , praising it for easily fitting into the show 's continuity , especially with Smith 's portrayal of the Doctor . However , he thought the " calamity plot " was the " weakest link in an otherwise superb opening episode " and the " whole bunch of disparate elements ... never [ gelled ] into a satisfying whole " . Though he said it was not perfect with " a saggy midsection and slightly naff CGI effects " , he thought it was still " wondrous in so many ways " . New York Times reviewer Mike Hale wrote that the episode worked like " a well @-@ oiled piece of machinery " , but it came across as " routine " with " none of the over @-@ the @-@ top exuberance " of Davies ' run . While he noted that Gillan " looks promising " , he felt that Smith was too much like Tennant and would " [ need ] to start shaping his own take on the role " .
Den of Geek selected the episode as Doctor Who 's highlight in their " Best TV Episodes of 2010 " article . In 2011 , after the airing of the next series , Digital Spy called the episode " still Smith and Moffat 's finest hour " . Digital Spy also named " The Eleventh Hour " the seventh best episode of the entire programme in 2013 .
The episode attracted some criticism from viewers who complained that Amy 's character and occupation as a kissogram was " too sexy " for a family programme . Gillan defended her character , claiming that girls Amy 's age often wore short skirts and it showed the character had confidence , while executive producer Piers Wenger said , " The whole kissogram thing played into Steven 's desire for the companion to be feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number . Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with , but she isn 't promiscuous " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Mariah Carey ( album ) =
Mariah Carey is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on June 12 , 1990 by Columbia Records . Its music incorporates a range of contemporary genres with a mix of slow ballads and dance tracks . Originally , Carey wrote four songs with Ben Margulies , which solely constituted her demo tape . While altered and partially re @-@ sung after being signed to Columbia , all four songs made the final cut for the album . Aside from Margulies , Carey worked with a range of professional writers and producers , all of whom were hired by Columbia CEO , Tommy Mottola . Mariah Carey featured production and writing from Rhett Lawrence , Ric Wake and Narada Michael Walden , all of whom were top record producers at the time . Together with Carey , they conceived the album and reconstructed her original demo tape .
Upon release , the album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented Carey 's voice and technique , as well as the album 's content . It became a commercial success as well , topping the Billboard 200 album chart for eleven consecutive weeks . Mariah Carey was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of nine million copies in the United States . The album experienced similar success in Canada , where it topped the charts and was certified seven @-@ times platinum . Mariah Carey fared well in other worldwide territories , reaching the top ten in the Netherlands , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden and United Kingdom . Worldwide , the album has sold more than 15 million copies .
Five singles were released from the album , four of which became number @-@ one hits on the Hot 100 . " Vision of Love " was chosen as the album 's lead single , topping the charts in Canada , New Zealand , and the United States . The song was critically lauded , and was regarded as one of the strongest debut singles by a female singer . The album 's second single , " Love Takes Time " was also well received and peaked the charts in Canada and the US . With the following two singles , " Someday " and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " reaching number one in the US , Carey became the first artist since The Jackson 5 to have their first four singles top the charts in the United States .
= = Background = =
In 1988 , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Carey moved out of her mother 's house in Long Island , and into a small apartment in Manhattan . She had a demo tape consisting of four songs , which she had written during her high school years with Ben Margulies . As 1988 unfolded , Carey , still without a record deal , struggled to draw the attention of record executives in New York . While working several jobs , she continued writing and producing music with Margulies , making changes and additions to the demo . After months of difficulty , Carey met with singer Brenda K. Starr , and soon began singing back @-@ up for her . Eventually , Starr began hearing what she described as " glimpses " of Carey 's voice throughout sessions , and noticed her " gifted voice " . She realized Carey was capable of achieving success , but only needed help to break through into mainstream music .
One night , Starr took Carey to a record industry gala , attempting to convince a record label executive to listen her demo . Jerry L. Greenberg , president of Atlantic Records took notice of her . As Carey handed him the record , Tommy Mottola quickly grabbed the tape , insisting that he would deal with " the project " . As Mottola got into his limousine later that evening , he played Carey 's demo and quickly realized the talent that he had just discovered . He quickly returned to the event , but a discouraged Carey had already left .
After a week of tracking her down through Starr 's management , Mottola got in touch with Carey and brought her over to Columbia Records . After meeting with Carey and her mother Patricia for the first time , Mottola said , " When I heard and saw Mariah , there was absolutely no doubt that she was in every way destined for super @-@ stardom . " After a few brief meetings , Carey was signed to Columbia in December 1988 .
Mottola had assumed the top position at Sony , the parent label of Columbia , and began taking the company through various stages of change . One he felt was very important for the label 's success was to discover a young and very talented female vocalist , to rival Whitney Houston from Arista Records , or a pop star to match Madonna , who was signed to Sire Records at the time . He felt that Carey represented both . Mottola 's confidence in Carey led him to hire a range of talented and well @-@ known musicians and songwriters to assist with Carey 's demo , as well as to create new material . Among them were Ric Wake , Narada Michael Walden and Rhett Lawrence .
= = Recording and composition = =
Carey and Ben Margulies began writing prior to Carey 's signing , and had composed over fourteen songs ; seven of which earned a place on the album . Originally , Carey and Margulies planned to produce the entire album as well , an idea her label did not permit . On the album , Carey worked with a range of producers and writers , including from Ben Margulies , Rhett Lawrence , Narada Michael Walden , Ric Wake and Walter Afanasieff ; the latter would continue working extensively working with Carey on future projects . As production for the album began , Carey worked with Walden in New York , where they produced " I Don 't Wanna Cry " . While he described Carey as " very shy , " he noted how professional she was for someone her age . Additionally , Carey wrote " There 's Got to Be a Way " during her first recording session with Wake . During the session , they wrote four songs , but they only produced the latter song for the album . After flying to New York and working with Carey , Walden was astonished by her voice . Together , they collaborated on transforming many of the demo 's songs into more commercial recordings , which took place in Tarpan Studios in San Rafael , California . For her work with Lawrence , Carey traveled to New York once again . In the studio , she presented him with the demo of " Vision of Love " which she had written with Margulies years prior . Lawrence saw " potential " in the song , but he did not think much of it in its early stages . He described the song 's sound as having a " fifties sort of shuffle " . According to Lawrence , Carey needed a more contemporary sound , so they met in the studio alongside Margulies and producer Chris Toland . They added a new arrangement to the original chord progression , while Carey changed the song 's melody and key . Afterwards , Margulies added few drum notes to the arrangement , including additional guitar and bass notes .
When Carey worked with Walden on " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , they worked on several other songs . Together , they decided to " slow down the tempo " and create a " crying type of ballad , " one which according to him , featured a direct inspiration from gospel genres . After they completed the song , Lawrence noted how much of a perfectionist Carey was . He said that after finishing the song , she returned to the studio the following week , all in order to correct " one line " that troubled her . As one of the four original songs she gave to Mottola , " Someday " became Wake 's favorite from the start , " I loved that song right from the beginning ... Then Mariah called me one day and said ' I 'd love to do it if you want to do it . ' It was great , I 'm glad she called me . " During its recording , Carey revealed how the song came into existence . She had been working on the demo with Margulies in his studio . As he began playing different notes on the electric keyboard , Carey directed him on the chord changes , while providing the chorus , lyrics and melody . In " All in Your Mind " , Carey does a great vocal performance , doing staccatos up to F7 . According to the artist , her voice " split " while doing those ornaments . While she thought to remove it from the song 's recording , Wake and Walden were very impressed by the vocal flips , claiming that it would fit in perfectly .
The debut album was completed and being mastered when Carey wrote " Love Takes Time " with Ben Margulies . Margulies said , " It was sort of a gospelish thing I was improvising , then we began working on it . It was on a work tape that we had ... and we recorded a very quick demo . It was just a piano vocal demo - I played live piano , and she sang it . " Carey was on a mini @-@ tour of ten states , playing acoustically with a piano player and three back @-@ up singers . While on a company plane , she played the demo of " Love Takes Time " for Columbia Records president Don Ienner . " All the important guys were on the plane , " Margulies said . " Tommy Mottola , Ienner , and Bobby Colomby . " Carey was told the song was a " career @-@ maker , " and that it had to go on the first album . She protested - her album was already being mastered , and she intended this ballad for her next release .
The demo was sent to producer Afanasieff . When Carey flew west to work with Narada Michael Walden on some tracks for her first album , Tommy Mottola and Don Ienner were impressed with Afanasieff 's work and gave him an executive staff producer job with the label . " I guess to see if he made the right choice , ( Tommy ) called me up one day , " remembers Afanasieff . " He said , ' We 've got this Mariah Carey album done , but there 's a song that she and Ben Margulies wrote that is phenomenal , and I want to try everything we can to put it on the album . ' I said , ' What do you want me to do ? ' and he said , ' You only have a couple of days , but are you ready to cut it ? ' I couldn 't believe the opportunity that it was . I 'd never produced anything by myself up until that time . "
The demo was very close to what Mottola wanted the finished product to be , according to Afanasieff . " We cut the song and the music and the basics in about a day - and the only reason is this deadline . It was do it or we were gonna miss out on the whole thing . We got the tape and recorded everything and we got on the plane and went to New York ( and ) did her vocals . She did all the backgrounds , practically sang all night ... We came back to the studio that afternoon , and we had to fix one line very quickly , and then ( engineer ) Dana ( Jon Chapelle ) and I got back on the plane with the tape , went back to the studio in Sausalito , and mixed it . So it was a three @-@ day process : a day and a half for music , kind of like a day for vocals , and a day for mixing . "
Afanasieff heard from Columbia executives as soon as they received the mix . They wanted Carey 's vocal a little louder , so a remix was quickly completed . The producer asked if the song would still make the debut album , and was told , " We 're going to do our best . "
On the first copies of the album that were printed , " Love Takes Time " was not listed on the cassette or compact disc liner notes , even though the song was on the cassette or CD itself . " ( On ) some of the original first copies of the record , they didn 't have time to print the name of the song , " Margulies laughs . " And so the song 's on there , but it doesn 't say that it 's on there . It was a song that actually was strong enough to stop the pressing ... I don 't know if they had to throw away a few hundred copies . "
= = Critical reception = =
The album received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Ashley S. Battel from AllMusic called the album " extremely impressive " and described the songs as " smooth @-@ sounding ballads and uplifting dance / R & B cuts . " Battel concluded her review with " With this collection of songs acting as a springboard for future successes , Carey establishes a strong standard of comparison for other breakthrough artists of this genre . " Many critics expressed how Mariah Carey was one of the most impressive debuts of the year , praising its songs , lyrics and Carey 's voice and songwriting .
Billboard gave the album a very positive review calling it an " impressive debut , " and writing " Carey convincingly seizes many opportunities to display her incredible vocal range on such memorable tracks as the popular ' Vision of Love . ' " Rolling Stone gave the album praise writing " Carey debuted with an album of uplifting dance pop and R & B ballads , each song 's composition co @-@ credited to Carey and each providing an opportunity to unleash her wide vocal range . " American critic Robert Christgau gave the album a mixed review , writing , " She gets too political in her brave , young , idealistic attack on ' war , destitution and sorrow ' : ' Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . ' Elsewhere she sticks to what she doesn 't know β love.'
Mariah Carey was nominated for the 1991 Grammy Award for Album of the Year , while " Vision of Love " received nominations in the categories of Song of the Year , Record of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Carey won for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and also received the award for Best New Artist .
= = Chart performance = =
Mariah Carey entered the US Billboard 200 at number 80 , and reached the top 20 in its fourth week . The album topped the chart in its 36th week , due to Carey 's exposure at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards , and stayed there for 11 consecutive weeks ; to date , it is the longest stay at number one in Carey 's career . It remained in the top 20 for 65 weeks and on the Billboard 200 for 113 weeks . Mariah Carey was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the RIAA on December 15 , 1999 . The album has sold 4 @,@ 885 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan , which began counting sales after January 1 , 1991 . It became the best @-@ selling album of 1991 in the United States .
In Canada , the album peaked at number one on the Canadian RPM Albums Chart during the week of April 20 , 1991 . To date , Mariah Carey is certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 700 @,@ 000 copies . The album peaked at number six in Australia , where it went double platinum and finished sixth on the ARIA Charts end of 1991 top 50 albums . During the week of September 15 , 1990 , Mariah Carey entered the UK Albums Chart at its peak of number six . After spending 40 weeks fluctuating in the chart , the album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2010 , the album has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
" Vision of Love " was the first single released from the album and became one of the most popular and critically praised songs of Carey 's career . Additionally , " Vision of Love " is credited with bringing the use of melisma to the 1990s and inspiring various future talents . " Vision of Love " was nominated for three 1991 Grammy Awards : Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ( which it won ) , Record of the Year and Song of the Year . The song received the Soul Train Music Award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Female and a Songwriter Award at the BMI Pop Awards . In the United States , it peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , during the week of August 2 , 1990 , staying atop the chart for four consecutive weeks . " Vision of Love " topped the singles chart in Canada and New Zealand as well , and appeared within the top ten in Australia , Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Aside from its chart success , the song was lauded by music critics . In a retrospective review on the album in 2005 , Entertainment Weekly called the song " inspired " and complimented Carey 's use of the whistle register in the song . Additionally , Rolling Stone said that " the fluttering strings of notes that decorate songs like ' Vision of Love ' , inspired the entire American Idol vocal school , for better or worse , and virtually every other female R & B singer since the nineties . " Bill Lamb from About.com said that " ' Vision of Love ' is one of the best songs of Mariah 's recording career [ ... ] It is simply one of the most stunning debut releases ever by a pop recording artist . "
" Love Takes Time " served as the album 's second single . The song became Carey 's second single to top the singles chart in the United States , and third chart topper in Canada . While the song achieved strong success stateside , " Love Takes Time " barely charted inside the top ten in New Zealand and outside the top 20 in Germany , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . " Someday " ( the album 's third single ) followed a similar pattern as " Love Takes Time , " topping the chart in the US and Canada . In Australia , it peaked outside the top 40 , and hit number 38 in France and the UK . " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , the album 's fourth single , also topped the charts in the United States . The song became Carey 's fourth chart topper in the US , finishing number 25 on Billboard 's year @-@ end chart . Aside from peaking at number two in Canada , it charted at number 49 in Australia . A fifth single , " There 's Got to Be a Way " , was released in the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number fifty @-@ four .
= = Promotion = =
Aside from the heavy marketing and promotional campaign held by Sony Music , Carey performed on several television programs and award ceremonies , stateside and throughout Europe . Carey 's first televised appearance was at the 1990 NBA Playoffs where she sang " America the Beautiful " . Soon after , she performed " Vision of Love " back @-@ to @-@ back on both The Arsenio Hall Show and The Tonight Show . In September 1990 , Carey appeared on Good Morning America where she performed an a cappella version of " Vision of Love , " alongside the Billy T. Scott Ensemble . " Vision of Love " was performed on various other American television shows such as the 1991 Grammy Awards and The Oprah Winfrey Show , as well as European programs such as The Veronica Countdown ( The Netherlands ) and the Wogan Show ( United Kingdom ) . Carey has performed " Vision of Love " on most of her tours , up until her Angels Advocate Tour in 2010 , where it remained absent from the set @-@ list .
Promotion for the album continued with Carey 's follow up singles . " Love Takes Time " was performed on " The Arsenio Hall Show " as well as Carey 's televised performance at " The Tattoo Club . " The third single from Mariah Carey , " Someday " , was performed at the 1991 American Music Awards which helped it reach number one in the United States . Carey 's fourth single " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , reached the top of the Hot 100 without any immediate promotion , as Carey had not performed the song until her Music Box Tour in 1993 . As promotion for Mariah Carey ended , Sony released a fifth single " There 's Got to Be a Way " , in the UK . Most of the albums singles were performed live throughout Carey 's short Music Box Tour . Both " Vision of Love " and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " were performed on Carey 's Asian and European Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Montacute House =
Montacute House is a late Elizabethan mansion with garden in Montacute , South Somerset .
All parts are maintained by the National Trust ( NT ) which subsidise entry fees . Its Long Gallery , the longest in England serves as a South @-@ West outpost of the National Portrait Gallery displaying a skilful and well @-@ studied range of old oils and watercolours .
An example of English architecture during a period that was moving from the medieval Gothic to the Renaissance Classical , and one of few prodigy houses to survive almost unchanged from the Elizabethan era , the house has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building , and Scheduled Ancient Monument . It was visited by 125 @,@ 442 people in 2013 . Designed by an unknown architect , possibly the mason William Arnold , the three @-@ storey mansion , constructed of the local Ham Hill stone , was built in about 1598 by Sir Edward Phelips , Master of the Rolls and the prosecutor during the trial of the Gunpowder Plotters .
The house and its gardens have been a filming location for several films and a setting for television costume dramas and literary adaptations .
Sir Edward Phelips ' descendants occupied the house until the early 20th century . Following a brief period , when the house was let to tenants , one of whom was Lord Curzon who lived at the house with his mistress , the novelist Elinor Glyn , it was acquired by the NT in 1927 .
= = History = =
Montacute House was built in about 1598 by Sir Edward Phelips , whose family had lived in the Montacute area since at least 1460 , first as yeomen farmers before rising in status . The site was bought from the Cluniac Montacute Priory by Thomas Phelips and passed to his grandson , also called Thomas , who started planning the house , but died before it was built and left the completion of the work to his son Edward . Edward Phelips was a lawyer who had been in Parliament since 1584 . He was knighted in 1603 and a year later became Speaker of the House . James I appointed him Master of the Rolls and Chancellor to his son and heir Henry , Prince of Wales . Phelips remained at the hub of English political life , and his legal skills were employed when he became opening prosecutor during the trial of the Gunpowder Plotters .
Sir Edward 's choice of architect is unknown , although it has been attributed to the mason William Arnold , who was responsible for the designs of Cranborne Manor and Wadham College , Oxford , and had worked at Dunster Castle , also in Somerset . Dunster has architectural motifs similar to those found at Montacute . Phelips chose as the site for his new mansion a spot close by the existing house , built by his father . The date work commenced is undocumented , but is generally thought to be c . 1598 / 9 , based on dates on a fireplace and in stained glass within the house . The date 1601 , engraved above a doorcase , is considered to be the date of completion .
Sir Edward Phelips died in 1614 , leaving his family wealthy and landed ; he was succeeded by his son , Sir Robert Phelips , who represented various West Country constituencies in Parliament . Robert Phelips has the distinction of being arrested at Montacute . A staunch Protestant , he was subsequently imprisoned in the Tower of London as a result of his opposition to the " Spanish Match " between the Prince of Wales and a Catholic Spanish Infanta .
The family 's fame and notoriety were to be short @-@ lived . Subsequent generations settled down in Somerset to live the lives of county gentry , representing Somerset in Parliament and when necessary following occupations in the army and the church . This peaceful existence was jolted when the estate was inherited by William Phelips ( 1823 β 89 ) , who in his early days made many improvements and renovations to Montacute . He was responsible for the Base Court , a low service range adjoining the south side of the mansion. and the restoration of the Great Chamber , which he transformed into a library . Later , he was to become insane ; an addicted gambler , he was eventually incarcerated for his own good . Sadly for his family , this was after he had gambled away the family fortune and vast tracts of the Montacute Estate . In 1875 , when his son William Phelips ( 1846 β 1919 ) took control of the estate , agricultural rents from what remained of the mortgaged estate were low , and the house was a drain on limited resources . Selling the family silver and art works delayed the inevitable by a few years , but in 1911 the family were forced to let the house , for an annual sum of Β£ 650 , and move out . The Phelipses never returned .
By 1915 , the original tenant , Robert Davidson , had departed and the house was let to George Curzon , 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston . A later tenant was the American writer Henry Lane Eno , who died at the house in 1928 .
The house was never to be a private residence again . It was offered for sale in 1929 , and at a time when many country houses were being demolished was given a scrap value of Β£ 5 @,@ 882 . With the exception of the Phelips family portraits , the historic contents and furnishing were disposed of , and the house , an empty shell , remained on the market for two years .
Finally , in 1931 , the house was sold to the philanthropist Ernest Cook , who presented it to the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings , and from that Society , it passed to the National Trust . It was one of the Trust 's first great houses . The following year , in 1932 , it opened to the public for the first time . Bare of furnishing and without sufficient funds to maintain it , James Lees @-@ Milne , the secretary of the Trust 's country house committee , described the mansion as an " empty and rather embarrassing white elephant " .
During the Second World War , Montacute was requisitioned by the army , and American soldiers were billeted in the surrounding parkland before the Normandy landings .
= = Architecture = =
Built in what came to be considered the English Renaissance style , the east front , the intended principal façade , is distinguished by its Dutch gables decorated with clambering stone monkeys and other animals .
Architecture during the early English Renaissance was far less formal than that of mainland Europe and drew from a greater selection of motifs both ancient and modern , with less emphasis placed on the strict observance of rules derived from antique architecture . This has led to an argument that the style was an evolution of Gothic rather than an innovation imported from Europe . This argument is evident at Montacute , where Gothic pinnacles , albeit obelisk in form , are combined with Renaissance gables , pediments , classical statuary , ogee roofs and windows appearing as bands of glass . This profusion of large , mullioned windows , an innovation of their day , give the appearance that the principal façade is built entirely of glass ; a similar fenestration was employed at Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire . However , despite the Dutch gables , a feature of the English Renaissance acquired as the style spread from France across the Low Countries to England , and the Gothic elements , much of the architectural influence is Italian .
The windows of the second @-@ floor Long Gallery are divided by niches containing statues , an Italian Renaissance feature exemplified at the Palazzo degli Uffizi in Florence ( 1560 β 81 ) , which at Montacute depict the Nine Worthies dressed as Roman soldiers ; the bay windows have shallow segmented pediments β a very early and primitive occurrence of this motif in England β while beneath the bay windows are curious circular hollows , probably intended for the reception of terracotta medallions , again emulating the palazzi of Florence . Such medallions were one of the Renaissance motifs introduce to English Gothic architecture when Henry VIII was rebuilding Hampton Court and supporting the claim that the English Renaissance was little more than Gothic architecture with Renaissance ornament . At Montacute , however , the Renaissance style is not confined to ornament , the house also has perfect symmetry . Paired stair towers stand in the angles between the main body of the house and the wings that project forward , a sign of modern symmetry in the plan of the house as well as its elevation , and a symptom of the times , in that the hall no longer had a " high end " of greater state .
Montacute , like many Elizabethan mansions , is built in an ' E ' shape , a much @-@ used plan in this era . On the ground floor was the great hall , kitchens and pantries , on the upper floors , retiring rooms for the family and honoured guests . Over the centuries , the layout and use of rooms changed : drawing and dining rooms evolved on the ground floor .
The original approach to the house would have been far more impressive than the picturesque approach today . The east front was then the entrance façade and faced onto a large entrance court . The two remaining pavilions flanked a large gatehouse ; this long @-@ demolished structure contained secondary lodgings . In turn , the entrance court and gatehouse were approached through a larger outer court . The courts were however not fortified , but bordered by ornate balustrading , which with the ogee roofs of the pavilions , which in reality were follies , were a purely ornamental and domestic acknowledgement of the fortified courts and approaches found in earlier medieval English manors and castles .
As in all houses of the Elizabethan era , Montacute had no corridors : the rooms led directly from one to another . This changed in 1787 when stonework from a nearby mansion at Clifton Maybank ( which was being partly demolished ) was purchased by Edward Phelips ( 1725 β 97 ) and used to rebuild Montacute 's west front . This provided the much @-@ needed corridor giving privacy to the ground @-@ floor rooms and first @-@ floor bedrooms . Now , with the new frontage in place , the house was virtually turned around : the " Clifton Maybank " faΓ§ade became the front entrance , and the impressive former front elevation now overlooked a lawn surrounded by flower borders , rather than the original entrance courtyard . The small pavilions with ogee domed roofs that flanked the demolished gatehouse still remain . They may have been intended as banqueting houses , but by the 1630s were used as bedrooms .
= = Interior = =
= = = Ground floor = = =
The addition of the Clifton Maybank corridor , built in the 18th century from stone obtained from another house then undergoing alteration , allowed the principal ground- and first @-@ floor rooms to have some privacy from the servants ' areas and linked the two staircases . It also allowed the house to be turned around by creating a new entrance façade facing west .
The Great Hall , leading off from the corridor , was the most important communal eating and living room , but by the time Montacute was completed the traditional Great Hall was largely an anachronism . Such halls continued to be built , however , albeit as at Montacute on a smaller scale . For the first few years after its completion , the servants continued to dine in the hall , but the family and honoured guests now ate in the Great Chamber above . The hall now served as a room to receive and also for processions to commence to the grander rooms above .
Leading off from the Great Hall are the family 's private Drawing Room and Parlour . In the 16th and early 17th centuries , in a house such as Montacute , the Parlour was where the family would dine , possibly with some of their upper servants . It allowed them not only privacy from dining publicly in the hall , but also less state and pomp than if dining in the Great Chamber above . Like its grander cousin above , the Parlour also had an adjoining principal bed chamber , now the Drawing Room , originally known as the White Chamber and later as the Round Parlour . As fashions and uses changed , and privacy from servants became desirable , like the later Baroque state apartments , these ground @-@ floor rooms lost their original purpose and became a series of seemingly meaningless drawing rooms . The National Trust installed an incongruous 18th @-@ century fireplace from Coleshill House in the Drawing Room in the mid @-@ 20th century . It is now furnished in 18th @-@ century style .
The room on the opposite side of the Clifton Maybank corridor from the Great Hall was originally two rooms comprising the " pannetry " ( sic ) and " buttery . " In a large household the buttery and " pannetry " were part of the offices pertaining to the kitchen , and as at Montacute they were generally close to the Great Hall . The buttery was traditionally the place from which the yeoman of the buttery served beer and candles to those lower members of the household not entitled to drink wine . Montacute 's buttery is typical , as it had a staircase to the beer cellar below . The " pannetry " was the room from which the yeoman of the pantry served bread . By the time of Montacute 's completion , upper servants often dined and entertained visiting servants in the pantry . This layout was a medieval concept and later , as custom dictated that servants withdraw from the principal areas of the house , these rooms became used by the family as reception and private dining rooms . Eventually , in the early 20th century , Lord Curzon amalgamated the two rooms to create the grand , and socially necessary , dining room , which Montacute had lacked since the Great Chamber had been abandoned more than 100 years earlier .
The Servant 's Hall , from which a staircase in the bay window descends to the basement , became the servant 's dining room at the beginning of the 18th century . Outside , the six Doric columns on the East Terrace originally had decorative finials , now replaced by lamps .
= = = First floor = = =
The first floor contains one of the grandest rooms in the house , the Library . The room was formerly known as the Great Chamber ; in a 16th @-@ century mansion , such as Montacute , this room was the epicentre of all ceremony and state : hence , its position at the head of the principal staircase , making it the finale of a processional route . Here , the most important guests would have been received , and where the Phelips dined formally with their guests and where musical entertainments and dancing would take place . The Great Chamber at Montacute contains the finest chimney @-@ piece in the house ; however , its classical statuary depicting nudes are long gone , victims of Victorian prudery . During the 18th century the room was shut up and used a store and permitted to decay ; this explains why in the 19th century it was completely restored in " Elizabethan style . " The strapwork ceiling , panelling and bookcases all date from this period . The only original features remaining are the heraldic stained glass in the windows and the Portland stone chimney @-@ piece . The room contains an ornate carved wooden porch ; installed in the library in the 1830s , it was originally in the parlour below .
At the head of the principal staircase an Anteroom divides the former Great Chamber from what would have been the main bedroom . During the 19th century , this room was furnished as an armoury . The adjoining bedroom , the Garden Chamber , was used as a bedroom by Lord Curzon during the early 20th century , and as such was equipped with a plumbed bath hidden in a wardrobe , one of the few in the house .
Further rooms on this floor include the Crimson Chamber , which together with its small adjoining dressing room formed one room accessed from the Great Chamber . Described in 1638 the " withdrawinge roome " , it was used by the family to withdraw from the more public ceremonies held in the Great Chamber and also could be used to form a suite with the neighbouring bedroom , the Hall Chamber , when eminent guests were entertained in the house .
The Hall Chamber was another of the principal bedrooms ; the adjoining Crimson Chamber originally served as the Hall Chamber 's " withdrawinge roome . " as the room was described in 1638 . As a suite , the rooms were intended to be accessed by a now @-@ blocked door in the Great Chamber . In this way , if an extremely high ranking guest was being entertained , they would then take over the entire suite including the Great Chamber . Although Montacute was equipped for a visiting sovereign , by the time it was completed Elizabeth I was dead and the family 's prominence was waning .
The floor has numerous other smaller rooms . As elsewhere in the house their usage frequently changed according to the requirements of the mansion 's occupants , and room names therefore often changed according to their use and decoration .
= = = Second floor = = =
A notable feature of the house is the 172 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) second @-@ floor Long Gallery , spanning the entire top floor of the house ; it is the longest surviving long gallery in England . The gallery is lit by a continuous wall of glass on its eastern side while its length is extended by oriel windows at each end , which from the exterior appear to cling perilously to the wall , supported only by a small corbel to the masonry .
Long galleries were a feature of large 16th- and 17th @-@ century houses and had many purposes , from entertaining to exercising during inclement weather ; the Phelips children would lead their ponies up these stairs to ride in the gallery . Today , it is used by the National Portrait Gallery to display part of its collection .
Various former bedrooms lead from the Long Gallery , and like the gallery are now hung with paintings on loan from the National Portrait Gallery .
The attic floor above the second floor , which is not open to the public , contains some garret rooms that would always have been secondary bedchambers . It is likely that in the 16th and 17th centuries they would have been occupied by the senior servants ; the lower servants would have slept in any vacant corner or space on the ground or basement floors .
= = Gardens = =
The gardens were well established by 1633 , and by 1667 several walled gardens and courts had been added with established orchards . They were accompanied by stone gate lodges , which were removed in the 18th century .
The garden planting , laid out within the former forecourt and in the slightly sunken grassed parterre square , was the work of Mrs Ellen Phelips , who lived at Montacute from the 1840s to her death in 1911 , and her gardener , Mr Pridham , who had worked for her at Coker Court . The avenue of clipped yews that reinforces the slightly gappy mature avenue of trees stretching away from the outer walls of the former forecourt to end in fields , and the clipped yews that outline the grassed parterre date from that time , though the famous " melted " shape of the giant hedge was inspired by the effects of a freak snowfall in 1947 . The sunken parterre garden design , with its Jacobean @-@ style central fountain , designed by Robert Shekelton Balfour ( 1869 β 1942 ) , is of 1894 ; Balfour 's dated design is conserved in the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects . Mixed borders in the East court were replanted by Phyllis Reiss of Tintinhull in powerful hot colours when the earlier tender colour scheme laid down by Vita Sackville @-@ West proved insipid to modern taste .
There are around 106 hectares ( 260 acres ) of parkland and 4 hectares ( 9 @.@ 9 acres ) of more formally laid out gardens . These are the remains of the 121 hectares ( 300 acres ) of parkland that previously surrounded the house . The gardens and parkland are listed , Grade I , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
= = Present day = =
During the last quarter of the 20th century the gardens and grounds were restored and replanted . The house and village have often featured as locations for films . Several scenes of the 1995 film version of Jane Austen 's novel Sense and Sensibility were filmed at Montacute , as were scenes from the 2004 film The Libertine . The house used as Baskerville Hall for a version of The Hound of the Baskervilles filmed in 2000 for Canadian television . In May β June 2014 the house was used as one of the locations for the BBC 's adaption of Hilary Mantel novel Wolf Hall
In 1975 London 's National Portrait Gallery formed the first of its regional partnerships , a partnership that marries empty large antique spaces with the many paintings the gallery has insufficient space to display . This has seen Montacute 's Long Gallery redecorated and restored and hung with an important collection of 16th- and 17th @-@ century old master portraits .
The Wallace and Gromit short film for 2012 is set at a house that seems to be based on Montacute House . The short was created in celebration of the National Trust and is titled " A Jubilee Bunt @-@ A @-@ Thon " . The fictional location for the earlier Wallace and Gromit film The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit , Tottington Hall , was also based on Montacute House .
From March to October each year the house and grounds are open to the public .
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= Oyster Burns =
Thomas P. " Oyster " Burns ( September 6 , 1864 β November 11 , 1928 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned 15 seasons , 11 of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Wilmington Quicksteps ( 1884 ) , Baltimore Orioles ( 1884 β 85 , 1887 β 88 ) , Brooklyn Bridegrooms ( 1888 β 95 ) , and New York Giants ( 1895 ) . Burns , who predominately played as an outfielder , also played as a shortstop , second baseman , third baseman and as a pitcher . Over his career , Burns compiled a career batting average of .300 with 870 runs scored , 1 @,@ 392 hits , 224 doubles , 129 triples , 65 home runs , and 834 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1 @,@ 188 games played . Although the majority of his career was spent in the major leagues , Burns also played in minor league baseball . He made his MLB debut at the age of 19 and was listed as standing 5 feet 8 inches ( 173 cm ) and weighing 183 pounds ( 83 kg ) .
Burns , nicknamed " Oyster " because he sold shellfish in the off @-@ season , was described as a " loudmouth " and having " an irritating voice and personality " . Nevertheless , Burns led the Bridegrooms to an American Association championship in 1889 and a National League pennant in 1890 . After retiring from baseball , Burns died on November 11 , 1928 in Brooklyn , New York .
= = Biography = =
Thomas P. Burns was born on September 6 , 1864 , in Philadelphia . His parents , Patrick and Mary Burns , were both Irish immigrants .
In 1883 , Burns began his professional baseball career as a pitcher with Harrisburg of the minor @-@ league Interstate Association . On the year , Burns posted an earned run average ( ERA ) of 2 @.@ 30 over 20 games pitched , 15 of which were starts . When he wasn 't pitching , Burns played second and third base .
Burns began the 1884 season playing for the Wilmington Quicksteps , but left the team after they joined the Union Association , and joined the Baltimore Orioles . Burns β the youngest player on the Orioles and the seventh youngest player in the American Association β batted .298 . Despite playing in only 35 games on the season , Burns recorded a team @-@ leading six home runs over 141 plate appearances . He continued his career with the Orioles in 1885 , batting .231 with five home runs and 37 RBI , and pitching to a 7 β 4 win β loss record . His offensive struggles led him to be demoted to the Newark Domestics for the 1886 season , where he helped the Domestics win the Eastern League pennant . By 1887 , Burns had reentered the majors for the Orioles and became the team captain until he threw a baseball at an opposing pitcher following a groundout ; he was later fined $ 25 ( $ 658 in 2011 ) . On the season , he recorded nine home runs β good for third in the American Association . Burns 's 19 triples were enough to tie him with five others for the league lead , and his 140 games played were tied for the league lead with teammate Blondie Purcell .
After playing in 79 games for Baltimore , Burns was transferred to the Brooklyn Bridegrooms by Harry Von der Horst , the owner of both clubs . While he was playing for the Bridegrooms , the New York Clipper described Burns as " the noisiest man that ever played on the Brooklyn team . His voice reminds one of a buzz @-@ saw . " Burns remained with the Bridegrooms for the 1889 season . He recorded team highs in on @-@ base percentage , batting average , and home runs hit while the Bridegrooms , with an 89 β 48 record , became American Association champions . In the World Series , the Bridegrooms played the New York Giants of the National League . Burns hit a three @-@ run home run to win the fourth game of the series , giving Brooklyn a 3 β 1 series lead . However , the Giants would take the World Series after winning five straight games .
In 1890 , the Bridegrooms had moved to the National League . Burns , now 26 , led the league in home runs ( 13 ) and RBI ( 128 ) . He hit for the cycle on August 1 , 1890 β becoming the first Bridegroom to do so . The team won the National League pennant , and faced the Louisville Colonels in the 1890 World Series . The series ended in a 3 β 3 β 1 tie : bad weather led to the cancellation of more games . After the 1891 season , Burns 's 1892 RBI total was third in the league , and his hits , doubles , triples , and batting average marks were the second highest on the Brooklyn team , now named the Grooms . In 1893 , between games of a doubleheader , a teammate of Burns , Tom Daly , was sleeping in center field when Burns stabbed Daly with a penknife . Daly awoke and turned on the knife , leading to a severed tendon which kept Daly out for two weeks . Burns ' 1894 batting average ( .355 ) was the highest of his career ; his hit and run totals were also the second highest in his career . Burns continued to play for the club until 1895 , when he played for the New York Giants . In his final MLB year , Burns batted a combined .258 over 25 games .
After the 1895 season , Burns 's contract was purchased by the minor @-@ league Newark Colts . The Colts would win the Atlantic League division with an 82 β 61 record , two games above the Hartford Bluebirds . The next season , Burns served as a player @-@ coach for the Bluebirds , where he led the team in doubles and batting average . In his final managerial year , Burns coached Portland , Maine of the New England League .
After retiring from baseball , Burns lived in Brooklyn until his death on November 11 , 1928 . He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in North Arlington , New Jersey .
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= Mascarene grey parakeet =
The Mascarene grey parakeet or Thirioux β s grey parrot ( Psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the Mascarene islands of Mauritius and RΓ©union in the western Indian Ocean . It has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands .
Subfossil bones of the Mascarene grey parakeet found on Mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad @-@ billed parrot in the genus Lophopsittacus . Apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other Mascarene parrots . The subfossils were later connected with 17th- and 18th @-@ century descriptions of small grey parrots on Mauritius and RΓ©union , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus Psittacula .
The Mascarene grey parakeet was grey , had a long tail , and was larger than other species of the Psittacula genus , which are usually green . The grey parrots were said to be easy to hunt , as the capture of one would result in its calling out to summon the whole flock . They were also considered to be crop pests and being such easy prey meant that they were extensively hunted . Coupled with deforestation , this pushed them into extinction . This had happened by the 1730s on RΓ©union and by the 1760s on Mauritius .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1973 , English ornithologist Daniel T. Holyoak described some small parrot bones that he had discovered among a collection of broad @-@ billed parrot ( Lophopsittacus mauritianus ) subfossils in the Zoology Museum of Cambridge University . These remains had been collected by Louis Etienne Thirioux in the early 20th century , who had found them in a cave on Le Pouce mountain , on the Mascarene island of Mauritius . They were placed in the zoology museum by 1908 . Apart from their size and robustness , Holyoak did not find the bones to be distinct from those of the Mascarene parrot genera Lophopsittacus , Mascarinus ( the Mascarene parrot ) , Necropsittacus ( the Rodrigues parrot ) , and Psittacula ( which had two or three other species inhabiting the Mascarene islands ) . Because of their similarities , Holyoak considered all these genera to be closely related .
Holyoak provisionally placed the new species in the same genus as the broad @-@ billed parrot , naming it Lophopsittacus bensoni ; the name honours the English ornithologist Constantine W. Benson , for his work on birds from the Indian Ocean , and in classifying bird collections at Cambridge . Holyoak also mentioned the possibility that the remains could represent a small subspecies of Necropsittacus or a wide @-@ beaked form of Mascarinus , but maintained that they were best considered as belonging to a distinct species . The holotype specimen is a mandibular symphysis , with the specimen number UMZC 577a . Other known remains include upper mandibles , a palatine bone , and tarsometatarsi . The species has since been excavated from the Mare aux Songes swamp on Mauritius , from which subfossils of most of the other endemic bird species have been identified as well .
Old , vague accounts of several different now @-@ extinct Mascarene parrots have created much confusion for the scientists who subsequently examined them . In 1967 , American ornithologist James Greenway speculated that 17th- and 18th @-@ century reports of then @-@ unidentified grey parrots on Mauritius referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot . In 1987 , English ecologist Anthony S. Cheke correlated the L. bensoni subfossils with the grey parrots reported from Mauritius and RΓ©union , which had previously been ignored , or considered references to broad @-@ billed parrots . Further study of contemporary accounts indicates that the broad @-@ billed parrot was not grey , but had multiple colours .
In 2007 , the English palaeontologist Julian P. Hume reclassified L. bensoni as a member of the genus Psittacula , as he found it to be generically distinct from Lophopsittacus , but morphologically similar to the Alexandrine parakeet ( Psittacula eupatria ) . Hume also pointed out that an engraving accompanying the 1648 published version of Dutch Captain Willem Van West @-@ Zanen 's journal may be the only definite depiction of this species . The engraving shows the killing of dodos ( depicted as penguin @-@ like ) , a dugong , and parrots on Mauritius in 1602 ; the depicted method of catching parrots matches that used on Mascarene grey parakeets according to contemporary accounts . Hume coined the new common name " Thirioux 's grey parrot " in honour of the original collector . The IOC World Bird List instead used the common name " Mascarene grey parakeet " .
The population of grey parrots described from the island of RΓ©union ( referred to as Psittacula cf. bensoni by Hume ) is thought to have been conspecific with that on Mauritius . Until subfossils of P. bensoni are found on RΓ©union , it cannot be confirmed whether the grey parrots of the two islands belonged to the same species . In the 1860s , French naturalists Charles Coquerel and Auguste Vinson suggested these could have been parrots of the genus Coracopsis , but fossils of neither that genus nor Psittacula have ever been found on RΓ©union . Whilst Coracopsis parrots are known to have been introduced to that island in the 1700s , a population did not become established . While no live or dead Mascarene grey parakeets are known with certainty to have been exported , Hume has suggested that a brown parrot specimen β once housed in Cabinet du Roi but now lost β may have been a discoloured old Mascarene grey parakeet , or perhaps a lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) . This specimen was described by Comte de Buffon in 1779 .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on morphological features , the Alexandrine parakeet has been proposed as the founder population for all Psittacula species on Indian Ocean islands , with new populations settling during the species 's southwards colonisation from its native South Asia . Features of that species gradually disappear in species further away from its range . Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are descended from South Asian ancestors , and Hume has proposed that this may also be the case for all the parrots there . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of these less isolated islands .
Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared common features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume has suggested that they all have a common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini could have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . Other members of the Psittacula genus from the Mascarenes include the extant echo parakeet ( Psittacula eques echo ) of Mauritius , as well as the extinct RΓ©union parakeet ( Psittacula eques eques ) , and Newton 's parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) of Rodrigues . A 2011 genetic study found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of RΓ©union was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin . A 2015 genetic study by Jackson et al. found the other Mascarene Psittacula taxa to group within a clade of rose @-@ ringed parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) subspecies from Asia and Africa .
= = Description = =
Contemporary accounts describe the Mascarene grey parakeet as a grey , long @-@ tailed parrot . Subfossils show that its beak was about 30 % longer than that of the sympatric echo parakeet , and that it had a comparatively broad beak . Members of the Psittacula genus commonly have large , red beaks , and long tail feathers , with the central ones being the longest . It also differed from its congeners in other osteological details . It was skeletally similar to the Alexandrine parakeet , but some of its bones were larger and more robust . Its colouration also separated it from all other members of Psittacula , the majority of which are green or partially green .
Based on subfossils , the Mascarene grey parakeet was smaller than the broad @-@ billed parrot and the Rodrigues parrot , but similar in size to the Mascarene parrot , though with a wider beak . The mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) was 2 @.@ 7 β 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 β 0 @.@ 11 in ) thick along the mid @-@ line , the palatine ( part of the palate ) was 31 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 22 in ) , and the tarsometatarsus ( bone in the lower leg ) was 22 β 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 β 0 @.@ 89 in ) . The grey parrots from RΓ©union were described as being larger than the sympatric RΓ©union parakeet .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
According to Anthony S. Cheke and Julian Hume , the anatomy of the Mascarene grey parakeet suggests that its habits were largely terrestrial . Like the extinct Mauritian duck and the Mascarene coot , it appears that the Mascarene grey parakeet inhabited both Mauritius and RΓ©union . Both populations were said to be easy to hunt by capturing one individual and making it call out , which would summon an entire flock .
Willem van West @-@ Zanen , who visited Mauritius in 1602 , was the first to mention grey parrots there , and he also described the hunting methods used :
... some of the people went bird hunting . They could grab as many birds as they wished and could catch them by hand . It was an entertaining sight to see . The grey parrots are especially tame and if one is caught and made to cry out , soon hundreds of the birds fly around ones β ears , which were then hit to the ground with little sticks .
The Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe was on RΓ©union in 1618 , and described the same behaviour , in the first account of the grey parrots there :
Coming further inland we found [ a ] great number of geese , doves , grey parrots and other birds , also many land @-@ turtles ... And what we most did marvel at , when we held one of the parrots and other birds and squeezed it till it screamed , there came all the others from thereabout as if they would free it and let themselves be caught as well , so we had enough of them to eat .
In 1705 , Jean Feuilley gave a more detailed description of the parrots of RΓ©union and their ecology :
There are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . Some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ Mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ Mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ RΓ©union parakeet ] . There are great quantities , especially in the Sainte @-@ Suzanne area and on the mountainsides . They are very good to eat , especially when they are fat , which is from the month of June until the month of September , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius and RΓ©union were lost after the arrival of humans , so that the ecosystems of these islands are severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , the islands were entirely covered in forests , very little of which remains today , because of deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . On Mauritius , the Mascarene grey parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . On RΓ©union , it lived alongside the RΓ©union ibis , the hoopoe starling , the Mascarene parrot , the RΓ©union parakeet , the RΓ©union swamphen , the RΓ©union owl , the RΓ©union night heron , and the RΓ©union pink pigeon .
= = Extinction = =
To the sailors who visited the Mascarene islands from 1598 onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . The others likely all vanished due to a combination of extensive hunting and deforestation . Due to being easily caught , the Mascarene grey parakeet was often hunted in abundance by early visitors to Mauritius and RΓ©union . As they fattened themselves from June to September , they were particularly sought after at this time of the year . An account by Admiral Steven van der Hagen from 1606 even suggests that the grey parrots of Mauritius were sometimes killed for amusement .
In the 1720s , Sieur Dubois stated that the grey parrots on RΓ©union were especially sought after during their fat season , and also claimed they were crop @-@ pests :
Grey parrots , as good [ to eat ] as the pigeons ... All the birds of this island have their season at different times , being six months in the low country and six months in the mountains , when returning , they are very fat and good to eat ... The sparrows [ Foudia ] , grey parrots , pigeons and other birds , bats [ Pteropus sp . ] , cause plenty of damage , some to cereals others to fruit .
The fact that they were said to damage crops probably contributed to them being hunted . The French settlers began to clear forests using the slash @-@ and @-@ burn technique for deforestation in the 1730s , which in itself would have had a large effect on the parrot population and on the other animals that nest in tree cavities .
The grey parrots appear to have been common on Mauritius until the 1750s in spite of the pressure from humans , but since they were last mentioned by Charpentier de Cossigny in 1759 ( published in 1764 ) , they had probably become extinct shortly after this time . The grey parrots of RΓ©union were last mentioned in 1732 , also by Cossigny . This final account gives an insight as to how he regarded the culinary quality of parrots from RΓ©union :
The woods are full of parrots , either completely grey [ Mascarene grey parrot ] or completely green [ RΓ©union parakeet ] . They were eaten a lot formerly , the grey especially , but both are always lean and very tough whatever sauce one puts on them .
The 1648 engraving possibly depicting this species was captioned with a Dutch poem , here in English naturalist Hugh Strickland 's 1848 translation :
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= Marge Be Not Proud =
" Marge Be Not Proud " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 1995 . In the episode , Marge refuses to buy Bart the new video game Bonestorm , so he steals it from a local discount store . Bart ends up being estranged from his mother when he gets caught , and fearing that he has lost her love , he decides he must regain it .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore . Scully got the inspiration for it from an experience in his childhood when he shoplifted . Lawrence Tierney guest starred in the episode as Don Brodka . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Christmas is approaching , and Bart wants nothing more than the new , must @-@ have video game Bonestorm . However , Marge refuses to buy it , due to the violence and potential distraction from Bart 's schoolwork . Discouraged , Bart makes attempts to buy the game himself but with no luck and upon discovering Milhouse has the game , Bart visits the local Try @-@ N @-@ Save discount store where Jimbo Jones and Nelson Muntz convince him to steal a copy of the game . On his way out of the store , Bart is caught by the store 's strict security guard , Don Brodka , who leave 's Homer and Marge a message about the incident and tells Bart to leave and never return or risk spending " Christmas in juvenile hall " .
Despite Bart 's efforts to keep the shoplifting a secret , Marge takes the family to the same store to get their annual Christmas picture taken ( still unaware of Bart 's shoplifting ) . Bart tries to avoid detection and trouble , but is spotted by Brodka , who shows a disbelieving Marge and Homer the security tape of Bart shoplifting . Disappointed by Bart 's actions and concerned that she may be mothering him too much , Marge decides that he is old enough to make his own decisions and becomes distant with him . Bart is left out of family activities , such as decorating the Christmas tree and making snow statues , and he ends up spending time with Milhouse 's mom for motherly comfort . When Milhouse 's mom has had enough of this and fearing he has lost Marge 's love , Bart decides he must regain it .
Bart then returns home with a bulge in his coat . Marge confronts him , believing he was shoplifting again , and she finds Bart has hidden a picture of himself bought as a Christmas present for her . Marge is overjoyed , and in gratitude for receiving this early Christmas gift , gives Bart his β the new game that a store salesman told her " all the kids want " , the golf simulator Lee Carvallo 's Putting Challenge . Though profoundly underwhelmed , Bart looks into his mother 's expectant face and thanks her .
= = Production = =
Mike Scully , the writer of the episode , based it on experience in his childhood . Scully was twelve years old when he paid a visit to the Bradlees discount department store in West Springfield , Massachusetts . A " bunch of guys " were shoplifting at the store and they " pressured " Scully into doing it as well . He ended up getting caught outside , and " had one of the most traumatic moments " of his life . " To this day it still terrifies me , " Scully said . He jokingly told Variety , " It 's great to be paid for reliving the horrors of your life . "
The episode was directed by Steven Dean Moore . The show runner of The Simpsons at the time , Bill Oakley , thinks this is one of the most " beautifully " directed episodes of the show . He called the " hand @-@ colouring " very " vivid " and " bright " . The episode is the first Christmas episode the producers had done since the first episode of the show , " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . Oakley said that nobody in the writing staff wanted to " try on Christmas " because it was " so famous " as being the first episode .
Lawrence Tierney guest starred in the episode as Don Brodka . Another former show runner , Josh Weinstein , called Tierney 's appearance " the craziest guest star experience we ever had " . In addition to yelling at and intimidating employees of the show , Tierney made unreasonable requests such as abandoning his distinctive voice to do the part in a southern accent and refusing to perform lines if he did not " get the jokes " . Despite this , Oakley and Weinstein thought Tierney did a good job . Weinstein said , " He certainly delivered and he 's one of my favorite characters we have had [ on the show ] . " After Tierney 's death , the episode " The Old Man and the Key " was dedicated to him .
" Marge Be Not Proud " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 1995 . The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes , titled : Bart Wars . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Mayored to the Mob " , " Dog of Death " , and " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " . The episode was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the Bart Wars set . The episode was included in The Simpsons season 7 DVD set , which was released on December 13 , 2005 . Oakley , Weinstein , Scully , Moore , and Silverman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Marge Be Not Proud " finished 47th in the ratings for the week of December 11 to December 17 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following a boxing match , Fox NFL Sunday , and The X @-@ Files .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A Christmas special in all but name , and a touching look at the relationship between Marge and her growing Bart. " Dave Foster of DVD Times said that " thanks to the keen eye of the writers and the rarely shown good side of Bart , this episode works very well as both an amusing insight to the way a child β s mind works and as a strong relationship building episode between Bart and Marge . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that despite being one of the " sappier " episodes at times , it " still packs some terrific laughs " . Jacobson commented that he " absolutely lost it when Homer β s drawing of a robot grilling a hot dog was seen - it β s funnier if you see it - and Lawrence Tierney β s guest turn as the store detective adds hilarious grit to the show . " He added that the episode does not " fall into the classic " category , " but it offers more than enough entertainment to satisfy . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when a depressed Bart makes a snowman from the dirty , leftover snow under the car . She called the scene " amazingly pathetic " . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B. In 2011 , Richard Lawson of The Atlantic Wire cited it as the best Christmas episode of The Simpsons , noting that " it 's very sweet and there are some funny videogame jokes . " He added that the episode " features a terrific guest starring voice performance from the late Lawrence Tierney . " The author Charlie Sweatpants , author of the online book Zombie Simpsons : How the Best Show Ever Became the Broadcasting Undead and creator of the blog Dead Homer Society , claims that it is the " one bad episode " in season 7 , due to being an example of a very special episode ; however , he claims that it is only bad by the " towering " standards of the earlier seasons .
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= HMS Defender ( H07 ) =
HMS Defender was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her assigned station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Defender was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before World War II began in September 1939 . She briefly was assigned to West Africa for convoy escort duties in 1940 before returning to the Mediterranean . The ship participated in the Battles of Calabria , Cape Spartivento , and Cape Matapan over the next year without damage . Defender assisted in the evacuations from Greece and Crete in April β May 1941 , before she began running supply missions to Tobruk , Libya in June . The ship was badly damaged by a German bomber on one of those missions and had to be scuttled by her consort on 11 July 1941 .
= = Description = =
Defender displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Defender carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diamond had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Ordered on 2 February 1932 under the 1930 Naval Programme , Defender was laid down at the Vickers Armstrongs yard in Barrow as Yard Number 674 on 22 June 1931 , and launched on 7 April 1932 . She was completed on 31 October 1932 having cost a total of Β£ 223 @,@ 979 , excluding the Admiralty supplied equipment such as guns , ammunition and wireless outfits . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September β November 1933 .
Defender was refitted at Devonport Dockyard between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived at Hong Kong in January 1935 . The ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from November 1935 to June 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis and then visited ports in East Africa for a month before returning to the China Station . Her boilers had to be retubed at Singapore between 5 November 1938 and 26 January 1939 and her superheaters were repaired at Hong Kong from 31 January to 14 March .
With the outbreak of war , Defender was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and arrived in Alexandria on 19 September . She was assigned to contraband control duties until she was transferred to Gibraltar in January 1940 . The ship patrolled the Portuguese coast until she was transferred to Freetown in mid @-@ February to escort convoys off the West African coast . Defender was transferred back to Gibraltar in April , escorting the light cruiser Neptune en route , and arrived there on 23 April 1940 . The next month , she joined the 10th Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet and escorted Convoy US @-@ 2 carrying Australian and New Zealand troops to the Middle East through the Red Sea from 12 to 17 May .
On 27 June , together with the destroyers Dainty and Ilex , she sank the Italian submarine Console Generale Liuzzi south east of Crete . Defender participated in the Battle of Calabria on 9 July as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers without suffering any damage . Together with her sisters Dainty and Diamond , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July .
On 6 November , Defender , together with the destroyers Decoy , Hasty , Havock , Hereward , Hero , Hyperion , Ilex , Janus , Jervis , Mohawk , and Nubian screened the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet , which provided distant cover for the passage of Convoy MW3 from Egypt to Malta and Convoy ME3 from Malta as part of Operation MB8 . During Operation Collar in late November , Defender , the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Coventry and four other destroyers sailed from Alexandria to rendezvous with a convoy coming from Gibraltar . After reaching Malta on 26 November , the destroyers joined the battleship Ramillies , and the light cruisers Berwick and Newcastle of Force D and sailed to rendezvous with Force H , also coming from Gibraltar . The next day , after the British forces had combined , they were spotted by the Italians and the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento was fought .
On 7 January 1941 , Defender escorted Convoy MW.5 with her sister Diamond and the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Calcutta from Alexandria to Malta during Operation Excess . The ship was refitted in Malta from 4 February to 19 March and participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan on 27 β 29 March . During Operation Demon , the evacuation of Allied troops from Greece , she escorted Convoy GA15 on 29 β 30 April from Souda Bay , Crete , to Alexandria . An Italian destroyer and two torpedo boats attacked the convoy at night as it was transiting Kaso Strait east of Crete , but were rebuffed by the defenders without inflicting any damage . The following month Defender assisted in the evacuation of troops from Crete to Egypt after the Germans invaded on 22 May ( Operation Merkur ) .
On 10 June , Defender , and the other three ships of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla , arrived off the Lebanese coast to reinforce Royal Navy forces supporting Operation Exporter , the invasion of Vichy French @-@ controlled Syria and Lebanon , but the ship was not engaged during her time off Lebanon and Syria . Later that month , she began escorting convoys to and from Tobruk and on 29 June the Australian destroyer Waterhen was badly damaged by Italian Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers off Tobruk . Defender took Waterhen in tow , but the next day she capsized and sank .
= = = Loss = = =
On 11 July 1941 , Defender was returning from Tobruk in company with the Australian destroyer Vendetta . They were attacked by a single Junkers Ju 88 bomber of I. / Lehrgeschwader 1 piloted by Gerhard Stamp on a reconnaissance flight along the coast before dawn . The bomber scored a near @-@ miss on Defender which detonated under the ship , just forward of the engine room . The shock broke the ship 's back and flooded the engine room , although there were no casualties among her crew or passengers . Vendetta took Defender in tow , leaving a skeleton crew aboard the damaged ship , but she started to break up and Vendetta was forced to scuttle her with a torpedo and gunfire off Sidi Barrani about five hours later .
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= Humphrey Marshall ( politician ) =
Humphrey Marshall ( 1760 β July 3 , 1841 ) was a politician from the U.S. states of Virginia and Kentucky . He served in the state legislatures of both states and represented Kentucky in the United States Senate from 1795 to 1801 . He was a member of the Marshall political family which included his cousins Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall , federal judge James Markham Marshall , and noted educator Louis Marshall . All the prominent members of this family were Federalists . Marshall was also the father of Congressman Thomas Alexander Marshall and the grandfather of Congressman and Confederate General Humphrey Marshall .
During the Revolutionary War , Marshall served with the Virginia State Regiment of Artillery . After the war , he moved to the Kentucky District of Virginia where he became extremely wealthy as a farmer and surveyor . He was a delegate to two of the ten Kentucky statehood conventions and was one of only three delegates from the Kentucky District to vote in favor of ratifying the U.S. Constitution at the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention . After Kentucky gained statehood in 1792 , Marshall was elected to the state legislature despite the fact that he was a Federalist and zealously antireligious β both of which made him unpopular with many Kentuckians . The Federalist cause received a slight boost when federal forces were successful in quashing the Whiskey Rebellion and ending the Indian threat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers . As a result , the General Assembly elected Marshall to the U.S. Senate in 1794 . As a senator , Marshall clung to Federalist principles , supporting the Alien and Sedition Acts and voting to ratify the Jay Treaty . For the latter action , his constituents stoned him and tried to throw him in the Kentucky River . In 1801 , he was defeated for reelection by John Breckinridge . He would once again be elected to the state legislature in 1807 , 1808 , and 1823 . During the 1809 legislative session , a disagreement between him and Henry Clay led to a duel between the two men in which both were slightly wounded .
As early as 1786 , Marshall had been implicating several prominent Kentucky politicians in a scheme to take Kentucky out of the Union and into alliance with Spain . After the expiration of his Senate term , he resumed these charges through the pages of the Western World newspaper . His allegations resulted in a legislative investigation of Kentucky Court of Appeals judge Benjamin Sebastian , who was found to be receiving a pension from Spain and resigned from the bench . Federal judge Harry Innes was also a target of Marshall 's allegations , and the two became embroiled in a legal battle that lasted almost a decade . Innes hired William Littell to write and publish a book giving Innes ' version of his dealings with Spain . Marshall countered by publishing his History of Kentucky in 1812 . Although blatantly partisan , it became the most widely read history of the state at the time . Marshall and Innes ended their legal battle with an agreement , signed in 1815 , that neither would publish anything negative about the other again . Innes upheld his part of the agreement , but in 1824 , years after Innes ' death , Marshall published an updated edition of his History of Kentucky which was just as vitriolic as the previous version had been . Marshall faded from public life during his later years . He died at the home of his son in Lexington , Kentucky on July 3 , 1841 .
= = Early life = =
Humphrey Marshall was born in Orlean , Virginia in 1760 . He was the son of John and Mary ( Quisenberry ) Marshall and apparently named in honor of his maternal grandfather , Humphrey Quisenberry . Marshall 's father was a man of meager means despite being a member of a prominent Virginia family . Little is known of Marshall 's early years , but one tradition holds that he had no formal education during his childhood and that his cousin Mary ( later , his wife ) taught him to read . Eventually , John sent Humphrey to live with his brother , Thomas Marshall , and to be educated by the same Scottish tutors that educated Thomas ' children . Among Thomas ' children ( Humphrey 's cousins ) were John Marshall , future Chief Justice of the United States ; James Markham Marshall , future federal judge ; and Louis Marshall , a noted educator . In addition , one of Thomas ' daughters , Nancy Marshall , married Joseph Hamilton Daveiss , a future U.S. Attorney . After receiving his education , Marshall became a surveyor .
On January 4 , 1778 , Marshall enlisted as a cadet for a three @-@ year term in the Virginia State Regiment of Artillery for service in the Revolutionary War . The unit was under the command of his uncle Thomas , who held the rank of colonel . Marshall was assigned to the company of Captain Elisha Edwards . Most of his service records have been lost , but according to his pension application , he held the rank of third lieutenant later in 1778 , first lieutenant in 1779 , and on December 18 , 1789 , he was promoted to the rank of captain lieutenant . When the three @-@ year commitment of Marshall and his fellow soldiers expired , their unit was disbanded ; on February 6 , 1781 , Marshall was designated a supernumerary officer . He ended his military service in 1782 , and was rewarded with 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) of land on the western frontier .
In 1782 , Marshall moved to present @-@ day Kentucky and became deputy surveyor of Fayette County , again serving under his uncle Thomas . Settling in Lexington , he purchased a lot in 1783 . On September 18 , 1784 , he married his cousin , Anna Maria ( " Mary " ) Marshall , Thomas ' daughter , . The couple had two sons , Thomas Alexander Marshall , who became a US Congressman ; and John Jay Marshall , father of Congressman and Confederate general Humphrey Marshall . They also had a daughter who was killed in infancy by lightning .
Shortly after the creation of Woodford County , Marshall moved within its borders and was appointed county surveyor by Virginia Governor Beverley Randolph . In this capacity , he surveyed and claimed significant additional tracts of land , becoming one of Kentucky 's most wealthy citizens . According to tradition , Marshall was known to boast that he could ride from Frankfort to Versailles , a distance of some 20 miles ( 32 km ) , and never enter a tract of land that he didn 't own . He was also supposed to have boasted that he measured his silver coinage by the peck , not having time to count the individual coins .
Marshall did not believe in rule by the masses , frequently expressing his disdain for the common people . His sharp wit and lack of tact in writing did little to endear him to his neighbors . Like most of the members of his family , he subscribed to Federalist principles , although the majority of Kentuckians were affiliated with the Democratic @-@ Republicans . He was also ostracized by many of his neighbors for being zealously antireligious . He wrote pamphlets denouncing religion of all kinds and published them at his own expense . His later descendants were so embarrassed of his anti @-@ religious writings that they had his personal papers burned .
= = Early political career = =
A 1788 letter in the Kentucky Gazette indicated that Marshall had unsuccessfully sought election to the Virginia General Assembly , although the year of the contest is not given . The letter continued that the defeat convinced Marshall that he could not win elected office in Fayette County and that he subsequently lobbied for the creation of Bourbon County , hoping that he might gain an office in that new county . When the county was created in 1785 , he immediately applied to become the county lieutenant , but that office had apparently already been promised to someone else . Marshall applied for appointment as deputy lieutenant , and received the appointment .
Although it is not known when Marshall began studying law , nor who his tutor was , he was practicing as early as 1785 . In that year , he discovered a flaw in the original 1774 survey of the town of Frankfort . Due to the flaw , several choice acres of land in the northern part of Frankfort remained unclaimed , and Marshall quickly entered claims for them at the land office . Marshall also gained membership in the Kentucky Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge , a Danville @-@ based society dedicated to disseminating information to farmers , mechanics , and other common citizens . He apparently was not accepted for membership in the Danville Political Club , although some sources report that he was accepted as a member after initially being rejected .
Around 1786 , Marshall gained public attention by expressing his suspicions about James Wilkinson 's negotiations with Spain for free use of the Mississippi River and the possibility of Kentucky 's secession from the United States to affiliate with Spanish possessions . For the remainder of his life , he vigorously opposed Wilkinson and anyone else he suspected of being involved with the Spanish Conspiracy .
Marshall was a delegate to a 1787 convention in Danville to consider separating Kentucky from Virginia . There were , at that time , two primary positions with regard to the question of separation . The first favored an immediate separation with or without Virginia 's consent , while the other favored waiting for legal approval from Virginia and the U.S. Congress . Marshall was among the latter group , and his uncle Thomas was the primary spokesman for this position . Biographer Anderson Chenault Quisenberry notes , " As to Humphrey Marshall 's prominence in the Danville convention , or as to what notable part he acted there , nothing is said by the historians . "
In 1788 , Marshall announced his candidacy to be a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention . The proposed constitution was very unpopular in all parts of Kentucky except Jefferson County , but Marshall openly favored its ratification . Hoping to wreck Marshall 's candidacy , a man named Jordan Harris charged that Marshall had , in a letter to John Crittenden , Sr. , acknowledged himself to be a liar . In the pages of the Kentucky Gazette , Marshall called on Harris to publish the letter . Harris was so insulted by Marshall 's demand that he threatened to cane him . At their next meeting , Harris fired two pistols at Marshall . Neither shot injured Marshall , who retaliated by beating Harris with a stick severely enough to force his retreat from the encounter .
Despite his favorable position toward the proposed federal constitution , Marshall was chosen as a delegate to the convention from Fayette County . On June 25 , 1788 , he joined Jefferson County delegates Robert Breckinridge and Rice Bullock in voting for ratification . Ten other Kentucky delegates opposed ratification and one abstained . The final convention vote was 89 β 79 in favor of ratification . It was reported that even the Jefferson County delegates were beginning to waver in their commitment to the proposed constitution , but that Marshall steeled their resolve and also influenced several delegates from other parts of Virginia to favor it .
In 1789 Marshall was elected again to a convention to consider separation from Virginia . After Kentucky 's separation from Virginia in 1792 , he was elected to represent Woodford County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . The most notable piece of legislation he authored was an act that simplified the classification and taxation of land . He was reelected to his position in 1794 . He opposed allocating men or supplies for George Rogers Clark 's proposed attack upon the Spanish at New Orleans . The attack was promoted by Edmond @-@ Charles GenΓͺt , and Marshall accused sitting governor Isaac Shelby of complicity in the matter .
= = U.S. Senate = =
Partly as a result of Marshall 's attacks on prominent Democratic @-@ Republicans such as Governor Shelby , the Federalists gained influence in the state legislature . The Federalist cause was also bolstered by the quashing of the Whiskey Rebellion by federal forces in 1794 , and the federal victory over the Northwest Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20 , 1794 . Later that year , the Federalists in the General Assembly nominated Marshall for the United States Senate . On the first ballot , Marshall garnered 18 votes , compared with 16 for Democratic @-@ Republican John Breckinridge , 8 for John Fowler , and 7 for incumbent John Edwards . On the runoff ballot that followed , Marshall defeated Breckinridge by a vote of 28 β 22 .
Shortly after Marshall departed for Philadelphia , the temporary national capital , George Muter and Benjamin Sebastian , both justices of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , published a pamphlet stating that Marshall had perjured himself in a Court of Appeals case between himself and James Wilkinson . No known copies of the pamphlet are extant , and related surviving documents do not relate the exact nature of the charges . Marshall , being out of the state , was unable to reply immediately to the charges , and his enemies in the General Assembly drafted a memorial to the U.S. Senate requesting an investigation of the charges . On December 16 , 1795 , the memorial was approved by the General Assembly and transmitted to the Senate . The Senate appointed a committee to recommend action on the memorial , and the committee found that the charges against Marshall were not specific , that the authors had provided no evidence upon which to evaluate the charges , that no one was empowered to prosecute the charges in the Senate , and that further action by the Senate was inappropriate . On March 22 , 1796 , the Senate approved the committee 's report by a vote of 16 β 8 . Muter and Sebastian never filed formal charges against Marshall for perjury .
Although Marshall was not frequently active in debate on the Senate floor , he was a strong advocate of nearly every Federalist measure considered in that body . Many of these were unpopular in Kentucky , including the Alien and Sedition Acts . Marshall 's vote in favor of the Jay Treaty was particularly unpopular with his constituents , and when he returned home after the vote , a mob of angry citizens in Frankfort stoned him . Next , the mob tried to throw Marshall into the Kentucky River . Marshall appealed to the Baptists in the crowd , declaring , " Now allow me to say that according to Baptist rules , it is irregular to administer baptism before the receiver gives his experience . If you are determined to proceed , let the exercise be performed in decent order . Let me give my experience first . " The thought of hearing a religious testimony from Marshall , a noted atheist , so humored the mob that it disbanded in a fit of laughter , and Marshall escaped . In the subsequent senatorial election , however , Breckinridge defeated Marshall for his seat .
= = Later political career = =
After the expiration of his Senate term in 1801 , Marshall returned to his farm and his law practice , seldom acting in the realm of public affairs . In 1806 , however , he resumed his attacks on suspected participants in the Spanish Conspiracy . His articles in the newly founded Frankfort Western World newspaper β written under the pseudonym " Observer " β prompted the Kentucky House of Representatives to form a select committee to investigate his charges . The committee found that Benjamin Sebastian had received a pension of $ 2 @,@ 000 a year from Spain in return for his involvement in the Conspiracy . Federal judge Harry Innes , a frequent object of Marshall 's suspicions , testified against Sebastian before the committee . Sebastian resigned his position on the Court , and the House declined to pursue further action against him . Marshall also unsuccessfully lobbied through his brother @-@ in @-@ law , U.S. Attorney Joseph Hamilton Daveiss , for a grand jury to indict Aaron Burr for attempting to enlist Kentuckians to participate in the Burr conspiracy . Marshall 's intensified attacks on Judge Harry Innes in the pages of the Western World became so severe that they prompted Innes to sue both Marshall and Western World co @-@ founder Joseph M. Street for libel . Both cases dragged on for several years in the courts .
Buoyed by his involvement in the exposure of Benjamin Sebastian , Marshall declared his candidacy for a seat in the Kentucky House in 1807 . Friends of Innes and others implicated by Marshall in the Spanish Conspiracy recruited Nathaniel Richardson , a lawyer turned farmer , to oppose Marshall . Approximately 1 @,@ 100 votes were cast , and Marshall was elected by a majority of 11 votes . Marshall 's biographer records that " the records of Humphrey Marshall 's services in the Legislature at this time are scanty , the journals of the session being not in existence , as it is believed ; or , at any rate , extremely rare . " He is believed to have introduced a measure that reduced the limitation on ejectments from twenty years to seven .
= = = Duel with Henry Clay = = =
Marshall sought reelection in 1808 and defeated his opponent , John M. Scott , by a majority of 11 votes , identical to his margin the previous year . Expectations of a confrontation between Marshall and fellow representative Henry Clay were high during the session , owing to tensions between the two dating back to Clay 's defense of Aaron Burr during the Burr conspiracy . George D. Prentice , in his biography of Clay , records that some of Clay 's allies in the House refused to vote for him for Speaker of the House so that Clay would remain on the chamber floor , from whence he was better able to counter Marshall . Clay 's chair in the chamber was separated from Marshall 's only by that of General Christopher Riffe , the representative from Lincoln County , who was described as " a burly German of almost gigantic size and herculean strength " .
A few minor quarrels passed between Marshall and Clay early in the session , but the relative peace dissolved in December 1808 when Clay introduced a resolution calling for all members of the General Assembly to wear " homespun " garments as a means of encouraging local manufacturing and reducing British imports . Although Clay typically wore finer garments than Marshall , for the duration of the debate on his motion , Clay wore simple homemade clothes . Marshall regarded the measure as demagoguery and employed a tailor to make him a suit of British broadcloth to wear on the House floor . The two men exchanged insults on the House floor and would have commenced a physical altercation if not for Riffe 's intervention . Instead , on January 4 , 1809 , Clay challenged Marshall to a duel , which he quickly accepted .
The duel took place in Indiana on January 19 , 1809 , just across the Ohio River from Shippingport , Kentucky . Joseph Hamilton Daveiss provided the pistols . On the first shot , Marshall missed and Clay lightly grazed Marshall 's stomach . Marshall missed again on the second shot , and Clay 's pistol misfired . Marshall 's third shot lightly wounded Clay in the thigh , while Clay missed Marshall entirely . Clay insisted that the two each take another shot , but Marshall declined on grounds that Clay 's injury put him on unequal footing with his adversary , and the matter was ended .
= = = Expulsion from and reelection to the House = = =
Tensions between Marshall and Innes continued during Marshall 's tenure in the legislature . When Innes , acting on a recommendation from an advisory jury , dismissed an unrelated fraud case brought by Marshall in Innes ' district court , Marshall retaliated by convincing Congressman John Rowan to file an impeachment petition against Innes in the House of Representatives . Innes countered by having his son @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Bodley , pursue a censure of Marshall in the state House . Rowan 's petition against Innes failed , but Bodley 's against Marshall succeeded , and Marshall was expelled from the House in 1808 , only to be re @-@ elected the following year .
Marshall sought reelection in 1810 , but was defeated by George Adams by a margin of 76 votes . From 1812 to 1813 , he served on the Board of Trustees for the city of Frankfort . He made another unsuccessful run for the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1813 , losing to John Arnold .
After a long absence from politics , Marshall was called to one final act of public service . Upon the death of Martin D. Hardin who had been elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1823 but died before he could take office , Marshall pursued an abbreviated campaign for the vacant seat and defeated Jeptha Dudley by a margin of 3 votes . The primary issue of the day was the Old Court β New Court controversy , an attempt by the legislature to abolish the extant Court of Appeals and replace it with a new court in retaliation for overturning a replevin law passed in a previous legislative session . Marshall enjoyed a higher level of support in this election by virtue of his support for the Old Court , which was the prevailing sentiment in his district . His actions in the session , however , appear to have been unremarkable , and he did not seek reelection at the end of his term .
= = Later life and death = =
After his political career , Marshall became more interested in writing . He frequently contributed content to the state 's newspapers and occasionally wrote poetry . He founded the American Republic , the only Federalist newspaper in the state , and published its first issue on June 26 , 1810 . Newspapers sympathetic to the Democratic @-@ Republicans soon derided the American Republic as " The Snake " . Undaunted , Marshall added a rattlesnake and the inscription " Tread Not On Me . For My Country . " to the paper 's masthead . Marshall soon changed the name of the paper to the Harbinger , and eventually sold it to Patrick Darby in 1825 . Darby immediately changed the name of the newspaper again , dubbing it the Constitutional Advocate .
= = = Resolution of legal disputes = = =
Harry Innes ' libel suit against Joseph Street was not fully adjudicated in the Jessamine County Circuit Court until 1811 . The jury found in Innes ' favor and awarded $ 750 in damages , although Innes ' counsel , Henry Clay and Robert Wickliffe , insisted that Innes only desired the vindication of a guilty verdict against Street and would not collect the damages . Soon after , Street shuttered the Western World and moved to Illinois .
As the libel suit against Marshall dragged on in Mercer County Circuit Court , Innes and his allies hired author William Littell to publish Innes ' version of his interactions with Spain . Marshall countered by publishing his History of Kentucky in 1812 . Although blatantly partisan , it became the most popular history of Kentucky at the time . When Street returned to Kentucky to give a deposition in the case in 1814 , Innes swore out a writ against him to collect the damages awarded in his case against Street . Unable to pay , Street was imprisoned .
Innes ' case against Marshall ended in a hung jury in 1814 . Rather than retry the case , Marshall and Innes signed an agreement to end the legal battle in 1815 . The agreement stipulated that neither man would write or publish anything that was disrespectful of the other . Innes upheld his part of the agreement , but in 1824 , eight years after Innes ' death , Marshall published an updated two @-@ volume version of his History of Kentucky that was even more critical of Innes and others he suspected of participating in the Spanish Conspiracy .
= = = Death = = =
Marshall retired from public life altogether after selling the Harbinger in 1825 . His wife had died the previous year , and soon after selling his newspaper , he became paralyzed by a palsy on one side . Thus disabled , he soon moved to Lexington to live with his son , Thomas , then a professor at Transylvania University . He died at his son 's home on July 3 , 1841 . A slaveholder for his entire life , Marshall 's will dictated that all of his slaves be emancipated upon his death . He was buried at Glen Willis , his estate in Leestown , Kentucky . No marker was erected above his grave . In 1888 , the General Assembly allocated $ 300 to rebury Marshall 's remains in Frankfort Cemetery and place a marker above the grave , but his family members asked that his remains be undisturbed .
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= Kenshiro Abbe =
Kenshiro Abbe ( ιΏι¨ θ¬ει , Abe KenshirΕ , 15 December 1915 β 1 December 1985 ) was a prominent Japanese master of judo , aikido , and kendo . He introduced aikido to the United Kingdom in 1955 , and founded the Kyushindo system . Abbe was a graduate of the Budo Senmon Gakko , having studied judo and kendo there . Following an illustrious early career in the martial arts , he served in the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II . He then trained in aikido under its founder , Morihei Ueshiba , for a decade . Abbe held dan ranks in several martial arts , most notably 8th dan in judo , 6th dan in aikido , and 6th dan in kendo . After introducing aikido to the UK , he established several Japanese martial arts councils there during the late 1950s . He returned to Japan in 1964 and remained there for most of the remainder of his life . There are contradictory accounts of Abbe 's final years , but it appears that he was in poor spirits and poor health towards the end .
= = Early life = =
Abbe was born on 15 December 1915 in a village in Tokushima Prefecture , on the island of Shikoku , Japan . He was the son of Toshizo Abbe , who was the local school 's headmaster and a kendo instructor , and his wife , Kote Abbe . The couple had four sons and five daughters , and Abbe was the youngest child in the family . On 4 September 1919 , when Abbe was not yet four years old , his father drowned in a flash flood while training in the mountains . A young schoolteacher , Manpei Hino , subsequently became a father figure for the young boy and introduced him to the martial arts , including sumo . Abbe went on to become a local school champion in sumo .
In 1929 , Abbe began learning judo from Kazohira Nakamoto , a former police officer . That same year , he was promoted to the rank of 1st dan in the art and , unusually , he reached 2nd dan the next year , and 3rd dan the year after that . Thus , at the age of 16 , he became the youngest judo student ever promoted to 3rd dan β an honour he received directly from Shohei Hamano , an instructor of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai ( abbreviated to ' Butoku Kai ' or ' Butokukwai ' ) , which was the official governing body for Japanese martial arts . Abbe also became champion of the Tokushima High School Judo League that year . During his fifth year at the school , Abbe entered a regional tournament involving 30 towns , serving as captain for the team from the town of Kawashima . His speed and agility helped him to many victories , and he received the nickname ' Pegasus ' accordingly .
At his 1st dan judo examination , Abbe had caught the attention of Shotaro Tobata from the Butoku Kai , who had been refereeing at the event . Tobata had suggested to Nakamoto and Abbe that the young man should apply for entry to the renowned Budo Senmon Gakko ( abbreviated to ' Busen , ' and sometimes referred to as ' Busen College ' ) , a specialist college for martial artists . With the additional help of a teacher named Nakano , Abbe now prepared for the entrance examination in Kyoto . Out of all the candidates , of which there were around 300 that year , 20 would be accepted into the judo programme and 20 into the kendo programme . Abbe performed well and was accepted into both programmes .
= = Budo Senmon Gakko training = =
In 1934 , Abbe moved to Kyoto with his mother and his sister Toyoka so that he could attend Busen , training in both the judo and kendo programmes . Abbe learned kendo under the direction of Busen 's head sword instructor , Kinnosuke Ogawa , a master who held the rank of 10th dan . He recalled that his instructor , at the age of 75 years , was so skilled that he could not be touched by any of the students or younger instructors . Every Saturday afternoon at Busen , following tradition , judo tournaments were held . Abbe fought five opponents in succession with each contest lasting five minutes , and he won all or almost all of these matches . In his first year at Busen , he was promoted to 4th dan in judo . In the autumn of his second year there , he was promoted to 5th dan , by which time he was reported to have been fighting 20 opponents in succession .
In May 1935 , Abbe competed in the 5th dan division championship and defeated Masahiko Kimura . This match was one of only four professional career losses for Kimura , who was already well known as one of the best judo competitors in Japan , and would later gain further fame for defeating HΓ©lio Gracie of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu . According to biographers Keith Morgan and Henry Ellis , Kimura was heard to remark after the match that fighting Abbe was " like fighting a shadow . " Abbe was listed at 5 ' 5 " ( 168 cm ) in height and 156 lb . ( 71 kg ) in weight at the time ; Kimura was only an inch taller , but much heavier at 187 lb . ( 85 kg ) . Two years later , during which time Kimura trained hard , he sought Abbe out at the Kodokan and soundly defeated him in a 20 @-@ minute practice session .
While at Busen , Abbe also enrolled in Hajime Tanabe 's philosophy class at Kyoto University ( then known as Kyoto Teikoku Daigaku , or ' Kyoto Imperial University ' ) . During this period , his sister Toyoko began studying TendΕ @-@ ryΕ« naginata under a female instructor named Mitamura Chiyo ( in Japan , arts focusing on the handling of naginata have been practiced almost exclusively by women since the Edo period ) , and she would continue practicing that art for the rest of her life .
Following graduation from Busen , Abbe became an instructor in judo at the college , as well as taking instructor positions with the Osaka police force and a high school in Kyoto . The Butoku Kai promoted him to 6th dan in judo in 1937 .
= = Military service = =
In June 1937 , Abbe enlisted in the Imperial Japanese Army , and was subsequently posted to a garrison in Manchuria . He served there for four years , during which time he was unable to continue training in judo but was able to practise kendo . While abroad , he began formulating his Kyushindo philosophy . His tour of duty ended in 1941 , and he returned to Kyoto , where he met and married his wife Keiko . Abbe did not remain a civilian for long , however , since Japan entered World War II near the end of that year .
Abbe was assigned to a training unit in Tokushima Prefecture , where he studied and mastered jΕ«kendΕ ( bayonet ) . It was around this time that he first met Morihei Ueshiba , founder of aikido , who had also trained in jΕ«kendΕ . Ueshiba was around 60 years old at this time , around twice Abbe 's age . Rogers , Ellis , and Eastman ( 2004 ) give the following account of their first meeting :
It was during a train journey in Japan that Abbe first met Ueshiba . Abbe didn 't know who he was and he reacted to Ueshiba looking at him , saying : " What are you staring at , old man ? " Ueshiba replied : " I know who you are , " to which Abbe modestly retorted : " Everyone knows me , I am Kenshiro Abbe , Champion of All Japan . " Ueshiba then introduced himself as the Founder of Aikido , and was told by Abbe that he didn 't look strong enough to be a martial arts master . Ueshiba then offered Abbe his little finger , and said : " But young man , you look very strong indeed . Please break my finger . " Abbe at first declined , but eventually accepted the challenge , presumably to shut the old man up . Abbe claimed that , as he took hold of the old man 's finger and tried to break it , he found himself on the floor of the carriage and totally immobilised . Whilst on the floor Abbe asked Ueshiba for permission to study under him .
Morgan and Ellis ( 2006 ) give a slightly different account :
While travelling on a train Abbe noticed an older man staring at him who then asked if he was a 5th Dan Judo . Abbe replied β Why yes , how did you know that ? β β Because you have the build of a 5th Dan . So who are you ? β Kenshiro replied : β Everyone knows who I am , I am Kenshiro Abbe , Judo champion of all Japan ! β Yes , I can see that , β the old man replied . The old man continued to talk to Kenshiro much to his annoyance as he wanted to get some sleep . Eventually , the old man put a finger in Kenshiro β s face , β You are so powerful , break my finger ! β Kenshiro was only too happy to oblige . He took the finger , expecting to snap it like a twig , and wham ! He found himself on the carriage floor under the full control of the old man . The old man allowed Kenshiro to get back into his seat . β Who are you ? β Kenshiro Abbe asked . β I am Morihei Ueshiba , the founder of Aikido . β Kenshiro Abbe was astounded at the technique of the old man and requested that he become his student .
Abbe studied aikido under Ueshiba for 10 years , eventually reaching the rank of 6th dan in that art . During this period , the Abbes had two daughters : Junko and Noriko .
In 1945 , the Butoku Kai promoted Abbe to 7th dan in judo and 6th dan in kendo . Following the end of World War II , however , the Butoku Kai and Busen were both closed down . Abbe took up the position of a judo teacher for the Kyoto Prefectural Police Department . He became Chief Instructor of judo for the Kyoto police , and also taught at Doshisha University in that city . After the Abbes had a third daughter , Yayoi , Abbe resigned from the Kyoto police . During this period , he felt that judo in Japan was declining , and ended his association with the Kodokan in the 1950s .
= = Europe = =
In 1955 , Abbe travelled to the United Kingdom . He went at the invitation of the London Judo Society ( LJS ) , and was the first master to teach aikido in the UK . That year , he demonstrated aikido at the LJS and at the Royal Albert Hall in London . Abbe came to experience two problems at the LJS : first , he felt that the students there were more concerned with competition than his theories , and second , he felt that the students did not treat him with the appropriate respect for someone of his rank and experience in the martial arts . According to the International Budo Council ( IBC ) , he founded the IBC in 1955 .
Abbe proceeded to teach aikido at his own dojo ( training hall ) , affectionately known as ' The Hut , ' which was located behind a pub in Hillingdon , London . Training was rigorous and , due to Abbe 's poor command of English , he would often make corrections by using a shinai ( practice sword ) to hit the body part that was out of place ; Ellis recalled that Abbe would say , " My English is poor but my shinai speaks fluently . " Abbe 's approach to self @-@ defence matched his no @-@ nonsense approach to training , and was demonstrated when three youths tried to rob him one evening . Geoff Thomson ( 1998 ) wrote :
He was walking down a quiet suburban street on his way home after his usual evening teaching session . He noticed three youths hovering several yards away on the opposite side of the street . When they approached him he was ready . " Give us your money , or you 'll get hurt " said the leader of the three . Abbe looked at each one in turn , then casually took his wallet out of his jacket pocket , throwing it on the floor between himself and the antagonists . He pointed to the wallet and said , " I am prepared to die for that wallet , what about you ? " The three would @-@ be attackers looked at the wallet on the floor , then at Abbe and then at each other and then moved away . Abbe picked up his wallet and calmly walked home .
Speaking about the incident , Ellis said , " Not a lot of love and harmony from Abbe sensei , simply an attitude and language these thugs understood . "
In 1958 , Abbe founded the British Judo Council ( BJC ) , and he went on to establish the British Aikido Council , British Karate Council , British Kendo Council , and British Kyudo Council . At this stage , he was travelling extensively through the UK and Europe , and also invited Japanese martial art masters to teach in the UK ; these included Mitsusuke Harada ( Shotokan karate ) and Tadashi Abe ( aikido ) . During this period , Abbe 's family remained in Japan . Robinson ( 2007 ) wrote , " [ he ] did invite his family to live with him in London however they refused , apparently not at all attracted by the life style that Kenshiro offered them in England . "
Abbe was involved in a car accident in 1960 which left him with severe neck injuries that had lasting effects on his health . While the precise date is unclear , Abbe had been promoted to 8th dan by late 1960 . Independent sources from the late 1960s include this rank with his name . In addition to his ranks in judo , aikido , and kendo , he held the rank of 5th dan in karate and dan ranks in kyΕ«dΕ and jΕ«kendΕ .
In 1964 , Abbe returned to Japan for the Summer Olympics in Tokyo . While in his homeland , he met with Ueshiba , updated him on the progress of aikido in the UK , and asked him to send another instructor to the UK to continue teaching the art . In 1966 , Ueshiba sent Kazuo ( T. K. ) Chiba to the UK to continue the work Abbe had begun . Henry O 'Tani ( 2009 ) has stated that during Abbe 's absence from the UK , a dismissed BJC senior executive and several senior instructors misappropriated his financial and organisational resources and set up their own BJC group . In 1969 , Abbe returned to the UK , but was distraught by the situation with this group that he had not authorised . When he asked former colleagues to help him rebuild the organisation , they refused ; he subsequently left the UK , never to return .
= = Later life = =
There are contradictory accounts of Abbe 's last years in Japan . Morgan and Ellis ( 2006 ) state that he lived with his family for the remainder of his life , while Cavalcanti ( 2004 ) and Bagot ( 2007 ) claim that there were problems and that he ended up living apart from his family . Sources appear to agree , however , that Abbe was in poor spirits and poor health towards the end of his life . He suffered a stroke on 17 November 1985 , and was hospitalised .
Abbe died on 1 December 1985 in Japan . According to at least two sources , he had chosen to donate his body for medical education at Saitama University , so it was not immediately laid to rest . Abbe 's funeral was held on 10 June 1986 at Zuiganji Temple , located south of Mount Bizan in Tokushima , and he was buried or commemorated at the family grave there . Robinson ( 2007 ) wrote , " Abbe was the master who introduced Kendo , Aikido , Karate , Kyodo , Jukendo , Iaido , Yarido and Naginatado to Europe yet he died almost totally alone and forgotten by most . "
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= Apt Pupil ( film ) =
Apt Pupil is a 1998 American thriller film directed by Bryan Singer and starring Ian McKellen and Brad Renfro . It is based on the 1982 novella of the same name by Stephen King . In the 1980s in southern California , high school student Todd Bowden ( Renfro ) discovers fugitive Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander ( McKellen ) living in his neighborhood under the pseudonym Arthur Denker . Bowden , obsessed with Nazism and acts of the Holocaust , persuades Dussander to share his stories , and their relationship stirs malice in each of them .
The novella was first published in King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons . Producer Richard Kobritz sought to adapt the novella into a film during the 1980s , but two actors he invited to play Dussander died . When filming began in 1987 , a loss of financing led to the production being shut down . Forty minutes of usable footage existed , but production was never revived . In 1995 , when rights to the novella returned to King , Bryan Singer petitioned the author for an opportunity to film the novella . With King 's support , Singer filmed Apt Pupil with McKellen and Renfro in Altadena , California , in 1997 . The director shortened the novella 's storyline , reduced its violence , and changed the ending . Singer called Apt Pupil " a study in cruelty " with Nazism only serving as a vehicle for the capacity of evil .
During the $ 14 million production , a lawsuit was filed by several extras who alleged that they were told to strip naked during a shower scene , but the lawsuit was determined to be without merit . The film was released in the United States and Canada in October 1998 to mixed reviews and made under $ 9 million . The main actors won several minor awards for their performances .
= = Plot = =
In Southern California in 1984 , 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school student Todd Bowden ( Renfro ) discovers that his elderly neighbor , Arthur Denker ( McKellen ) , is in reality Kurt Dussander β a former SturmbannfΓΌhrer in the SS who is now a fugitive war criminal hiding from justice . Todd blackmails Dussander by threatening to turn him in to the police . However , the teenager is fascinated with Nazi atrocities perpetrated during World War II , and forces Dussander to share disturbing stories of what it was like working at Nazi extermination camps , and how it felt to participate in genocide .
To complicate things even further , Todd even purchases an SS uniform from a costume shop , and forces Dussander to wear it . When he spends more time with the old man , his grades suffer , he loses interest in his girlfriend , and he conceals his bad grades from his parents . In turn , the Nazi blackmails the young boy into studying to restore his grades , threatening to expose the boy 's subterfuge and his dalliance with Nazism to his parents . Dussander even poses as Todd 's grandfather and goes to an appointment with Todd 's school counselor Edward French ( David Schwimmer ) . Talking about the war crimes affects both the old man and the young boy , and an intoxicated Dussander attempts to kill a cat in his gas oven but fails when it attacks him and escapes . Dussander also takes great pride in Todd 's unbelievable turnaround , going from near dropout to straight A 's in a matter of weeks .
One night , Dussander tries to kill a hobo who earlier had seen him in the uniform . When Dussander has a heart attack , he calls Todd , who finishes the job , cleans up , and calls an ambulance for Dussander . At the hospital , Dussander is recognized by a death camp survivor sharing his room and he is arrested , prior to being extradited to Israel . Todd graduates as his school 's valedictorian and gives a speech about Icarus , saying , " All great achievements arose from dissatisfaction . It is the desire to do better , to dig deeper , that propels civilization to greatness . " The scene is juxtaposed in a montage with Dussander 's home being searched and the hobo 's corpse being found in the basement .
Todd is briefly questioned about his relationship with Dussander , but he manages to convince the police that he knew nothing of the old man 's true identity . At the hospital , Dussander hears a group of Neo @-@ Nazis demonstrating outside the hospital ; realizing his identity has been hopelessly compromised , he commits suicide by giving himself an air embolism . When French learns that the man who met Todd at school was not Todd 's grandfather but a war criminal , he confronts Todd , who then blackmails him into silence by threatening to accuse him of making inappropriate sexual advances towards him , and to thereby expose him publicly as a homosexual and pederast .
= = Cast = =
McKellen stars as Kurt Dussander , a Nazi war criminal who hides in America under the pseudonym Arthur Denker . Screenwriter Brandon Boyce described Dussander as being " a composite of these ghosts of World War II " but not based on any real @-@ life individual . McKellen was attracted to the role because he was impressed with Singer 's The Usual Suspects and saw the role of Dussander as " a nice , meaty part and difficult " . Singer , who enjoyed McKellen in John Schlesinger 's 1995 film Cold Comfort Farm , invited the actor to take the role . The character 's language was written originally for " a very stoic German " , but Singer felt that McKellen 's " complex " personality could contribute to the character . The director said of choosing McKellen , " I felt if I could combine his complexity , his colorfulness , to the stoic German character it would create a character that , although evil , would garner more sympathy and would be more enjoyable for the audience to watch . "
Renfro stars alongside McKellen as Todd Bowden , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old who discovers Denker 's criminal past . Singer auditioned a couple hundred young men and chose 14 @-@ year @-@ old Renfro , saying of him , " Brad was the brightest , the most intense and the most real . Not only could he have the intensity when we wanted , there was a hollowness that he could convey , and by the end of the picture he had to become this empty vessel . " Portraying a manipulative character temporarily influenced Renfro , who said that people around him were worried about his state of mind . Renfro said of his performance , " It 's a trip I have to take . People just kind of have to leave me alone when I 'm doing it . It 's my job . " Singer described his impression of the character :
I don 't believe for one minute that [ Todd Bowden ] was pure as the driven snow . The capacity to blackmail an old man β obviously there 's a search for something going on that 's a good hard step beyond innocence . I think he had it within him , some emptiness that needed fulfillment and taken to a new place , a new direction . His school , his parents , his environment weren 't doing it for him . This particular individual came along before some other , but it perhaps could have been drugs , it could have been rape . Todd was probably not a very good guy . But that kind of bad guy can exist within a lot more people than we realize .
Schwimmer plays Edward French , Todd Bowden 's high school guidance counselor . Before Schwimmer , Kevin Pollak was attached to the role . While Schwimmer was known for his comedic role on the television show Friends , Singer was impressed by the actor 's performance in a Los Angeles stage production and decided to cast him as the counselor .
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust = = =
The obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust that unfolds in Apt Pupil is the result of the paternal bond between Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander and high school student Todd Bowden . Such bonds are common themes in Stephen King 's works : " King 's portrayal of evil most often appears to require an active , illicit bond between a male ( often in the role of a father or father surrogate ) and a younger , formerly innocent individual ( often in the role of a biological or surrogate progeny ) who is initiated into sin " . In the film , the year 1984 highlights , in addition to Orwellian overtones , the time in American history in which the Holocaust is treated as a week @-@ long course with little time " to be tempered with self @-@ questioning as to the motivations behind it " . Bowden 's obsession with the Holocaust is a key plot device " wherein the past has this unbreakable hold on the present " . The film 's opening sequence shows how Bowden treats this history as a simulacrum in which the history becomes his own , as evidenced by his head 's brief overlapping with the Nazis he is studying . Though history becomes alive for Bowden , he perceives it through the perpetrators ( namely Dussander ) and not through the victims , characterizing Bowden as " apt " in the sense of " a natural tendency to ... undesirable behavior " .
Language serves as " a vehicle for corruption " , as Dussander tells Bowden horrific stories of his service at the fictional Death Camp of Patin . Bowden , in listening to the stories , becomes " a vampiric extension of the evil " that Dussander exhibits . The sharing of stories lead both Dussander and Bowden to have nightmares , and for Bowden , the nightmares are " a past that is becoming ever more present " . One of the key motifs of the film is that " a door was opened that could not be shut " , referring to Dussander 's confession about following orders and being unable to hold back . The motif is also conveyed in the scene in which Bowden forces Dussander to put on a Schutzstaffel uniform and to march to Bowden 's commands . Dussander continues marching despite Bowden 's insistences to stop , emulating the premise of the poem The Sorcerer 's Apprentice in which the untrained apprentice uses magic to enchant brooms and lacks the skill to stop them . The scene is " the figurative and literal turning point in the film " .
= = = Sadomasochism , homoeroticism , and homophobia = = =
Sadomasochism , homoeroticism , and homophobia are highlighted in Bryan Singer 's retelling of Stephen King 's novella . The face of evil is represented in the film as Nazism , oft labeled as " quintessentially innate [ and ] supernaturally crafty " , but also " in a more subterranean way , dangerously blurring ... the boundaries between homoeroticism and homosexuality " . The Nazi monstrosity in Apt Pupil is structured through sexual " abnormality " , where a series of binary dichotomies are introduced : " normal versus monstrous , heterosexual versus homosexual , and healthy versus sick " . An additional dichotomy , victimizer ( masculinized ) versus victim ( feminized ) , reflects the film 's " hidden tensions " in which Bowden and Dussander 's roles of powers are reversible . While the " set of perversions " that unfold in the novella are misogynistic , the film unfolds the set as " ambivalently homoerotic and homophobic " . The film removes the novella 's misogyny and leaves intact the underlying homoeroticism of the central characters . The film also expounds the connection between homophobia and how male Holocaust victims are portrayed .
The central characters Todd Bowden and Kurt Dussander are onscreen most of the time , and they are frequently framed in close proximity , " [ intensifying ] a homoerotic intimacy [ which is ] punctuated by dread of contact with the monstrous " . Homoeroticism in Apt Pupil is further demonstrated by the focus on Todd 's body . In the opening scene in which Bowden is in his bedroom during a stormy night , " the ever @-@ encroaching camera and the lighting fetishize Todd 's youthful body " , similar to the fetishism of the female body in films like Psycho ( 1960 ) . This depiction creates a dualism in which " he is now simultaneously dangerous and endangered " in his homophobic and homoerotic ties to Nazism .
When Bowden gives Dussander an SS uniform to wear and in which to march under Bowden 's orders , the student 's demands are more heightened in the film as " more dominant and voyeuristic " . Bowden tells Dussander , " I tried to do this the nice way , but you don 't want it . So fine , we 'll do this the hard way . You will put this on , because I want to see you in it . Now move ! " The editing style of the Nazi march scene juxtaposes Dussander marching in the uniform and Bowden reacting to the march . Shots of Bowden 's reaction are from a low angle , which reflects " the sexual difference between the characters " ; Bowden is masculinized as " the bearer of the [ sexual ] gaze " , and Dussander is feminized as " the object of the gaze " . The cutting between Bowden and Dussander " corroborates a homoerotic arrangement of images " which visualizes the latent homoeroticism of the scene from the novella . When Dussander speeds up his march and Bowden tells him to stop , the sped @-@ up shot reverse shot " radically [ ruptures ] the structure of power " , where Bowden loses " control of his sadistic power over Dussander " .
= = Production = =
= = = Previous production attempt = = =
When Stephen King 's novella Apt Pupil was published as part of his collection Different Seasons in 1982 , producer Richard Kobritz optioned feature film rights to the novella . Kobritz met with actor James Mason to play the novella 's war criminal Kurt Dussander , but Mason died in July 1984 before production as a result of a heart attack . The producer also approached Richard Burton for the role , but Burton also died in August that same year . By 1987 production on the film began with Nicol Williamson cast as Kurt Dussander , and 17 @-@ year @-@ old Rick Schroder was cast as Todd Bowden . In that year , Alan Bridges began direction of the film with a script co @-@ written by Ken Wheat and his brother Jim Wheat . After ten weeks of filming , the production suffered from a lack of funds from its production company Granat Releasing , and the film had to be placed on hold . Kubritz sought to revive production , but when the opportunity came a year later , Schroder had aged too considerably for the film to work . Forty minutes of usable footage was abandoned .
= = = Direction under Bryan Singer = = =
Bryan Singer first read Apt Pupil when he was 19 years old , and when he became a director , he wanted to adapt the novella into a film . In 1995 , Singer asked his friend and screenwriter Brandon Boyce to write a spec script adapting the novella . Boyce recalled the writing process , " I thought it was a great stageplay , actually ... two people , pretty much in a house talking . My script was completely on spec , so , if it didn 't work out , at least I 'd have a writing sample . " When the original option to the novella expired in 1995 , Stephen King sued to get the rights back . Singer and Boyce then provided to King a first draft of their script and a copy of Singer 's film The Usual Suspects ( 1995 ) , which had yet to be publicly released . Impressed with Singer , King optioned the rights to the director for $ 1 , arranging to be compensated when the film was released . Singer said of King 's ultimate response to the film , despite some changes made to the source material , " Stephen loved it . He seemed to think I captured the mood of the piece . " The director appreciated being able to make a Stephen King horror film but with less supernatural terror and more character @-@ driven terror . Singer spoke of his goal : " There have been a lot of fun horror movies like Nightmare on Elm Street and Scream , and I Know What You Did Last Summer . But I miss movies like The Shining , The Exorcist , and The Innocents by Jack Clayton , so this is a movie sort of in the spirit of the real horror movie . "
Singer described the Apt Pupil 's premise as a " study in cruelty " . He prepared for the film by reading books like the 1996 history book Hitler 's Willing Executioners , which confirmed his beliefs that Nazi war criminals felt " guiltless and matter @-@ of @-@ fact about what they did " . He referred to how young Todd Bowden 's interactions with Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander start to affect him : " I liked the idea of the infectious nature of evil ... The notion that anybody has the capacity within them to be cruel if motivated properly is , I think , a scary concept . " The director also perceived the film as not about the Holocaust , believing that the Nazi war criminal could have been replaced by one of Pol Pot 's executioners or a mass murderer from Russia . " It wasn 't about fascism or National Socialism . It was about cruelty and the ability to do awful deeds , to live with them and be empowered by them , " Singer said . To this end , the director sought to avoid overt use of swastikas and other Nazi symbols . He was also attracted to the film as " [ an ] idea that the collective awfulness of this terrible thing that happened decades ago in Europe had somehow crept up across the ocean and through time , like a golem , into this beautiful Southern California suburban neighborhood " .
Singer turned down directing opportunities with films like The Truman Show and The Devil 's Own after the success of The Usual Suspects . He instead pursued Apt Pupil : " It was a very dark subject matter , and it was something that came from passion . " He acknowledged in retrospect that Apt Pupil " wasn 't really supposed to be a big success " . Singer was financially supported by producer Scott Rudin and the production company Spelling Films . Ian McKellen was cast as Dussander , and Brad Renfro was cast as Bowden . With $ 1 million paid toward pre @-@ production , filming was scheduled to begin in June 1996 . Due to financial disagreements between Singer and Rudin , the start date was pushed back and subsequently canceled . Singer and his production team stayed together while producer Don Murphy and his partner Jane Hamsher sought refinancing . Mike Medavoy , a former chairman of TriStar Pictures , rescued the production with the financial backing of his production company Phoenix Pictures . The company provided filmmakers with $ 14 million to produce Apt Pupil . Filming took place on location in Altadena , California . Singer related to how Todd Bowden rebelled against his suburban environment . The director used the name of his high school football team , the Pirates , and the green @-@ and @-@ gold team colors in the film , saying , " I just projected my own childhood right out to Southern California . "
= = = Editing and composing = = =
John Ottman served as both film editor and music composer for Apt Pupil . When he edited the film , he found it a challenge to create the proper musical score . Ottman recalled , " Normally , an editor will score scenes with temporary music from CDs , and so forth , and nothing I could find worked for this film . " The composer sought a mix between the scores of the science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) and the military @-@ based comedy 1941 ( 1979 ) to create an " otherworldly pastiche " . Ottman said of his approach :
When you throw a cat in the oven , it 's easy to have someone in the orchestra slam a hammer down on an anvil , scaring the hell out of everyone . The hard part is manipulating the story and accenting the characters . In the beginning , when Todd is laying down the rules , there 's a certain repetitive thematic idea you hear . You hear the same music when Dussander is turning the tables on Todd , which makes you remember the first scene ... You hope people are subliminally making the connection that the tables are turning back and forth .
Another scene in which Ottman meshed his editing and composing duties was when Dussander wakes up in the hospital with the television show The Jeffersons playing in the background . Ottman explained his intent for the scene , " I used The Jeffersons as this innocuous thing β going between him and the television β so that when he does open his eyes , it scares the hell out of you ... I added this deafening Bartok pizz , which is when all the violins pluck their strings really loud and they create this gnarly , unsettling sound . " Ottman recorded the film 's score with the Seattle Symphony .
= = Lawsuit = =
For Apt Pupil , Bryan Singer filmed a shower scene in which Todd Bowden , saturated with horrific stories from Kurt Dussander , imagines his fellow showering students as Jewish prisoners in gas chambers . The scene was filmed at Eliot Middle School in Altadena , California on April 2 , 1997 , and two weeks later , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old extra filed a lawsuit alleging that Singer forced him and other extras to strip naked for the scene . Two boys , 16 and 17 years old , later supported the 14 @-@ year @-@ old 's claim . The boys claimed trauma from the experience , seeking charges against the filmmakers including infliction of emotional distress , negligence , and invasion of privacy . Allegations were made that the boys were filmed for sexual gratification . The local news shows and national tabloid programs stirred the controversy . A sexual crimes task force that included local , state , and federal personnel investigated the incident . The Los Angeles District Attorney 's office determined that there was no cause to file criminal charges , stating , " The suspects were intent on completing a professional film as quickly and efficiently as possible . There is no indication of lewd or abnormal sexual intent . " The civil case was dismissed due to insufficient evidence . The scene was filmed again with adult actors so the film could finish on time .
The lawsuit reflected " a recent cultural concern " about nudity in showers being connected to " sexual or erotic forms of gazing " . The journal Body & Society wrote , " The ways in which the accusation that the director and other crew members identified as gay is seen to collapse gay identity into gay sexual behaviour , but the wholesale collapse of nudity into sexuality . " The incident reflected the cultural trend that being gazed upon while naked would cause different forms of distress , threatening the " stability of the self as subject " . This undermines the subject 's ability to perform and as a result of the discomfort , brings more into question what the displayed nakedness is for .
= = Differences between novella and film = =
Stephen King 's novella Apt Pupil begins in 1974 , when Todd Bowden is in junior high , and it ends with him graduating from high school . In Bryan Singer 's film , the story takes place fully in 1984 , when Todd Bowden is in his last year in high school . In the novella , for three years leading to the end of the story , Todd Bowden and discovered Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander independently murder a large number of hobos and transients , whereas in the film , the murders are condensed to Dussander 's attempt to kill the hobo Archie . Singer sought to reduce the novella 's violence , not wanting it to appear " exploitative or repetitive " . Unlike in the novella , animosity toward Jews was not explicitly displayed by the characters in the film . The novella 's dream sequence in which Bowden rapes a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Jewish virgin as a laboratory experiment under Dussander 's guidance was replaced by the film 's dream sequence in which Bowden sees three shower @-@ gas chamber scenes unfold . Reduced in the film was Todd 's encounter with the schoolgirl Betty ( named Becky in the film ) . In the novella , he dreams of Betty as a concentration camp inmate who he can rape and torture . In the film , he has a brief encounter with Becky where he finds himself unable to perform sexually .
In the novella , Bowden 's high school counselor Edward French confronts the student with suspicions that Dussander is not really Bowden 's grandfather , and Bowden murders French in cold blood . Bowden then embarks on a shooting spree from a tree overlooking a freeway , which results in his death five hours later . Singer felt unable to accomplish King 's ending : " I told [ King ] the ending reads so beautifully . I could never measure up to it ; I would have killed it . " In the film , Bowden intimidates French , who suspects Dussander 's false relationship to the student , by threatening to destroy him with " rumor and innuendo " . Stanley Wiater , author of The Complete Stephen King Universe , wrote , " As depicted on screen , Todd is much more consciously evil , in his way , than in the book . This switch , while making the ending less brutal , perhaps , achieves the impossible : it also makes the ending even darker . "
= = Reception = =
Bryan Singer previewed Apt Pupil at the Museum of Tolerance 's L.A. Holocaust Center to assess feedback from rabbis and others about referencing the Holocaust . With a positive response , the director proceeded with the film 's release . Apt Pupil was originally scheduled to be released in February 1998 , but the film 's distributor moved the release date to autumn , feeling that it belonged " alongside other more serious @-@ minded films " . It premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 1998 . It was then commercially released on October 23 , 1998 in 1 @,@ 448 theaters in the United States and Canada , grossing $ 3 @.@ 6 million on its opening weekend and placing ninth at the weekend box office . The film went on to gross $ 8 @.@ 9 million in the United States and Canada . Apt Pupil was considered a critical and commercial disappointment . The film was less successful than Singer 's previous film The Usual Suspects , with critics describing it as " a somewhat disturbing movie that works as a suspenseful thriller , yet isn 't completely satisfying " .
Roger Ebert , reviewing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , wrote that the film was well @-@ made by Bryan Singer and well @-@ acted , especially by Ian McKellen , but that " the film reveals itself as unworthy of its subject matter " . The critic felt that the offensive material lacked a " social message " or an " overarching purpose " and found the film 's later scenes to be " exploitative " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times applauded the production value of Bryan Singer 's direction , liking Newton Thomas Sigel 's " handsomely shot " cinematography and John Ottman 's " stunningly edited " work . Maslin wrote of McKellen and Renfro 's performances , " Both actors play their roles so trickily that tensions escalate until the horror grows unimaginatively gothic . " The critic felt that as the film approached the end , " the story 's cleverness is noticeably on the wane " .
Kathleen Murphy of Film Comment called McKellen and Renfro 's performances " skin @-@ crawling " but felt that it did not complete the film . Murphy wrote , " [ The acting ] makes you wish Apt Pupil had the art and the courage actually to look into evil 's awful abyss . " The critic perceived that Apt Pupil came off as a conventional horror film , that it had Stephen King 's " characteristically unsavory " touches , and that Singer 's " inept " direction " trivialize [ s ] the characters and the subject matter " . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly saw Apt Pupil as not a " hunted @-@ Nazi thriller " nor a " full @-@ tilt Stephen King thriller " , but as a " student @-@ teacher parable " that comes off as " disturbing " . Schwarzbaum felt that Singer told " a story with serious moral resonance " , though patience was needed to get past Singer 's " more baroque cinematic touches " of " visual furbelows ... and aural gimmicks " in the film , citing as examples Dussander watching Mr. Magoo on television or the musical piece Liebestod being blared during a bloody scene .
Jay Carr of the Boston Globe called Apt Pupil " most compelling for its moral dimension " , enjoying the " duet between Renfro 's smooth @-@ cheeked latter @-@ day Faust and McKellen 's reawakened Mephistopheles " . While Carr found the film 's framework to be realistic , he noted the change of pace , " Perhaps sensing a narrative slackening and a smothering claustrophobia ... ' Apt Pupil ' veers into melodramatic devices that yank the film out of its disquieting amorality and turn it into something much more ordinary and mundane . " The critic concluded , " It maintains a bleak integrity by not pretending to arrive at remorse . Never is there any discussion . " Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune described Apt Pupil as " a good shocker that misses the ultimate horror " , finding the film 's weakness to be the " contrived " bond between Dussander and Bowden . Wilmington called the plot " overly slick " , asking , " How can Todd not only conveniently find a Nazi war criminal in his hometown but also instantly coerce and control him ? "
= = Accolades = =
Renfro won the Best Actor award at the Tokyo International Film Festival for his performance in Apt Pupil . Ian McKellen won a Critics ' Choice Award for Best Actor and a Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor for his performance in both Apt Pupil and Gods and Monsters . The Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films awarded a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor to McKellen for his performance and awarded the film a Saturn Award for Best Horror Film of 1998 .
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= Elgin , Illinois , Centennial half dollar =
The Elgin , Illinois , Centennial half dollar was a fifty @-@ cent commemorative coin issued by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1936 , part of the wave of commemoratives authorized by Congress and struck that year . Intended to commemorate the centennial of the founding of Elgin , the piece was designed by local sculptor Trygve Rovelstad . The obverse depicts an idealized head of a pioneer man . The reverse shows a grouping of pioneers , and is based upon a sculptural group that Rovelstad hoped to build as a memorial to those who settled Illinois , but which was not erected in his lifetime .
Rovelstad had heard of other efforts to gain authorization for commemorative coins , which were sold by the Mint to a designated group at face value and then retailed to the public at a premium . In 1935 , through his congressman , he had legislation introduced into the House of Representatives for a commemorative coin in honor of Elgin 's centennial that year . Rovelstad hoped that the proposed coin would both depict and be a source of funds for his memorial to the pioneers . Texas coin dealer L.W. Hoffecker heard of the effort and contacted Rovelstad to offer his assistance β Hoffecker had been a force behind the Old Spanish Trail half dollar , issued in 1935 and distributed by him .
The bill for the Elgin coin did not pass until 1936 . Hoffecker was able to sell about 20 @,@ 000 coins , four @-@ fifths of the issue : the remaining 5 @,@ 000 were returned to the Mint for melting . Unlike many commemorative coins of that era , the piece was not bought up by dealers and speculators , but was sold directly to collectors at the issue price . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule considered the Elgin coin among the most outstanding American commemoratives .
= = Inception = =
Elgin , Illinois , is located on the Fox River about 30 miles ( 48 km ) west of Chicago . The community was founded in 1835 by James and Hezekiah Gifford , who named it . It became a village in 1847 and a city in 1854 . In the latter year , a watch company was founded there , and the city became well known for the firm 's timepieces ; it also was notable for the production of tools , shoes , wood products , and weekly church bulletins .
Sculptor Trygve Rovelstad ( 1903 β 1990 ) , born to Norwegian immigrants in the United States , sought to erect a statue in his hometown of Elgin as a monument to those pioneers who had settled Illinois . The city leaders approved , and in 1934 , a foundation was laid for the statue in Davidson Park , the site of the Giffords ' first cabin . Rovelstad was unable to raise the money to construct and erect the statue , but having learned of recent commemorative coin issues , decided this would be a good means of funding the statue . The sculptor had a bill introduced in Congress in May 1935 to authorize a half dollar to celebrate Elgin 's centennial and to honor the pioneer . Nevertheless , the bill initially was not considered .
News of the bill appeared in the July 1935 The Numismatist ( the journal of the American Numismatic Association [ ANA ] ) , and on July 11 , L.W. Hoffecker wrote to the Elgin Centennial Monumental Committee , inquiring how the coins would be distributed . Hoffecker , an El Paso , Texas , coin dealer , was then leading the committee in his hometown that was selling the Old Spanish Trail half dollar to the public . Although some recent commemoratives had sparked outcry from collectors that speculators had been allowed to buy up quantities of the new issues , Hoffecker would gain praise for equitably distributing the Old Spanish Trail piece .
In the correspondence between the two men , Hoffecker gave Rovelstad a number of tips about how to deal with Congress . Even though the bill was still mired in committee , Hoffecker advised what to do once the bill was signed . He did not know yet that Rovelstad was a sculptor , and wrote to him in September 1935 about the models to be submitted for approval , " These should also be 10 [ inches , or 25 @.@ 4 cm ] in diameter , and this is where your trouble commences . These sculptors all want to incorporate their own ideas in the design and ask anywhere from $ 400 @.@ 00 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 for their work , telling you what trouble it is to get the approval of the Commission of Fine Arts and many other things which do not exist . " Hoffecker also offered to handle the issue for the committee ; he proposed to advance the money necessary to purchase the new coins from the government and to handle the distribution . He stated that he had enjoyed the distribution of the Old Spanish Trail piece , though he lied to Rovelstad , stating he was not a coin dealer β the letterhead that Hoffecker used to write to Rovelstad said " Loans and Mortgages " under his name . He also warned Rovelstad , " It would not be good for either of us if the word got out you had disposed of the entire issue to me . "
In October 1935 , Hoffecker made a formal offer , based on the bill , which called for 10 @,@ 000 half dollars : he would pay the Elgin committee $ 12 @,@ 000 and sell the coins at $ 2 @.@ 00 each . He would advance the face value of the coins to the Mint , as well as engraving and shipping charges . In selling the coins , he would try to distribute them to as many collectors as possible , leaving dealers and speculators for later . Rovelstad agreed by letter in November .
= = Preparation = =
Illinois Representative Chauncey Reed had introduced the Elgin coin legislation at Rovelstad 's behest , and both the sculptor and Hoffecker worked with him to advance the bill through Congress . In February 1936 , Hoffecker , who had been appointed by ANA President T. James Clarke to lead a committee against abuses in the issuance of commemorative coins , went to Washington , passing through Chicago on his way to visit Rovelstad . The two men had hoped to keep the mintage to 10 @,@ 000 , to be able to sell the coins at a higher price . Congress , however , was not minded to create a low @-@ mintage commemorative , as there had been several issues which had been struck in small numbers only to sell at high prices , and the bill was amended to provide for 25 @,@ 000 half dollars . Hoffecker hoped to lower the number , urging the sculptor to lobby for a decrease . Hoffecker noted it would be much more work to sell 25 @,@ 000 , and they could not command as high a price . There were a large number of commemorative coin bills in Congress in 1936 , and the dealer feared that President Franklin D. Roosevelt would start vetoing them . Hoffecker visited Washington twice more in May , once meeting Rovelstad there , where they lobbied members of Congress .
The bill finally passed , and was signed by President Roosevelt on June 16 , 1936 . The bill required the coins to be struck at a single mint and to bear the date " 1936 " regardless of when they were struck . All 25 @,@ 000 would have to be paid for by the chairman of the Elgin committee ( that is , Rovelstad ) at one time ; a lesser quantity could not be issued . The pieces were " in commemoration of the one @-@ hundredth anniversary of the founding of the city of Elgin , Illinois , and the erection of the heroic Pioneer Memorial " β Rovelstad 's statue .
Hoffecker suggested that Rovelstad seek to have the mintage divided among the three mints , but conceded that unless Congress had erred in the enacted language , this gambit was not likely to succeed . He also told Rovelstad to get in touch with Assistant Mint Director Mary M. O 'Reilly and seek to have the coins struck at the Denver Mint , as the closest mint to El Paso , to minimize shipping charges . Nothing came of either proposal ; all of the coins would be struck at the Philadelphia Mint .
After Rovelstad submitted his designs for the coin to the Mint , they were sent to the Commission of Fine Arts for its opinion . The designs arrived on July 15 , 1936 , and were approved two days later , with the request that the head of the pioneer on the obverse , in three @-@ quarter view ( facing forward and to one side ) as submitted by Rovelstad , be in profile instead . The sculptor complied , and submitted plaster models by mid @-@ August ; photographs were sent to the commission by the Mint on August 15 . Two days later , commission chairman Charles Moore wrote to O 'Reilly , stating that the sculptor member of the commission , Lee Lawrie , had viewed the designs , and complained he could not see what the object was behind the pioneers , and that the gun appeared to be held awkwardly . Lawrie also stated that some of the lettering should be strengthened , but if the Mint director , Nellie Tayloe Ross , was not disturbed by these things , the coin should go forward . Moore indicated that he had no desire to delay the coin , and forwarded the commission 's recommendation , on condition that the Mint do what it could to address these concerns . With the exception of possible work on the lettering , no changes were made .
Once the commission had approved the designs , they were immediately sent to the Medallic Art Company of New York , which reduced the designs to furnish hubs from which coinage dies could be made . In early October 1936 , the Philadelphia Mint struck 25 @,@ 000 coins , with 15 extra for inspection by the 1937 Assay Commission . Rovelstad went to Philadelphia to witness the initiation of production and stayed at the home of Mint Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock . The first ten pieces were handed to the sculptor , who placed them in paper envelopes and took them home to Illinois . According to his wife , Gloria , he was offered a job at the Mint by Sinnock but declined .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the Elgin Centennial half dollar depicts a pioneer , attested to by the legend above him . The bearded visage had been previously sculpted by Rovelstad and appears , slightly modified , as the head of the rifleman on the left of the group on the reverse . The year " 1673 " on the obverse marks the year explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette entered what is now Illinois . Although the coin was issued for Elgin 's centennial , neither the date of founding ( 1835 ) nor that of the anniversary appears .
The reverse side depicts a group of pioneers ( four adults and a baby in its mother 's arms ) . The grouping is a bas relief of the model for the memorial that Rovelstad hoped to build . The child is the second baby to be implied , but not fully seen , on a US coin β one is sketched with the mother inside the Conestoga wagon on the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar , first struck in 1926 . One would be more fully depicted on the Roanoke Island half dollar in 1937 . The grouping had also appeared on Rovelstad 's 1935 medal for Elgin 's centennial . Rovelstad placed , both on the medal and on the base for the statue , the words , " To the men who have blazed the trails , who have conquered the soil , and who have built an empire in the land of the Illini . " Inclusion of the various mottos required by statute , such as " In God We Trust " , meant that not even part of this dedication could be placed on the coin . The name of the city was not in the original models that Rovelstad sent Hoffecker for his comments ; the numismatist wrote on July 15 , 1936 , " I would not overlook putting the word ' Elgin ' on your coin , as it would be a good ad for your city " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on the artistry of American coins , had high praise for the coin and its sculptor : " it is more difficult to find a more aesthetically satisfying , technically superior commemorative half @-@ dollar than the Elgin , Illinois , Centennial of 1936 . " Vermeule observed that the figures on the reverse appear almost three @-@ dimensional . He noted that the technique of spacing out the letters of the word " Pioneer " above the head presages that used by later Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts on the obverse of the Kennedy half dollar . According to Vermeule , Rovelstad " has produced one of the major documents of sculptural plasticity and vibrant relief in the series of commemorative coins . His obverse is worthy of a Roman medallion , and his reverse rivals the great Neoclassic dies of England or Bavaria in the nineteenth century . "
= = Release = =
Once the authorizing legislation was enacted , Hoffecker and Rovelstad came to a new agreement . Hoffecker would advance the money for the new coins and pay for the die making and shipping costs , which were the committee 's responsibility under the legislation . The coins would be sold at $ 1 @.@ 50 each ; Hoffecker would take 35 cents per coin as commission . The coins were to remain on sale through Hoffecker until January 1 , 1937 or until they were sold out , whichever came first . The agreement provided that Hoffecker " use every ethical means known to him to push the sale of these coins " . Coin dealer B. Max Mehl , in his 1937 pamphlet on commemorative coins , stated that he considered the price of $ 1 @.@ 50 too high when there was an issue of 25 @,@ 000 struck .
On July 1 , 1936 , Hoffecker sent 3 @,@ 500 letters offering the new coins , which had not yet been struck , to people who were on his mailing list or had enquired . He claimed to have 7 @,@ 000 orders already , and urged collectors not to delay . His bank offered to have the coins shipped there and to carry the coins as part of its cash on hand , which would allow him to pay for them as orders came in , but Hoffecker preferred to pay for the coins at the start . Hoffecker stated in letters that other coin dealers had offered to buy the entire issue , but he had declined . At this time , there was a boom in commemorative coins , and dealers were trying to get all the special issues they could .
The Philadelphia Mint shipped 24 @,@ 990 coins ( the authorized mintage less the first ten pieces , which Rovelstad had taken ) to Hoffecker on October 7 , 1936 ; they were received in El Paso four days later . Hoffecker wrote to Frank Duffield , editor of The Numismatist , stating that he had the envelopes for already @-@ ordered pieces all prepared , and hoped to mail the last of them out by the evening of October 13 ; the editor commented , " This sounds like real service " . Several hundred pieces had been ordered through banks in Elgin ; they received several consignments and eventually sold over a thousand . The Elgin Watch Company purchased 100 coins .
By November 1936 , 16 @,@ 170 pieces had been sold . Only about 2 @,@ 000 more were sold in the next four months ; Hoffecker 's statement for March 1937 shows 18 @,@ 790 sold with an additional 330 on consignment to the First National Bank of Elgin . Rovelstad had received $ 8 @,@ 680 @.@ 00 and Hoffecker $ 6 @,@ 576 @.@ 50 . At this point , discussion turned to what to do with the remaining pieces , some 5 @,@ 620 ( a few hundred pieces were given away or otherwise disposed of ) . Rovelstad agreed to allow the coin dealer to purchase 250 pieces at $ 1 each ; he was still selling them in 1948 . Other dealers were uninterested in large purchases as the direct sale to collectors meant that few who wanted and could afford the Elgin coin lacked it . With demand at a standstill , Hoffecker feared that the remaining pieces would wind up in the hands of speculators . Five thousand pieces were returned to the Mint for melting .
= = Aftermath and collecting = =
Rovelstad used the profits from the half dollar to continue work on his statuary group . He sought direct funding from the federal government in 1938 and from the Illinois Legislature the following year ; both attempts failed . Through the half century that followed , he progressed on the statues , and by the time of his death in 1990 , he had completed the group in plaster of Paris , that still needed to be bronzed before display . Shortly before his death , he told his wife , " I 've lived a full life and have no regrets . The Pioneer Memorial is now completed . I 've done all I could . Now it 's up to others to see it erected . I can do no more . " Rovelstad 's tenant , Steve Youngren , established a foundation to raise money to complete the project . It raised $ 456 @,@ 000 , exceeding the actual cost by nearly ten percent , and the memorial was completed and dedicated in 2001 .
Hoffecker served as president of the ANA from 1939 to 1941 ; he died January 13 , 1955 at the age of 86 . According to the 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , the Elgin Centennial half dollar lists at $ 250 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) condition , rising to $ 550 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . According to numismatic historian Q. David Bowers , " nothing untoward was associated with the distribution of the Elgin Centennial half dollars , and certainly at the Illinois end of the deal sculptor Trygve A. Rovelstad 's intentions and ethics were of the highest order . L.W. Hoffecker distributed the pieces in a skillfully orchestrated publicity campaign and did as well as anyone could have done at the time . "
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= ScienTOMogy =
ScienTOMogy was a New Zealand @-@ based parody site lampooning actor Tom Cruise 's involvement with Scientology . Initially hosted at the domain name scientomogy.info , the site was created in 2005 in response to the extensive media publicity surrounding Cruise 's appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show .
ScienTOMogy gained press attention after the site proprietor was contacted by the Church of Scientology with a cease and desist letter , alleging copyright infringement by claiming the word " Scientomogy " was too close to the word " Scientology . " The proprietor initially agreed to relent to the Church 's demands , but then decided to keep the site after consulting with attorneys . Internet traffic to the site later increased dramatically as a result of the media attention surrounding the Church of Scientology 's allegations of copyright infringement .
= = Development = =
New Zealand webmaster Glen Stollery created scientomogy.info in July 2005 , after Tom Cruise appeared on The Today Show in an interview speaking about " the dangers of prescription drugs , " and following the incident where he jumped the couch over his love for Katie Holmes during an interview on The Oprah Winfrey Show . The site 's stated goal was " exposing Tom Cruise 's moronic behavior in his relentless crusade to promote the Church of Scientology . "
The site was mainly used to store parody and satire material , including depictions of Cruise and Holmes in straight jackets , as well as a video showing Cruise shooting lightning at Oprah Winfrey . To clarify its position as a parody site , ScienTOMogy contained a disclaimer , which it requested that the reader " understand and agree to .. before continuing . " The site 's disclaimer stated : " Obviously www.scienTOMogy.info has ABSOLUTELY NO connection whatsoever with the Church of Scientology , it β s [ sic ] affiliated organizations or , needless @-@ to @-@ say , Tom Cruise . It is designed for commentary and criticism within the limits of Free Speech . All content should be treated as opinion and all trademarks / copyrighted material herein are owned by their respective trademark owners . The Scientology site is here . Thank you . You may continue .. " On the site , a fake Cruise claims that the Church of Scientology should refer to itself as " ScienTOMogy " instead of Scientology , in order to clear up public relations problems . The parody version of Cruise states " It 's kind of like the word gummy bears . Bears by themselves are scary , but if you just add the word gummy to it , it now becomes a fun , enjoyable treat . "
= = Church of Scientology 's response = =
The Web site drew media attention when the Church of Scientology 's attorneys Moxon & Kobrin contacted Stollery , claiming the ScienTOMogy domain name was an infringement of their trademark , despite being a different word by one letter . In September 2005 , the Church of Scientology issued a cease and desist order to Stollery demanding he shut down the site and transfer ownership to the Church , threatening him with a $ 100 @,@ 000 lawsuit . The Church 's law firm stated that " ScienTOMogy " would cause a likelihood of confusion with " Scientology , " violating the Lanham Act , 15 U.S.C. 1125 ( a ) . The Church of Scientology 's letter stated : " You are hereby on notice that the registration and use of this domain name in this fashion has caused your name to be falsely associated with our client β s registered mark , SCIENTOLOGY .. The fact that you have changed one letter .. does not protect you from trademark infringement . " Helena Kobrin , a lawyer for the Church of Scientology , was quoted as saying : " You can 't use somebody 's trademark , regardless of what you 're saying , if you haven 't been given permission . "
The site responded with a statement : " The site is purely satirical and is for entertainment . It contains no fact nor claims to do so . The site clearly states in its header , ' This site has absolutely no connection whatsoever with the Church of Scientology , it 's affiliated organisations or , needless to say , Tom Cruise ' . " Stollery originally relented and agreed to change the domain name to " passionofcruise.info " on October 13 , 2005 , which E ! News took to be a parody of the film The Passion of the Christ .
After consulting with his lawyers in October 2005 , Stollery responded to the Church with a far more aggressive stance . Now believing the accusation to be completely frivolous , Stollery publicly refused , challenging the Church with : " I 'm keeping my domain , see you in court . " Again in an interview with ONE News , Stollery reiterated that he was going to retain rights to " ScienTOMogy " , and not transfer the URL to the Church of Scientology , as they had requested . After the media attention , Stollery said he began to receive " annoying calls " from local Scientologists . " The first few I was stupid enough to answer , but now they just call and call and call . When I did speak to ' a church member here in Auckland ' he kept insisting over and over that we meet to talk about my ' vendetta ' with the church . "
= = Aftermath = =
The threats gave the Web site a cult following of its own , taking its normal traffic from one hundred hits per day to one million in a matter of hours . The Wall Street Journal carried reports commenting on the irony of the situation , noting the site 's message that the press exposure due to the threats from the Church of Scientology had increased its traffic over tenfold . Mel Gibson has not raised objections to use of the parody term " PassionofCruise " . E ! News reported that though Stollery had originally agreed to take down the site , it was still running and accessible as of July 2006 , when the United Nations ' World Intellectual Property Organization awarded Cruise rights to the domain name " TomCruise.com " over claims of a cybersquatter .
In addition to hosting the original cease and desist letter , the Berkman Center for Internet & Society also gives legal commentary on various issues pertaining to the " ScienTOMogy " controversy at a page provided by the organization Chilling Effects . They discuss " trademark tarnishment " , which may occur if a non @-@ owner of a trademark uses the work in an " activity that is likely to offend the average person . " However , the page also notes that the tarnishment would be non @-@ actionable if the usage was non @-@ commercial or parody . The Church of Scientology has not since filed a lawsuit or opened litigation on " Scientomogy , " though at present the site scientomogy.info was inactive . Internet Archive 's Wayback Machine last version of the site is from July 8 , 2007 .
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= Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies =
The nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies is a naming scheme for assigning generic , or nonproprietary , names to monoclonal antibodies . An antibody is a protein that is produced in B cells and used by the immune system of humans and other vertebrate animals to identify a specific foreign object like a bacterium or a virus . Monoclonal antibodies are those that were produced in identical cells , often artificially , and so share the same target object . They have a wide range of applications including medical uses .
This naming scheme is used for both the World Health Organization β s International Nonproprietary Names ( INN ) and the United States Adopted Names ( USAN ) for pharmaceuticals . In general , word stems are used to identify classes of drugs , in most cases placed word @-@ finally . All monoclonal antibody names end with the stem -mab . Unlike most other pharmaceuticals , monoclonal antibody nomenclature uses different preceding word parts ( morphemes ) depending on structure and function . These are officially called substems and sometimes erroneously infixes , even by the USAN Council itself .
= = Components = =
= = = Stem = = =
The stem -mab is used for monoclonal antibodies as well as for their fragments , as long as at least one variable domain ( the domain that contains the target binding structure ) is included . This is the case for antigen binding fragments and single @-@ chain variable fragments , among other artificial proteins . Other antibody parts ( such as Fc regions ) and antibody mimetics use different naming schemes .
= = = Substem for origin / source = = =
The substem preceding the stem denotes the animal from which the antibody is obtained . The first monoclonal antibodies were produced in mice ( substem -o- , yielding the ending -omab ; usually Mus musculus , the house mouse ) or other non @-@ human organisms . Neither INN nor USAN has ever been requested for antibodies from rats ( theoretically -a- ) , hamsters ( -e- ) and primates ( -i- ) .
These non @-@ human antibodies are recognized as foreign by the human immune system and may be rapidly cleared from the body , provoke an allergic reaction , or both . To avoid this , parts of the antibody can be replaced with human amino acid sequences , or pure human antibodies can be engineered . If the constant region is replaced with the human form , the antibody is termed chimeric and the substem used is -xi- . Part of the variable regions may also be substituted , in which case it is called humanized and -zu- is used ; typically , everything is replaced except the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) , the three loops of amino acid sequences at the outside of each variable region that bind to the target structure . Partly chimeric and partly humanized antibodies use -xizu- . These three substems do not indicate the foreign species used for production . Thus , the human / mouse chimeric antibody basiliximab ends in -ximab just as the human / macaque antibody gomiliximab . Pure human antibodies use -u- .
Rat / mouse hybrid antibodies can be engineered with binding sites for two different antigens . These drugs , termed trifunctional antibodies , have the substem -axo- .
= = = Substem for target = = =
The substem preceding the source of the antibody refers to the medicine 's target . Examples of targets are tumors , organ systems like the circulatory system , or infectious agents like bacteria or viruses . The term target does not imply what sort of action the antibody exerts . Therapeutic , prophylactic and diagnostic agents are not distinguished by this nomenclature .
In the naming scheme as originally developed , these substems mostly consist of a consonant , a vowel , then another consonant . The final letter may be dropped if the resulting name would be difficult to pronounce otherwise . Examples include -ci ( r ) - for the circulatory system , -li ( m ) - for the immune system ( lim stands for lymphocyte ) and -ne ( r ) - for the nervous system . The final letter is usually omitted if the following source substem begins with a consonant ( such as -zu- or -xi- ) , but not all target substems are used in their shortened form . -mul- , for example , is never reduced to -mu- because no chimeric or humanized antibodies targeting the musculoskeletal system ever received an INN . Combination of target and source substems results in endings like -limumab ( immune system , human ) or -ciximab ( circulatory system , chimeric , consonant r dropped ) .
New and shorter target substems were adopted in 2009 . They mostly consist of a consonant , plus a vowel which is omitted if the source substem begins with a vowel . For example , human antibodies targeting the immune system receive names ending in -lumab instead of the old -limumab . Some endings like -ciximab remain unchanged . The old system employed seven different substems for tumor targets , depending on the type of tumor . Because many antibodies are investigated for several tumor types , the new convention only has -t ( u ) - .
= = = Prefix = = =
The prefix carries no special meaning . It should be unique for each medicine and contribute to a well sounding name . This means that antibodies with the same source and target substems are only distinguished by their prefix . Even antibodies targeting exactly the same structure are differently prefixed , such as the adalimumab and golimumab , both of which are TNF inhibitors but differ in their chemical structure .
= = = Additional words = = =
A second word following the name of the antibody indicates that another substance is attached , which is done for several reasons .
An antibody can be PEGylated ( attached to molecules of polyethylene glycol ) to slow down its degradation by enzymes and to decrease its immunogenicity ; this is shown by the word pegol as in alacizumab pegol .
A cytotoxic agent can be linked to an anti @-@ tumor antibody for drug targeting purposes . The word vedotin , for example , stands for monomethyl auristatin E which is toxic by itself but predominantly affects cancer cells if used in conjugates like glembatumumab vedotin .
A chelator for binding a radioisotope can be attached . Pendetide , a derivative of pentetic acid , is used for example in capromab pendetide to chelate indium @-@ 111 . If the drug contains a radioisotope , the name of the isotope precedes the name of the antibody . Consequently , indium ( 111In ) capromab pendetide is the name for the above example including indium @-@ 111 .
= = History = =
Emil von Behring and Kitasato ShibasaburΕ discovered in 1890 that diphtheria and tetanus toxins were neutralized in the bloodstream of animals by substances they called antitoxins , which were specific for the respective toxin . Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their find in 1901 . A year after the discovery , Paul Ehrlich used the term antibodies ( German AntikΓΆrper ) for these antitoxins .
The principle of monoclonal antibody production , called hybridoma technology , was published in 1975 by Georges KΓΆhler and CΓ©sar Milstein , who were awarded the 1984 Medicine Nobel Prize for their discovery together with Niels Kaj Jerne . Muromonab @-@ CD3 was the first monoclonal antibody to be approved for clinical use in humans , in 1986 .
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) introduced the system of International Nonproprietary Names in 1950 , with the first INN list being published three years later . The stem -mab for monoclonal antibodies was proposed around 1990 , and the current system with target and source substems was developed between 1991 and 1993 . Due to the collaboration between the WHO and the United States Adopted Names Council , antibody USANs have the same structure and are largely identical to INNs . Until 2009 , more than 170 monoclonal antibodies received names following this nomenclature .
In October 2008 , the WHO convoked a working group to revise the nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies , to meet challenges discussed in April the same year . This led to the adoption of the new target substems in November 2009 . In spring 2010 , the first new antibody names were adopted .
= = Examples = =
= = = New convention = = =
Olaratumab is an antineoplastic . Its name is composed of the components olara @-@ t @-@ u @-@ mab . This shows that the drug is a human monoclonal antibody acting against tumors .
The name of benralizumab , a drug designed for the treatment of asthma , has the components benra @-@ li @-@ zu @-@ mab , marking it as a humanized antibody acting on the immune system .
= = = Old convention = = =
Adalimumab is a drug targeting TNF alpha . Its name can be broken down into ada @-@ lim @-@ u @-@ mab . Therefore , the drug is a human monoclonal antibody targeting the immune system . If adalimumab had been named after 2009 , it would have been adalumab .
Abciximab is a commonly used medication to prevent platelets from clumping together . Broken down into ab @-@ ci @-@ xi @-@ mab , its name shows the drug to be a chimeric monoclonal antibody used on the cardiovascular system . This and the following two names would look the same if the new convention were applied .
The name of the breast cancer medication trastuzumab can be analyzed as tras @-@ tu @-@ zu @-@ mab . Therefore , the drug is a humanized monoclonal antibody used against a tumor .
Alacizumab pegol is a PEGylated humanized antibody targeting the circulatory system .
Technetium ( 99mTc ) pintumomab and technetium ( 99mTc ) nofetumomab merpentan are radiolabeled antibodies , merpentan being a chelator that links the antibody nofetumomab to the radioisotope technetium @-@ 99m .
Rozrolimupab is a polyclonal antibody . Broken down into rozro @-@ lim @-@ u @-@ pab , its name shows the drug to be a human polyclonal antibody acting on the immune system . The suffix -pab shows it is a polyclonal antibody .
= = = Deviations = = =
The monoclonal antibody muromonab @-@ CD3 , approved for clinical use in 1986 , was named before these conventions took effect , and consequently its name does not follow them . Instead , it is a contraction from " murine monoclonal antibody targeting CD3 " .
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